History of India

Timeline of Major Periods: The subcontinent’s history spans from early Stone Age cultures through a
succession of empires to the modern nation-state. Key eras include the Prehistoric and Chalcolithic period,
the Bronze-Age Indus Valley Civilization (c.3300–1300 BCE), the Vedic Age (c.1500–600 BCE), the
Mahajanapadas and Mauryan Empire (c.600–185 BCE), the Classical Age (Gupta Empire and contemporaries,
c.320–647 CE), the early medieval regional kingdoms (Pallava, Chalukya, Pala, Rashtrakuta, Tamil dynasties,
c.300–1200 CE), the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526), the Vijayanagara Empire and Deccan sultanates (14th–17th
centuries), the Mughal Empire (1526–1857), and European colonial rule culminating in the British Raj (1757–
1947). Each period saw distinct developments in politics, society, economy, art and science 1 2 . The
table below summarizes these eras:

Era/Empire Timeframe Key Developments

Hunter-gatherers and early farmers. Stone, Mesolithic and Neolithic

– c.3300
Prehistoric India cultures saw stone tools, cave art and the domestication of plants
BCE
and animals 1 3 .

Bronze-Age urban civilization in NW India/Pakistan 4 . Well-

planned cities (Harappa, Mohenjo-daro) with grid streets, drainage
Indus Valley c.3300–
and uniform bricks. Early writing (still undeciphered) on seals,
Civilization 1300 BCE
standardized weights/measures 5 6 , metallurgy (copper/
bronze) and extensive trade (e.g. with Mesopotamia 6 ).

Composition of the Vedas by Indo-Aryan migrants in NW India 7 .

Society was tribal and pastoral, later shifting to settled farming with
c.1500–600
Vedic Age iron tools. Four varnas (Brahmin priests, Kshatriya warriors, Vaishya
BCE
traders/farmers, Shudra laborers) became the social order 8 9 .
Early polities (kingdoms or chiefdoms) emerged.

Sixteen Mahājanapadas (large kingdoms/republics) arose in N.

India by 6th c. BCE 10 . Magadha became dominant and, under
Chandragupta Maurya (c.322–298 BCE), unified much of India 11 .
His grandson Ashoka (r.c.269–232 BCE) expanded the empire from
Mahājanapadas c.600–185
Afghanistan to Bengal 11 and after the bloody Kalinga War
& Maurya BCE
embraced Buddhism, sponsoring missionaries and inscribing moral
edicts on pillars 12 . Mauryan administration (Chandragupta
advised by Chanakya) built a vast bureaucracy, coinage and trade
networks 11 13 .

1
Era/Empire Timeframe Key Developments

Regional dynasties (Shunga 185–73 BCE in Magadha 14 ;

Satavahanas in Deccan) succeeded the Mauryas. Indo-Greek (Greco-
Bactrian) kings ruled NW India (e.g. Menander I, c.160 BCE) and
Post-Mauryan & c.185 BCE–
spread Hellenistic art and Buddhism 15 . The Kushan Empire (c.30–
Kushan 300 CE
375 CE) in NW India/Afghanistan under Kanishka (r.c.127–151 CE)
became wealthy via Silk Road trade and spread Mahayana
Buddhism; it patronized Gandhāra art (Buddhist sculpture) 16 .

The Gupta Empire (c.320–550) reunified much of N. India and is

considered a “Golden Age” 17 . Arts, science and literature
flourished: Sanskrit epics (Mahabharata, Ramayana) and poetry
(Kalidasa) were crystallized, and scholars like Aryabhata
(astronomy/math) and Varāhamihira advanced astronomy and
Classical India c.320–647
mathematics 17 . Architecture (e.g. stone temples, cave temples at
(Gupta Age) CE
Ellora) and sculpture reached high levels. Nalanda University was
founded; Puranic Hinduism and Buddhism thrived. Emperor Harsha
(r.606–647) later presided over an empire in N. India 18 , was a
Buddhist patron (visited by pilgrim Xuanzang) and supported
literature (Bana’s Harshacharita) 19 20 .

In South India, the Tamil Chola, Chera and Pandya kingdoms (the
“Three Crowned Kings”) dominated. The Pallavas (c.275–897) built
early Dravidian temples and rock-cut monuments (Mahabalipuram)
21 . The Chalukyas (Badami Chalukya, 6th–8th c.) created the

Vesara style at Aihole and Pattadakal 22 . The Rāṣṭrakūṭas (8th–10th

Regional c.300–1200
c.) built spectacular temples (Ellora’s Kailasa temple 23 ) and
Kingdoms CE
competed for north-Indian influence 24 . In Bengal–Bihar, the Pāla
Empire (750–1161) was a Buddhist state under Dharmapala and
Devapala 25 . These regional dynasties fostered distinctive
literatures (Tamil Sangam poetry, Sanskrit works) and temple
architecture across India.

Turkic and Afghan sultans from Central Asia established Muslim

rule in North India 2 . Five sequential dynasties (Mamluk, Khalji,
Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi) controlled Delhi and much of the
subcontinent. They introduced Persianate culture, Indo-Islamic
Delhi Sultanate 1206–1526
architecture (e.g. Qutb Minar, Alai Darwaza, Lodi tombs), and new
systems of land revenue. The Delhi Sultanate expanded (notably
under Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughlaq) and faced
concurrent Hindu resistance in Rajput kingdoms and the South.

2
Era/Empire Timeframe Key Developments

The Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646), founded by Harihara and

Bukka in Karnataka 26 27 , became the dominant Hindu power in
the South. It resisted northern invasions, promoted temple
Vijayanagara & architecture (e.g. Tiruvengalanatha temple), Telugu and Kannada
1336–1660
Deccan States literature, and maritime trade. Simultaneously, the Bahmani
Sultanate (1347–1527) and its successor Deccan Sultanates (e.g.
Golconda, Bijapur) ruled central Deccan, becoming centers of
Persian culture and military rivalry.

Founded by Babur (victor at Panipat 1526), it reached its peak under

Akbar (r.1556–1605) who unified India with a centralized
bureaucracy and a policy of religious tolerance. His successors
Jahangir and Shah Jahan (builder of the Taj Mahal) continued
imperial patronage of architecture and culture. Aurangzeb (r.1658–
Mughal Empire 1526–1857 1707) expanded the empire to its greatest extent, but his strict
policies also stirred unrest. The Mughals fostered a syncretic Indo-
Persian culture (Urdu language, court painting) and a land revenue
system; art, music (classical), literature (Persian, vernacular), and
science (astronomy, medicine) advanced. After 1707 the empire
fragmented under Maratha, Sikh and regional pressures.

Beginning with Vasco da Gama’s arrival (1498), Europeans

(Portuguese, Dutch, French) established trading posts. The British
East India Company (EIC) gradually seized power through wars and
treaties (Plassey 1757, Buxar 1764), culminating in direct British
Crown rule after the 1857 revolt 28 . Under colonial rule India was
integrated into global trade as a supplier of raw materials (e.g.
cotton) and a market for British manufactured goods 29 . The
European
1498–1947 economy was transformed: deindustrialization of Indian textile
Colonial Period
production and high land taxes (zamindari system) impoverished
peasants 29 30 . Railways, telegraphs and modern education were
introduced, while social reformers worked against practices like sati
(widow immolation) and child marriage. The period saw the rise of
Indian nationalism (Indian National Congress founded 1885 31 )
and mass movements led by figures like Gandhi and Nehru. India
finally achieved independence (with Partition) in 1947.

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Image: Excavated ruins of Mohenjo-daro (Indus Valley Civilization) – the Great Bath (foreground) and granary
mound (background). The Indus cities (c.3300–1300 BCE) featured advanced urban planning and standardized
brick constructions 5 6 .
The Prehistoric era of India began with early Stone Age hunter-gatherers. In the Palaeolithic (Old Stone
Age, up to c.10,000 BCE), groups used crude stone tools, lived in caves or open sites, and subsisted by
hunting and foraging 32 . The Mesolithic (c.10,000–7000 BCE) saw microlithic tools and gradual
domestication of dogs, goats and sheep; people lived in semi-permanent settlements and buried their dead
with grave goods 33 . By the Neolithic (c.7000–3000 BCE), farming and cattle herding began: wheat, barley,
rice and pulses were cultivated, and pots made on wheels appeared 3 34 . These innovations set the
stage for the first cities.

Indus Valley Civilization (c.3300–1300 BCE)

The Indus (Harappan) Civilization was India’s first urban culture. Its mature phase (c.2600–1900 BCE)
spanned modern Pakistan and NW India 4 . Harappan cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa were
remarkably planned: streets in a grid pattern, houses of baked brick, covered drains and public baths.
Standardized weights, measures and brick sizes across sites indicate centralized regulation 5 . Artifacts
(seal carvings, figurines) show advanced crafts and writing (still undeciphered), and metallurgy (copper,
bronze) flourished 35 . Extensive trade networks linked the Indus to Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf 6 :
Indus seals have been found in Sumer, and goods like beads and cotton textiles were exchanged. The
civilization also had granaries, possible taxation, and a social hierarchy (evident from large public works and
varied house sizes). Little is known of its religion, but female fertility figurines and motifs of water suggest
worship of Mother Goddess and Proto-Shiva figures. Its sudden decline after 1900 BCE (likely due to climate
change, river shifts and invasions) ushered in a post-Harappan rural phase 4 .

Vedic Period (c.1500–600 BCE)

After the Indus collapse, Indo-Aryan peoples speaking an early Sanskrit migrated into Punjab 7 . This
period (the Early Vedic Age, c.1500–1100 BCE) is recorded in the Rigveda hymns. Society was patriarchal and

4
organized into tribes led by rajas (kings); economy was pastoral, with cattle wealth central. Villages and
simple fire-altars have been found archaeologically. By the Later Vedic Age (c.1100–600 BCE), iron tools
(ploughs, axes) enabled expanded agriculture in the Ganges valley, giving rise to larger kingdoms (e.g.
Kuru, Panchala). The fourfold varna hierarchy crystallized: Brahmins (priests) and Kshatriyas (warriors/
nobles) atop, Vaishyas (farmers/merchants) next, Shudras (laborers) lowest 8 9 . The era saw
composition of Vedic literature (the four Vedas and Upanishads). Social life featured elaborate rituals (e.g.
horse sacrifice) and little in the way of monumental architecture, but trade routes (overland and riverine)
expanded. This was also the age of epic legends: the Sanskrit epics Mahabharata and Ramayana were orally
shaped, and early Tamil Sangam literature flourished in the South.

Notable aspects: The Vedic period consolidated Indo-European culture in India. Sanskrit became a literary
language, and caste identity began to harden. The mention of varna categories in texts reflects emerging
inequality 8 . It was also a period of philosophical ferment: Jainism and Buddhism later arose (c.6th c. BCE)
partly in reaction to caste and ritualism, leading to social reform movements.

Mahājanapadas and Mauryan Empire (c.600–185 BCE)

By the 6th century BCE, north India featured Mahājanapadas – sixteen large states or oligarchic republics
stretching from Gandhara (NW) to Anga (E) 10 . These include Magadha (southeast Bihar), Kosala (around
modern Uttar Pradesh), Avanti (Malwa), and others. This second urbanization saw new cities and guilds, and
the emergence of coinage. Magadha, under rulers like Bimbisara and Ajatasattu, grew powerful. In 322 BCE
Chandragupta Maurya overthrew Magadha’s Nanda dynasty and founded the Mauryan Empire, quickly
extending control from the Indus to Bengal 11 . Chandragupta, guided by Chanakya’s Arthashastra, built an
efficient administration with officials, spies, roads and a unified market. He minted India’s first standardized
currency 13 and secured international relations (e.g. with Hellenistic kingdoms).

Chandragupta’s grandson Ashoka (r.268–232 BCE) famously expanded Mauryan rule over most of South
Asia. After the bloody conquest of Kalinga (c.261 BCE), Ashoka renounced conquest, embraced Buddhism,
and inscribed rock- and pillar-edicts promoting dharma (moral law), nonviolence, and welfare 36 . His
patronage (Buddhist monasteries, stupas like Sanchi) and missionary efforts (sending monks to Sri Lanka
and Central Asia) helped Buddhism flourish. Under the Mauryas, India’s economy was diverse: agriculture
was the mainstay, but mining, weaving, and trade (both inland and overseas via Arabian Sea) also
prospered. Mauryan urban planning (capitals Pataliputra and Taxila), imperial roads, and a postal system
represent early state infrastructure.

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Image: Political map of India around 250 BCE under the Mauryan Empire (brown). Semi-independent border
regions are shaded. Chandragupta Maurya’s kingdom (post-303 BCE expansion) stretched from Afghanistan
(northwest) to Bengal and central India 11 .

Post-Mauryan Dynasties (c.185 BCE – 320 CE)

After Ashoka’s empire fragmented (185 BCE), several regional states emerged. The Śunga Dynasty (c.185–
73 BCE) arose when General Pushyamitra seized Magadha 14 , marking a revival of Brahminical Hinduism.
In the Deccan and central India, the Satavahanas (c.2nd c. BCE–3rd c. CE) (also called Andhras) held sway.
They maintained stability in the south and fought invading Western Satraps (Sakas) 37 , issuing the first
indigenous Indian coins and fostering north–south trade 38 .

Simultaneously, foreign-ruled states persisted in the northwest. The Indo-Greek Kingdom (c.2nd c. BCE)
saw Greek (Hellenistic) rulers like Menander I (Milinda, r.c.160 BCE) controlling Punjab and Afghanistan 15 .
Menander is famous for patronizing Buddhism (the Milinda Pañha dialogue) and for the fusion of Greek and
Indian art (Greek-style Buddhist statues). In the 1st–3rd centuries CE, the Kushan Empire (of the Yuezhi-
Kushāṇa tribe) unified NW India. Under Emperor Kanishka (c.127–151 CE), the Kushans controlled trade
routes from China to the West 16 . They minted gold coins, built Buddhist monasteries (Kāśmīr to Mathura),
and presided over the Gandhāra art style (Greco-Buddhist sculpture). This was a period of religious and
economic vitality linking India with Silk Road commerce.

Cultural notes: During these centuries, Buddhism and Jainism continued spreading, while Hindu traditions
(smaller temple shrines, Sanskrit dramas like Mṛcchakatika) grew. Scientific texts (e.g. Arthashastra, possibly
redacted now) circulated. Indian astronomy and mathematics advanced (e.g. use of zero in Gupta era).
Trade flourished: Roman accounts mention spices, pearls and textiles coming from South India (Pandya
kingdom), and Indian cottons dominated the ancient textile trade until the colonial period 29 .

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Classical Age: Gupta Empire (c.320–647 CE)
In 320 CE the Gupta dynasty rose in Magadha, soon ruling much of northern and central India 17 . The
Gupta period is celebrated as India’s Golden Age. Emperor Chandragupta I and his grandson
Samudragupta expanded the empire by conquest. The arts, literature and sciences flourished: Sanskrit
literature reached new heights (poet Kālidāsa, playwright Bhavabhūti), and classical Sanskrit drama and
poetry were patronized by the court 17 . Astronomy and mathematics made great strides: Aryabhata (c.499
CE) wrote the Āryabhaṭīya and calculated π; Varāhamihira (6th c.) composed astronomical treatises;
engineers improved irrigation and metallurgy. Hinduism and Buddhism coexisted; grand temples and
Buddhist cave monasteries (e.g. in Ellora and Ajanta) were carved. The Puranic texts were compiled in
writing, codifying myths and law. Architecture and sculpture of this era (stone temples, iconic Gupta Buddha
statues) set patterns followed for centuries 39 .

After the Guptas, King Harṣa of Kannauj (r.606–647) briefly reunited North India. He was a Buddhist convert
who hosted the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang, built hospitals and rest-houses for travelers, and sponsored
Sanskrit poets like Bāṇa 40 20 . However, Harsha’s domain fragmented after his death.

Regional civilizations: While northern India was under Guptas and Harsha, powerful kingdoms arose
elsewhere. In the Deccan and South, the Pallava dynasty (c.275–897 CE) in present Tamil Nadu
commissioned early stone temples and cave temples (at Mamallapuram) 21 , influencing later Dravidian
architecture. The Chalukyas of Badami (6th–8th c.) pioneered the Vesara temple style at Aihole and
Pattadakal 22 . Further west, the Rāṣṭrakūṭas (8th–10th c.) ruled from Manyakheta (Karnataka), famously
carving the monolithic Kailāsa temple at Ellora 23 . In the east, the Pāla Empire (750–1161) based in Bengal–
Bihar was a strong Buddhist state under rulers Dharmapāla and Devapāla 25 , noted for patronizing
Nalanda and Vikramashīla universities. Meanwhile, the Tamil Chola, Chera and Pandya kingdoms
(collectively, Tamilakam) dominated southern India (e.g. the imperial Cholas built enormous temples like the
Brihadīśvara in Thanjavur) 41 42 . These regional powers advanced trade (Indian Ocean commerce of
spices and silk), and produced rich literatures (Tamil epics and devotional poetry) and distinctive art styles.

Medieval India (c.750–1707 CE)

Early Islamic Invasions and Delhi Sultanate (c.712–1526)

The first major Muslim incursion was the Arab conquest of Sindh (711 CE). However, large-scale Islamic rule
began in the 12th century. Muhammad Ghori’s defeat of Prithvirāj Chauhān at Tarain (1192) paved the way
for Turkic slave-sultans. In 1206 Qutb ud-Dīn Aibak founded the Delhi Sultanate. Over the next three
centuries, five dynasties successively held power: Mamluk (Slave) 1206–1290, Khalji 1290–1320, Tughlaq
1320–1414, Sayyid 1414–1451, and Lodi 1451–1526 2 . These sultans consolidated northern India under
Muslim rule, occasionally reaching Deccan and Gujarat. They introduced new cultural elements: Persian
became the court language, Islamic art and learning spread, and mosques and tombs (e.g. Qutb Minar, Alai
Darwaza, Tughlaqabad) were built in an Indo-Islamic style. The Sultanate era saw administrative innovations
(iqtaʿ land grants, new tax systems) and struggles (e.g. Timur’s raid 1398, plunder of Delhi). While rulers like
Alauddin Khalji expanded the empire aggressively, local resistance persisted (Rajput states, Mongol
invasions).

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Regional Muslim Kingdoms: The Delhi Sultanate also sponsored Islamic sultanates outside Delhi. In
Bengal, the Bengal Sultanate (1352–1576) developed its own identity, promoting Islamic learning. In South
India, the Bahmani Sultanate (1347–1527) broke away from Delhi and ruled much of Deccan from Gulbarga
and later Bidar; its eventual fragmentation created the five Deccan Sultanates (Bijapur, Golconda,
Ahmadnagar, Berar, Bidar), which patronized Indo-Persian culture and often warred with Vijayanagara.

Vijayanagara and Late Medieval South (1336–1660)

In 1336 two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, established the Vijayanagara Empire in Karnataka to defend
Hindu kingdoms from northern Muslim incursions 26 27 . With capital at Vijayanagara (Hampi), the empire
grew rich from agriculture and spice trade. It lasted over two centuries, at times extending from the
Tungabhadra River to Tamil lands 26 . Vijayanagara kings built grand temple complexes (e.g. Virupaksha,
Vittala) and supported literature in Telugu, Kannada and Sanskrit. The economy monetized (coinage
became common), and urban centers prospered. In 1398–99 the Delhi sultanate leader Timur raided
Vijayanagara, but the empire remained strong until its defeat by the combined Deccan sultanates at the
Battle of Talikota in 1565. After this, regional powers like the Nayakas (feudatories) in Madurai, Tanjore and
Mysore became prominent.

Rajputs, Ahoms, and Other Kingdoms (c.700–1800)

Throughout the medieval period, various indigenous kingdoms thrived. In Rajasthan and central India,
Rajput clans (e.g. Sisodias of Mewar, Rathores of Marwar) maintained Hindu strongholds, often rebuffing
Sultanate attacks. One famous episode: Maharana Pratap of Mewar resisting Akbar. In the northeast, the
Ahom kingdom (1228–1826) in Assam was founded by Sukaphaa, a Tai prince 43 . Remarkably, the Ahoms
repelled Mughal expansion in the Brahmaputra valley and ruled for six centuries, blending Tai and local
cultures. In Eastern India, the Eastern Ganga dynasty (11th–15th c.) and later Orissa’s Gajapati kingdom built
the Jagannath Temple and were active in maritime trade. The Mughal and Rajput interactions (alliances and
conflicts) also shaped northern society. These regional states (Rajput, Ahom, Nayaka, etc.) highlight the
fragmented and multi-polar nature of medieval India.

Mughal Empire (1526–1857)

The final great native empire was the Mughal Empire, founded by Babur in 1526. Under Akbar the Great (r.
1556–1605), the Mughals achieved unprecedented unity and administrative sophistication. Akbar
implemented a centralized bureaucracy, the mansabdari system of military-civil ranks, and a revenue
survey (modified zabt system). He pursued a policy of Sulh-i Kull (peace with all religions), abolished the jizya
tax on non-Muslims, and even experimented with a syncretic faith (Din-i Ilahi). Mughal art and architecture
flourished: Akbar’s tomb, Jahangir’s patronage of miniature painting, and Shah Jahan’s monumental
constructions (the Taj Mahal, Red Fort, Jama Masjid) showed high artistry. Court culture blended Persian
influence with Indian elements; Urdu (a Persianized Hindustani) evolved.

The economy under the Mughals was largely agrarian, supplemented by craft industries (textiles,
metalwork) and intra-Asian trade. India’s share of world manufacturing began to decline during late Mughal
times due to global changes, but in the 17th century it was still a major textile exporter. Science and
literature: Persian classics were written, and local languages blossomed (e.g. Tulsidas’s Ramcharitmanas).
However, by the late 17th century, central control weakened under Aurangzeb’s austere rule and long wars
(e.g. Deccan campaigns). After Aurangzeb’s death in 1707, the empire fragmented. Regional powers like the

8
Marathas (see below), Sikhs (Punjab), and European trading companies gained strength. By 1857 the
Mughal emperor was largely a figurehead; the last emperor, Bahadur Shah II, was deposed after the Indian
Revolt of 1857.

Arrival of Europeans and the Colonial Era (1498–1947)

European powers began arriving from 1498 (Vasco da Gama’s voyage) 29 . The Portuguese (Goa 1510),
Dutch, and French set up coastal trading posts. But the real power shift began in the 18th century as the
British East India Company took advantage of Mughal decline. Key battles such as Plassey (1757) and
Buxar (1764) allowed the Company to control Bengal and beyond. By 1818 the Maratha Confederacy was
defeated, making the Company supreme over nearly all of India.

The 1857 First War of Independence (Sepoy Mutiny) was a major uprising against Company rule 28 .
Sparked by military grievances and broader discontent, it briefly threatened British power in northern India.
Though ultimately crushed by 1858, it ended Company rule: the Crown assumed direct governance,
inaugurating the British Raj. Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India (1876).

Under the Raj (1858–1947) India underwent profound changes. The British built railways, telegraphs and
modern ports, and introduced cash crops for export. However, their economic policy largely deindustrialized
India: protective tariffs shut Indian textiles out of British markets, while raw cotton was imported duty-free
to Britain 29 . Indian artisans declined as British manufactures flooded the market, and peasants faced
heavy land taxes under the zamindari system. Studies show British colonial taxes took up to half of
peasants’ income in places 30 , forcing some off the land. The result was widespread rural poverty and
occasional famines. Some historians (e.g. Niall Ferguson) argue British infrastructure and irrigation
improved certain metrics, but on balance the economy shifted to meet imperial needs. Trade realigned:
India became a supplier of raw materials (cotton, indigo, jute, tea) and a consumer of British industrial
goods 29 .

At the same time, social reform movements arose. The 19th century saw the Bengal Sati Regulation (1829,
banning widow immolation) and the Hindu Widows’ Remarriage Act (1856), prompted by reformers like
Raja Ram Mohan Roy and Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar (with British support) 44 . Education in English spread
(Calcutta University 1857, etc.), producing an Indian intelligentsia. Politically, the first Indian political body,
the Indian National Congress (INC), was formed in 1885 31 , initially for moderate reform under the Raj.

Indian Freedom Movement (1885–1947)

By the late 19th and early 20th centuries, demand for self-rule grew. The INC (with leaders like Dadabhai
Naoroji, Gopal Krishna Gokhale) advocated gradual reforms. The partition of Bengal (1905–1911) stirred
mass nationalism. Mahatma Gandhi emerged after 1915 as the symbol of nonviolent resistance. He led
nationwide movements – non-cooperation (1920–22), civil disobedience (Salt March 1930), and Quit India
(1942) – involving peasants, workers and students. Other leaders (Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Patel, Subhas
Chandra Bose, B.R. Ambedkar) also played key roles, as did revolutionaries (Bhagat Singh, others) and
Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah. The movement combined Gandhian tactics with constitutional
politics.

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In the end, Britain agreed to transfer power. India achieved independence on 15 August 1947, but along
with painful Partition into predominantly Hindu India and Muslim Pakistan. The Congress Party (from INC)
led the new Indian government, implementing a secular, democratic constitution in 1950.

Society and Social Structure

Indian society has long been stratified by varna (class) and jāti (caste). The varna system first appears in
Vedic texts: it classified society into priests (Brahmins), warriors (Kshatriyas), traders (Vaishyas) and laborers
(Shudras) 8 9 . Initially perhaps fluid, this hierarchy hardened over time. By the Gupta age and later
medieval periods, the Manusmriti and Puranas codified strict caste duties. Outsider groups (tribals, later
“untouchable” castes) occupied the bottom rung. Regional variations existed, but caste endogamy and
hierarchy were pervasive from ancient through colonial times.

Gender roles have also fluctuated. In early Vedic society, some women (e.g. Brahmavadini scholars)
participated in learning, and property rights were more balanced. Over time, patriarchal norms grew
stronger: women’s inheritance rights diminished, and practices like sati (widow immolation) and child
marriage increased, especially under medieval codes. Under Mughal rule, Islamic law applied to Muslims
(including certain protections), but Hindu social norms prevailed for most. During British rule, reformers
(Rammohun Roy, Vidyasagar) campaigned against social evils. Legislation in the 19th century banned sati
(1829) and legalized widow remarriage (1856) 44 . Still, India’s patriarchy and gender inequality persisted –
infant mortality was higher for girls, and seclusion (purdah) became common among higher castes. Only in
the late 20th century did formal legal equality (inheriting property, voting) come into force.

Economic classes: Agrarian landholders (from ancient rajas to medieval zamindars and princely states)
often dominated rural economies. Artisans and merchants formed the urban middle classes. Under the Raj,
new classes emerged: Western-educated professionals and a laboring proletariat (factory and rail workers).
Class inequality was pronounced: colonial census categories solidified caste divisions and land revenue
made many peasants dependent sharecroppers.

Thus, across epochs, Indian society has been marked by entrenched inequalities: caste stratification since
Vedic times 8 , patriarchal gender norms, and class hierarchies of land and labor. These were sometimes
challenged by religions (Buddhist and Bhakti movements rejected caste rituals) and reformers, but
persisted as central features of the social fabric.

Economy and Trade: India’s economy transformed repeatedly. In ancient times it was largely agrarian with
flourishing trade (Indus trade with West Asia, Silk Road ties, S.E. Asian links via Tamil kingdoms). The
Mauryans and Guptas had state-organized taxation and long-distance trade (e.g. Indo-Roman trade in
spices and textiles). Medieval India featured the spread of money economy and ports (Calicut, Surat)
connecting with Arabia and Europe. Under the Mughals, land revenue remained the main income, but crafts
and world trade (Indian textiles in Europe, Chinese silks in India) thrived. The colonial era reversed many
local industries: India became an exporter of raw materials (cotton, jute) and a market for British
manufactures 29 . Railroads and telegraphs knitted the subcontinent together, but much wealth was
drained to Britain.

Art, Literature and Science: Each age had its cultural heights. Ancient Sanskrit and Tamil literature (Vedas,
epics, Sangam poetry), classical Indian arts (Mahabharata drama, classical dance), and science (metallurgy –
e.g. Delhi Iron Pillar – astronomy, medicine) laid foundations. The Gupta age saw Sanskrit drama (Kalidasa’s

10
Shakuntala), and numerals with zero. Medieval India produced magnificent architecture: Indo-Islamic
monuments, Rajput forts, South Indian temples (Brihadeesvara Temple, Madurai Meenakshi). Mughal court
painting and miniatures, Persian and vernacular literature (Baburnama, Rumi translations) flourished. In
the modern era, Western-style education gave rise to modern Indian science (e.g. Jagadish Chandra Bose)
and a prolific print culture; but that is beyond our historical scope to detail.

Conclusion: Over millennia, India’s history has been richly complex. From tribal stone-age societies to
mighty empires, from Bhakti devotion and Indo-Islamic synthesis to the struggle for modern democracy,
the subcontinent’s story is one of continuity and change. This overview covers key political dynasties and
cultural developments, but India’s diversity – of languages, religions, and peoples – is deeper still.
Nonetheless, the above gives a coherent narrative framework.

Sources and Further Reading: The account above draws on historical scholarship and encyclopedic
sources. In-text citations indicate origins of key facts (for example, Gupta “Golden Age” achievements 17 ,
Mauryan administration 11 , and British economic impact 29 30 ). For comprehensive study, consult
standard works on Indian history (Thapar Early India, Altekar The Vakataka-Gupta Age, Majumdar Ancient
India, Kulke & Rothermund A History of India, etc.) and specialized studies on each era. These provide
detailed analyses and primary evidence beyond this summary.

1 3 32 33 34 byjus.com
https://byjus.com/free-ias-prep/prehistoric-india-important-points/

2 Delhi Sultanate - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate

4 5 6 35 Indus Valley Civilisation - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation

7 8 9 Vedic period - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_period

10 Mahajanapadas - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahajanapadas

11 12 13 36 Maurya Empire - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurya_Empire

14 Shunga Empire - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunga_Empire

15 Menander | Indo-Greek King & Ruler of Bactria | Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Menander-Indo-Greek-king

16 Kushan Empire (ca. Second Century B.C.–Third Century A.D.) - The Metropolitan Museum of Art
https://www.metmuseum.org/essays/kushan-empire-ca-second-century-b-c-third-century-a-d

17 39 Gupta Empire - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gupta_Empire

18 19 20 40 Harsha | Indian Emperor & Buddhist Patron | Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/biography/Harsha

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21 Pallava art and architecture - Wikipedia
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pallava_art_and_architecture

22 Badami Chalukya architecture - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Badami_Chalukya_architecture

23 24 Rashtrakuta Empire - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire

25 Pala Empire - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pala_Empire

26 27 India - Vijayanagar, Empire, Deccan | Britannica

https://www.britannica.com/place/India/The-Vijayanagar-empire-1336-1646

28 Indian Rebellion of 1857 - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Rebellion_of_1857

29 30 Economy of India under the British Raj - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_India_under_the_British_Raj

31 Indian National Congress | History, Ideology, Gandhi, Elections, & Facts | Britannica
https://www.britannica.com/topic/Indian-National-Congress

37 38 Satavahana dynasty - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty

41 42 Chola Empire - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chola_Empire

43 Ahom kingdom - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahom_kingdom

44 Women in India - Wikipedia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_India

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