What is data recovery?

Data recovery can be defined as a process of obtaining the information located on a storage device that cannot
be accessed by the standard means due to its previous deletion or certain damage to the digital medium.
Different approaches are used to regain the missing files, yet, only on the condition that their content is present
somewhere within the storage. For instance, data recovery doesn't cover the situations when a file has never
been written to a persistent storage, like documents that were created but could not be eventually saved to the
hard disk drive due to a power failure. Also, none of the existing restore methods can cope with the cases of
permanent erasure which occurs when some other information occupies its storage space – under such
circumstances, the lost files can only be retrieved from an external backup.

In general, data recovery techniques are divided into two types: software-based and ones involving the repair or
replacement of the damaged hardware components in a laboratory setting. A software-based approach is
employed in the majority of cases and involves the use of specialized utilities able to interpret the logical
structure of the problem storage, read out the required data and deliver it to the user in a usable form for further
copying. Physical repairs are conducted by specialists in the most severe instances, for example, when some
mechanical or electrical parts of the drive no longer work properly – in this case, all the measures are directed
towards a one-time extraction of the critical content, without the possibility of continued usage of the affected
device.

The most typical cases of data loss

By and large, the overall success of a data rescue procedure depends heavily on the choice of the right method
for retrieval and its timely application. That is why it is highly important to understand the nature of the
particular loss instance and know what can be done in each specific scenario. In contrast, the wrong actions can
lead to the irreversible destruction of the information.
Accidental deletion of files or folders

Each file system acts differently when deleting a file. For instance, in Windows the FAT file system marks file
directory entries as "unused" and destroys the information about the allocation of the file (except for the
beginning of the file), in NTFS only the file entry is marked as "unused", the record is deleted from the
directory and the disk space is also marked as "unused"; most Linux/Unix file systems destroy the file
descriptor (information about the file location, file type, file size, etc.) and mark the disk space as "free".

The main purpose of file deletion is to release storage space used by the file for storing a new file. For
performance reasons storage space is not wiped immediately which makes the actual file content remain on the
disk until this storage space is reused for saving a new file.
• File system formatting

File system formatting can be started by mistake, for example, as a result of specifying a wrong disk partition or
on account of mishandling a storage (e.g. NAS devices usually format the internal storage after an attempt to
reconfigure RAID).

The formatting procedure creates empty file system structures on the storage and overwrites any
information after that. If the types of the new and the former file systems coincide, it destroys the existing file
system structures by overwriting them with new ones; if the types of the file systems differ, the structures are
written to different locations and may wipe the user’s content.

• Logical damage to the file system

 Modern file systems have a high level of protection against internal errors, yet, they often remain helpless
against hardware or software malfunctions. Even a small piece of wrong content written to a wrong location on
the storage can cause the destruction of file system structures, breaking file system object links and making the
file system non-readable. Sometimes, this issue may occur due to blackouts or hardware failures.

• Loss of information about a partition

This failure may occur because of a failed "fdisk" operation or user's errors, which usually result in the loss of
information about the location and size of a partition.

• Storage failure

If you suspect any physical issues with the storage (e.g. the device doesn't boot, makes unusual noises,
overheats, faces problems with reading, etc.), it is not recommended to perform any data recovery attempts
on your own. You should take the storage to a specialized.

If a failure has occurred to a RAID system (failure of one drive in RAID 1 or RAID 5, failure of maximum two
drives in RAID 6, etc.), restoration is possible without the missing drive, as the redundancy of RAID allows
recreating the content of a failed component.

How does data recovery software work?

The information remaining on an intact storage can usually be recovered without professional help by means
of data specialized software. However, it is important to keep in mind that no information is recoverable after
being overwritten. For this reason, nothing should be written to the storage until the last file from it is
rescued.

Most data recovery utilities operate using the algorithms of metadata analysis, the method of raw
recovery based on the known content of files or a combination of the two approaches.

Metadata is hidden service information contained within the file system. Its analysis allows the software to
locate the principal structures on the storage that keep record of the placement of files content, their properties
and directory hierarchy. After that, this information is processed and used to restore the damaged file system.
This method is preferred over the raw recovery as it allows obtaining files with their original names, folders,
date and time stamps. If the metadata wasn’t seriously corrupted, it may be possible to reconstruct the entire
folder structure, depending on the specifics of the mechanisms employed by the file system to get rid of
“unnecessary” items. Yet, such analysis cannot be performed successfully when the crucial parts of metadata
are missing. That is why it is extremely important to refrain from using file system repair tools or initiating
operations that may result in its modification until the data is restored completely.

As a rule, when the desired result wasn’t achieved with the help of metadata analysis, the search for files by
their known content it performed. In this case, the “known content” doesn’t imply the entire raw content of a
file, only particular patterns that are typical for the files of the given format and may indicate the beginning or
the end of the file. These patterns are referred to as “file signatures” and can be used to determine whether a
piece of data on the storage belongs to a file of a recognized type. Files recovered with this method receive an
extension based on the found signature, new names and get assigned to new folders, usually created for files of
different types. The main limitation of this approach is that some files may lack identifiable signatures or have
only a signature denoting the start of a file, making it hard to predict where it ends, especially when its parts are
not stored consequently.
To get the lost files back with maximum efficiency, data recovery software may use the described techniques
concurrently during a single scan launched on storage. Other details depend mainly on the type of the type of
digital medium and can be found in the data recovery solutions section.

Partition
When referring to a computer hard drive, a disk partition or partition is a section of
the hard drive that is separated from other segments. Partitions enable users to divide a
physical disk into logical sections. For example, allowing multiple operating systems to
run on the same device.

With older file allocation tables, such as FAT 16, creating smaller partitions allows
a computer hard drive to run more efficiently and save more disk space.
However, with new file allocation tables, such as FAT32, this is no longer the
case.
Tap the Windows key, enter "Disk" as a keyword, and press Enter. A picture like the
diagram below will display on your screen.

Features of a Disk Partition

To understand partition better, some of its advantages are mentioned below:

 • Inserting a special drive for personal information
• In case of Windows failure and replacement, the data will not be damaged
• Ease of use and easy access to OS

Generally, Drive C on computers running Windows is the first partition.

Types of Disk Partitioning

Primary Partition

Installing an operating system is only possible on the primary partition. When installing the operating
system on the primary partition, it's time for the computer to load the OS. Remember that early versions
of Windows allow users to set up a maximum of 4 primary partitions. It means that one MBR (Master
Boot Record) hard disk could have 4 primary partitions.

Extended Partition

Unlike primary partition, there can be only one extended partition on a hard drive. An extended
partition is divided into additional logical drives. In other words, to remove the imitations of 4 partitions,
there is no way except to use an extended partition.

Logical Partition

A logical partition is what you can create to store things like movies, software, application files, and
more.

Master Boot Record (MBR)

Master boot record is the information present in the first sector of any hard disk. It contains the
information regarding how and where the Operating system is located in the hard disk so that it can be
booted in the RAM.

MBR is sometimes called master partition table because it includes a partition table which locates every
partition in the hard disk.

Master boot record (MBR) also includes a program which reads the boot sector record of the partition
that contains operating system.

Features of MBR:

• Boot Loading Capability: In the MBR, the boot loader code is present. The boot loader
which is helpful to load the operating system into the main memory called a booting
process.
• Ease of Use: It is very easy to use so users can easily manage and maintain their disc
partitions with MBR.
• Disk Identification: To recognize the disc, the MBR uses a disc signature.
• Compatibility: The majority of operating systems, including Windows, Linux, and
macOS, as well as a wide variety of devices use the Master boot record (MBR).

Limitations of Master Boot Record (MBR):

• Disk Capacity: MBR can only be compatible with discs up to 2 TB in size so it cannot be
used for discs of size greater than it. For that GPT could be used.
• Limitation due to legacy BIOS: MBR cannot be utilized with more recent UEFI (Unified
Extensible Firmware Interface) systems since it can only be used with earlier BIOS (Basic
Input/Output System) systems.
• Lack of redundancy: The MBR lacks any built-in redundancy mechanisms, so damage
to the MBR could prohibit a system from starting.
• Limited Partitions: The MBR can support up to four primary partitions, or three primary
partitions and one extended partition..
FAT/ NTFS
A file system provides a way of organizing a drive. Its primary operation is to specify the way the data is stored
on the drive and the types of information attached to files such as filenames, permissions, and other attributes.
Windows supports three different file systems namely FAT32, exFAT, and NTFS. If you want to know the
difference between each, then read the article Difference Between FAT32, exFAT, and NTFS File System. The
transition of these file systems was as follows:
• 8-bit FAT (Original 8-bit FAT)
• FAT12 (8-bit File Allocation Table)
• FAT16 (Initial 16-bit File Allocation Table(with 16-bit sector entries))
• FAT16B (Final 16-bit File Allocation Table(with 32-bit sector entries))
• FAT32 (File Allocation Table-32)
• exFAT (Extensible File Allocation Table)
• NTFS (New Technology File System)
FAT32 and NTFS are the types of file systems used in an operating system.

FAT32

FAT32 stands for File Allocation Table. FAT32 is an extension of previous file systems in which the data is
stored in chunks of 32 bits. FAT32 is an upgraded version of FAT16 designed to overcome the limitations of
FAT16 and add support for larger media. FAT32 was used in older versions of operating systems like Windows
95 up until Windows XP.
Advantages of FAT32 –
• FAT32 efficiently works under partitions of 200 MB.
• FAT32 provides compatibility with different operating systems.
• FAT32 is frequently used as a primary partition on multiboot systems.
Disadvantages of FAT32 –
• The partitions in FAT32 of size over 200 MB can degrade the performance.
• FAT32 is insecure because of the lack of encryption.
• FAT32 is susceptible to fragmentation.

2. NTFS

NTFS stands for New Technology File System. First introduced in 1993, it is used in newer versions
of operating systems such as Windows NT and 2000 and later versions of Windows. NTFS is a more
robust, high-performance logging file system with multi-user access control, ACLs, and many other
things that make it appropriate to work with an Operating System that has protection. NTFS includes
characteristics such as data recovery, multi-streaming, fault tolerance, security, extended file size,
and file systems, UNICODE names. exFAT is used where NTFS is not feasible, due to its data-
structure overhead, but a greater file-size limit than the standard FAT32 file system is needed.
Advantages of NTFS –
• NTFS is highly secure because it prevents unauthorized access to file contents by
enforcing Encryption File System(EFS).
• NTFS performs well even in the partitions of size over 400 MB.
• NTFS is less susceptible to fragmentation.
Disadvantages of NTFS –
• NTFS is not extensively supported.
• Performance in the NTFS file system degrades under partitions of 400 MB.
Difference Between FAT32 and NTFS :

Characteristics FAT32 NTFS

Structure Simple Complex

Maximum number of characters

83 255
supported in a file name

Maximum file size 4GB 16TB

Encrypted with Encrypting File

Encryption Not encrypted
System (EFS)

Security Network Type Only Both local and network type

No provision for Fault

Fault tolerance Automatic troubleshoot is present
Tolerance

Compatibility with Operating Windows Windows NT/2K/XP/Vista/7/8/10,

Systems 95/98/2000/2003/XP macOS X, Linux

Compression is not
Compression Supports file compression
allowed

Relatively higher than other File

Accessing speed Low
Systems

User-level disk space Not present Present

Conversion Allowed Not allowed

Data Restore

Data restore is the process of copying backup data from secondary storage and restoring
it to its original location or a new location. A restore is performed to return data that has
been lost, stolen or damaged to its original condition or to move data to a new location.

There are several circumstances that lead to the need for a data restore. One is human
error, where data is accidentally deleted or damaged. Other circumstances
include malicious attacks where data is exposed, stolen or infected; power outages;
human-made or natural disasters; equipment theft, malfunctions or failures; or firmware
corruption.

Data restore makes a usable copy of the data available to replace lost or damaged data
and ensures the data backup is consistent with the state of the data at a specific point in
time before the damage occurred.

Types of data loss and hardware damage

Data restore operations are almost always initiated in response to a data loss event. Such
events, however, are widely varied in scope. There are any number of circumstances that
can lead to data loss. In the case of file data, for example, a user might accidentally delete
a file or overwrite important data within a file.

The best way to avoid losing data as a result of these types of events is for an
organization to create a comprehensive backup strategy that is designed to create backup
copies of its data. Backups can be written to a backup device residing on premises, to
cloud storage, to tape or even to an external drive. Regardless of the medium, it's
important to make sure that data is being backed up. After all, it's impossible to initiate a
restore operation if there is no backup data to restore.

Preparing for a data restore

Data restore is part of the overall data management process and is contingent on having a system in
place to produce a good copy of the data being protected by traditional backup, snapshots
or continuous data protection (CDP). Without a reliable protection copy, there is nothing usable to
restore.
To ensure a reliable data backup version is available to restore, it's necessary to test the restore
process and the data recovery tools used. Protection copies should be randomly checked at various
points in time to ensure they meet recovery point objectives (RPOs). Data being restored must be
readable, consistent with a chosen point in time and include the information needed to comply with
RPOs, recovery time objectives (RTOs) and other service requirements.

In addition, all applications must be checked before doing an actual data restore to ensure they will
be able to use the restored data. That means the software used to format the data must be available,
and security certificates, permissions, access control and decryption must be applied correctly.

Methods of restoring data

Where backup data is stored will affect the ease with which it can be restored.

HDD backups provide a quick data restore because it's easy to locate data on disks, and the systems
often live on site. For this same reason, HDDs are more secure than off-site tape and cloud backup.
However, disk systems cost more than other data backup and restore methods; costs include the
power needed to run both the disk systems and the cooling systems they require. HDD backups are
best for data that changes frequently and requires a short recovery time.

Tape backup systems provide high-capacity storage at a lower cost than that of HDDs. But even
with the latest technology, tape still has a longer recovery time than disks or the cloud, and that
timeframe expands when data is stored off site. Tape libraries require ongoing management and
testing to ensure data is accessible when needed.

Cloud backup requires enterprises to send a copy of data over the corporate network or the internet
to an off-site server owned by the enterprise or hosted by a service provider. When it's time to
restore that data, it must traverse the same path, which can take time due to network bandwidth
limitations. For this reason, cloud backup and restore is generally used for noncritical data with a
longer RTO.

With cloud backup, it's easy to add capacity as data backup needs grow. In addition, costs are
lower, particularly when using a cloud provider, because organizations don't have to buy and
maintain backup software and hardware. Using a third-party provider also reduces the workload on
the IT department. However, as data volumes grow, cloud backup costs rise.
Data restoration techniques
The approach used to restore data depends on what information was lost or damaged, how much
data was affected, how the incident happened, the software used to create the data backup, the
backup target media and other factors. Some backup software enables users to restore lost files
themselves. Data recovery software and services can retrieve accidentally deleted files that aren't
backed up from the hard drive. More complicated data loss or damage requires IT to restore backup
files from disk, tape or other backup media using various techniques, including:

• Instant recovery, also known as recovery in place, redirects a user's workload to a

backup server, eliminating the recovery window. Users get almost immediate access to
a snapshot restore point of their workload where they can work while IT manages the
full recovery and data restore in the background. Once that process is complete, the
user's workload is redirected back to the original virtual machine.

• Replication provides even faster, near-instant access to data; however, data backup
with integrated replication often lacks a product that provides historical recovery and
isn't a true backup capability.

• CDP is when data is backed up using snapshots taken every time the data changes. This
approach lets data be rolled back to any point in time; however, it comes at a price
because it can tax a system's CPU and require a lot of storage to accommodate heavily
updated data.

• Near-CDP is when snapshots of changed data are taken at set intervals and changes are
then consolidated over a longer period. This approach cuts down on the total amount of
storage required to accommodate backed-up data compared with full-fledged CDP.

• Traditional backup is when data is stored on HDDs or magnetic tape either locally or at
a remote location. Traditional backup is most useful when a major hardware or site
disaster occurs. It lacks the scalability and efficiency of other methods, but it is a better
long-term approach for data retention and restoration.
Computer Equipment means Covered Property that is electronic computer or other data processing
equipment, including peripherals used in conjunction with such equipment, and electronic media and
records.

Computer Equipment means original or replacement servers, routers, switches, power units, network
devices, hard drives, processors, memory modules, motherboards, racks, other computer hardware and
components, cabling, cooling apparatus, and related or ancillary equipment, machinery, and components,
the primary purpose of which is to store, retrieve, aggregate, search, organize, process, analyze, or transfer
data or any combination of these, or to support related computer engineering or computer science
research. This also includes equipment cooling systems for managing the performance of the datacenter
property, including mechanical and electrical equipment, hardware for distributed and mainframe
computers and servers, data storage devices, network connectivity equipment, and peripheral components
and systems.

What are basic components of computer Equipment?

There are several basic components of computer hardware including:

1. Central processing unit (CPU)

The CPU controls the computer processes and communicates with the other components of a
personal computer. A computer's CPU may be one of the most complicated parts of the
computer because of its intricacies. If a computer is experiencing CPU issues, a computer
technician may start by checking the fan and cleaning out any dust or debris inside the
machine. Another step a computer technician may complete is verifying that power supply
cables work. A CPU will not function properly unless it receives a signal from the power supply.

2. Motherboard

The motherboard provides the structure for all other components and connects them, while
also providing a way to distribute power, deliver information and connect to devices such as a
printer or mouse. It controls how data transfers and what type of monitor or screen device to
use, for example. It houses the CPU, memory and secondary storage devices such as hard
drives.

The first thing that a computer technician may do to troubleshoot any motherboard issues is to
take the PC apart and inspect all the connections for corrosion. They may also check the power
supply and make sure the computer is receiving electricity.

3. Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM is where data lives temporarily while it's being actively used by programs, such as when a
user launches a computer application. A technician may know how to identify the type of RAM
in a computer, how to replace it if it's defective and how to diagnose problems with copying
data from one location in memory to another.

A technician should have knowledge about the different RAMs that are available and they may
also know what types of errors might affect a computer's RAM operation. A technician may
backup all computer files before fixing RAM to avoid losing critical programs and documents.

4. Video graphics array port

A video graphics array (VGA) port is a video input that is primarily used on PC monitors.
Troubleshooting a VGA port could include verifying there isn't a loose connection, faulty cable
or a broken monitor. Another task a computer technician may do is use compressed air to
spray inside the VGA port to ensure it's free of dust.

5. Power supply

A power supply provides electricity to all components of a computer system. Typically, it's a
power cord connected from the back of a PC tower into an electricity socket. A technician may
troubleshoot the power supply by turning off the computer, unplugging and detaching the
power supply cord or trying a new cord or outlet.

6. Cooling fan

Cooling fans are a computer's system to decrease overheating. Many computers have more
than one cooling fan to help users who run their computer heavily, such as video streaming or
gaming. A computer technician may need to fix a computer's cooling fan if a user notices their
computer overheating. They may check for any damage to the blades and make sure that they
are free from debris. Replacing computer fans can be a common troubleshooting solution for a
technician.

7. Hard drive

Hard drives are data storage devices used to store files, programs or other information on a
computer system. They use magnetically coated discs called hard disks that store digital
representations of information. If a hard drive fails, a computer technician may suspect a
corrupt hard drive. They may use data recovery software to repair the computer or may replace
the hard drive.

8. Monitor

A computer monitor is an electronic device that displays what's what programs are running on
your computer so a user can see. Some computer technicians may wear anti-static gloves when
handling computer monitors to avoid static electricity. They may also troubleshoot monitor
issues by disconnecting it from the computer and trying a new power cord.
Related: 51 In-Demand Tech Skills for Technology Careers

9. Printer

This is a machine that produces copies of text or images on paper using ink. Popular printers
include laser or inkjet and computer technicians may be skilled in troubleshooting issues across
multiple brands and varieties. Computer technicians may service printers including verifying
power is running to the machine. They may also check to see if the paper tray is full and ready
for printing. Technicians might replace or refill any ink cartridges and toner.

If the physical printer components are operating efficiently but the machine still isn't working, a
technician will then troubleshoot software malfunctions that may occur in the communication
between the computer and the printer. This requires more expertise to fix since it involves how
the systems interact with each other rather than physical component failures on the printer
itself.

10. Scanner

A scanner is a device that digitally copies an image or and makes it available as a file for access
on a computer. If a scanner malfunctions, a computer technician may remove the cover and
carefully check if it has any damage. If there are no visible issues, then they may check the
power connection cable. Similar to a printer, there is computer software that connects the
scanner to the computer, so a technician will also verify that the software is communicating to
the scanner.

11. Computer mouse

A computer mouse can have a wire or is wireless and is an input device used to control a cursor
on the computer monitor. A wired computer mouse has a cord that connects to a USB port on a
computer while a wireless mouse has no physical connection with a computer system. Instead,
a wireless mouse communicates using an adapter that is usually plugged into an available USB
port and runs off its own batteries using Bluetooth technology.

List of Computer Hardware

Here are some common individual computer hardware components that you'll
often find inside a modern computer. These parts are almost always found
inside the computer case, so you won't see them unless you open the
computer:

• Motherboard
• Central Processing Unit (CPU)
• Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Power Supply Unit (PSU)
 • Video card
• Hard Disk Drive (HDD)
• Solid-State Drive (SSD)
• Optical disk drive (e.g., BD/DVD/CD drive)
• Card reader (SD/SDHC, CF, etc.)

Common hardware that you might find connected to the outside of a computer,
although many tablets, laptops, and netbooks integrate some of these items into
their housings:

• Monitor
• Keyboard
• Mouse
• Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS)
• Flash drive
• Printer
• Speakers
• External hard drive
• Pen tablet

Less common individual computer hardware devices, either because these

pieces are now usually integrated into other devices or because they've been
replaced with newer technology:

• Sound card
• Network Interface Card (NIC)
• Expansion card (FireWire, USB, etc.)
• Hard drive controller card
• Analog modem
• Scanner
• Projector
• Floppy disk drive
• Joystick
• Webcam
• Microphone
• Tape drive
• Zip drive

The following hardware is referred to as network hardware, and various pieces

are often part of a home or business network:

• Digital modem (e.g., cable modem, DSL modem, etc.)

 • Router
• Network switch
• Access point
• Repeater
• Bridge
• Print server
• Firewall

Network hardware isn't as clearly defined as some other types of computer

hardware. For example, many home routers will often act as a combination
router, switch, and firewall.

In addition to all the items listed above, there's more computer hardware
called auxiliary hardware, of which a computer might have none, or several, of
some kinds:

• Fan (CPU, GPU, Case, etc.)

• Heat sink
• Data cable
• Power cable
• CMOS battery
• Daughterboard

Some of the devices listed above are called peripheral devices. A peripheral
device is a piece of hardware (whether internal or external) that isn't actually
involved in the computer's main function. Examples include a monitor, video
card, disc drive, and mouse.

How to Assemble a PC
Procedure for Computer Assembling

Step 1: Open The Case The First Step In Assembling A Computer Is To Open The Computer Case. To Open The Case, First
Remove The Screws Of The Left Side Cover And Slide The Side Cover

Step 2: Install The Power Supply The Next Step Is To Install A Power Supply. There Are Usually Four Screws That Attach
The Power Supply To The Case.

Step 3: Attach The Components To Motherboard

The Motherboard Has To Be Prepared Before Its Installation. To Prepare The Motherboard, You First Need To Install The
CPU, Then The Heat Sink On The CPU And CPU Fan.
CPU A CPU Socket Uses A Series Of Pins To Connect A CPU’s Processor To The Pc’s Motherboard. If A CPU Is Connected
Via A CPU Socket.

Heat sink and fan assembly A Heat Sink And Fan (HSF) Is An Active Cooling Solution Used To Cool Down Integrated
Circuits In Computer Systems, Commonly The Central Processing Unit (CPU).

Connect The Assembly Power Cable To The CPU Fan Connector On The Motherboard.

Installation of RAM To Install The RAM First On The Motherboard And Then Fix The Motherboard In The Case. To Install
RAM, First Ensure Its Compatibility With The Motherboard.

Step 4: Install motherboard

After Preparing The Motherboard, You Can Install In The Computer Case.

Step 5: Install internal drives

The Hard Drive Is The Device Which Stores All The Data. Connect The Power Cable Coming From The SMPS To The Power
Socket Of Hard Disk Drive. Connect SATA Data Cable From Hard Disk Drive Socket To The Motherboard Socket

Step 6: Connect all internal cables

Power Cables Are Used To Distribute Electricity From The Power Supply To The Motherboard And Other Components.
Data Cables Transmit Data Between The Motherboard And Storage Devices, Such As Hard Drives.

Step 7: Install motherboard power connections

The Advanced Technology Extended (ATX) Main Power Connector Will Have Either 20 Or 24 Pins.

Step 8: Connect external cables to the computer

Connecting Monitor The VGA Cable Is Used To Connect To Monitor.

Connecting Keyboard If It Uses A USB Connector, Plug It Into Any Of The USB Ports On The Back Of The Computer

Connecting Headphones Or Speakers, And Microphone Connect The External Speakers Or Headphones, To Computer’s
Audio Port (Either On The Front Or Back Of The Computer Case)

Connect The Computer To A Power Supply Power Supply Cable Connect Into The Back Of The Computer Case

Step 9: Starting the computer Always Remember That The First Step Is To Push Power Button Of The CPU Than The
Monitor’s. An Operating System Or System Software Like Window Or Linux Will Start Loading, Now Your Computer Is
Ready To Use.

What is Application Software?

The term “application software” refers to software that performs specific functions for a
user. When a user interacts directly with a piece of software, it is called application
software. The sole purpose of application software is to assist the user in doing specified
tasks. Microsoft Word and Excel, as well as popular web browsers like Firefox and Google
Chrome, are examples of application software. It also encompasses the category of mobile
apps, which includes apps like WhatsApp for communication and games like Candy Crush
Saga. There are also app versions of popular services, such as weather or transportation
information, as well as apps that allow users to connect with businesses. Global
Positioning System (GPS), Graphics, multimedia, presentation software, desktop publishing
software, and so on are examples of such software.

Function of application software:

Application software programs are created to help with a wide range of tasks. Here are a
few examples:
• Information and data management
• Management of documents (document exchange systems)
• Development of visuals and video
• Emails, text messaging, audio and video conferencing, and cooperation are all
options.
• Management of accounting, finance, and payroll
• Management of resources (ERP and CRM systems)
• Management of a project
• Management of business processes
• Software for education (LMS and e-learning systems)
• Software for healthcare applications
Types of application software:
Application software can also be categorized based on its chargeability and accessibility.
Here is some application software:
• Freeware: It is offered for free, as the name implies. You can utilize freeware
application software that you can obtain from the Internet. This software, on the
other hand, does not allow you to change it or charge a fee for sharing it. Examples
include Adobe PDF, Mozilla Firefox, and Google Chrome.
• Shareware: This is given away to users for free as a trial, usually with a limited-
time offer. If consumers want to keep using this application software, they will have
to pay. WinZip, Anti-virus, and Adobe Reader are instances of shareware.
• Open-source: This type of application software comes with the source code,
allowing you to edit and even add features to it. These could be offered for free or
for a fee. Open-source application software includes Moodle and Apache Web
Server.
• Closed source: This category includes the majority of the application software
programs used nowadays. These are normally charged, and the source code is
usually protected by intellectual property rights or patents. It usually comes with a
set of restrictions. Microsoft Windows, Adobe Flash Player, WinRAR, macOS, and
other operating systems are examples.
Examples of application software:
Some of the examples of application software are:
• System for Hotel Management: It relates to the hotel industry’s management
strategies. Hotel administration, accounting, billing, marketing, housekeeping, and
front office or front desk.
• System for Payroll Management: It is a term used by all modern businesses to
refer to every employee who receives a regular salary or another form of payment.
The payroll software calculates all different payment options and generates the
relevant paychecks. Employee salary slips can also be printed or sent using this
software.
• System for Human Resources Management: It describes the systems and
activities that exist at the nexus of Human Resource Management (HRM) and
Information Technology (IT). The HR department’s role is primarily administrative
and is found in all businesses.
• Attendance Recording System: It’s a piece of software that tracks and optimizes
a person’s or student’s presence in an organization or school. Nowadays,
customers’ existing time/attendance recording devices, such as biometrics/access
cards, can be connected with attendance systems. Attendance management can be
accomplished in two ways: Integration of biometrics & Integration of manual
attendance
• System of Billing: It is the billing software that is utilized to complete the billing
process. It keeps track of marked products and services given to a single consumer
or a group of customers.

Introduction to Input-Output Interface

Input-Output Interface is used as an method which helps in transferring of information

between the internal storage devices i.e. memory and the external peripheral device . A
peripheral device is that which provide input and output for the computer, it is also called
Input-Output devices. For Example: A keyboard and mouse provide Input to the computer
are called input devices while a monitor and printer that provide output to the computer
are called output devices. Just like the external hard-drives, there is also availability of
some peripheral devices which are able to provide both input and output.
n micro-computer base system, the only purpose of peripheral devices is just to
provide special communication links for the interfacing them with the CPU. To resolve the
differences between peripheral devices and CPU, there is a special need for communication
links.
The major differences are as follows:
1. The nature of peripheral devices is electromagnetic and electro-mechanical. The
nature of the CPU is electronic. There is a lot of difference in the mode of
operation of both peripheral devices and CPU.
2. There is also a synchronization mechanism because the data transfer rate of
peripheral devices are slow than CPU.
3. In peripheral devices, data code and formats are differ from the format in the CPU
and memory.
4. The operating mode of peripheral devices are different and each may be
controlled so as not to disturb the operation of other peripheral devices connected
to CPU.

Functions of Input-Output Interface:

1. It is used to synchronize the operating speed of CPU with respect to input-output

devices.
2. It selects the input-output device which is appropriate for the interpretation of the
input-output device.
3. It is capable of providing signals like control and timing signals.
4. In this data buffering can be possible through data bus.
 5. There are various error detectors.
6. It converts serial data into parallel data and vice-versa.
7. It also convert digital data into analog signal and vice-versa.

I/O Device

An input/output device, often known as an IO device, is any hardware that allows a human
operator or other systems to interface with a computer. Input/output devices, as the name
implies, are capable of delivering data (output) to and receiving data from a computer
(input). An input/output (I/O) device is a piece of hardware that can take, output, or process
data. It receives data as input and provides it to a computer, as well as sends computer
data to storage media as a storage output.

Input Devices
Input devices are the devices that are used to send signals to the computer for performing
tasks. The receiver at the end is the CPU (Central Processing Unit), which has work to send
signals to the output devices. Some of the classifications of Input devices are:
• Keyboard Devices
• Pointing Devices
• Composite Devices
• Game Controller
• Visual Devices
• Audio Input Devices

Keyboard

The keyboard is the most frequent and widely used input device for entering data into a
computer. Although there are some additional keys for performing other operations, the
keyboard layout is similar to that of a typical typewriter.
Generally, keyboards come in two sizes: 84 keys or 101/102 keys but currently keyboards
with 104 keys or 108 keys are also available for Windows and the Internet.

Mouse
The most common pointing device is the mouse. The mouse is used to move a little cursor
across the screen while clicking and dragging. The cursor will stop if you let go of the
mouse. The computer is dependent on you to move the mouse; it won’t move by itself. As a
result, it’s an input device.
A mouse is an input device that lets you move the mouse on a flat surface to control the
coordinates and movement of the on-screen cursor/pointer.
The left mouse button can be used to select or move items, while the right mouse button
when clicked displays extra menus

Joystick

A joystick is a pointing device that is used to move the cursor on a computer screen. A
spherical ball is attached to both the bottom and top ends of the stick. In a socket, the lower
spherical ball slides. You can move the joystick in all four directions.

Track Ball

Track Ball is an accessory for notebooks and laptops, which works on behalf of a mouse. It
has a similar structure to a mouse. Its structure is like a half-inserted ball and we use fingers
for cursor movement. Different shapes are used for this like balls, buttons, or squares.

Light Pen
A light pen is a type of pointing device that looks like a pen. It can be used to select a menu
item or to draw on the monitor screen. A photocell and an optical system are enclosed in a
tiny tube. When the tip of a light pen is moved across a monitor screen while the pen button
is pushed, the photocell sensor element identifies the screen location and provides a signal
to the CPU.
scanner
A scanner is an input device that functions similarly to a photocopier. It’s employed when
there’s information on paper that needs to be transferred to the computer’s hard disc for
subsequent manipulation. The scanner collects images from the source and converts them
to a digital format that may be saved on a disc. Before they are printed, these images can
be modified.

Output Devices
Output Devices are the devices that show us the result after giving the input to a computer
system. Output can be of many different forms like image, graphic audio, video, etc. Some of
the output devices are described below.
Monitor
Monitors, also known as Visual Display Units (VDUs), are a computer’s primary output device.
It creates images by arranging small dots, known as pixels, in a rectangular pattern. The
amount of pixels determines the image’s sharpness.
• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor: Pixels are minuscule visual elements that
make up a CRT display. The higher the image quality or resolution, the smaller the
pixels.
• Flat-Panel Display Monitor: In comparison to the CRT, a flat-panel display is a
type of video display with less volume, weight, and power consumption. They can
be hung on the wall or worn on the wrist.
Printer
Printers are output devices that allow you to print information on paper. There are certain
types of printers which are described below.
• Impact Printers
• Character Printers
• Line Printers
• Non-Impact Printers
• Laser Printers
• Inkjet Printers

Speakers

Speakers are devices that produce sound after getting a command from a computer.
Nowadays, speakers come with wireless technology also like Bluetooth speakers.

Projector

Projectors are optical devices that have the work to show visuals on both types of scr eens,
stationary and moving both. It helps in displaying images on a big screen. Projectors are
generally used in theatres, auditoriums, etc.

Plotter

Plotter is a device that helps in making graphics or other images to give a real view. A graphic
card is mandatorily required to use these devices. These are the pen-like devices that help
in generating exact designs on the computer.

Processing device
When a computer receives data from an input
device (e.g., keyboard), it goes through an intermediate
stage before it's sent to an output device (e.g., monitor).
A processing device is any hardware inside a computer
that interprets and manipulates incoming data during this
stage. For example, in the diagram below, the CPU is the
processing device.

Processing device examples

Processing devices in or used with a computer include the following:

• Bluetooth adapter
• CPU (central processing unit)s
• GPU (graphics processing unit)
• Motherboard
• Network card
• RAM (random-access memory)
• Sound card
• Video card