Hallucinations:

(p47) The term ‘psychosis’ is used to signify severe psychiatric disorders such as
schizophrenia, bipolar disorder and other disorders in which symptoms such as
delusion and hallucination predominate.
Mental Status Examination (p50)
The most prominent deception of perception would be hallucinations; for example a
person hears sounds that are absent (others in his vicinity cannot hear that sound).

Acute and transient psychosis : Disorder in which psychotic symptoms (such as

delusions, hallucinations or bizarre behaviour) appear suddenly, and last only for (a
total duration) of hours to weeks.

Delirium is an acute, usually temporary condition characterized by disorientation

and attention and memory difficulty. It may be accompanied by hallucinations,
anxiety, incoherent speech, restlessness and delusions. It is caused by medical
surgical conditions like high fever, trauma, alcohol withdrawal (delirium tremens),
etc. It is an emergency requiring prompt treatment.

A persistent psychotic illness characterized by symptoms such as hallucination in

which the persons hears things spoken about him in 3rd person, delusion of his
thoughts being known to others without his wish, delusions of his activities or mood
being controlled by others, etc.

Psychosis is characterised by symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions and

bizarre behaviour, loss of insight and severe illness. Neurosis is characterised by the
predominant presence of anxiety, presence of insight and milder severity of illness.

A psychotic syndrome of auditory hallucinations (hearing voices) and paranoia

(suspiciousness) named myxedema madness, has been described in patients with
hypothyroidism. In severe cases of hyperthyroidism, visual hallucinations, paranoid
ideation and delirium may be seen.

Delusion of parasitosis is the fixed belief that one is infested with living organisms
despite a lack of medical evidence of such infestation. Patients experience tactile
hallucinations described as crawling, biting or stinging. Patients frequently present
to dermatologists. Delusion of parasitosis has been associated with many medical
disorders, including tuberculosis, syphilis, blood cancer, diabetes mellitus, vitamin
B12 deficiency and liver disease. It may be a part of various psychiatric disorders
including depressive disorder, delusional disorders and schizophrenia.

AI:
In psychology, hallucinations are false perceptions of objects or events that involve
the senses. They can be auditory, visual, tactile, olfactory, or
gustatory. Hallucinations can be intense and seem real, but they are not.
Types of hallucinations
 Auditory hallucinations
Hearing voices, music, footsteps, or other sounds when there is no one there
 Visual hallucinations
Seeing images, faces, animals, or scenes when there is nothing there
 Tactile hallucinations
Feeling sensations on the skin, like bugs crawling or internal organs moving
 Command hallucinations
Hearing commands that seem to come from an external source or from the subject's
head
Causes of hallucinations
 Schizophrenia spectrum disorders
 Substance use or withdrawal
 Sleep disorders and lack of sleep
 Medications
 Parkinson's disease
 Dementia
 Migraines
 Epilepsy and seizures
Treatment
Identifying the underlying cause of hallucinations is important for developing an
effective treatment.
On the neurobiology of hallucinations
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC2702442/

Hallucinations are perceptions in the absence of an external stimulus and are

accompanied by a compelling sense of their reality. They are a diagnostic feature of
schizophrenia, occurring in an estimated 60%–70% of people with this disorder, with
auditory hallucinations being the most common. However, hallucinations are not
only associated with illness but can also occur in healthy individuals. For example,
data from 6 community survey studies in various countries indicate that 7%–30% of
children and adolescents report experiencing hallucinations. 1 In the context of grief
after the death of a spouse, one-third to one-half of bereaved spouses report
hallucinations of the deceased.2,3 Transcultural influences may also affect the
distinction between reality and imagination as well as the normalcy of visualizing
images and ideas.4 In healthy people, pseudohallucinations can even be generated
at will by mild sensory deprivation; for example, vivid dreamlike visual imagery can
be induced in some individuals by placing 2 halves of a ping pong ball over the eyes
and playing a recording of the sounds of a waterfall for several minutes. 5 The
neurobiological basis of hallucinations has most frequently been investigated in
patients with schizophrenia, although studies examining hallucinatory phenomena
in healthy individuals may also be informative. It should be noted, however, that it
is unknown at present whether hallucinations are generated by similar mechanisms
in patients and in healthy people.
How close are we to understanding the brain mechanisms responsible for
hallucinations in psychotic disorders like schizophrenia? Among the various complex
symptoms of psychotic disorders, it would seem that hallucinations might be a
relatively discrete and precisely defined symptom, and therefore amenable to
understanding the brain mechanisms involved. As a first approach to studying the
mechanism of hallucinations, psychologically normal individuals with hallucinations
due to lesions have been studied, and the lesion was generally found to be in the
brain pathway of the sensory modality (e.g., auditory, visual, somatic) of the
hallucination.6 For example, the complex visual hallucinations seen in Charles
Bonnet syndrome are most often caused by damage to the visual system such as
macular degeneration or lesions to the central nervous system pathway between
the eye and the visual cortex.7
Recently, neuroimaging technology has been used quite extensively in an attempt
to understand the brain regions and circuitry involved in the generation of
hallucinations. Patients with schizophrenia experiencing auditory hallucinations
have been studied most often. It might be expected that the basis for auditory
hallucinations would be found in the brain regions known to subserve normal
audition, language perception and language production. To briefly summarize these,
the primary auditory cortex, which is involved with the perception of pure tone and
pitch, is located on the dorsal surface of the superior temporal gyrus. This is
surrounded by secondary auditory association areas that are involved in identifying
more complex auditory sequences like the phonetic features of speech (but not its
meaning). The middle temporal gyrus also contains association cortex responding to
understandable speech. The 2 main language epicentres are the Wernicke area
located in the posterior temporal and parietal cortex, which connects word
meanings with objects and concepts, and the Broca area located in the inferior
frontal gyrus, which is involved in sentence production. In addition, the anterior
cingulate cortex, implicated in affect and attention, is thought to be involved in
providing behavioural drive to produce speech, whereas the dorsolateral prefrontal
cortex may provide a sense of the voluntary versus involuntary nature of auditory
awareness.
Allen and colleagues8 have recently provided an excellent comprehensive review of
neuroimaging findings on “the hallucinating brain.” Hallucinations in patients with
schizophrenia have been studied with respect to changes in central nervous system
structure, function and connectivity. The most consistent finding of structural
neuroimaging studies of patients with auditory hallucinations is reduced grey matter
volume in the superior temporal gyrus, including the primary auditory cortex. One
fairly large study also reported volume reduction in the dorsolateral prefrontal
cortex, suggesting that faulty frontotemporal interactions may contribute to the
experience of hallucinations being involuntary. Functional activation studies of
actively hallucinating participants have generally reported increased activity in
language areas and in the primary auditory cortex, strongly implicating the superior
and middle temporal gyri, although various other nonsensory cortical and
subcortical areas have also been implicated. Several studies examining neural
connectivity using diffusion tensor imaging or functional magnetic resonance
imaging in patients with schizophrenia who experience auditory hallucinations have
concurred in showing altered connectivity among temporal, prefrontal and anterior
cingulate regions.
One major concept on the origin of hallucinations is the idea that hallucinating
individuals may misattribute internally generated speech (or sensory stimuli) as
coming from an external source.9 Interestingly, Blakemore and
colleagues10 suggested that looking at why you can’t tickle yourself may provide a
window on this phenomenon. They propose that our experience of a self-generated
tactile or other stimulus (e.g., tickling yourself) is attenuated compared with an
externally generated stimulus (e.g., being tickled by someone else) because we
anticipate the sensory consequences of a self-generated stimulus. They showed
that healthy controls experienced self-tickling as less intense or tickly than tactile
stimulation by an experimenter. In contrast, participants with auditory hallucinations
or passivity phenomena (i.e., loss of the sense of boundary between self and others)
did not discriminate between the 2 types of stimuli. The underlying mechanisms for
such misattribution of self-generated acts are not yet understood. It has been
hypothesized that such deficits in self-monitoring arise from a lack of connectivity
between brain regions that initiate an act and regions that perceive the sensory
consequences of the act (i.e., a failure of corollary discharge mechanisms). 11 In
support of this concept, several studies have found evidence for reduced functional
frontotemporal connectivity in patients with schizophrenia who were asked to speak
or complete sentences, and this was particularly pronounced in those with auditory
hallucinations.12,13 Blakemore and colleagues14 have provided experimental evidence
that another required element enabling one to discriminate between self-produced
and external stimuli is the correct placement of sensory stimuli in space and time.
Recent studies have indicated that individuals with schizophrenia, particularly those
exhibiting passivity symptoms, show deficits in judging time intervals, and it is
hypothesized that this may contribute to dysregulated temporal coordination of
information.15,16 A deeper understanding at a neurobiological level of how we
differentiate self from other is clearly relevant to the understanding of
hallucinations, and insight into the neurobiology of timing may also prove relevant.
Another interesting approach that has been used to study hallucinations is the use
of hypnosis to suggest hallucinations in healthy individuals. Szechtman and
colleagues17 reported that the right anterior cingulate cortex was activated in
hypnotizable people when they heard real external speech or when they were
instructed to hallucinate under hypnosis, but not when they imagined speech. They
thus suggested that the anterior cingulate cortex may be involved in attributing the
speech to an external source. As pointed out by Allen and colleagues, 8 however,
controls (who were unable to hallucinate under hypnosis) in this study should also
have been expected to activate the anterior cingulate cortex when they heard real
speech, but they did not. Interestingly Raz and colleagues 18 have demonstrated
altered activation of the anterior cingulate cortex in highly hypnotizable people
responding to a hypnotic suggestion (not involving hallucinations). This raises the
possibility that the anterior cingulate cortex could be involved in hypnotic
suggestibility per se (or in attributing control to an external source, possibly the
hypnotizer) and illustrates the complexity of interpretation of these types of models.
Another normal state that has been suggested to provide potential insight into
hallucinations is rapid eye movement (REM) sleep, since hallucinations and
delusions are regular features of REM. 19 For example, Blagrove and
colleagues20 reported that on waking from dreams during REM sleep, women (but
not men) showed a deficit in monitoring self-generated versus externally generated
stimuli.
In summarizing current knowledge on neuroimaging of hallucinations, Allen and
colleagues8 have proposed a model for auditory hallucinations in which there is
overactivity in the primary and/or secondary auditory cortices in the superior
temporal gyrus and altered connectivity with language processing areas in the
inferior frontal cortex. The model also includes weakened control of these systems
by anterior cingulate, prefrontal, premotor and cerebellar cortices. Basically, it
appears that neuroimaging data have confirmed the expectation that hallucinations
involve altered activity in the neural circuitry known to be involved in normal
audition and language and their control. However, the major question of how this
altered activity arises is still unanswered. Behrendt21 has provided a thought-
provoking hypothesis based on the idea that perceptual experience arises from
synchronization of gamma oscillations in thalamocortical networks. This oscillatory
activity is normally constrained by sensory input and also by prefrontal and limbic
attentional mechanisms. There is evidence that in patients with schizophrenia there
is impaired modulation of thalamocortical gamma activity by external sensory input,
allowing attentional mechanisms to play a preponderant role in the absence of
sensory input. This may lead to hallucinations. Moreover, conditions of
stress/hyperarousal and neurochemical alterations characteristic of schizophrenia
(e.g., nicotinic receptor abnormalities, dopaminergic hyperactivity) may be factors
that predispose toward this uncoupling of sensory input from thalamocortical
activity and pathological activation of thalamocortical circuits by attentional
mechanisms. Thus, advances in understanding the modulation of gamma rhythms
and their role in information processing may be particularly pertinent to
understanding the neurobiology of hallucinations and other symptoms of
schizophrenia. Recent elegant work establishing a critical role for interneurons
containing parvalbumin (known to be reduced in schizophrenia) in generating
gamma oscillations22,23 provides examples of how basic neuroscience studies in
experimental animals are contributing to this field.
With respect to treatment to lessen hallucinations, neuroimaging findings have
provided information necessary to decide which brain regions might be targeted for
trials of repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) to reduce auditory
hallucinations. In these trials, slow rTMS was given over the right temporoparietal
cortex in patients with schizophrenia experiencing treatment-resistant auditory
hallucinations. Slow rTMs was used because it reduces brain excitability as opposed
to the faster rTMS used to increase brain excitability in the treatment of depression.
A recent meta-analysis24 of these studies showed that rTMS significantly reduced
auditory hallucinations with a mean effect size of 0.76. For comparison, the authors
point out that a meta-analysis of the effects of clozapine versus typical
antipsychotics in patients with treatment-resistant schizophrenia showed a mean
effect size of 0.48, using total score on the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale 25 as the
outcome (although this latter meta-analysis did not aim to study hallucinations
specifically). Thus rTMs may be a potentially efficacious treatment alternative for
treatment-resistant auditory hallucinations.
Overall, the literature reflects the perplexing challenges inherent in investigating a
higher mental process like a hallucination. In studies with human participants,
neural processes can only be shown to correlate with, not to definitively cause,
hallucinations. Animal models have often been used to provide evidence for
causation. Behavioural observation would suggest that animals like monkeys and
dogs have the ability to discern whether vocalization arises from themselves or from
other animals. Thus one could anticipate that under abnormal conditions they might
mistake internally generated representations of sounds as coming from another
animal. However, behaviourally assessing the possible presence of such
“hallucinations” in an animal is problematic. In studies in which monkeys are given
drugs known to produce psychosis in humans, behavioural changes have been
observed.26,27 However, changes that have been categorized as hallucinatory-like
behaviour (e.g., responses to nonapparent stimuli, staring for extended periods) are
too nonspecific for research targeting mechanisms of hallucinations.
In conclusion, although useful insight has been gained, we still have a long way to
go to fully understand what causes the “voices” and “visions” of schizophrenia. It is
hoped that this brief editorial foray into the topic will provoke increased interest and
thought on this fascinating and challenging subject.

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/psychology/hallucination
Hallucination is the experience of a percept without a causal external stimulus. MH
is therefore more than simply having a tune “stuck in your head” (an earworm), as
it must have a compelling sense of reality. Indeed, patients commonly present to
our services having first erroneously complained to police or local council services
about their neighbors’ antisocial music playing, and some still believe the source to
be external when assessed in clinic. MH is typically experienced as short fragments
of simple melodies – often from music heard regularly and familiar from youth, and
especially from hymns and carols (Griffiths, 2000; Warner and Aziz, 2005). Lyrics
may or may not be heard, but it is phenomenologically and demographically distinct
from verbal hallucination (in which voices are heard) and has different neural
correlates (Izumi et al., 2002).

Hallucinations have been described for more than two millennia, yet their causes
remain unclear (Weiss & Heckers, 1999). Hallucinations remain as one of the most
intriguing phenomena in psychopathology, specifically in schizophrenia (Allen, Laroi,
McGuire, & Aleman, 2008; Weiss & Heckers, 1999). Hallucinations are a person’s
false but vivid and substantial perception of things in the absence of apparent
stimulus and created by the awake mind. Not all people who experience
hallucinations have a psychotic disorder. A hallucination may be a sensory
experience in which a person can see (visual hallucination), hear (auditory
hallucination), smell (olfactory hallucination), taste (gustatory hallucination), and
feel (tactile hallucination or somatic hallucination), something that is not at all
present at the time of perception. Among those, auditory hallucinations are by far
the most common, followed by visual hallucinations, and then by tactile and
olfactory or gustatory hallucinations in schizophrenia (Mueser, Bellack, & Brady,
1990).
It has been generally suggested that abnormal cerebral excitation and a lack of
normal cerebral inhibition may play primary roles in the generation of
hallucinations. Recent advances in structural neuroimaging is sensory modality-
specific activation in cerebral areas that are involved in normal sensory
processing associated with hallucinations (Weiss & Heckers, 1999). Neural
activation in these sensory processing areas may be specifically related to distinct
phenomenological features of the hallucinatory experiences (Braun, Dumont, Duval,
Hamel-Hebert, & Godbout, 2003; Weiss & Heckers, 1999).
A hallucination is a fake and involuntary perception with seemingly real quality in
the absence of actual stimulus. Hallucinations differ from delusions in which an
actual stimulus is distortedly interpreted and given some bizarre significance. A
delusion might also be an attempt to explain a hallucinatory experience (Kiran &
Chaudhury, 2009).

A delusion is a false belief that indicates an abnormality in the affected person’s

content of thought (Kiran & Chaudhury, 2009). Delusions are distorted false beliefs
such as someone is plotting against you or a movie character is giving you
commands. A person with a delusion will hold firmly to the belief regardless of
evidence to the contrary (Kiran & Chaudhury, 2009). Delusions have particular
significance for the diagnosis of schizophrenia, and are common in several
psychiatric conditions (Blackwood, Howard, Bentall, & Murray, 2001; Kiran &
Chaudhury, 2009).

Hallucinations are defined as sensory experiences that occur in the absence of

external stimuli.
•
Although either visual or auditory hallucinations tend to be more common than the
other in certain disorders, they share associations with the same neurologic and
psychiatric disorders, as well as the same alcohol and drug triggers.
•
Multiple mechanistic models exist to account for hallucinations, often developed for
specific disorders that are associated with hallucinations, such as disorders of
sensory loss, schizophrenia, or dementia.
•
Most hallucination models share a common theme of top-down and bottom-up
processes that are modulated by attention.
•
Bayesian inference is theorized to support stimuli recognition using predictions
made by the brain (top-down) that are updated by incoming sensory information
(bottom-up). When one or both pathways are impaired, hallucinations can result.

A perception that cannot be explained by stimuli in the physical environment, such

that a person hears (auditory hallucinations, also called ‘hearing voices’), sees
(visual hallucinations), feels (tactile hallucinations, or somatic hallucinations when
the sensation occurs within the body), smells (olfactory hallucinations), or tastes
(gustatory hallucinations) something that no one else within their environment can
detect.

Hallucinations are sensory experiences that appear real but are created by one's
mind. Hallucinations have primarily been associated with networks outside those we
have described in reference to other symptomatologies, particularly including
networks associated with auditory perception (primary auditory cortex, and middle
and superior temporal cortex) (Mallikarjun et al., 2018), language (inferior frontal
gyrus) (Jardri et al., 2011), and memory (hippocampus and parahippocampus) (Kühn
and Gallinat, 2010). Higher levels of functional coordination intrinsic to a
corticostriatal loop comprise a causal factor leading to auditory verbal hallucination
(Hoffman et al., 2011). Thus, mechanistic treatments for hallucinations may target
such perceptual regions more specifically, e.g., suppressive, low-frequency
repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation directed at auditory processing regions
(e.g., Wernike's area) (Hoffman et al., 2007).

Hallucinations can be defined as percepts occurring while the person is awake and
without corresponding external stimulation of the relevant sensory organ.

Although they sometimes occur in non-clinical populations (Larøi et al., 2012; Toh et
al., 2022), hallucinations often constitute the hallmark of psychiatric disorders, such
as schizophrenia, and they can also be induced by psychotomimetic drugs.

Classic psychedelics (including naturally occurring chemicals such

as mescaline, psilocybin and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT), and synthetic
compounds such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD); (Osmond, 1957)) are
serotonergic agonists with a high affinity for 5HT2A receptors (Nichols, 2004;
Vollenweider et al., 1998).

Psychedelic drugs induce profound changes in people who consume them, including
perceptual, emotional and cognitive alterations (Leptourgos et al., 2020b).
Perceptual abnormalities comprise elementary and complex hallucinations (mostly
visual or crossmodal), intensification of visual illusions and mental imagery, and
synaesthesia

wo decades the advent of neuroimaging techniques have allowed researchers to

investigate what is happening in the brain of those who experience hallucinations.
In this article we review both structural and functional neuroimaging studies of
patients with auditory and visual hallucinations as well as a small number of studies
that have assessed cognitive processes associated with hallucinations in healthy
volunteers. The current literature suggests that in addition to secondary (and
occasionally primary) sensory cortices, dysfunction in prefrontal premotor,
cingulate, subcortical and cerebellar regions also seem to contribute to
hallucinatory experiences. Based on the findings of these studies we tentatively
propose a neurocognitive model in which both bottom-up and top-down processes
interact to produce these erroneous percepts. Finally, directions for future work are
discussed.
View article

2. Eustress (p31 to 37)

Contrary to the popular belief, stress need not always be bad. In fact, there are two
types of stress, namely good stress and bad stress. The bad stress has been called
as ‘distress’ while the good stress is also known as ‘eustress’. The bad stress makes
one anxious and irritable, dampens the spirit due to its adverse psychological and
physical effects. Eustress provides stimulation and challenge and is essential for
development, growth and change. Good stress can also be related to motivation.

Stress can be classified in different ways such as i) Based on the nature of the stress
(biological or psychological); ii) Based on the severity of stress; as eustress and
distress; iii) Based on duration of stress (short term and long term); and iv) Based
on temporal relation of stress response with the stressor.

Stress has been defined as an emotional tension rising from life events, or as a
feeling of threat to someone’s safety or self-esteem. Lazarus defined stress as a
stimulus condition that results in a form of disequilibrium in the system, producing a
kind of strain and changes in the system. In its broadest sense, stress refers to all
physical, psychological or social phenomena that tax or exceed an organism in such
a way that physical, psychological or social change results

AI:
Eustress is a positive stress response that can motivate and improve
performance. It's a short-term reaction that can be associated with feelings of
excitement and control.
What is eustress?
  Eustress is a positive stress response that can motivate and improve
performance.
 It's a short-term reaction that can be associated with feelings of excitement
and control.
 Eustress is a constructive type of stress that reflects a state of positive
emotional arousal.
 It's associated with moderate levels of demands.
What are some examples of eustress?
 Starting a new job
 Preparing for a presentation
 Training for a marathon
 Learning a new skill
 Starting a new hobby or project
 Traveling to a new country
How does eustress affect us?
 Eustress can enhance cognitive function and boost memory.
 It can lead to higher levels of life satisfaction and well-being.
 It can provide the motivation and energy needed to overcome obstacles and
accomplish tasks.

https://www.apa.org/ed/precollege/topss/lessons/activities/critical-thinking-exercise-
distress-eustress.pdf
While we often view stress as being negative, Hans Selye coined the term eustress.
“Eu” is the Greek prefix for good, so eustress means good stress. Selye, Lazarus,
and other researchers have suggested that not all stress is negative or has
detrimental effects. Eustress is a type of stress, where the demands of a situation
cause physiological and cognitive changes that are positive, and allow for optimal
levels of performance.

Distress: the negative stress response, often involving negative affect and
physiological reactivity: a type of stress that results from being overwhelmed by
demands, losses, or perceived threats. Distress triggers physiological changes that
can pose serious health risks, especially if combined with maladaptive ways of
coping.- Eustress: the positive stress response, involving optimal levels of
stimulation: a type of stress that results from challenging but attainable and
enjoyable or worthwhile tasks (e.g., participating in an athletic event, giving a
speech). It has a beneficial effect by generating a sense of fulfillment or
achievement and facilitating growth, development, mastery, and high levels of
performance.

Table 1.
Dimensions of Eustress and Distress.

Dimension Eustress Distress

Amount of Moderate Low or high

demand

Degree of control Average to high Little or no

control control

Threat appraisal Low threat High threat

Challenge High challenge Low challenge

appraisal

In line with Lazarus [6] we see stress as a multidimensional response to a stressor

that is manifested in psychological, physiological, and behavioral terms. This
response can be described as either eustress or distress or a combination of both
[26]. We define eustress as a constructive type of stress that reflects a state of
positive emotional arousal associated with activation and engagement. Distress is a
destructive type of stress and reflects a state of negative emotional arousal
associated with dissatisfaction and disengagement. The eustressful or distressful
nature of a particular stressor is dependent on a number of factors [3,26]. As can be
seen in Table 1, we have identified four dimensions that differentiate eustress and
distress. First of all, the amount of demand imposed on the individual by the
stressor distinguishes between eustress and distress. Eustress is associated with
moderate levels of demands, whereas distress is associated with low and high levels
of demands. This is in line with the Yerkes–Dodson Law, which argues that people
perform best at moderate levels of arousal (compared to low and high levels), and
Quick et al. [27] used the term eustress to describe this optimal quantity of stress.
The second dimension on which eustress and distress differ is the degree of control
one has over the stressful situation. Karasek’s [28] Demands–Control Model shows
that a lack of control is likely to result in distress. Control as a situational belief is
part of the appraisal process [7] and is therefore likely to influence whether a
person experiences eustress (average to high control) or distress (little to no
control). Finally, eustress and distress differ in the extent to which a stressor is
appraised as a threat or a challenge [29]. Threat and challenge appraisals form two
separate dimensions and can occur simultaneously as responses to the same
stressor [7]. Eustressing situations are appraised as challenging but not threatening,
whereas distressing situations are appraised as threatening but not challenging.

In psychology, "challenge appraisal" refers to the cognitive process of interpreting a

stressful situation as an opportunity for growth and personal development, rather
than a threat, meaning you view a demanding situation as a challenge to overcome
and potentially gain from, rather than something to fear or avoid; it's a positive
evaluation of a stressful situation, focusing on the potential benefits and resources
available to cope with it.

 Positive perception:
Unlike a "threat appraisal," where someone might see a situation as harmful or
overwhelming, a challenge appraisal views it as a chance to learn and improve.
 Motivation for growth:
When someone appraises a situation as a challenge, they are more likely to feel
motivated to take action and overcome the obstacle.
 Stress management strategy:
Practicing challenge appraisal can be a helpful strategy for managing stress and
building resilience in the face of difficult situations.
Example: A student facing a challenging exam might appraise it as a challenge if
they believe it's an opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge and improve their
understanding of the subject, rather than a threat that could lead to failure.

https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/
fpsyg.2023.1144767/full
For eustress management, we identified one strategy (Goal updating) for sustaining
task-based eustress (Exploration) but did not identify strategies for prolonging
socially-based eustress (Involvement). Findings related to eustress management
suggest that task-based eustress such as Exploration may need careful
management, in that it may subside when individuals overcome difficulties and do
not set new goals to continually motivate themselves. Yet for socially-based
eustress such as Involvement, no further management strategy may be needed and
the eustress itself may be the predictor of future positive perceptions. This is
because there seems to be a virtuous cycle between the eustress and associated
stressors. Individuals may wish to have more interactions with relevant stressors,
and thus such a positive state can be naturally maintained.
Types Of Stressors (Eustress Vs. Distress)

Stress is an intrinsic and universal aspect of human life, manifesting as the body
and mind’s natural response to any demand or challenge that disrupts our
equilibrium. It’s a physiological and psychological reaction that occurs when an
individual perceives a situation as threatening or demanding, triggering a wide
array of internal processes designed to help the person adapt or cope with the
situation. This response includes the release of hormones, such as adrenaline and
cortisol, that prepare the body for what is commonly known as the “fight or flight”
reaction.

In daily life, we often use the term “stress” to describe negative experiences or
situations. This leads many people to believe that all stress is bad for you, which is
not true.

Eustress, or positive stress response, has the following characteristics:

 Motivates and focuses energy
 Is short-term
 Is perceived as within our coping abilities
 Feels exciting
 Improves performance

Examples of positive personal stressors include:

 Receiving a promotion or raise at work
 Starting a new job
 Marriage
 Buying a home
 Having a child
 Moving
 Taking a vacation
 Holiday seasons
 Retiring
  Taking educational classes or learning a new hobby

Emotional Intelligence:

Emotional intelligence (EI) is the ability to recognize, understand, and manage your
own emotions and the emotions of others. It's also known as emotional quotient
(EQ).
What are the components of EI?
 Self-awareness: Recognizing your own emotions and how they impact your
behavior
 Self-regulation: Controlling your emotions and avoiding impulsive decisions
 Empathy: Understanding the emotions of others and how to interact with
them
 Social skills: Using emotional intelligence to navigate difficult situations and
build relationships
How can EI help you?
 Improve communication: EI can help you communicate more effectively
and defuse conflict.
 Build resilience: People with high EI are more resilient and less likely to
experience burnout or depression.
 Improve performance: EI can help you succeed at school and work, and
achieve your goals.
How can you improve your EI?
 Ask for constructive feedbackKeep a journal of your thoughts and feelings
 Practice mindfulness
 Use positive self-talk
 Learn new skills and set goals

  Reflect on your experiences
American Psychological Association (APA) Definition:

a type of intelligence that involves the ability to process emotional information and
use it in reasoning and other cognitive activities, proposed by U.S. psychologists
Peter Salovey (1958– ) and John D. Mayer (1953– ). According to Mayer and
Salovey’s 1997 model, it comprises four abilities: to perceive and appraise emotions
accurately; to access and evoke emotions when they facilitate cognition; to
comprehend emotional language and make use of emotional information; and to
regulate one’s own and others’ emotions to promote growth and well-being. Their
ideas were popularized in a best-selling book by U.S. psychologist and science
journalist Daniel J. Goleman (1946– ), who also altered the definition to include
many personality variables.

When most people hear "intelligence," they think about IQ. This is a measure of
intelligence related to logic strategy, and it can be determined through standardized
testing. It used to be widely believed that IQ could be used as an indicator of
success, but in the early 90s psychologists began studying emotional intelligence.
As this type of intelligence was studied more, its correlations with success became
more evident, and some now argue that evaluating a person's emotional
intelligence and finding their "EQ" is more important than their IQ when predicting
future success. They argue that interpersonal relations can help people to go further
and accomplish more than raw logical ability.
EQ and IQ are two forms of intelligence, and their focuses differ widely.

Those who score high in emotional intelligence tests generally have the following
characteristics:
Measuring Emotional Intelligence

As mentioned above, IQ tests are standardized sets of questions which measure

logical and problem-solving abilities. EQ tests are more complex. There are three
general ways that an individual's emotional intelligence can be measured:
 self-report
 other report
 ability measures
These may be through abilities tests, trait-based tests, competency tests, or
behavioral tests.

https://www.psychology.org/resources/importance-of-emotional-intelligence-in-
psychology-students/

what is emotional intelligence? "Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to

understand and manage your own emotions and understand the emotions of
others," said Rayelle Davis, M.Ed., LCPC, NCC, BC-TMH.
But why does EI matter? Strong emotional intelligence can boost academic
performance, decision-making, and overall mental health. Discover the importance
of emotional intelligence in psychology students and professionals and learn how
you can help build this essential soft skill.
What Is Emotional Intelligence?
The American Psychological Association defines emotional intelligence as "the
ability to process emotional information and use it in reasoning and other cognitive
activities." Psychologists pioneered the study of emotional intelligence, dividing the
concept into abilities that shape your emotional health and well-being.
"The way I look at emotional intelligence is understanding not only your emotions
and how you respond when stresses arise, but also understanding and managing
and recognizing the emotions of others," said Ryan C. Warner, who holds a Ph.D. in
clinical psychology.
Improving your EI can benefit you while studying psychology in college and long
after graduation, regardless of your career path.
Components of Emotional Intelligence
Good EI requires several components, including self-awareness, self-regulation,
motivation, and empathy. Focusing on improving these components can enhance
your overall EI.

Self-Awareness
To develop your EI, Warner suggested asking yourself the following questions: "How
do you recognize your own emotions? How do you also acknowledge that you have
some strengths and some areas of growth when it comes to how you manage
stress?"
Examining how you typically respond to your emotions is an important first step.

Self-Regulation
Self-regulation allows you to process emotions and regulate stress. Knowing how to
regulate your emotions strengthens your decision-making and self-control —
important skills for psychology students and professionals.
"Self-regulation basically means healthy coping skills for stress management. This
element includes being able to rebound from life stressors or learning from
mistakes," said Davis.

Motivation
Motivation is the drive to accomplish goals. Self-awareness and self-regulation can
help you better identify your goals and take steps to accomplish them. Resilience in
the face of setbacks also plays an important role in motivation.

Empathy
Empathy and social awareness allow us to relate to others. By developing empathy,
you'll gain insight into other people's emotions, motivations, and experiences. That
empathy allows you to develop healthy relationships.
"I think having empathy, being able to take the perspective of others, being able to
share and understand their feelings as well [is important]. Ultimately, that's going to
help you build and maintain good relationships with others," Warner said.
Signs of Emotional Intelligence
Signs of Higher Emotional Intelligence
Signs that someone may have higher EI include:
 Awareness of their emotions and behaviors
 Ability to build strong relationships with others
 Resilience under pressure
 Ability to stay calm during stressful situations
Signs of Lower Emotional Intelligence
Signs that someone may have lower EI include:
 Feelings of frustration on a regular basis
 Struggles communicating their desires
 Emotional dysregulation
 Feelings of misunderstanding or disconnection from others
Benefits of Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence can benefit you in many areas of your life, from your
personal relationships to your professional growth. Here are some of the many
benefits of investing in EI.
Academic Performance
College can be stressful. Understanding your emotions and building strong
relationships can help whether you're preparing for finals, applying to grad
school, figuring out what to do with your graduate degree, or looking for
psychology jobs.
"Students can use emotional intelligence as part of their process to manage stress,
work with others on a group project, speak with advisers or professors, or any
situation that involves interpersonal dynamics," said Davis.
Leadership Skills and Career Advancement
High emotional intelligence can also help you earn a doctorate in
psychology and excel in your psychology job after graduation. And EI can
strengthen your abilities as a leader.
"Leaders in any profession benefit from using emotional intelligence to properly
motivate and guide people on their team," said Davis. "They make decisions by
considering what is best for everyone and not just themselves. This can lead to
higher satisfaction in the workplace."
Decision-Making
Whether you're choosing a psychology program or comparing psychology
specializations, emotional intelligence can help. That's because self-awareness
and self-regulation both improve your decision-making skills.
Compared to students who may have lower EI, those with high EI can often "make
more rational decisions instead of only emotional decisions and acting off of
impulses," said Warner.
Relationships
Emotional intelligence can also improve your ability to connect with others, making
it easier to build stronger relationships at home, school, and work.
For example, emotional awareness makes it easier to empathize with others and
strengthen your own social skills. "This is helpful for maintaining healthy boundaries
with work or within relationships, which helps with living a balanced life," said Davis.
Communication
Self-awareness also plays a significant role in communication. By understanding
your own emotions, you'll develop stronger social EI. This can help you master
nonverbal communication so that you can better understand others and express
your ideas more clearly.
In addition to strengthening bonds in social settings, strong communication skills
are also critical for psychology students and psychologists in academic and
professional settings.
Coping Strategies
Knowing how to manage stress and cope with difficult situations improves your
overall well-being. Strengthening self-regulation and motivation skills will help you
develop resilience and stay calmer under pressure.
Psychologists often help clients develop coping strategies. However, investing in
your own coping mechanisms through mindfulness or goal setting can help you
avoid burnout.
Overall Mental Health
Fostering high emotional intelligence can improve your mental health. Knowing how
to deal with stress, avoid burnout, and make time for self-care will give you more
balance in your life.
Emotional intelligence "helps us to understand what is and isn't our responsibility
and this can reduce the threat response in our body," said Davis.
How Professionals Use Emotional Intelligence
Psychology students can benefit from boosting their emotional intelligence,
regardless of their intended psychology career path. While the benefits of EI may
be readily apparent for patient-centered professions like behavioral and clinical
psychologists, professionals in many fields use emotional intelligence to
communicate effectively, work on teams, and motivate others.
EI benefits many professionals but is crucial for others — especially for mental
health providers. Unfortunately, not all of these professionals possess strong EI. For
example, ineffective mental health providers who lack emotional intelligence may
manage their own emotions through the power dynamics in therapy, often to the
detriment of their patients.
Psychology students should want to improve their emotional intelligence, but if it
isn't their strong suit, they may want to consider another career path.