PSG COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

(A GOVERNMENT AIDED AUTONOMOUS AND ISO 9001 :2015 CERTIFIED INSTITUTIONS)

PEELAMEDU , COIMBATORE - 641004

23Z510 - COMPUTER NETWORKS LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT 1 | STUDY OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

SUBMITTED BY
K SHARVESH
24Z434 -3RD YEAR
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
 EXPERIMENT 01
NUMBER STUDY OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
DATE

1. What are Computer Networks?

A computer network is a collection of interconnected computing devices (such as

computers, servers, routers, switches, and other hardware) that communicate with
each other to share resources, exchange data, and provide services. These devices are
linked via wired (Ethernet, fiber optics) or wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular)
communication channels and follow standardized communication protocols to
ensure seamless interaction.

2. Key Components of a Computer Network

A computer network consists of several essential components:

A. Hardware Components

1. End Devices (Nodes):

o Computers (PCs, laptops, servers)

o Mobile Devices (smartphones, tablets)

o IoT Devices (smart appliances, sensors)

2. Networking Devices:

o Router – Connects different networks (e.g., home network to the

internet).

o Switch – Connects devices within a local network (LAN) and forwards

data efficiently.

o Hub – A basic networking device that broadcasts data to all connected

devices (less efficient than a switch).

o Modem – Converts digital signals to analog (and vice versa) for internet
access.

o Access Point (AP) – Extends wireless connectivity (Wi-Fi) in a network.

o Firewall – Security device that monitors and filters incoming/outgoing

traffic.

3. Transmission Media:

o Wired (Ethernet cables, fiber optics, coaxial cables)

o Wireless (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular networks, satellite)

B. Software Components

1. Network Operating System (NOS) – Manages network resources (e.g.,

Windows Server, Linux).

2. Protocols – Rules for communication (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, DNS).

3. Network Services – DHCP (assigns IP addresses), DNS (resolves domain

names), VPN (secure remote access).

3. Key Purposes of Computer Networks

Computer networks serve several critical functions:

A. Resource Sharing

 Allows multiple users to access shared resources such as:

o Files & Storage (Network Attached Storage - NAS, cloud storage).

o Printers & Scanners (Network printers can be used by multiple users).

o Applications (Shared software like databases, ERP systems).

B. Communication

 Enables real-time and asynchronous communication through:

o Email, instant messaging (Slack, WhatsApp).

o Video conferencing (Zoom, Microsoft Teams).

o Voice over IP (VoIP) calls (Skype, WhatsApp calls).

C. Data Exchange & Centralized Management

 Facilitates data transfer between devices:

o Cloud Computing (Google Drive, Dropbox, AWS).

o Database Access (Shared SQL servers for businesses).

o Distributed Computing (Blockchain, peer-to-peer networks).

D. Remote Access & Mobility

 Allows users to connect from anywhere:

o Virtual Private Network (VPN) – Securely access a private network

over the internet.

o Remote Desktop (RDP, TeamViewer) – Control a computer remotely.

o Cloud Services (AWS, Azure) – Access applications and storage online.

E. Scalability & Reliability

 Networks can be expanded easily by adding more devices.

 Redundancy & Failover – If one server fails, another takes over (high
availability).

 Load Balancing – Distributes network traffic to prevent overload.

4. Types of Computer Networks

Smartphone
Small network for personal
PAN (Personal connected to a
devices (Bluetooth, USB).
Area Network) smartwatch.

LAN (Local Area Connects devices in a small area Office computers

Network) (home, office). sharing a printer.

Spans large distances (internet, The internet,

WAN (Wide Area
corporate networks across multinational company
Network)
cities/countries). networks.

University campuses,
MAN (Metropolitan Covers a city (e.g., ISP
city surveillance
Area Network) networks, city-wide Wi-Fi).
systems.

Remote workers
VPN (Virtual Secure private network over a
accessing company
Private Network) public one (for privacy/security).
files securely.

5. Network Topologies (How Devices Are Connected)

 Bus Topology – All devices share a single communication line (rarely used
today).

 Star Topology – All devices connect to a central hub/switch (common in LANs).

 Ring Topology – Devices form a closed loop (used in some enterprise

networks).

 Mesh Topology – Every device connects to every other (highly reliable, used in
IoT/WANs).
  Hybrid Topology – Combination of different topologies (e.g., star-bus).

6. Importance of Protocols in Networking

Protocols define rules for data transmission. Key protocols include:

 TCP/IP – Foundation of internet communication.

 HTTP/HTTPS – Web browsing (secure vs. non-secure).

 FTP – File transfers.

 DNS – Converts domain names to IP addresses.

 DHCP – Automatically assigns IP addresses to devices.

7. Security in Computer Networks

 Firewalls – Block unauthorized access.

 Encryption (SSL/TLS, VPNs) – Secures data in transit.

 Authentication (Passwords, Biometrics, 2FA) – Ensures only authorized

users access the network.

 Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) – Monitors for malicious activity.

8. Future Trends in Networking

 5G Networks – Faster wireless communication.

 IoT Expansion – More smart devices connected to networks.

 AI & Automation – Self-healing networks, predictive maintenance.

 Edge Computing – Faster processing by analyzing data closer to the source.

 Quantum Networking – Ultra-secure communication using quantum

mechanics.

Conclusion

Computer networks are the backbone of modern communication, enabling seamless

data exchange, resource sharing, and remote access. They come in various forms
(LAN, WAN, VPN) and rely on protocols, hardware, and security measures to function
efficiently. As technology advances, networks will continue evolving with faster speeds,
better security, and smarter automation.
Wired and Wireless Networks: A Detailed Comparison

1. Introduction to Wired and Wireless Networks

Computer networks can be broadly classified into two categories based on their
transmission medium:

 Wired Networks – Use physical cables (e.g., Ethernet, fiber optics).

 Wireless Networks – Use radio waves, microwaves, or infrared signals (e.g.,

Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular).

Each type has its own advantages, disadvantages, and use cases. Below is a detailed
breakdown of both.

2. Wired Networks

A. Definition & Characteristics

 Physical connections using cables to transmit data.

 Higher reliability & stability (less interference).

 Faster speeds & lower latency compared to wireless.

 More secure (requires physical access for unauthorized connections).

B. Types of Wired Networks

(1) Ethernet (Twisted Pair Cables – Cat5e, Cat6, Cat7)

  Most common wired LAN technology.

 Speeds:

o Cat5e: 1 Gbps (up to 100m)

o Cat6: 10 Gbps (up to 55m)

o Cat6a/Cat7: 10 Gbps (up to 100m)

 Used in: Offices, homes, data centers.

(2) Fiber Optic Cables

 Uses light signals for ultra-high-speed data transfer.

 Types:

o Single-mode fiber (SMF) – Long-distance (up to 100km), used in ISPs,

telecom.

o Multi-mode fiber (MMF) – Short-distance (up to 2km), used in LANs,

data centers.

 Speeds: 10 Gbps to 100+ Gbps.

 Advantages:

o Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI).

o Extremely low latency.

o High bandwidth capacity.

(3) Coaxial Cables

 Older technology, still used for cable TV & broadband (DOCSIS).

 Speeds: Up to 10 Gbps (DOCSIS 3.1).

 Disadvantages:

o Bulkier than Ethernet.

o Lower bandwidth compared to fiber.

C. Advantages of Wired Networks

✔ Faster & more stable (no interference from other devices).

✔ Lower latency (better for gaming, video calls, real-time applications).
✔ More secure (harder to intercept data without physical access).
✔ No signal drop issues (unlike wireless).

D. Disadvantages of Wired Networks

✖ Less flexible (devices must be physically connected).
✖ Installation complexity (requires cabling, switches, routers).
✖ Higher maintenance (cable damage can disrupt connections).

E. Common Applications of Wired Networks

 Enterprise networks (offices, data centers).

 Gaming & high-performance computing.

 Industrial control systems (factories, automation).

 Internet backbone (fiber optics for ISPs).

4. Wireless Networks’

A. Definition & Characteristics

 No physical cables – uses radio waves (RF), microwaves, or infrared.

 More flexible & mobile-friendly.

 Easier to deploy (no wiring needed).

 Prone to interference & signal drops.

B. Types of Wireless Networks

(1) Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 Standards)

 Max Frequency
Wi-Fi Standard Range Use Case
Speed Band

802.11a 54 Mbps 5 GHz Short Obsolete

802.11b 11 Mbps 2.4 GHz Medium Obsolete

802.11g 54 Mbps 2.4 GHz Medium Legacy devices

802.11n (Wi-Fi 4) 600 Mbps 2.4/5 GHz Long Home/Office

High-speed
802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5) 3.5 Gbps 5 GHz Medium
internet

802.11ax (Wi-Fi Smart homes,

9.6 Gbps 2.4/5/6 GHz Long
6/6E) IoT

Very Future
802.11be (Wi-Fi 7) 40 Gbps 2.4/5/6 GHz
Long applications

(2) Bluetooth (Short-Range Wireless)

 Range: Up to 10m (Class 2), 100m (Class 1).

 Speed: 1-3 Mbps (Bluetooth 5.0).

 Used for: Wireless headphones, keyboards, IoT devices.

(3) Cellular Networks (4G LTE, 5G)

 Mobile broadband for smartphones & IoT.

 Speeds:

o 4G LTE: 100 Mbps – 1 Gbps

o 5G: 1 Gbps – 10 Gbps (ultra-low latency)

 Used in: Mobile internet, smart cities, autonomous vehicles.

(4) Satellite Internet (Starlink, HughesNet)

 Uses satellites for global coverage.

  Speeds: 50-500 Mbps (high latency ~500ms).

 Used in: Rural areas, ships, airplanes.

C. Advantages of Wireless Networks

✔ Mobility & flexibility (connect from anywhere within range).

✔ Easy installation (no cables needed).
✔ Scalability (easy to add new devices).
✔ Cost-effective (no wiring expenses).

D. Disadvantages of Wireless Networks

✖ Interference issues (from other Wi-Fi networks, microwaves, walls).

✖ Lower speeds & higher latency compared to wired.
✖ Security risks (eavesdropping, unauthorized access).
✖ Signal dropouts (dead zones in large buildings).

E. Common Applications of Wireless Networks

 Home & office Wi-Fi networks.

 Mobile internet (4G/5G).

 IoT & smart home devices.

 Public hotspots (airports, cafes).

4. Wired vs. Wireless Networks: Key Differences

Feature Wired Networks Wireless Networks

Speed Up to 100 Gbps (fiber) Up to 9.6 Gbps (Wi-Fi 6)

Latency Very low (~1ms) Higher (~10-100ms)

Reliability High (no interference) Lower (signal drops)

More secure (physical access Less secure (hacking

Security
needed) risks)

Mobility Limited (fixed connections) High (connect anywhere)

Feature Wired Networks Wireless Networks

Installation
High (cabling, switches) Low (no wiring)
Cost

Scalability Harder to expand Easier to add devices

Smartphones, IoT,
Best For Gaming, servers, enterprises
mobility

5. Which One Should You Use?

Scenario Recommended Network Type

High-speed gaming/streaming Wired (Ethernet/fiber)

Office/enterprise networks Wired + Wi-Fi (hybrid)

Home Wi-Fi for smartphones/laptops Wireless (Wi-Fi 6/6E)

Industrial automation Wired (fiber for reliability)

Remote areas (no cables) Wireless (5G/satellite)

6. Future Trends

 Wi-Fi 7 (802.11be) – 40 Gbps speeds, ultra-low latency.

 5G Expansion – Faster mobile internet, IoT growth.

 Mesh Wi-Fi – Better coverage in large homes.

 Power over Ethernet (PoE) – Single cable for power + data (for IoT).

Conclusion

 Wired networks are best for speed, reliability, and security.

  Wireless networks excel in flexibility and mobility.

 Hybrid setups (wired backbone + wireless access) are common in modern

networks.

The choice depends on speed needs, security, mobility, and budget.

3. Types of Networks

LAN (Local Area Network)

 It is privately-owned networks within a single building or campus of

up to a few kilometres in size.
 They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations
in company offices and factories to share resources (e.g., printers) and
exchange information.
 LANs are easy to design and troubleshoot
 In LAN, all the machines are connected to a single cable.
 Different types of topologies such as Bus, Ring, Star and Tree are used.
 The data transfer rates for LAN is up to 10 Gbits/s.
 They transfer data at high speeds. High transmission rate are possible
in LAN because of the short distance between various computer
networks.
 They exist in a limited geographical area.

Advantages
 LAN transfers data at high speed.
 LAN technology is generally less expensive.

MAN (METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK)

 MAN is a larger version of LAN which covers an area that is larger than the
 covered by LAN but smaller than the area covered by WAN.
 A metropolitan area network or MAN covers a city. The best-known example of
a MAN is the cable television network available in many cities.
 MAN connects two or more LANs.
 At first, the companies began jumping into the business, getting contracts from
city governments to wire up an entire city.
 The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed
for cable only.

WAN (WIDE AREA NETWORK):

 WAN spans a large geographical area, often a country or region.

 WAN links different metropolitan’s countries and national boundaries there by
enabling easy communication.
 It may be located entirely within a state or a country or it may be interconnected
around the world.
 It contains a collection of machines intended for running user (i.e., application)
programs. We will follow traditional usage and call these machines hosts.
 The communication between different users of WAN is established using
leased telephone lines or satellite links and similar channels.
SAN:
SAN (storage area network) is a high-speed network of storage devices that also
connects those storage devices with servers. It provides block-level storage that can be
accessed by the applications running on any networked servers. Storage Area Networks
help attach remote computer storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and
optical jukeboxes, to servers in such a manner that that they appear to be locally
attached to the operating system.

Advantages of SAN

Following are the advantages or benefits of a Storage Area Network (SAN):

o It is more scalable.
o Security is also a main advantage of SAN. If users want to secure their data, then
SAN is a good option to use. Users can easily implement various security measures
on SAN.
o Storage devices can be easily added or removed from the network. If users need
more storage, then they simply add the devices.
o The cost of this storage network is low as compared to others.
o Another big advantage of using the SAN (Storage Area Network) is better disk
utilization.
Protocols of SAN

Following are the most common protocols of SAN (Storage Area Network):

o FCP (Fibre Channel Protocol)

o iSCSI
o FCoE
o NVMe

FCP (Fibre Channel Protocol)

It is the most commonly used protocol of the Storage Area Network. It is a mapping of
SCSI command over the Fibre Channel (FC) network.

ISCSI

It stands for Internet SCSI or Internet Small Computer System Interface. It is the
second-largest block or SAN protocol. It puts the SCSI commands inside an ethernet
frame and then transports them over an Internet protocol (IP) ethernet.

FCoE

FCoE stands for "Fibre Channel Over Internet". It is a protocol which is similar to the
iSCSI. It puts the Fibre channel inside the ethernet datagram and then transports over
an IP Ethernet network.

NVMe

NVMe stands for Non-Volatile Memory Express. It is also a protocol of SAN, which access
the flash storage by the PCI Express bus

CAN:
A Controller Area Network (CAN bus) is a vehicle bus standard designed to allow
microcontrollers and devices to communicate with each other in applications without a
host computer.

Advantages
The advantages of CAN are as follows −

 Affordability − To construct CAN networks we use hardware devices like hub,

routers, switches, cables which are affordable.
 Easy accessibility of data − We can easily access the data that are present in
different departments with the help of CAN.
 Wireless medium − With the help of wireless connection we are able to link
offices which are present in different buildings.
 Higher speed − CAN is supported to transfer large files or data with high speed
over a network with the help of the internet.
 Protection − CAN networks have firewalls and proxy servers which are used for
security purposes.
 Share internet connection − CAN network will share internet connection.
Disadvantages

The disadvantages of CAN are as follows −

 It does not support a maximum number of nodes.

 It can connect only up to 64 nodes because of electrical loading.
 CAN maintenance is costly when compared to other networks like LAN, SAN, WAN
etc.
 It can support up to 40 meter length.
 There are undesirable interactions in between all nodes.
Examples

The places where the CAN is used are given below −

 School campus
 University campus
 It is used in large organization and industrial sites.
 It is also used in automotive applications.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LAN, MAN AND WAN

Parameter LAN MAN WAN

Area covered Covers small area. Covers larger than Covers large area
i.e. LAN

within building & smaller than WAN

Error rates Lowest Moderate Highest
Transmission High speed Moderate speed Low speed
speed
Equipment cost Inexpensive Moderate expensive Most expensive
Design & Easy Moderate Difficult
maintenance

What is Network Architecture?

Network Architecture is the design and structure of a computer network. It defines
how computers (nodes) and devices are organized and how they communicate.

Key Components of Network Architecture

Component Description

Nodes Devices like computers, printers, or servers.

Links Wired or wireless connections between nodes.

Protocols Set of rules for communication (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP).

Topology Physical/logical layout (e.g., Star, Ring, Mesh).

Hardware Routers, switches, cables, etc.

Software Network Operating Systems, firewalls, etc.

Types of Network Architecture

1. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Architecture

 Each device (node) is equal and can act as both a client and server.

 No central control.

 Example: File sharing in small networks.

Pros: Low cost, easy setup

Cons: Less secure, harder to manage at scale

2. Client-Server Architecture

 Devices are divided into clients (users) and servers (provide services).

 Centralized control and management.

Pros: Centralized security, easier maintenance

Cons: More expensive, server is a single point of failure

Network Topologies (Structure)

Topology Description Diagram (Text Form)

Star All devices connect to a central hub. Hub ↔ PC1, PC2, PC3

Bus One main cable connects all devices. PC1 — PC2 — PC3

Ring Devices form a closed loop. PC1 → PC2 → PC3 → PC1

Mesh Every device connects to every other. PC1↔PC2↔PC3 (all-to-all)

Hybrid Combination of two or more topologies. Star + Bus, etc.

Network Layers (based on OSI Model)

 1. Physical – Cables, switches, etc.

2. Data Link – MAC addresses, Ethernet.

3. Network – IP addressing, routing (e.g., IP).

4. Transport – End-to-end communication (e.g., TCP, UDP).

5. Session – Manages sessions.

6. Presentation – Data encoding, encryption.

7. Application – End-user services (e.g., web, email).

Wired vs Wireless Architecture

Type Characteristics

Wired Faster, more secure, requires cables

Wireless Flexible, mobile, prone to interference

Enterprise Network Architectures

 LAN (Local Area Network) – Small areas (office, home).

 WAN (Wide Area Network) – Large areas (cities, countries).

 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network) – City-level.

 SDN (Software Defined Networking) – Programmable, dynamic networks.

5. TOPOLOGIES (NETWORK TOPOLOGIES)

 Network Topology is the schematic description of a network
arrangement, connecting various nodes (sender and receiver)
through lines of connection.
 A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer
systems or network devices are connected to each other.
Types of network topologies :
1. Bus
2. Ring
3. Star
4. Mesh
5. Tree
6. Hybrid
BUS TOPOLOGY

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected tosingle cable.

Features:
It transmits data only in one direction.
Every device is connected to a single cable.

Advantages:
1. It is cost effective (cheaper).
2. Cable required is least compared to other network topology.
3. Used in small networks.
4. It is easy to understand.
5. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages:
1. Cables fails then whole network fails.
2. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the
network decreases.
3. Cable has a limited length.

RING TOPOLOGY
It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to
another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for
each device.
Features:
1. A number of repeaters are used and the transmission is unidirectional.
2. Date is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit.

Advantages:
1. Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as
only the nodes having tokens can transmit data.
2. Cheap to install and expand.

Disadvantages:
1. Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology.
2. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity.
3. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network

STAR TOPOLOGY
In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node
and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features:

1. Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub.

2. Acts as a repeater for data flow.
3. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages:
1. Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. Hub can be upgraded easily.
3. Easy to troubleshoot.
4. Easy to setup and modify.
5. Only that node is affected which has failed rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages:
1. Cost of installation is high.
2. Expensive to use.
3. If the hub is affected then the whole network is stopped because all the
nodes depend on the hub.

MESH TOPOLOGY
It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices.
Traffic is carried only between two devices or nodes to which it is connected.

Features:
1. Fully connected.
2. Robust.
3. Not flexible.

Advantages:
1. Each connection can carry its own data load.
2. It is robust.
3. Fault is diagnosed easily.
4. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages:
1. Installation and configuration is difficult.
2. Cabling cost is more.
3. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE TOPOLOGY
 It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy.
 It is also called hierarchical topology.
 It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy
Features:
1. Ideal if workstations are located in groups.

2. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages:
1. Extension of bus and star topologies.
2. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy.
3. Easily managed and maintained.
4. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages:
1. Heavily cabled.
2. Costly.
3. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult.
4. Central hub fails then network fails.
HYBRID TOPOLOGY

1. A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be
hybrid topology.
2. For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in
another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid
Topology (ring topology and star topology).

Features:
1. It is a combination of two or more topologies
2. Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included Advantages:
3. Reliable as error detecting and trouble shooting is easy.
4. Scalable as size can be increased easily.
5. Flexible. Disadvantages:
6. Complex in design.
7. Cost.
 I NODES

In computer networking, a node refers to any active, physical, electronic

device connected to a network that can send, receive, or forward data. Nodes
are essential building blocks in both wired and wireless networks. Here’s a
breakdown:

Types of Nodes in Networking:

1. End Devices (Host Nodes):

o Computers (PCs, laptops, servers)

o Smartphones, tablets
o Printers, IoT devices (smart thermostats, cameras)
o These devices generate or consume data.
2. Network Infrastructure Nodes:

o Routers: Forward data between different networks (e.g., home router

connecting to ISP).
o Switches: Connect devices within a local network (LAN) and direct traffic using
MAC addresses.
o Hubs: Older devices that broadcast data to all connected nodes (less efficient
than switches).
o Gateways: Interface between different protocols or networks (e.g., VoIP
gateway).
o Firewalls: Security nodes that filter incoming/outgoing traffic.
3. Wireless Nodes:

o Access Points (APs): Provide Wi-Fi connectivity.

o Mesh Nodes: Part of a mesh network (e.g., Google Nest Wifi).
4. Virtual Nodes:

o Virtual machines (VMs), containers, or software-defined networking (SDN)

components.

Key Functions of a Node:

 Communication: Send/receive data packets.

 Routing/Forwarding: Decide the path for data (in routers/switches).
 Processing: Execute tasks (e.g., servers processing requests).
 Storage: Store data (e.g., NAS devices).

How Nodes Are Identified:

 IP Address: Logical address (e.g., 192.168.1.1 for IPv4).

 MAC Address: Physical hardware address (e.g., 00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).
 Hostname: Human-readable name (e.g., MyPC.local).

Example in a Home Network:

 Nodes: Your laptop (end device), router (infrastructure node), smart TV (IoT
node).
 Data Flow: Laptop → Router → Internet (via ISP’s nodes).

Special Cases:

 Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Networks: All nodes act as both clients and servers
(e.g., Bitcoin nodes).
 Sensor Nodes: In IoT, tiny nodes collect/environmental data (e.g.,
temperature sensors).

Importance of Nodes:

 Without nodes, networks wouldn’t exist—they enable connectivity, scalability,

and functionality.
 II HOST

In computer networking, a host is any device that communicates with other

devices on a network. Hosts can be:

Key Characteristics of a Host:

1. Network Participation – A host has an IP address and can send/receive

data.
2. Types of Hosts:

o End-user devices (computers, smartphones, tablets)

o Servers (web servers, email servers, cloud instances)
o IoT devices (smart cameras, sensors)
o Virtual machines & containers (if networked)
3. Not a Host – Network infrastructure devices like routers, switches, or
firewalls (unless they also act as hosts).

Host vs. Node

 Host = A device running applications (has an IP).

 Node = Any device connected to a network (including switches, routers, etc.).

Example in Networking:
 When you visit a website, your computer (host) sends a request to a web
server (host).
 The router forwards the request but is not a host (unless it also provides a
service like DHCP).

III Access Point

What is an Access Point (AP)?

An Access Point (AP) is a networking hardware device that allows wireless

devices (like laptops, smartphones, and tablets) to connect to a wired
network using Wi-Fi. It acts as a central transmitter and receiver of wireless
radio signals.

Key Functions of an Access Point:

1. Extends Wireless Coverage – Expands the range of a Wi-Fi network.

2. Connects Wireless Devices to a Wired Network – Bridges Wi-Fi devices to
an Ethernet-based LAN.
3. Supports Multiple Users – Allows several devices to connect simultaneously.
4. Can Be Standalone or Part of a Router – Some routers have built-in APs,
while dedicated APs are used in larger networks.

Types of Access Points:

 Standalone AP – Used in small offices/homes.

 Controller-Based AP – Managed centrally (used in enterprises).
 Mesh AP – Part of a mesh Wi-Fi system for seamless coverage.
 Range Extender/Repeater – Extends an existing Wi-Fi signal (not a true AP
but similar in function).

Difference Between a Router and an Access Point:

Feature Router Access Point (AP)

Routes traffic between networks Provides Wi-Fi access to a

Function
(e.g., home LAN to ISP) wired network

Usually relies on a router

DHCP Assigns IP addresses
for DHCP

NAT/Firewall Yes No (operates at Layer 2)

Extending Wi-Fi in larger

Use Case Home/Small office
networks

Common Use Cases:

 Business Networks – Multiple APs for seamless roaming.

 Large Homes – Eliminates Wi-Fi dead zones.
 Public Hotspots – Coffee shops, airports, etc.

IV HARDWARE COMPONENTS
 A computer network is a system that connects multiple computers and other
hardware components to enable communication, data sharing, and resource
distribution. Here are the key hardware components required for a computer
network:

1. End Devices (Nodes)

 Workstations/PCs – Computers used by end-users.

 Servers – Powerful computers that provide services (e.g., file servers, web
servers).
 Laptops/Mobile Devices – Portable devices that connect wirelessly.
 IoT Devices – Smart devices (cameras, sensors) connected to the network.

2. Networking Devices

 Router – Connects different networks (e.g., LAN to the Internet) and routes
data packets.
 Switch – Connects devices within a LAN and forwards data to the correct
device using MAC addresses.
 Hub (Older Technology) – A basic device that broadcasts data to all
connected devices (less efficient than a switch).
 Access Point (AP) – Allows wireless devices to connect to a wired network
(Wi-Fi).
 Modem – Converts digital signals to analog (and vice versa) for Internet
access (DSL/Cable modems).
 Gateway – A device that connects networks with different protocols (e.g., VoIP
gateway).

3. Transmission Media (Cables & Wireless)

 Wired:

o Ethernet Cable (Twisted Pair – Cat5e, Cat6, Cat7) – Used for LAN
connections.

o Fiber Optic Cable – High-speed, long-distance data transmission (used in

ISPs and data centers).
o Coaxial Cable – Older cable type (used in cable TV and some broadband
connections).

 Wireless:

o Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 standards) – Wireless LAN connections.

o Bluetooth – Short-range device connectivity.
o Cellular (4G/5G) – Mobile network connectivity.

4. Network Interface Card (NIC)

 A hardware component (built-in or external) that allows a device to connect to

a network.
 Wired NIC – For Ethernet connections.
 Wireless NIC – For Wi-Fi connections.

5. Firewall (Hardware-Based)

 A security device that monitors and filters incoming/outgoing network traffic to

prevent unauthorized access.
 6. Repeater & Extender

 Repeater – Boosts a weak signal in long-distance wired/wireless networks.

 Extender (Wi-Fi Extender) – Expands wireless network coverage.

7. Network Attached Storage (NAS)

 A dedicated storage device connected to a network for shared file access.

8. Power over Ethernet (PoE) Devices

 Provides power and data over a single Ethernet cable (used for IP cameras,
VoIP phones, etc.).

9. Patch Panel

 A physical organization tool for network cables in structured cabling systems

(used in data centers).

10. Load Balancer (Hardware-Based)

 Distributes network traffic across multiple servers to optimize performance.

Conclusion

These hardware components work together to form a functional computer

network, enabling communication, data transfer, and resource sharing. The
choice of components depends on the network type (LAN, WAN, MAN, WLAN)
and its scale (home, office, enterprise, data center).

V Network Interface Card

NIC (Network Interface Card) is a hardware component that connects a

computer to a computer network, enabling communication over wired
(Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi) connections.

Functions of NIC:

1. Physical Connection – Provides a port for Ethernet cables (RJ-45) or wireless

antennas.
2. Data Transmission – Converts digital data into electrical signals (for wired)
or radio waves (for wireless).
3. MAC Address – Each NIC has a unique Media Access Control (MAC)
address for network identification.
4. Protocol Handling – Supports network protocols (Ethernet, Wi-Fi, TCP/IP).
5. Error Detection – Helps in checking data integrity during transmission.

Types of NICs:

1. Wired NIC – Uses Ethernet cables (e.g., Gigabit Ethernet cards).

2. Wireless NIC – Connects via Wi-Fi (e.g., PCIe Wi-Fi cards, USB adapters).
3. Internal NIC – Integrated into the motherboard or installed as an expansion
card (PCI/PCIe).
4. External NIC – USB-based adapters for laptops/desktops.

Importance in Networking:

 Enables devices to join LAN (Local Area Network) or WAN (Wide Area
Network).
 Essential for Internet access, file sharing, and network communication.
 VI Repeater

A repeater is a network device that amplifies or regenerates incoming

signals to extend the range of a network. It operates at the Physical Layer
(Layer 1) of the OSI model.

Functions of a Repeater:

1. Signal Regeneration

o Weak signals degrade over long distances due to attenuation (loss of strength).
o A repeater receives the signal, cleans it, and retransmits it at higher power.
2. Extends Network Coverage

o Helps in increasing the reach of wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi) networks.

3. No Data Filtering

o Unlike routers or switches, repeaters do not analyze or modify data packets.

o They simply boost the signal, including noise (if any).

Types of Repeaters:

 Wired Repeater: Used in Ethernet cables (e.g., in older coaxial networks).

 Wireless Repeater (Range Extender): Used in Wi-Fi to expand coverage.
 Limitations:

 Cannot connect different networks (unlike routers).

 Does not improve bandwidth—just extends signal range.
 Introduces slight delay due to signal processing.

Example Use Case:

If a Wi-Fi signal weakens in a far room, a wireless repeater can be placed

midway to boost the signal to that area.

VII HUB in Computer Networks

A hub is a basic networking device that operates at the Physical Layer (Layer
1) of the OSI model. It's one of the simplest devices used to connect multiple
computers or other network devices together in a local area network (LAN).

Key Characteristics of Hubs:

1. Operation Layer: Physical Layer (Layer 1) device

2. Functionality: Simply repeats incoming signals to all other ports
3. Data Transmission: Broadcasts data to all connected devices
4. Collision Domain: All ports share a single collision domain
5. Intelligence: No filtering or addressing capability
 How Hubs Work:

 When a hub receives a data packet on one port, it immediately transmits

(repeats) that packet to all other ports
 All connected devices receive the data, but only the intended recipient
processes it
 This creates unnecessary network traffic and potential security concerns

Types of Hubs:

1. Passive Hub: Simply connects cables without signal amplification

2. Active Hub: Includes signal amplification (regenerates signals)
3. Intelligent Hub: Includes some management capabilities

Advantages:

 Inexpensive way to connect multiple devices

 Simple to install and configure
 Useful for small networks or temporary setups

Disadvantages:

 Creates a single collision domain (performance decreases as more devices are

added)
 No traffic filtering (security risk)
 Bandwidth is shared among all ports
 Obsolete technology in most modern networks (replaced by switches)

In modern networks, hubs have been largely replaced by network switches,

which operate at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) and can intelligently forward
traffic only to the intended recipient.
 VIII Switch

What is a Network Switch?

A switch is a hardware device that connects multiple devices (computers, printers,

servers, etc.) within a Local Area Network (LAN). It operates at Layer 2 (Data Link
Layer) of the OSI model and sometimes Layer 3 (Network Layer) for advanced switches.

Key Functions:

1. Forwarding Frames: Uses MAC addresses to intelligently send data only to the intended
device (unlike a hub, which broadcasts to all).
2. Improves Network Performance: Reduces collisions and unnecessary traffic.
3. Supports Full-Duplex Communication: Devices can send and receive data
simultaneously.

Types of Switches:

 Unmanaged Switch: Basic plug-and-play, no configuration.

 Managed Switch: Advanced features (VLAN, QoS, security controls).
 Layer 2 Switch: Uses MAC addresses for forwarding.
 Layer 3 Switch: Can perform routing (IP-based decisions).

Example Use Case:

In an office, a switch connects all workstations to the server and internet router, ensuring
efficient internal communication.
 Difference from a Router:

 A router connects different networks (e.g., LAN to WAN/internet) using IP addresses.

 A switch connects devices within the same network using MAC addresses.

IX Network Bridge

A network bridge is a networking device that connects multiple network segments (e.g.,
Ethernet LANs) at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model. Its primary function is
to filter, forward, or flood frames based on MAC addresses to improve network
efficiency.

Key Functions of a Network Bridge:

1. MAC Address Learning – The bridge builds a MAC address table by observing source
addresses in incoming frames.
2. Forwarding/Filtration – It forwards frames only to the segment where the destination
MAC is located, reducing unnecessary traffic.
3. Loop Prevention – In modern networks, bridges use Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) to
avoid loops.
4. Segmentation – Divides a large network into smaller collision domains, improving
performance.
 Types of Bridges:

 Transparent Bridge – Operates silently, commonly used in Ethernet networks.

 Source Route Bridge – Used in Token Ring networks; relies on source routing
information.
 Wireless Bridge – Connects wired and wireless networks (e.g., Wi-Fi to Ethernet).

Bridge vs. Switch vs. Router:

Feature Bridge Switch Router

Layer Data Link (L2) Data Link (L2) Network (L3)

Ports Few (2-4) Many (4-48+) Multiple

Function Connects LANs Multi-port bridge Routes packets between networks

Intelligence Basic MAC filtering Advanced MAC learning IP routing

Use Cases:

 Extending a LAN – Combining two Ethernet networks.

 Traffic Isolation – Reducing collisions by segmenting networks.
 Wireless Bridging – Connecting a wired network to a Wi-Fi segment.

In a computer network, a router plays a crucial role in managing private IP

addresses and public IP addresses. Here’s how they work and their purposes:

1. Private IP Address

 Definition: An IP address used within a local network (e.g., home, office) that is not
routable on the public internet.
 Range:

o IPv4:

 10.0.0.0 – 10.255.255.255

 172.16.0.0 – 172.31.255.255
 192.168.0.0 – 192.168.255.255

o IPv6: fd00::/8 (Unique Local Addresses)

 Purpose:

o Allows multiple devices within a local network to communicate.

o Conserves public IPv4 addresses (since many devices can share one public IP).
o Enhances security (hidden from the public internet).

2. Public IP Address

 Definition: A globally unique IP address assigned by an ISP, used to identify a network

on the internet.
 Range: Any IP not in the private ranges listed above.
 Purpose:

o Enables communication with external networks (e.g., websites, servers).

o Required for hosting services (e.g., web servers, email servers).
o Assigned to the router by the ISP (used for all outgoing traffic).

Role of the Router

 Network Address Translation (NAT):

o The router maps multiple private IPs (internal devices) to a single public IP (assigned by
ISP).
o Example: When your phone (private IP 192.168.1.10) accesses Google, the router
replaces the private IP with the public IP before sending the request.
 Firewall & Security:

o Blocks unauthorized access from the internet to private devices.

 Traffic Routing:

o Directs incoming/outgoing data between the local network and the internet.

Key Differences

Feature Private IP Public IP

Scope Local network (LAN) Internet (WAN)

 Feature Private IP Public IP

Uniqueness Can be reused in other LANs Globally unique

Access Only within the local network Accessible from the internet

Assigned by Router (DHCP) ISP (or cloud provider)

Example Scenario

 Your laptop → Private IP (192.168.1.5)

 Router → Public IP (203.0.113.10)
 When you visit google.com:

1. Laptop sends a request via private IP.

2. Router replaces private IP with public IP using NAT.
3. Google replies to the router’s public IP.
4. Router forwards the response back to your laptop.

Conclusion

 Private IPs enable internal communication within a network.

 Public IPs allow communication with the internet.
 The router bridges them using NAT, ensuring efficient and secure internet access for all
local devices.

XII Gateway
 In computer networking, a gateway is a key component that connects different networks,
allowing communication between devices on separate networks that may use different
protocols or architectures.

Key Functions of a Gateway:

1. Protocol Conversion: Translates between different network protocols (e.g., TCP/IP to

VoIP).
2. Network Interconnection: Connects LANs to WANs, such as linking a home network to
the internet.
3. Security Enforcement: Often includes firewall, NAT (Network Address Translation), and
VPN capabilities.
4. Traffic Routing: Directs data packets between networks efficiently.

Examples of Gateways:

 Default Gateway: The router that connects a local network to the internet.
 Cloud Gateway: Facilitates communication between on-premises systems and cloud
services.
 IoT Gateway: Aggregates and processes data from IoT devices before sending it to the
cloud.

Gateway vs. Router vs. Modem:

Device Function

Gateway Connects different networks with protocol translation.

Router Routes data within the same network or between similar networks.

Modem Converts digital signals to analog (and vice versa) for internet access.

Conclusion:

A gateway is essential in heterogeneous network environments, ensuring seamless

communication across diverse systems.
 XII Modem in Computer Networking

A modem (Modulator-Demodulator) is a networking device that converts digital

signals from a computer into analog signals for transmission over telephone lines (or
other analog mediums) and vice versa.

Key Functions of a Modem:

1. Modulation (Digital → Analog) – Converts digital data (from a computer) into analog
signals for transmission over telephone/cable lines.
2. Demodulation (Analog → Digital) – Converts incoming analog signals back into digital
data for the computer to process.

Types of Modems:

 Dial-up Modem – Uses telephone lines (slow, up to 56 Kbps).

 DSL Modem – Uses digital subscriber lines (faster than dial-up).
 Cable Modem – Uses coaxial cables (used by cable internet providers).
 Fiber Optic Modem – Works with fiber-optic internet connections (high-speed).
 Wireless Modem – Provides Wi-Fi connectivity (e.g., 4G/5G modems).

Modem vs. Router:

 A modem connects to the ISP (Internet Service Provider).

 A router distributes the internet connection to multiple devices (via Ethernet/Wi-Fi).
 Many modern devices combine both (modem-router combo).
 XIII Hardware Ports

In computer networking, hardware ports refer to physical interfaces on networking

devices (like routers, switches, computers, etc.) that allow connections to other devices
using cables or wireless signals. These ports enable data transmission and reception in a
network.

Types of Hardware Ports in Networking:

1. Ethernet Port (RJ-45)

o Used for wired LAN (Local Area Network) connections.

o Supports speeds like 10/100/1000 Mbps (Fast Ethernet/Gigabit Ethernet).
o Commonly found on computers, routers, and switches.
2. Fiber Optic Port (SFP, SFP+, QSFP, etc.)

o Used for high-speed data transmission over optical fiber.

o Found in enterprise switches, data centers, and ISPs.
3. Console Port (RJ-45 or Serial)

o Used for configuring network devices (like routers/switches) via CLI.

o Typically uses a rollover or serial cable.
4. USB Port

o Used for connecting modems, wireless adapters, or storage devices.

o Some routers use USB for 4G/5G dongles or file sharing.
5. WAN Port (Wide Area Network Port)

o Found on routers to connect to an ISP (e.g., DSL, cable modem).

6. HDMI Port (Network-Related Uses)

o Some smart devices use HDMI for network streaming (e.g., HDMI over Ethernet).
7. Wireless (Wi-Fi) Antenna Ports

o Used for connecting external antennas to improve wireless signals.

Difference Between Hardware Ports and Software Ports:

 Hardware Ports → Physical connectors (e.g., Ethernet, USB).

 Software Ports → Virtual endpoints for network services (e.g., TCP/UDP ports like Port
80 for HTTP).

XIV Network Transmission Media

In computer networking, a network transmission medium refers to the physical or

wireless channel through which data is transmitted between devices in a network. It plays
a crucial role in determining the speed, reliability, and overall performance of a network.

Types of Network Transmission Media:

1. Wired (Guided) Media – Uses physical cables to transmit data.

o Twisted Pair Cable (e.g., Ethernet cables like Cat5, Cat6)

 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Common in LANs, affordable but prone to interference.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Reduces interference with shielding.

o Coaxial Cable (e.g., used in cable TV & broadband internet)

 Better shielding than twisted pair, supports higher bandwidth.

o Fiber Optic Cable

 Uses light pulses for high-speed, long-distance data transmission.

 Immune to electromagnetic interference (EMI), used in ISPs and data centers.
2. Wireless (Unguided) Media – Uses electromagnetic waves for transmission.

o Radio Waves (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cellular networks)

o Microwaves (Satellite communication, long-distance wireless links)
o Infrared (Short-range communication, e.g., remote controls)

Factors Affecting Transmission Medium Choice:

 Bandwidth & Speed (Fiber optics > Coaxial > Twisted Pair)
 Distance (Fiber supports long distances; Wi-Fi has limited range)
 Cost (Twisted pair is cheaper; fiber is expensive but high-performance)
 Interference Resistance (Fiber is best; UTP is prone to EMI)
 Installation Complexity (Wireless is easier to deploy than wired)

Applications:

 Twisted Pair: Office LANs, telephone lines.

 Coaxial Cable: Cable TV, broadband internet.
 Fiber Optic: High-speed internet backbones, data centers.
 Wireless: Mobile networks, Wi-Fi, IoT devices.
 Transmission Medium

In computer networking, a transmission medium is the physical or logical channel

through which data is transmitted between devices. It serves as the pathway for
communication between nodes in a network. Transmission media can be broadly
classified into two categories:

1. Guided (Wired) Media

These use physical cables or wires to transmit signals.

Types of Guided Media:

 Twisted Pair Cable

o Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Commonly used in Ethernet networks (e.g., Cat5e, Cat6).
o Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Reduces electromagnetic interference (used in industrial
environments).
 Coaxial Cable

o Used in cable TV, broadband internet (e.g., RG-6, RG-59).

 Fiber Optic Cable

o Uses light pulses for high-speed, long-distance transmission (single-mode & multi-
mode).

2. Unguided (Wireless) Media

These use electromagnetic waves to transmit data without physical cables.

Types of Unguided Media:

 Radio Waves (Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, AM/FM radio)

 Microwaves (Satellite communication, cellular networks)
 Infrared (Short-range communication like remote controls)
 Light (Li-Fi) (Uses LED light for high-speed data transmission)

Factors Affecting Transmission Media:

 Bandwidth (Data transfer capacity)

 Attenuation (Signal loss over distance)
 Interference (Noise from other signals)
 Cost & Installation (Fiber is expensive but fast; wireless is flexible but prone to
interference)
 PSG COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
(A GOVERNMENT AIDED AUTONOMOUS AND ISO 9001 :2015 CERTIFIED INSTITUTIONS)

PEELAMEDU , COIMBATORE - 641004

23Z510 - COMPUTER NETWORKS LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT 1 | STUDY OF COMPUTER NETWORKS

SUBMITTED BY
K SHARVESH
24Z434 -3RD YEAR
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
 PSG COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
(A GOVERNMENT AIDED AUTONOMOUS AND ISO 9001 :2015 CERTIFIED INSTITUTIONS)

PEELAMEDU , COIMBATORE - 641004

23Z510 - COMPUTER NETWORKS LABORATORY

EXPERIMENT 2 | Study of Basic Network Commands

and Network Configuration Commands

SUBMITTED BY
K SHARVESH
24Z434 -3RD YEAR
COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
EXPERIMENT 02 Study of Basic Network Commands
NUMBER and Network Configuration
Commands
DATE

Aim:

To Study of Basic Network Commands and Network Configuration

Commands

ping www.google.com

Definition:
Tests network connectivity to a host by sending ICMP echo requests.

Use:

 Checks if a remote host is reachable.

 Measures round-trip time (latency).

Syntax:

ping [options] <hostname_or_IP>

Example:

ping www.google.com
 netstat

Definition:
Displays network connections, routing tables, and interface statistics.

Use:

Lists active network connections.

Checks listening ports.

Syntax:

netstat [options]

Example:

netstat -tuln # Shows listening TCP/UDP ports

 hostname

Definition:
Shows or sets the system’s hostname.

Use:

Identifies the machine on a network.

Syntax:

hostname [new_hostname]

Example:

hostname # Displays current hostname

ifconfig

Definition:
Configures or displays network interface parameters (deprecated; use
`ip` instead).

Use:

Checks IP, MAC, and interface status.

Syntax:

ifconfig [interface] [options]

Example:

ifconfig eth0
 nsl ookup www.google.com

Definition:
Queries DNS to resolve a domain to an IP address.

Use:

Troubleshoots DNS resolution issues.

Syntax:

nslookup <domain>

Example:

nslookup www.google.com
 route

Definition:
Displays or modifies the kernel’s IP routing table.

Use:

Checks/manages routing paths.

Syntax:

route [options]

Example:

route -n # Shows routing table

arp

Definition:
Manages the ARP (Address Resolution Prot ocol) cache.

Use:

Maps IP addresses to MAC addresses.

Syntax:

arp [options]

Example:

arp -a # Lists ARP entries

 ip addr show

Definition:
Displays IP addresses and network interfaces (modern replacement for
`ifconfig`).

Use:

Checks network configuration.

Syntax:

ip addr show [interface]

Example:

ip addr show eth0

ip route show

Definition:
Displays the kernel’s routing table.

Use:

Examines routing paths.

Syntax:

ip route show
Example:

ip route show

host www.google.com

Definition:
Performs DNS lookups (simpler than `nslookup`).

Use:

Resolves domain names to IPs.

Syntax:

host <domain>

Example:

host www.google.com

dig www.wikipedia.com

Definition:
Queries DNS servers for detailed records.

Use:

Advanced DNS troubleshooting.

Syntax:

dig <domain> [options]

Example:

dig www.wikipedia.com

sudo tcpdump

Definition:
Captures and analyzes network traffic.

Use:

Debugs network packets.

Syntax:

sudo tcpdump [options] [filter]

Example:
sudo tcpdump -i eth0 port 80

wget [URL]

Definition:
Downloads files from the web.

Use:

Retrieves files via HTTP/HTTPS/FTP.

Syntax:

wget [options] <URL>

Example:

wget https://example.com/file.jpg
 traceroute 8.8.8.8

Definition:
Traces the path packets take to a host.

Use:

Diagnoses network latency.

Syntax:

traceroute <host_or_IP>

Example:

traceroute 8.8.8.8

ifdown -a

Definition:
Deactivates all network interfaces.

Use:

Shuts down networking (use with caution).

Syntax:

ifdown -a

Example:

sudo ifdown -a
 curl -O [URL]

Definition:
Transfers data from/to a server.

Use:

Downloads files or APIs.

Syntax:

curl [options] <URL>

Example:

curl -O https://example.com/file.zip
 scp [re mote] [local]

Definition:
Securely copies files between hosts via SSH.

Use:

Transfers files remotely.

Syntax:

scp [user@]host:remote_file local_path

Example:

scp user@host:/remote/file.txt ~/Desktop/

ssh user@19 2.168.1.100

Definition:
Logs into a remote machine securely.

Use:

Remote server administration.

Syntax:

ssh [user@]host [options]

Example:

ssh user@192.168.1.100
 sftp user@host

Definition:
Securely transfers files interactively.

Use:

Manages remote files via SSH.

Syntax:

sftp [user@]host

Example:

sftp testuser1@192.168.29.232
Result:

Thus,we have studied about Basic Network Commands and Network

Configuration Commands