2.

Biological Approach

Contents
Introduction To The Biological Approach: .............................................................................................. 2
Canli Et Al. (2000) .................................................................................................................................... 4
Biological Approach (Dement And Kleitman 1957) .............................................................................. 10
Biological Approach (Schacter and Singer) ........................................................................................... 20
Introduction To The Biological Approach:
All that is psychological is first physiological – that is because the mind appears to reside in the brain,
all feelings, thoughts, and behaviours ultimately have a biological/physical causation. All things
ultimately are controlled by our biological aspects. Such as running, laughing, crying and pretty much
everything else. That is because even if we were physically doing nothing, our brain was active, and
the biological process of chemical and electric signalling was active between the nerve cells.

Various parts of our brain are designated to perform different functions and actions. Physical
movement, memory, hormonal responses and emotions are controlled by assigned parts of our
brain. For instance, a hormone called ‘adrenalin’ would be released during the excitement of a race
and would help you to run faster.

Brain Scanning Used For Psychological Research:

Psychological research now employs brain study and research of living people though brain scans
and thus they can now draw objective conclusions about the relationship between behaviour and
brain structure/activity.

The two types of medical scans are:

• Structural Scans: These take detailed pictures of the brain, the nervous system and helps in
diagnosing physical injuries such as concussions and large-scale intracranial disease such as
tumours.

• Functional Scans: These are able to show different activity levels in different parts of the brain.
Functional Magnetic resonance imagining (fMRI) is a neuroimaging procedure using MRI technology
that measures brain activity and blood flow by detecting changes that are associated with it.

In the simplest fMRI study a participant would alternate between periods of completing a specific
task and a control or test state to measure baseline activity. The fMRI data is then analysed to
identify brain areas in which the signal changed between the activity and the rest state and it is
inferred that these areas were activated by the task.

The data from an fMRI scan be used to generate images illustrating how the brain is working during
different tasks. Such a scan allows for a living brain to be portrayed and seen without primarily
resorting to surgical procedures.

The standard procedure goes with the patients placed in a scanner which sends strong magnetic
fields through their head. The magnetic field provides a clause for the nuclei in the hydrogen
molecules to spin in a certain way, which the scanner picks up. Because hydrogen concentrations
vary in different parts of the brain the scanner is able to construct a detailed picture of the brain.

Areas that have been shown to have significant association with emotion and memory are the sub
cortical areas of the brain, including the amygdala
Canli Et Al. (2000)
This study deals with event-related activation in the brain’s area known as amygdala with later
memory for individual emotional experience. The functions of the amygdala are explored in this
study quite a lot.

Amygdala is essentially an almond shaped set of neurons, which plays a key role in the processing of
emotions such as pleasure, anger and fear. It is also responsible for determining where memories
are stored in the brain and which ones are kept.

In 1998, LaBar and Phelps suggested that emotional experiences are often better recalled than non-
emotional ones and emotional arousal appears to increase the likelihood of memory
consolidation during the storage stage of memory. Brain imaging studies have shown that amygdala
activation correlates with emotional memory in the brain.

Some correlations were hypothesized, these were:

- During scanning, some people are probably in a more emotionally enhanced state.

- The amygdala responds in a dynamic way to moment to moment subjective emotional

experiences.

- Some participants might simply just be more responsive to emotional experiences.

Aim:

He wanted to show that emotive images will be remembered better than those that have little
emotional valence for an individual.

The two main aims were:

• Testing if the amygdala is sensitive to varying degrees of emotional intensity

• If the varying degrees of emotional intensity affects the role in memory enhancement, if an
emotional stimuli is involved.
Method:

- Experimental Design: Repeated Measures Design (Participants contributed to each condition)

- Setting: Laboratory Experiment

- Independent Variable: Intensity of emotional arousal to each of the 96 scenes.

- Dependant Variable:

• Level of activation of the amygdala measured by the fMRI, during the first stages of the
experiment when the participants were exposed to 96 scenes.

• The measure of memory of the scenes, 3 weeks later during the recognition of the images.

- Measurement of Data: It was via a 4-point Likert scale that ranged from 0-3 with 0 (not
emotionally intense at all) and 3 (extremely emotionally intense).

Sample:

- 10, right-handed (specific), healthy female (gynocentric) volunteers.

- They were chosen primarily due to the assumption that females are more likely to report intense,
detailed emotional experiences and more reactivity. (Generalized assumption).

- All participants had given informed consent, aware of the nature of the experiment. (Ethical
consideration)

Procedure:

- During the scanning, participants viewed 96 scenes that were presented by an overhead projector
and mirror that allowed them to see what was going on in the fMRI scanner.

- These 96 scenes were chosen from the International Affective Picture System Stimuli set.
- These had a normative valence of ‘Emotional Value’ ranging from 1.17 (highly negative to 5.44
(neutral).

- The normative ‘Arousal Rating’ was between 1.97 (tranquil) to 7.63 (highly arousing).

- The order of these 96 scenes was randomised across all participants (so as to limit exposure to
demand characteristics).

- For a time period of: 2-3 seconds, precisely 2.88 seconds.

- For a time interval of: 12-13 seconds on a fixation cross. (This may have cause fatigue effects.)

- They were asked to rate their reaction on the 4-point Likert scale.

- The individuals operating the scanner were fully trained and competent staff, following safety
protocol as should be in a medical scan.

- Participants were asked to view each picture for the entirety of the time that it was displayed.

- The participants lied in a 1.5 tesla fMRI scanner, which was used to measure the blood-oxygen
level dependant contrast present.

- Contrast imaging is used to observe the different, varying functionalities and results from the
active parts.

- For the Functional Image, 11 frames were captured per trial, per participant. Each frame was
assigned either as an activation image or baseline image.

- After 3 weeks (which was the testing period) after the first stage, participants were tested in an
‘unexpected recognition’ test.

- This test now included 48 new foil scenes to the previous 96 scenes. These foils were selected to
match the previously presented scenes in their valence and arousal characteristics.
- During the recognition test, participants were asked if they had/had not seen the slide before (of
previously seen images). If the answer was “yes”, they were asked whether they remember the
scene with certainty (remember), or were certain but less familiar (familiar). If the answer was no it
was deemed (forgotten.)

Results:

- Participants’ ratings of emotional intensity reflected the valence and arousal ratings of the
scenes.

- There was found to be an appropriate and significant correlation with higher ratings of
‘experienced’ emotional intensity. This provides evidence that amygdala activation is related to the
subjective sense of emotional intensity and the participants’ perceived arousal is associated with the
activation of the brain’s amygdala.

- For measuring the arousal, a similar 4-point scale was used with a 0-3 rating scale to the scenes:

- 29% of the participants rated 0 on the scale

- 22% of the participants rated 1 on the scale

- 24% of the participants rated 2 on the scale

- 25% of the participants rated 3 on the scale

- It was also found that memory recall was proportionately better for those scenes rated as
‘emotionally intense’, rated 3 rather than lower (0-2).

- The scenes rated as 0-2 had similar distribution percentages of ‘forgotten’, ‘familiar’ or
‘remembered’.

- It is also important to mention how the activation of the left amygdala predicted how am
individual scene would either be ‘remembered’, ‘familiar’ and ‘forgotten’.
- If there was little activation to a scene that was rated as ‘emotionally intense’ was linked with
‘forgetting’ that scene.

- If there was intermediate activation to a scene that was rated as ‘emotionally intense’ it was
linked with being ‘familiar’ with it.

- If there was high activation to a scene that was rated as ‘emotionally intense’ it was linked to the
scene being ‘remembered’.

- When a more detailed analysis of the left amygdala was carried out, there was found to be a
significant correlation between its activation and the emotional intensity of the memory. The
correlation thus became stronger the more emotional intensity was experienced – for those
participants who rated 3 on the Likert scale.

Conclusions:

- According to the findings of the study, Canli et al. Found that an association between individual,
subjective incidents of perceived emotional intensity for stimuli with amygdala activation and thus
the subsequent memory for these stimuli.

- This suggests that the more emotionally intense an image would be, it is naturally more likely to
be remembered – this might help to explain why people tend to remember emotionally intense
experiences well enough.

- The level of arousal a person is under could also impact and affect the strength of a memory
trace.

- It was also observed and analysed that, when participants were granted exposure to an event like
this (causing the arousal), such as witnessing a crime, the trace of memory would be more powerful.

- It was also found that the amygdala is sensitive to individuals witnessed and experienced
emotional intensity of visual stimuli with activity in the left amygdala during encoding being
predictive of subsequent memory.

- Canli Et Al. Also comments that some of their findings are correlational, which shows a significant
correlation between the emotional impact on the individual participating and the subsequent
memory for the item.
Strengths And Weaknesses:

Strengths Weaknesses

- The task has

low ecological
validity due to the
fact that it was
conducted in a
laboratory
environment. - W
e also need to
take into account
the difference in
levels of
emotional
intensity
experienced in a
- The experiment was conducted in a laboratory, as all the participants lab setting and
were tested via fMRI machines and thus it was highly that in the real
standardized. - world. Some
The research has high internal validity, as all variables such as time participants may
intervals for example, were operationalized. already be
- This controls the influence to confounding variables that may distort emotionally
results. - The use aroused. And thus,
of a scientific apparatus such as an fMRI machine produced highly the baseline itself
objective, quantitative data which is high in maybe flawed.
validity. - This - The researchers
enables a comprehensive statistical analysis to be conducted which leads also need to be
to better and more efficient interpretation of considering the
data. - No demand fact that there are
characteristics were projected off participants. certain biological,
cerebral
anomalies that a
mere fMRI
scanner can never
fully represent all
behaviours
exhibited by
different and
specific parts of
the brain.
- This was a
gynocentric study
(based on only
female
 participants). This
may make it
difficult to be
representative
and thus,
generalized.

Biological Approach (Dement And Kleitman 1957)

• An Objective Method For The Study Of Dreaming” The Relation Of Eye Movements During Sleep
To Dream Activity:

While investigating the topics of sleep and dreaming have been difficult throughout the times
because of factors such as no communication with the researcher and thus no control over what
becomes of the data. This is evident as the only way to actually collect data is self-reports, but these
have hindered validity due to them being merely anecdotal evidence and highly subjective.

The study became more scientifically rigorous with new inventions and innovations of physiological
techniques that measure brain activity that indicates that dreaming is happening and allowed the
electrical documentation of eye movements rather than their direct observation. These techniques
were utilized by Dement and Kleitman to track and monitor the cyclical changes that happen in brain
activity and eye movements during a sleep period in a night.

It was in 1955 that the usage of an ‘electroencephalograph’ was applied to record brain activity and
eye movements that showed that we have several stages during the night where we alternate
between REM (Rapid Eye Movement) and nREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement). It was reported that
participants waking up from a REM sleep were more likely to report a vivid, visually visceral dream as
compared to waking up in different stages.

This device (an EEG machine) detects and records minuscule electrical charges associated with nerve
and muscle activity. Th EEG machine produces a chart that shows changes, brain waves in the chart
record to indicate the sleep stage a person is in. These change with the frequency and amplitude of
electrical output from the brain over time. An EEG can also be used to detect activity in the muscles
that move the eyes, measuring eye movements.

EEG patterns in REM sleep are low voltage, high amplitude waves. Whereas in, nREM sleep has
either high-voltage or slow waves or sometimes what is commonly known as “sleep spindles”, which
are short-lived high-frequency waves.

The EEG electrodes/machines can also be used to record eye movements. The input is however
called an electrooculogram indicates the presence or absence of eye patterns, cycles and
movements. Factors to consider are: size, direction, duration, etc.

Explaining The Sleep Cycle:

Throughout the sleep cycle progresses into different stages throughout. Aspects such as heart rate
and brain activity. In a night of normal uninterrupted sleep, we venture through these stage about 4-
5 times and the normal estimated time for a cycle to be completed takes 90 minutes.

There are apparently 5 stages of sleep, with first 4 stages being n-REM:
• N-REM 1:

- This is the stage between wakefulness and sleep, being the lightest stage.

- Alpha waves (which are low voltage waves) are produced, this is found out via EEG scanning.

- It is possible for an individual to experience strange sensations, that aren’t physically present.
Sensations such as bells ringing, name calling are common.

- Sensations of previous experience are also likely to reoccur. Such as an instance if a person was
rowing or swimming all day, the person is likely to experience that movement in the sleep cycle.

• N-REM 2:

- This is the deeper level where the possibility of waking a person up in harder.

- Sleep waves are shown by EEG scans in the form of ‘sleep spindles’ (bursts of rhythmic brain
activity) and k-complexes (large waves that are distinct and occur due to atmospheric stimuli such as
loud noises).

- These sleep waves are the reason why sleep is deeper.

• N-REM 3 AND 4:

- During these stages the breathing rate, heart rate and brain activity decrease substantially.

- Consists of large amplitude waves. Also known as “Slow-wave sleep”.

- Consist of waves known as ‘Delta waves’.

- No possible consciousness. People usually walk and talk in this stage of sleep.

• REM Stage:

- This is the stage where our eyes move very rapidly underneath our eyelids.

- Dreaming occurs in this stage, exclusively.

- Muscles are physically paralysed, which is a positive sign. The brain is most active at this point,
whereas the body as at total rest.

The Psychology Being Investigated:

- This study investigates the sleep stage and the dreams that occur.

- The duration of a dream during REM stage.

- The patterns of eye movement during REM.

- The direction of movement and the correlated content of the dream.

Aim:

While in essence the aim of the study is to investigate dreaming in a more objective way by looking
for relationship between eye movements in sleep and the recall of the dreamer.

• The aim of the study can be dissected into 3 parts:

- Aim 1: Does the dreamer’s recall differ during the stages of nREM and REM?

- Aim 2: Does a positive correlation exist between the subjective estimates of dream period and the
span of the REM cycle?

- Aim 3: Does the occurrence of difference in patterns of eye movement in REM relate to the content
of the dream?

Method:

- The study was conducted in a laboratory with varying designs:

- 3 approaches were used to test the given aims.

- For Aim 1:

- IV: REM AND NREM Stages.

- In this, participants were woken either from REM or nREM sleep, but they were not informed as to
in which sleep state they had been woke from. They confirmed if they were dreaming, with them
giving a descriptive account of the dream into a recorder.

- For Aim 2:

- IV: 5 minutes or 15 minutes.

- In this, participants were woken in after either 5 minutes and 15 minutes in REM sleep. The
participants in question were asked to estimate if they had dreamt for 5 minutes and 15 minutes.
(Longer REM periods were also examined). They were again asked to record the account of their
dream and the number of words in the dream account was counted. (This was because qualitative
result would increase qualitative valence).

- For Aim 3:

- IV: Directions – 1. Mainly vertical, 2. Mainly horizontal, 3. Both vertical and horizontal, 4. Very
little or no movement.

- In this, participants were investigated upon the basis if the patterns in dreams, directions (vertical
or horizontal) represented visual experience of the content of the dream or if they were just
randomized, investigating the activation of CNS (Central Nervous System) during sleep. The direction
of the eye movements were recorded using electrodes. Participants were then woken up if a single
patterned eye movement was occurring for more than 1 minute. They were again asked to give an
account of their dream.
Design:

• Sampling of participants:

- Sample size: 9 adult participants – 7 males and 2 females (making it an androcentric sample)

- 5 participants were studied in detail while the remaining 4 were used to confirm the data obtained
from former 5.

• Design:

This experiment was carried out via 3 respective studies:

Study # 1: This was natural experiment in a lab setting.

- IV: Whether participants woke up from REM sleep/nREM sleep.

- DV: If a dream was reported.

- A repeated measures design was used.

Study # 2: Relationship between dream period and duration of REM timespan as a correlation. The
comparison between estimates of dream period (5 minutes or 15 minutes was another repeated
measures design).

- Experimental analysis:

- IV: Participants waking up either 5 mins or 15 mins.

- DV: Participants choosing to say either 5 mins or 15 mins.

- Correlational analysis:

- Number of words in the dream narrative.

- Participant’s time estimate.

Study # 3:

- IV: Eye movement pattern

- DV: Dream content.

- A self-report measure used.

Procedure:

- The 5 important participants utilized, had to spend 6-17 nights in the laboratory, with a total of 60-
77 awakenings taking place throughout the procedure.
- The 4 non-important participants utilized, had to spend 1-2 nights in the laboratory, with a total of
4-10 awakenings taking place throughout the procedure.

- Each participant was identified via a pair of initials, maintaining confidentiality.

- Pre-requisites taken to control variables before entering the experiment:

- Complete avoidance of alcoholic or caffeinated beverages.

- A normal diet pattern.

- The experimental setup consisted of the participants arriving before their usual bedtime and were
fit with apparatus that would record data. With the electrodes attached near the eyes and the scalp.

- This was conducted in a quiet, dark room.

- This however also exposes the study to low mundane realism and low ecological validity.

- Logistical adjustments such as allowing freedom of movement for the participants was done by
gathering the wires from the electrodes into a “ponytail”.

- The EEG ran constantly throughout the night to monitor the sleep stages of each participant.

- They were proceeded to be woken up by a doorbell which was loud enough to wake them from any
stage of sleep, with the researcher not having to enter the room, avoiding unnecessary contact. This
prompts standardization.

Does The Dreamer’s Recall Differ During The Stages Of nREM And REM?

Procedure for Study # 1 Results of Study # 1

• Participants described dream more

• Participants were either woken up from
often when they woke from the REM
REM and nREM sleep but were not
stage of sleep.
informed from which.
• Participants described dreams rarely
• This was decided in a variety of ways for
when woken from nREM stage of
different participants, revolving around
sleep. When they did describe
standardization.
dreams, it was more
• The participants were also labelled via emotions/feelings rather than
their initials in an effort to maintain dream content/cognitive visuals.
confidentiality.
• This was a consistent pattern. The
• A random number table was used, waking pattern however did not
where participants PM and KC were affect recall.
allocated.
• For instance, participant WD was
• In groups of 3 nREM and 3 REM accurate despite being misled.
participant DM was allocated. Whereas, participant was no more
accurate, even if he/she might have
 • In a randomized fashion, experimenter had guessed the pattern of the
allocated participant IR. awakenings schedule.

• Deception – Participant WD was told • When the participants were woken

he/she would be woken up in REM but in during REM stages 3 & 4, (which is a
actuality was woken up randomly. high voltage, slow-wave period) -
they looked bewildered/ confused.
• After the participants had been woken
up, they were asked whether or not they • They also said they ‘might’ have
had a dream. If yes, they were asked to been dreaming, but they could not
describe the dream and give a detailed remember the content of their
account of it into a recorder. dream.

• It is important to note that the number • When the participants were woken
of words used, had significance because from nREM stages, they tended to
the larger number of words determined retract into nREM stage, with the
the account to be more detailed and in- next stage of sleep being REM with
depth (qualitative data). no delay.

• While there was primarily no contact • The exception here was when a
between the experimenter and the participant was woken from their
participants (in an effort to reduce final REM phase of the night. If so,
researcher bias and subjectivity), there they tended to fall back into REM
was occasionally some questions that after the awakening.
were asked by the experimenters to the
• Therefore, it could be concluded
participants.
that REM and nREM stages differ.

• In REM visual, vivid and clear dream

content was reported. During the
awakenings and a little while after it.

• Whereas, in nREM it was it was

vague.

Does A Positive Correlation Exist Between The Subjective Estimates Of Dream Period And The
Span Of The REM Cycle?

Procedure for Study # 2 Results of Study # 2

• The participants were • The participants were woken up after several REM
woken up after either 5 periods and were asked to estimate the length of
minutes or 15 minutes. these.

• This was during REM • It did however prove quite tedious and difficult for
stage. the participants.

• The participants had to • The task for them then was reduced to pick their
guess actually how long answer as either 5 minutes of REM or 15 minutes of
 they think was the REM, which proved to increase the accuracy and
duration of their volume of answers.
dream.
• For 5 minutes – 88% were accurate in their task.
• The number of words in
• For 15 minutes – 78% were accurate in their task.
their account of the
dream, was counted. •

• While most were accurate, one wasn’t - participant

DN. He only was able to recall the end of his dream,
and thus the dream itself was shorter as per account.

• DN thus chose 5 minutes more frequently and

consistently which raised a question to the findings’
validity.

• However, this did prove that DN was accurate on

estimates of 5 minutes instead of 15 minutes, in REM.

• In total narratives from 152 dreams were

collected. (26 were however not used because they
were poorly recorded.)

• Word count was maintained (standardization and

reliability factors in.)

• While the variable of the participant being

articulate/expressive did exist and vary respectively –
a significant positive correlation was found between
number of words in the narrative/account by the
participant and the duration of the REM.

• R values varied on a scale of 0.4 - 0.7 for different

participants.

• The account of the dream narratives for very

prolonged dreams were not much longer or extensive
than those for 15 minutes.

• The participants reported however, feeling as if they

had dreaming for quite a long time, with a vagueness
in recalling the earlier part of the dream.

• The sleep duration for these participants was around

4.2-7.5 hours.

Does The Occurrence Of Difference In Patterns Of Eye Movement In REM Relate/Represent To The
Content Of The Dream?

Procedure for Study # 3 Results of Study # 3

 • The researchers found that participants’
accounts were not adequately accurate to be
matched exactly to the changes in the patterns
of eye movement.

• A total of 35 awakenings were analysed

further.

• 3/9 participants showed periods of

predominantly vertical eye movement, where
each connected to a narrative about vertical
movement.

- In one, the participant dreamed about standing at

the foot of a tall cliff, using a hoist. The participant
reported looking up at climbers at various levels on the
• EEG electrodes were placed cliff and down at the hoist machinery. - In another
around the eyes, to detect one, a participant’s dream revolved around them
and document the direction climbing up a series of ladders and looking up and
of eye movements. down while climbing. - In a third dream a
participant was playing basketball, shooting at the net
• Participants were woken up
and looking up to see if he had scored the looking
after a particular/single
downwards to pick up another ball. -A single-dream
pattern of eye movement had
followed predominantly horizontal movements – the
lasted for more than 1 minute
participants reported dreaming about two people
and then they were asked to
throwing tomatoes at each other.
report their dream in detail.
• On ten occasions participants were woken up
• The patterns of eye
after little or no eye movement. They reported
movement were:
either watching something in the distance or
1. Mainly vertical 2. staring with their eyes fixed on a singular
Mainly Horizontal 3. Both object.
vertical and horizontal 4. Very
• In two cases, the participants had dreamed
little or no movement
about driving. The movement of their eyes was
very still and then made several sudden
movements to the left just before being woken
up.

• To configure mixed eye movements, 21

awakenings followed. These findings confirmed
that, when awake our eyes are relatively stable
when we are focused on objects in the distance
and show movements of similar amplitude to
when we are dreaming of viewing nearby
objects.

• Few vertical movements were recorder except

when the researcher threw a ball in the air for
participants to watch.
 • Other findings/results suggested that REM
durations lasted from 3-50 minutes with an
aggregate of around 20 minutes.

• The amount, pattern and size of REM phases

ranged and varied from duration to duration.
The REM periods were at fairly regular intervals
but individually specific.

- For example: - Participant DM averaged 1

REM phase every 70 minutes. - WD 1 every
75. - KC 1 every 104. - The aggregate for the
entire group was 1 REM phase every 92 minutes.

Conclusions:

- It is plausible that dreams occur regularly throughout each night’s sleep. - Dreams reported when
woken up from an nREM episode are actually previous REM episodes. - As the REM phases are more
prolonged in the night, dreaming is more likely to occur at this point in time. It is also important to
consider how dreams do not necessarily occur every night. 1) A, If previous recordings were not
continuous/consistent, they may have failed to catch instances of dream sleep in exclusively every
participant. 2) B, The equipment might have missed out/neglected small movements that might be
pivotal to the conclusivity of the results. 3) C, Participants who ‘did not dream at all’ might have
experienced dreams that simulated fewer and small-scaled eye movements, such as those of distant
and stationary objects. - It is widely believed that dreams happen in an instant. Therefore, if the
length of REM periods is proportional to subjective estimates. This would help strengthen the belief
that the two are linked/related and would provide information about how the dreaming
progresses. - The finding that the duration of an REM period and its estimation by the participant are
very close shows that dreams are not instantaneous events but rather they are experienced in ‘real
time’. - Eye movements during REM sleep correspond to where and at what the dreamer is looking
in the dream. This propagates the notion that eye movements are not plainly random events caused
by the activation of the CNS, but related directly to dream imagery and visuals.- Moreover, they
correspond in amplitude and pattern to those we experience when we’re awake.

Strengths Weaknesses

• Measures to collect was objective • The measure of self-report (account

and scientific, which increases given by participants of the dream) was
validity. (EEG machines). subjective and thus may have social
• There was no significant stress, desirability and demand characteristics.
injuries or harm caused to the • The sample size was small, androcentric
subjects involved. (with only 2 females) and non-
• The study was highly controlled as generalizable.
variables such as researcher bias, • Subsequent studies have found that
undisturbed sleep atmosphere, etc. there are large differences between
 • The research method used (repeated individuals in the reports of dreaming
measures design) was highly useful during REM.
because each participant had
• There was no background check of the
different, various dream which if
participants (may be ethnocentric.)
RMD had not been used would have
been difficult to compare the • There may have been experimenter’s
occurrence of the dream and analyse influence during the waking of the
them accordingly. participants, which might have affected
their ability to recall their dreams.

• Ethical regards are unknown – in regards

to right to withdraw and informed
consent. Deception also took place.

• The validity and credibility of the study is

challenged when it is taken into
perspective, the setting of the
experiment - in a laboratory.

• This means low ecological validity and

low mundane realism, which might have
affected the study’s findings in the larger
scale. This includes dream content,
directions of eye movement, ability to
recall dreams and duration of estimated
subjective time periods of dreaming.

Biological Approach (Schacter and Singer)

The Cognitive, Social and Physiological Determinants of Emotional State
This was an experiment performed as a part of research on cognitive and physiological determinants
of one’s emotional state. This was conducted at the Social Psychology department at Columbia
University under the PHS research grant from the National Institute of Mental Health, United States
Public Health Services. This experiment however, was conducted at the Laboratory for Research in
Social Relations at the University of Minnesota.

Background of the Research

A theory proposed by James Lange hypothesized how that the bodily changes that occur as a
response to some stimulating event, and our experience of these changes is what we call emotion.

A critique was however proposed by Walter Canon – this included;

● The changes that occur in the internal organs are in a set of emotional responses, so how does one
differentiate between fear from anger?

● Experience of emotion is not brought upon by artificial changes in the state of internal organs. For
example, by the use of adrenaline injections.

The Psychology Being Investigated:

The Two-Factor Theory Of Emotion:

This theory forms the fundamentals of this study, where it proposes:

a. When someone experiences an emotion, physiological arousal tends to occur and the person uses
the current and existing environment to search for emotional cues and hints to label and
systematically categorize the occurring physiological arousal.

b. This can cause various misinterpretations of the emotional responses based on the physiological
arousal.

c. Furthermore, when the brain cannot rationalize or configure the reason why it feels a certain
emotion, it relies on external stimulation for cues on how to label the emotional information.

Aim:
The aim was to investigate whether when a person is in a state of physiological arousal that has no
immediate explanation and what role cognitive factors play in the experience of that motion (eg.
How we label it). Also, the researchers aimed to see whether when we do have an appropriate
explanation for feeling a certain emotion, we always label it as the most appropriate emotion.

For Example:

Stimulus: A shadowy figure of a man in a parking lot at night, that walks towards you.

Simultaneous experience of:

A. Emotional and Physiological Arousal: Trembling hands and an increased rapid heartbeat,
perspiration.

B. Cognitive Label: Associating the physiological reactivity to a cognitive label such as the emotion of
“fear”.

Hypothesis:

1. If an individual experiences an arousal state for which they have no adequate or immediate
explanation, they will deem and label this state and narrate/describe the way they felt in terms of
cognitions/understanding present to them at that moment in time.

2. If an individual experiences an arousal state for which they have an adequate/appropriate

explanation, for eg; ‘I feel this because I have just intercepted an injection of adrenalin then they will
be unlikely to label the way they feel in terms of the alternative cognitions/understanding present.

3. If an individual is put in a situation, which formerly could have emotionally stimulated them, they
will react in an emotional way or undergo emotions only if they are in a state of “physiological
arousal”.

Prerequisites For The Research:

The experimental test of the above-mentioned propositions requires the following:

1. The experimental manipulation of a state of physiological arousal

2. The manipulation of the extent to which the subject has an appropriate or proper explanation of
his/her bodily state – activating cognition.

3. The creation of situations from which explanatory cognitions may be derived – situational context.

Design:
Sampling Of Participants:

− This consisted of 184 males. (Androcentric, not generalizable)

− They were students at college, attending introductory psychology classes at Minnesota University.

− Health records of subjects were checked with the “Student Health Service” to make certain that
the adrenalin would not adversely affect the participants or cause any harm. (Ethical consideration).

− In order to satisfy the mentioned experimental requirements, the participants were told that they
were a part of a study on the effects of vitamin supplements, on vision.

Procedure:

− As soon as the subject arrived, he was escorted to an exclusive room and told by the
experimenter: “In this experiment we would like to make various tests of your vision. We are
particularly interested in how certain vitamin compounds and vitamin supplements effect visual
skills. Specifically, to find out how the vitamin compound called ‘Suproxin’ affects the vision. What
we would like to do, then, if we can get your permission is to give you a miniscule injection of
Suproxin. The injection itself is mild and placid (harmless); however, since some people do not
appreciate being injected, we don’t want to force you or manipulate you into anything. Would you
mind receiving a Suproxin injection?”.

− If the subject agrees to the injection (184/185 in this case) the experimenter continued with
instructions and left the room.
− In a few minutes a physician entered the room, briefly repeated the experimenter's instructions,
took the subject’s vitals (pulse) and then proceeded to inject the patient with the Suproxin dose.

− It is important to mention, how depending upon the subject’s condition they received one of two
forms of Suproxin – Epinephrine or Placebo.

− Epinephrine is a hormone that reduces physiological arousal such as increased pressure of blood
(BP), heart rate, blood glucose levels, breathing (respiration rate) and flow of blood to the brain and
the muscles. This is accompanied by a decrease in the flow of blood to the skin.

− Which is why instances such as tremors (vibrations in the body that stimulate hyper-movement),
faster breathing and flushing occur and palpitation occur.

− “Placebo” is a mock solution of water and another unreactive substance such as water. In this case
it was saline solution.

− With the dosage given to the subjects', effects were expected with 3-5 minutes of injection and
last anywhere between 10 minutes to one hour (60 mins).

Manipulating Explanations:

Conditions:

1. Epinephrine Informed (Epi Inf)

Right away after the subject has agreed to the dosage of the injection and prior to when the
physician enters the room, the experimenter states:

“I should also inform you that some of our subjects have witnessed and gone through side effects
from the Suproxin. These side effects are temporary, that is, they will prolong for about 15-20
minutes. What will most likely happen is that your hands will start to shake/tremble, the heart will
start to beat heavily and the face may turn flushed and warm. Repeating, these side effects will be
lasting for 15-20 mins.”

While the physician was giving the injection, she told the subject that the injection was feeble and
benign (harmless) and repeated the detailed description of the symptoms that the participant could
expect as a reaction of the dose. In this condition, then, subjects had a completely
adequate/appropriate interpretation of their bodily state, effectively explaining it. They knew why
and what they would be feeling - testing hypothesis # 2.
2. Epinephrine Ignorant (Epi Ign)

In this condition, when the subject agreed to the dosage, the experimenter uttered nothing related
to side effects and quietly, simply left the room.

When the physician was administering the injection, she told the subject that the injection was
feeble and benign (harmless) and would contain little to no side effects. In this condition, then the
participant had no experimentally issued interpretation for his bodily state and thus no explanation.
Therefore, cognitive interpretation is open to variation, looking for available cognition or stimulus
present – testing hypothesis # 1.

3. Epinephrine Misinformed (Epi Mis)

Immediately after the subject had agreed to the injection and before the physician entered the
room, the experimenter said:

“I should also bring to your knowledge that some of our subjects have sustained side effects from
the Suproxin. These side effects are short-term, lasting for usually 15-20 minutes. What most likely
will happen is that the body will experience sensations such as numbness in the feet, irritation and
itching over their body and probable, slight headache. But again, these do not last very long.”

This group was led to use the environmental quest around them to assess their state of physiological
being.

4. Placebo Condition:

In this condition, subjects were dosed with saline solution. These subjects in question were given the
identical treatment that the Epi Ig group got I.e the experimenter said nothing relevant to side
effects and simply left the room.

While the physician was giving the injection dose, she told the subject that the injection was
harmless and of very little effect (mild), then the subject had no experimentally plausible
explanation for his bodily state.

This was used as the control group, as they were not experiencing any physiological stimulation and
had no emotion to label.

Inducing Cognition via Production Of Emotions:

In order to assess the first hypothesis, the experimenter decided to direct and manipulate states of
emotion which could be ‘anger’ or ‘euphoria’.
The experimenters concentrated on socially determining factors of emotional states which is
essentially how people evaluate the way they felt by comparing themselves with others around
them.

In one condition, the subject was put in company with a stooge who had been trained to act
euphorically, entertaining the subject, making the subject laugh and smile. In the second set of
conditions, the subject was put with a stooge trained to act angrily. With behaviour designed to
annoy and agitate the participants.

The protests conducted had indicated that for most subjects, epinephrine caused symptoms that
had start to set in 3-5 minutes after the injection had been administered. An intentional attempt was
made to bring the stooge with in 1 minute after the subject’s injection.

Euphoria Situation Anger Situation

- Right after the subject had been administered

- Right after the subject had been with the injection, the experimenter brought
administered with the injection, the physician the stooge/actor into the room, introduced the
left the room and the experimenter came two and explained the need for a 20-minute
back with a stooge/actor who he introduced interval for the “Suproxin to circulate into the
as merely another subject. bloodstream”.
− They were told: − They then were handed out questionnaires by
→ How both of them had been given the the experimenters and were told to fill them, in
Suproxin shot and how they both would be 20 minutes when they will return and the vision
taking the same tests of vision. The tests will commence.
experimenter then asked them to wait 20 − Before even starting the questionnaire and
minutes. The reason being that the before even looking at it (stooge’s prompt) the
administered drug takes 20 minutes at a stooge aggravated the subject by saying how he
minimum to take its course into the blood via just wanted to come here for an experiment
the bloodstream. At the conclusion of 20 mins and how its unethical of them to give us
the researchers will be certain that the shots/injections. He added how they could
epinephrine has been circulated and then the have been informed about the injections when
tests will begin. they had been selected for the study as one
− The room in which the participants had doesn’t refuse once you’re already in.
been put was deliberately in a state of mild − This questionnaire was 5 pages long and
disorder and mess, at which the experimenter tedious to fill.
added how he was apologetic about the state
of the room. − It was also intrusive of one’s privacy. Asking
deeply personal and offensive questions.
 − He continued by informing the participants − For example, Question7 was about foods
of the material available to them which were; eaten in a normal day whereas Question34
scratch papers, rubber bands, hula hoops, asked about family matters.)
folders and pencils.
− The stooge sat directly opposite to the
− He then said to “help themselves” and how subject so that he could keep up with the pace,
he will return in 20 minutes’ time. working on the questions that the subject was
working on. (standardization)
− As the experimenter left, the stooge/actor
gained more ground for conversation, − The stooge listed a sequence of standardized
introducing himself and making icebreaker comments about the questions. His comments
conversation, finally easing into his routine. progressively got angrier.

− The “routine” was completely standardized − For example:

which comprised of interacting with and
→ Before starting, he goes through and flips
entertaining the subject. With the stooge
through the questionnaire saying “Boy, this is a
asking the subject to come and join with him
long one.”
in the “fun” activities which consisted in
playing with the rough papers, pencils and → Question 17 asked “What is your father’s
rubber bands (apparatus). annual income? To which the stooge responds:
“This is really none of their business, I'm
− The only variation was how the stooge had
irritated and I’m leaving that blank.”
to fluctuate pace of the act according to the
participants’ mood, reaction, interactivity and → Questions were present that intruded on a
etc. very personal level such as: “How many times
each week do you have sexual intercourse?” On
− Furthermore, the other type of variation
which the stooge bites out: “To hell with it! I'm
was at the subject’s part where if he wanted
not telling them this.”
to initiate any act of his own in the routine.
This would usually be intercepted by the → The concluding question was “With how
stooge and they would collaborate. many men (other than your father) has your
mother had extramarital relationships?” On a
− The subject never knew that this was an act
scale from 1-10.
all along, keep the exposure to demand
characteristics tightly controlled.

Subjects in the Epi Ign, Epi Inf and Placebo conditions were run through this “anger” inducing
sequences. The stooge did not know to which condition the subject had been assigned in reality.

In summary, 7 conditions were employed to test out 2 emotional states. The Epi Mis condition was
not played out in the anger sequence as this was originally planned as a (control condition) and thus
this being tested in euphoria alone would be enough to evaluate the effect of Epi Inf instructions.

Euphoria Anger
 Epi Inf Epi Inf

Epi Ign Epi Ign

Epi Mis -

Placebo Placebo

Measurement:

Two Types Of Measurements Of Emotional State Were Obtained:

1. Standardized Observation which was done through a one-way mirror (covert observation). This
was used to assess the extent of the subject’s euphoria and anger.

2. Self-reports via questionnaire and a mood scale on which the subject indicated mood levels at the
moment. The “indices” of mood would be available to the experimenter and his associates.

Observation:

Euphoria Situation Anger Situation

- For each of the units of the stooge’s

behaviour, an observed documented
- For each of the first 14 units of the stooge’s and coded them into a categorical
standardized routine an observer kept a running scheme:
record of what the subject did and said
1. Agrees - +2
(operationalization).
2. Disagrees - -2
− The behaviour was coded into 4 categories of
observation: 3. Neutral – 0
1. Joins in activity 4. Starts agreement or disagreement -
+2 0r –2
2. Initiates new activity
5. Watches – 0
3. Ignores or watches stooge.
6. Ignores - -1
− It was possible that one behaviour could be put
into 2 or more of the above-mentioned categories.

− Inter-rater reliability was high as the observed − In order to get a behavioural index of
agreed on the coding 88% of the units. anger, observational protocol was
scored according to the values
mentioned above.
 − Inter-rater reliability was high as the
observers unanimously agreed on 71%
of the units observed.

− Only differed by 1% or less for 88% of

the units checked.

Self-Report Of Physical Condition And Mood:

When the subject’s session with the stooge was completed, the experimenter returned to the room
and gave the participants another questionnaire.

In keeping with the line, the questionnaire that the experimenter passed out contained filler/mock
questions as well; about hunger, fatigue, etc.

But the questions were actually present to measure the following:

1. To measure mood or emotional state.

2. To measure the physiological influence/effects of epinephrine

3. To measure possible effects of the instructions in the Epi Mis Condition

● To measure mood or emotional state, various questions were asked, here are two essential ones:

1. How irritated, angry or annoyed would you say you feel at present?

i. I don’t feel angry at all (0)

ii. I feel a little irritated and angry (1)

iii. I feel quite irritated and angry (2)

iv. I feel very irritated and angry (3)

v. I feel extremely irritated and angry (4)

2. How good or happy would you say you feel?

i. I don’t feel happy at all (0)

ii. I feel a little good and happy (1)

iii. I feel quite good and happy (2)

iv. I feel very good and happy (3)

v. I feel extremely good and happy (4)

● To measure the physiological effects of epinephrine and to examine if the dose had the desired
effect on the bodily state, the following questions were asked:

1. Have you experienced any palpitation?

i. Not at all (0)

ii. A slight amount (1)

iii. A moderate amount (2)

iv. An intense amount (3)

2. Did you feel any tremor?

i. Not at all (0)

ii. A slight amount (1)

iii. A moderate amount (2)

iv. An intense amount (3)

● To measure possible effects of the instructions given in the Epi Mis condition, these questions
were asked:

1. Did you feel numbness in the feet?

2. Did you feel an itching sensation?

3. Did you experience any feeling of a headache?

This was measured on a 4-point scale (Not at all to an intense amount). (Quantitative Data)

In addition to these the subjects were asked to answer:

→ Two-open ended questions on other physical or emotional sensations that they may have
experienced during the experimental session.

→ A conclusive measure of bodily state was the pulse-rate, taken by the physician or the
experimenter twice – immediately after the injection had been administered and immediately after
the session with the stooge.
Debriefing and Confidentiality:

− After the experiment was over, the deception was explained in detail and with regards to its
importance. (Quantitative Data)

− The subjects were sworn to secrecy.

− They also answered a questionnaire regarding their experience, if any, with adrenalin and their
knowledge or suspicion of their experimental setup.

− 11 subjects had been so suspicious of some integral parts of the study that their results had to be
discarded as a consequence.

Results:

The data obtained from the above-mentioned table portrays that on all items subjects who were in
the epinephrine condition showed considerably more evidence of sympathetic activation that do
subjects who were placed in the placebo condition.

It is evident on the scale that epinephrine subjects experience more palpitation and tremor than do
placebo subjects.

In all of the comprehensive cross-analysis on these symptoms, the mean/average scores of subjects
in any of the epinephrine conditions were higher than the corresponding scores in the placebo
conditions.

Subjects in epinephrine conditions were, indeed, in state of physiological arousal, while most
subjects in placebo conditions were in a relative state of physiological dormancy as closer
examinations proved.

In the condition of; euphoria the misinformed group were feeling the happiest out of all groups, the
following happiest group (2nd) was the ignored group, the informed group felt the least happy/good
because they were able to explain why they had a reason. This demonstrates how participants were
more likely to fall for the stooge’s act because they had no reasoning of why they felt the way they
did.

In the anger group, the Epi ignorant group was the most angry, with the following group being the
placebo group, second angriest. The informed group was the slightest angry. Again, demonstrating
why and how the participants were more likely to fall for the stooge’s antics.

The epinephrine injection did not work with equal efficacy on all subjects though – as they were no
reports of physiological arousal from some subjects at all.

Conclusions:

Schacter and Singer debate that their results do indeed support the two-factor theory of emotion,
which states that the physiological in different, varying emotions is grossly the same and we
label/tag arousals according to the cognitions we have present at that moment in time.

They also argued that all of their hypothesis were supported and concluded that if a person
experiences an arousal state which they cannot explain, they will label or designate this state and
describe their feelings in terms of the cognitions present and available to them.

Evaluation:

Application and Usefulness:

− This study enables us to understand how people take different environmental hints to help them
understand and interpret their physiological state.

− This could be useful in treating people who suffer from anxiety disorders as it will enable them to
have more control and identify triggers such as environmental cues.

Evaluation:

− The procedure was highly controlled and structured (standardized).

− Thye were able to assign participants randomly to different conditions and were even able to
deceive the participants regarding the aim and nature of the experiments.
− High in reliability.

− It however lacked ecological validity, given how every condition was artificially manipulated.

− The sample was not generalizable in terms of age or gender. Nonn-representative sample.

− It was androcentric (184 males).

− Some variables might not have been considered such as the predominant