Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Research in Organizational Behavior

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/riob

Work and the good life: How work contributes to meaning in

life
Sarah J. Ward, Laura A. King*
University of Missouri, Columbia, United States

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Article history:
Available online 6 November 2017 Many people expect their work to provide meaning to their lives, yet the specific
organizational factors that can promote meaning in life are not clearly delineated. Drawing
on the basic science of meaning in life, in this paper we propose that work entails a host of
Keywords: experiences that foster meaning in life. We begin by defining meaning in life, noting its
Meaning in life placement within the broader well-being literature and dispelling common myths about its
Well-being rarity in people’s lives. After highlighting the myriad benefits of meaning for individuals
Work and organizations, we describe several established sources of meaning in life and their
Organizational behavior
relevance to work. We then examine how work orientations and social demographic factors
influence the propensity to seek meaning through work. We conclude with a discussion of
future research directions that can better illuminate the predictors and functions of
meaningfulness at work.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

Meaning in life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

Delineating meaning and its components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Measuring meaning in life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Meaning in life in the context of hedonic and eudaimonic well-being ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Ubiquity and benefits of meaning in life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Meaning in life is commonplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Meaning in life is important: personal and organizational benefits . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Meaning in the workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Employment and well-being . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Meaningful work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Sources of meaning, in life and at work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Happiness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Significance: mattering to the social world . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Social relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Generativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Purpose, goals, and motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Self Determination Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: kingla@missouri.edu (L.A. King).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.riob.2017.10.001
0191-3085/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
60 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82

Job crafting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Coherence and structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Financial resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Attitudes about meaning and work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Work orientations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Who is most apt to seek meaning from work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Directions for future research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Meaning and career choices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
What, specifically, promotes meaning at work? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Positive effects of meaning in the workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Components of meaning experienced in the workplace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
New methodological approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

“All goods are disguised by the vulgarity of their as “employees’ understanding of what they do at work as
concomitants, in this work-a-day world; but woe to him well as the significance of what they do” (Wrzesniewski,
who can only recognize them when he thinks them in Dutton, & Debebe, 2003, p. 99). Certainly, the meaningful-
their pure and abstract form!” (James, 1890, p. 125) ness of people’s lives is related to the meaningfulness they
attribute to their work (Lips-Wiersma & Wright, 2012;
For many people the “work-day-world” noted by
Steger, Dik, & Duffy, 2012), so we draw connections to the
William James includes work. The trappings of work life
meaningfulness of work and to work orientations when
involve a host of quotidian experiences that are rarely
relevant throughout this review (for reviews of the
considered central aspects of the good life. Indeed,
meaning of work literature, see Rosso, Dekas, & Wrzes-
fantasies of the ideal existence are likely to reflect
niewski, 2010; Wrzesniewski, 2003). Although meaning in
something more like a long vacation (Scollon & King,
life is sometimes considered a rarified experience (see
2004). The work-a-day world may include early morning
King, 2012), something above the common and ordinary,
alarm clocks, daily commutes, sharing coffee and com-
we hope to show that this experience, though “disguised in
plaints with coworkers, meeting demands, and dealing
the vulgarity of its concomitants,” likely springs from many
with e-mails and voicemails. Leaving these commitments
largely unnoticed aspects of work life.
for a weekend or holiday is often met with joy. Neverthe-
We begin by defining meaning in life, describing its
less, work occupies a central role in most people’s lives.
measurement, and placing it in the larger context of the
The experiences people encounter at work have the
science of well-being. We also briefly sketch the properties
potential to greatly improve or thwart their well-being.
and broader correlates of this construct. Then, we review
Many people expect their work to provide not only
the literature on the meaning of work. Next, we describe
financial rewards but feelings of happiness and satisfaction
the role of six factors in enhancing meaning in life, ranging
with life. Indeed, many people hope that work will provide
from the potentially trivial (e.g., positive mood) to the
life with a sense of purpose or meaning. Yet, whereas
more profound (e.g., religion). Then, we seek to link
factors related to life and job satisfaction have been probed
meaning in life to work attitudes. Finally, we offer ideas for
extensively (e.g., Duffy & Sedlacek, 2010; Judge &
future research and some closing remarks. To begin, we
Watanabe, 1993; Tenney, Poole, & Diener, 2016; Wright
take on a lingering challenge in the well-being literature,
& Bonett, 2007), the specific organizational factors that can
defining meaning in life.
promote meaning in life are largely uncharted.
In this article, drawing on the basic science of meaning
Meaning in life
in life, we argue that work entails a number of experiences
that likely foster a sense that life is meaningful. Research
Delineating meaning and its components
has begun to show that rather than being rare or
challenging to accomplish, meaning in life is supported
The meaning of life is an age old human preoccupation
by affective, social, and environmental factors that are
that is unlikely to have a settled resolution. However,
surprisingly ubiquitous (e.g., King, Heintzelman, & Ward,
within the science of well-being, meaning in life is treated
2016). Meaning in life is not only a product of profound,
as subjective state or judgment regarding how people feel
life-altering experiences but is part of the work-a-day
about their lives, rather than the broader existential
world. Grounding meaning in life in the everyday
purpose people attribute to the world or to human life
experiences of people, we consider the specific ways that
more generally (i.e., the meaning of life). Here, we present a
work can encourage meaningfulness and the benefits of
definition of meaning in life, review its measurement, and
meaning for organizations.
seek to place it in the larger well-being literature.
In this review, we focus on how work contributes to the
Meaning in life is often presented as an enigma: At once
broader meaning people ascribe to their lives, rather than
a cornerstone of well-being and simultaneously ineffable
on specific interpretations of the meaning of work, defined
(Halusic & King, 2013). This definitional ambiguity has
 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82 61

arguably impeded scholarly progress in building an (meaning in life). In the present review, we focus broadly
understanding of this important construct. Numerous on meaningfulness, the central overarching construct that
definitions have been promulgated (Heintzelman & King, encompasses feelings of purpose, significance, and coher-
2013). For instance, King and colleagues offered the ence. We refer to specific components of meaningfulness
following definition (King, Hicks, Krull, & Del Gaiso, when this level of precision is appropriate or when
2006, p. 180): “Lives may be experienced as meaningful describing literature that assessed a specific component.
when they are felt to have a significance beyond the trivial
or momentary, to have purpose, or to have a coherence that Measuring meaning in life
transcends chaos.”
A somewhat more detailed definition was proposed by Conceptual ambiguity notwithstanding, numerous
Steger (2012, p. 65): “Meaning is the web of connections, scales measuring meaning in life have been developed.
understandings, and interpretations that help us compre- These self-report measures include the Purpose in Life Test
hend our experience and formulate plans directing our (Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1964), The Life Regard Index
energies to the achievement of our desired future. Meaning (Battista & Almond, 1973), the Sense of Coherence Scale
provides us with the sense that our lives matter, that they (Antonovsky, 1987), the Meaningful Life Measure (Morgan
make sense, and that they are more than the sum of our & Farsides, 2009), and the Personal Meaning Profile (Wong,
seconds, days, and years.” 1998). The most widely used and well-validated (Brand-
Even these disparate and rather abstract definitions stätter, Baumann, Borasio, & Fegg, 2012) contemporary
have commonalities. Indeed, considering the many ways measure used to assess global feelings of personal meaning
that meaning has been defined, scholars have reached a is the presence of meaning subscale of the Meaning in Life
consensus that the experience of meaning includes (at Questionnaire (MLQ; Steger et al., 2006). This measure
least) three components: purpose, significance, and assesses meaning with five face valid items pertaining to
coherence (Heintzelman & King, 2013; King et al., 2006; one’s evaluation of life’s meaningfulness, such as “I have
Martela & Steger, 2016). Purpose in life involves having discovered a satisfying life purpose” and “I understand my
goals, a sense of direction, or a mission in life (Reker, 1992). life’s meaning.” In sum, then, when researchers talk about
Significance reflects feeling that one matters to the social meaning in life, they are referring to a subjective
world and is valued in social roles. Significance also assessment provided in answer to the (potentially
includes an emphasis on generativity, which involves deceptively) simple question, “How meaningful is my
making important contributions that will extend beyond life?” Although such ratings may seem rather trivial in the
one’s personal existence (Cox, Wilt, Olson, & McAdams, context of one of life’s central existential questions, these
2010). Reker (1992) defined coherence as a feeling of order, ratings have been shown to predict important outcomes, as
consisting of an integrated and perceptive understanding reviewed later.
of the self and the world, as well as feeling that life makes
sense. A sense of coherence involves perceiving one’s Meaning in life in the context of hedonic and eudaimonic
world as comprehensible, manageable, and meaningful well-being
(Antonovsky, 1979, 1987).
These components of meaning in life—purpose, signifi- Understanding the place of meaning in life within the
cance, and coherence—clearly share considerable concep- broader well-being literature requires a short history of its
tual overlap. Consider that working in a context that theoretical treatment. The well-being literature is often
“makes sense,” in which one’s efforts pay off in accom- characterized in terms of two types of well-being, hedonic
plishments, is likely a prerequisite for fully engaging in and eudaimonic (e.g., Huta & Waterman, 2014; Ryan &
one’s goals in that context. Recognition for accomplish- Deci, 2001). Hedonic well-being generally involves
ments, in turn, feeds a sense of significance. Successfully experiencing positive affect and avoiding negative affect,
pursuing goals likely influences the extent to which one as well as subjective evaluations of life (life satisfaction)
matters to the context. Similarly, those who feel a high (e.g., Kahneman, Diener, & Schwarz, 1999). Eudaimonic
level of significance may be more likely to engage fully approaches emphasize that well-being extends beyond
with goals. It may be that the feeling of meaningfulness personal feelings of happiness and involves personal
emerges from related but separable experiences (Heintzel- growth and virtuous pursuits (Ryff, 1989; Singer, 1998a,
man & King, 2014a). Indeed, empirically, purpose, signifi- 1998b; Singer, 1998a, 1998b). Importantly, meaning in life
cance, and coherence are strongly correlated with each is typically included as an aspect of eudaimonia (e.g., Huta
other. Psychometric investigations support a hierarchical & Waterman, 2014).
structure, such that purpose, significance, and coherence Eudaimonic well-being might be thought of as well-
represent lower order factors, feeding into an overarching, being in “its pure and abstract form”—unsullied by worldly
global sense of meaning in life (e.g., Krause & Hayward, concerns (Ward & King, 2016a). Because eudaimonic
2014). Often, purpose and meaning in life have been used approaches emphasize well-being that extends beyond
synonymously in past research (e.g., Reker & Peacock, the self, they are often conceptualized as morally superior
1981). Although conceptualizations of purpose have to hedonic well-being. For instance, Huta and Waterman
sometimes emphasized goal-directedness more strongly (2014, p. 1427) considered eudaimonic well-being to
than conceptualizations of meaning (Martela & Steger, capture a suite of motivations representing “the best
2016), generally in research and theory both refer to the within us,” in contrast to the inherently personal and
same construct and phenomenological experience potentially selfish nature of hedonic well-being.
62 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82

In contrast to the theoretical notion that eudaimonic that this aspect of well-being is somehow more esoteric,
well-being is less subjective than hedonic states, both are rare, and less useful to our understanding of the work-a-
overwhelmingly measured using self-reports and reflect day world in which most people live. Thus, we turn to two
internal feelings about people’s lives. Although, theoreti- important concerns. First, is the experience of meaning in
cally, hedonic and eudaimonic well-being ought to be life, in fact, rare? And, second, is there value in the
separable by their antecedents (Waterman, 1993), no experience of meaning in life? We answer these questions
evidence exists supporting the notion that these types of in turn.
well-being differ qualitatively from each other (Kashdan,
Biswas-Diener, & King, 2008). Rather, engaging in eudai- Meaning in life is commonplace
monic pursuits has been found to lead to quantitatively
higher levels of self-reported (hedonic) well-being (Wa- Psychologists have often portrayed meaning in life as
terman, 1993). In addition, many activities lead to both chronically lacking in people’s lives (e.g., Yalom, 1980).
positive emotions and enhanced meaning in life. For Certainly, just perusing the headlines or one’s twitter feed,
instance, prosocial actions predict increases in both it is not difficult to get the sense that there is little sense to
positive emotions and meaning in life (Nelson, Layous, be found in life. Moreover, the popularity of self-help
Cole, & Lyubomirsky, 2016; Van Tongeren, Green, Davis, resources promising a more meaningful or purposeful life
Hook, & Hulsey, 2016), demonstrating that actions that suggest that people are, indeed, searching for meaning. If
provide benefits beyond the self are not only related to meaning in life is thought to occupy a place in eudaimonic
eudaimonic forms of well-being but to hedonic well-being well-being we might expect it to be less common than
as well. happiness or positive mood, variables that are emblematic
Although eudaimonic and hedonic well-being are often of hedonic well-being. Yet, it is an empirical question
treated as theoretically distinct, empirical research sug- whether the sense that life is meaningful is, in fact, lacking
gests they are highly correlated and not qualitatively in most people’s lives. Heintzelman and King (2014b)
distinct (for reviews, see Biswas-Diener, Kashdan, & King, reviewed several sources of evidence to address the
2009; Kashdan et al., 2008). As an example, a study of over question, How meaningful is life, on average? They found
7,000 people in 109 different countries provided strong that the answer to this question was a potentially
support in favor of eudaimonic and hedonic well-being surprising, “pretty meaningful.”
variables representing one overarching well-being con- Evidence for the notion that meaning in life is
struct (Disabato, Goodman, Kashdan, Short, & Jarden, commonplace can be found in representative samples of
2016). The latent constructs representing hedonic and Americans in which the level of meaning (or purpose) in
eudaimonic well-being in structural equation models were life has been reported to be significantly above the
very strongly correlated, r = .96, and exhibited minimal midpoint of ratings scales (see Heintzelman & King,
evidence of discriminant validity (Disabato et al., 2016). 2014b for a review). A particularly intriguing example is
This strong correlation may reflect shared method variance provided by the Gallup Global Poll, which involved a
between the constructs, as both are measured via self- representative sample of participants from 132 nations
report. Clearly, meaning in life is best considered a part of a (N = 137,678; Oishi & Diener, 2014) who responded to the
broader suite of variables representing positive psycho- question, “Do you feel your life has an important purpose
logical functioning, rather than qualitatively different from or meaning?”. The percentage of respondents answering
more hedonic forms of well-being. yes (averaged across nations) was 91% (Oishi & Diener,
Just as eudaimonic and hedonic well-being are highly 2014).
related, the lower order variables considered representa- Additional evidence that life is pretty meaningful
tive of each would be expected to be associated. Indeed, comes from the body of research on meaning in life that
meaning in life, life satisfaction, and positive affect are all has accrued over the last several decades. Compiling this
moderately correlated with each other (e.g., Disabato et al., literature across two measures of meaning (including the
2016; King et al., 2006; Steger et al., 2006; Zika & Purpose in Life Test and MLQ presence subscale described
Chamberlain, 1992), each representing a specific aspect above), Heintzelman and King (2014b) found that, on a
of psychological well-being (e.g., Ryff & Keyes, 1995). scale from 1 to 7, means were typically and significantly
Research reviewed below suggests that the boundary above the midpoint of the scales (modal ratings of 5 for
between eudaimonic and hedonic well-being ought to be Purpose in Life Test and 4.5 for MLQ presence subscale).
considered quite permeable (or in fact artificial), and, as we These ratings are notable because they were drawn from
will see, variables emblematic of each form of well-being diverse samples. Even among samples of individuals
may causally impact each other. diagnosed with a serious psychological disorder or
physical illness, meaning in life was rated significantly
Ubiquity and benefits of meaning in life above the midpoint of the 7-point scale. Thus, in variety of
contexts, life appears to be experienced as pretty
Research on meaning in life, both in psychology and meaningful.
organizational behavior, has proliferated at a slower rate Of course, there is variability of meaning in life, just as
than research on life satisfaction and happiness, perhaps there is for any aspect of well-being. But the results of these
due to conceptual issues regarding the precise nature of analyses suggest that meaning in life should not be
meaning as noted above. In some ways, the placement of considered an unsolvable mystery or an aspect of well-
meaning in life on a eudaimonic pedestal has led to a sense being reserved only for the introspective or elite. Rather,
 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82 63

meaning in life appears to be a relatively common one’s life can have wide ranging effects on performance
experience. This fact is important because, as we consider and motivation, suggesting the organizational importance
next, meaning in life is a vital aspect of well-being. of understanding how to improve well-being as well as the
need to investigate whether meaning in life is predictive of
Meaning in life is important: personal and organizational positive outcomes in the workplace. Moreover, research
benefits might probe whether a sense of meaning mediates the
relationships between positive emotions or life satisfaction
Research using self-reported meaning in life has found and work outcomes.
that perceiving one’s life as meaningful benefits both The indispensable value of meaning is recognized not
psychological and physical health. Meaning in life is only within the theoretical and empirical literature, but
positively associated with several markers of psychological also by everyday people who strive for a life of meaning.
well-being, including higher life satisfaction and positive People recognize that, along with happiness, meaning in
affect (e.g., Steger et al., 2006; Zika & Chamberlain, 1992). life is a critical component of what they consider a good,
Meaning is negatively correlated with indicators of poor desirable life (e.g., King & Napa, 1998). Many people look to
psychological well-being, specifically negative affect, their careers for a source of meaning, given the high
depression, anxiety, general psychological distress, and amounts of time most people spend at work. Workplaces
posttraumatic stress disorder (e.g., Mascaro & Rosen, 2005; that are believed to encourage personal meaning and
Owens, Steger, Whitesell, & Herrera, 2009; Steger, Mann, happiness will consequently be viewed as more desirable
Michels, & Cooper, 2009; Zika & Chamberlain, 1992). In the and may foster higher workplace commitment and
realm of physical health, meaning is associated, prospec- motivation. Next, we review research on the importance
tively, with lower mortality rates, lower risks of cardio- of work for well-being before outlining the factors that can
vascular health problems, lower risk of Alzheimer’s promote meaning in life and contextualizing these in
disease, and slower age-related cognitive impairment organizations.
(e.g., Boyle, Buchman, Barnes, & Bennett, 2010; Boyle
et al., 2012; Hill & Turiano, 2014; Kim, Sun, Park, Meaning in the workplace
Kubzansky, & Peterson, 2013; Kim, Sun, Park, & Peterson,
2013). Clearly, meaning in life is associated with a variety of Whereas meaning and flourishing within the workplace
positive markers of psychological and physical health. once received scant empirical attention, organizational
As noted earlier, meaning in life has not been studied scholars have become increasingly interested in identify-
extensively within the organizational literature, yet there ing how organizations and work can contribute to well-
is indirect evidence for its benefits to organizations. Most being (e.g., Cameron, Dutton, & Quinn, 2003). This
of the research on meaning in the workplace has focused heightened interest in the domain of positive organiza-
on how meaningful people find their work, rather than on tional scholarship is unsurprising considering the well-
meaning in life, broadly. This research has demonstrated being benefits of work and the fact that many people are
that perceiving one’s work as meaningful is associated expecting their work to provide a sense of meaning. Prior
with a host of positive outcomes, both for individuals and to delving into the specific factors that may influence
for organizations. People who find their work meaningful meaning in life in the workplace, we address an important
exhibit higher work engagement, more organizational initial consideration: Do people who work have better
commitment, and higher job satisfaction (e.g., May, Gilson, well-being than the unemployed? We then turn to
& Harter, 2004; Geldenhuys, Laba, & Venter, 2014; Steger examine the conceptualization and benefits of meaningful
et al., 2012). Perceiving one’s work as meaningful is also work, a topic that has understandably received more
linked to individual well-being, including higher meaning attention within the organizational literature than the
in life and life satisfaction, as well as lower depression and study of meaning in life, more broadly construed. Because
hostility (e.g., Lips-Wiersma & Wright, 2012; Steger et al., meaning in life has been studied less often than other
2012). If income is a proxy for success in the workplace, it is aspects of well-being, namely life satisfaction and happi-
notable that a recent longitudinal study showed that a ness, throughout this review we highlight findings from
strong sense of purpose predicted greater lifetime earnings these other aspects of well-being when relevant, given
(Hill, Turiano, Mroczek, & Burrow, 2016). their association with meaning and their obvious relevance
In contrast to the dearth of research on meaning, to well-being (e.g., Disabato et al., 2016; King et al., 2006;
organizational research has probed the effects of positive Steger et al., 2006; Zika & Chamberlain, 1992).
moods and life satisfaction extensively. Because meaning
in life shares a moderate association with both positive Employment and well-being
affect and life satisfaction (e.g., Disabato et al., 2016; Steger
et al., 2006), it may relate to outcomes in a similar manner It is well-established that people who are employed
to these well-being variables. Positive affect and life have higher psychological well-being than people who are
satisfaction predict a host of beneficial outcomes, includ- unemployed (e.g., Brief, Konovsky, Goodwin, & Link, 1995;
ing job performance, job satisfaction, self-regulation, Clark & Oswald, 1994; Lucas, Clark, Georgellis, & Diener,
creativity, and positive social relationships, as well as 2004; Frey & Stutzer, 2002; McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg, &
lower absenteeism (for reviews see Lyubomirsky, King, & Kinicki, 2005). Although research examining how employ-
Diener, 2005; Tenney et al., 2016). As these examples ment relates specifically to meaning in life is sparse (Ward
illustrate, being in a good mood and feeling satisfied with & King, in press), unemployment is known to predict a host
64 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82

of negative well-being outcomes. Compared to the majority (63%) continued working full time at the same
unemployed, people who are employed have lower odds organization they were employed at prior to winning, and
of depression and anxiety, as well as higher life satisfaction only 15% stopped working altogether (Arvey et al., 2004).
and happiness (e.g., see McKee-Ryan et al., 2005 for a These studies demonstrate that most people value their
meta-analysis; Lucas et al., 2004; Theodossiou, 1998). work for benefits beyond simply financial rewards.
These negative consequences of unemployment hold even
when controlling for decreases in income faced during Meaningful work
unemployment (Clark & Oswald, 2002; Lucas et al., 2004),
though economic deprivation plays a sizable role in well- The previous examples illustrate the broad benefits of
being decrements experienced during unemployment work for well-being. Of course, not all work is experi-
(Brief et al., 1995). enced as enjoyable or meaningful, and many people find
Unemployment may differ from other negative life their work tedious, lacking the motivation to perform
events in terms of its implications for well-being. Although well. What distinguishes meaningful work from that
people tend to adapt to some negative life events, experienced as unimportant? Recently, research on the
returning to their previous baseline level of well-being importance of meaningful work and the attributes
(i.e., hedonic treadmill; Brickman & Campbell, 1971), people associate with work they find meaningful has
unemployment exhibits an enduring negative influence proliferated (e.g., Cartwright & Holmes, 2006; Fairlie,
on well-being (Clark, Diener, Georgellis, & Lucas, 2008), 2011; Geldenhuys et al., 2014; Lips-Wiersma & Wright,
and is even more deleterious than other personally 2012; Pratt & Ashforth, 2003; Steger et al., 2012).
distressing events, including divorce and separation (e.g., Scholars have also begun to consider the wide ranging
Oswald, 1994, 2002; Oswald, 1994, 2002). Further, organizational features and processes that can promote
unemployment may alter a person’s baseline level of life meaningful work, including leadership, recruitment, job
satisfaction: A longitudinal study showed that after crafting, and organizational culture (Pratt & Ashforth,
becoming employed again following unemployment, 2003). Within the past decade, three multidimensional
people did not return to their previous levels of life scales have been developed to measure meaningful work
satisfaction and instead exhibited lower life satisfaction (Fairlie, 2010; Lips-Wiersma & Wright, 2012; Steger et al.,
than before their unemployment (Lucas et al., 2004). 2012). The definitions of meaningful work adopted by
Unlike other setbacks in life, loss of employment may these scholars are reminiscent of components of general
thwart well-being in a manner from which it is difficult to meaning in life. Steger et al. (2012) definition of
recover and may potentially “reset” a person’s well-being meaningful work involves three components: believing
baseline, demonstrating how essential employment is to that one has found a meaningful career that contributes
positive psychological functioning. to one’s life purpose, perceiving one’s work as contrib-
Although unemployment clearly impedes well-being uting to personal growth and one’s understanding of the
(Clark & Oswald, 1994; Lucas et al., 2004), retirement from world, and believing that one’s work serves a greater
the workforce exhibits more inconsistent effects on well- purpose. These features of meaningful work closely
being, and the relationship between retirement and well- resemble the components of meaning in life—purpose,
being is likely to be moderated by other factors (Kim & coherence, and significance.
Moen, 2001). People who are involuntarily retired or those Other operationalizations of meaningful work capture
whose identities are strongly based on their work (work similar components. Lips-Wiersma and Wright’s (2012)
centrality) exhibited poorer well-being than those who conceptualization of meaningful work involves expressing
were satisfied with their choice to retire (e.g., Bonsang & one’s full potential, serving and being unified with others,
Klein, 2012; Gall, Evans, & Howard, 1997; Wang & Shi, feeling inspired, and developing one’s inner self. Similarly,
2014; Warr, Butcher, Robertson, & Callinan, 2004). Just as Fairlie (2010, 2011) conceived of meaningful work as
economic resources and social relationships are associated involving the opportunity to self-actualize through work,
with meaning in life more generally, as we will later have a positive social impact, fulfill one’s purpose, and feel
describe (e.g., Hicks & King, 2009; Kobau, Sniezek, Zack, a sense of accomplishment.
Lucas, & Burns, 2010; Lambert et al., 2013; Ward & King, Finding work meaningful exerts a sizeable influence on
2016b), they also appear to promote better retirement people’s motivation at the workplace. Several studies in
outcomes. Retirees’ financial resources and the quality of diverse occupational settings have demonstrated a link
their social relationships and marriage predict more between work engagement and perceptions of meaningful
successful adjustment to retirement (e.g., Kim & Moen, work (e.g., Fairlie, 2011; Geldenhuys et al., 2014; Lips-
2001). Wiersma & Wright, 2012; May et al., 2004; Steger, Littman-
Additional evidence for the importance of work in Ovadia, Miller, Menger, & Rothmann, 2013). In addition to
people’s lives comes from research investigating whether better work engagement, meaningful work was also
people would still work if they could financially afford to associated with higher commitment to one’s career and
not work. These studies have repeatedly shown that a organization as well as higher job satisfaction (e.g., Fairlie,
majority of people say that would still choose to work even 2011; Steger et al., 2012). Meaningful work may also
if they did not need the income (e.g., Arvey, Harpaz, & Liao, facilitate improved social functioning at the workplace,
2004; Highhouse, Zickar, & Yankelevich, 2010; Morse & including better relationships with coworkers and super-
Weiss, 1955). One study provided evidence of these visors (May et al., 2004), as well as a higher incidence of
inclinations: Among a sample of 185 lottery winners, a organizational citizenship behaviors (Steger et al., 2012).
 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82 65

Meaningful work is also linked to fewer negative use their current mood to guide assessments of their life
outcomes in life and in the workplace, including lower (e.g., Schwarz & Strack, 1999) and that positive affect may
depressive symptoms, hostility, burnout, exhaustion, provide a sign that one’s life is going well, King et al. (2006)
absenteeism, and intentions to leave one’s organization predicted that positive affect would lead to higher
(Fairlie, 2011; Lips-Wiersma & Wright, 2012; Steger et al., meaning in life. Positive affect was strongly related to
2012). Finding one’s work meaningful may also allow meaning in correlational data (Study 1; King et al., 2006).
people to better undertake challenging tasks. In a sample Interestingly, a daily diary study showed that the strongest
of deployed soldiers, finding one’s work meaningful was predictor of daily meaning was not the amount of goal-
related to deriving more long-term benefits from deploy- directed behavior that day (nor any of the other daily
ment, including an increased ability to deal with stress and factors considered) but rather the amount of positive affect
a better appreciation for one’s life and job (Britt, Adler, experienced that day (Study 2; King et al., 2006).
Bartone, 2001). Of course, correlational data are ambiguous with regard
The myriad examples above illustrate the suite of to causal direction and it is entirely plausible that high
personal and organizational benefits of meaningful work. levels of meaning in life lead to higher levels of happiness.
Most important for the present review, finding one’s work However, and importantly, the potency of positive mood in
meaningful is also correlated with meaning in life (e.g., bolstering meaning has been repeatedly demonstrated in
Lips-Wiersma & Wright, 2012; Steger et al., 2012). People experiments. Experimental inductions of positive affect
who find their work meaningful also tend to find their life using priming with positive words, positive stories, or
meaningful. recalled happy experiences have all been shown to
increase meaning in life (Studies 4 and 5, King et al.,
Sources of meaning, in life and at work 2006; Study 2, Ward & King, 2016b). Feeling happy makes
life feel more meaningful.
The preceding examples exemplify that work is an One potential interpretation of the strong link between
important contributor to well-being and the pursuit of a positive mood and meaning in life is that people are using
meaningful life. When people find their work and their their current good mood as a quick heuristic for how
lives meaningful, they not only experience higher well- meaningful their life is, rather than think more deeply
being, but they also exhibit improved motivation and about whether their life is meaningful. However, research
performance in the workplace. People’s experiences at suggests that this is unlikely to be the case. Trent and King
work can impinge on meaning and well-being in numerous (2010) conducted an experiment in which participants
ways. Employment enables the pursuit of important goals, were assigned randomly to complete measures of meaning
fosters generativity, facilitates positive achievement-relat- in life either very fast, thoughtfully (after taking time to
ed feelings, and provides structure and coherence to one’s think about items “carefully”), or with no special
life. Employment also involves tangible economic rewards instructions. Positive affect (measured prior to the
and incentives that can bolster meaning in life. These manipulation) was more strongly tied to meaning in the
features of work that can enhance meaning accord with thoughtful experimental condition than the fast/control
the everyday sources of meaning identified in past conditions, demonstrating that this association is not due
research. to people relying on mood as a quick heuristic of how
In the next section, we review research on factors that meaningful their lives are. Instead, positive mood appears
are known to facilitate meaning in life, and we describe to be an important aspect of whether people consider their
how these are relevant to people’s experiences in the lives meaningful.
workplace. In all, we describe the contributions of six Many of the studies reviewed above relied on young
factors that have been identified as promoting meaning in adult samples. Perhaps young people are somehow more
life: happiness, social connections and generativity, goals prone to base a sense of meaning in life on simple
and motivation, coherence and structure, financial resour- happiness. Is it possible that the strong relationship
ces, and religion. As we describe these various factors, it is between positive mood and meaning in life applies only
important to keep in mind that they likely overlap with to undergraduate samples? Quite the contrary, in a series
each other in important ways. Throughout the discussion, of experiments, Hicks and co-workers (2012) demonstrat-
we also suggest how meaning in life may benefit ed that positive affect is more strongly tied to meaning in
workplace motivation, performance, and satisfaction, life among older adults and among people who perceive
illustrating that meaning not only benefits individual themselves as having minimal time left to live and achieve
well-being but provides benefits to organizations. their goals. One implication for organizational scholars is
that people nearing retirement may thus find work that is
Happiness personally enjoyable to promote a stronger sense of
meaning than younger people. It may be that with age,
Feeling happy and perceiving one’s life as meaningful the “meaning of life” becomes a simpler proposition and
are important aspects of naïve notions of a desirable life simple pleasures become increasingly definitive of what is
(e.g., King & Napa, 1998). Despite early contention and meaningful.
theoretical arguments that meaning and happiness repre- The association between experienced happiness and
sent vastly different types of well-being (as reviewed meaning in life within the workplace has not yet been
above), these components of well-being are deeply investigated, but given the strong association between
interconnected. Building on the notion that people may happiness and meaning (King et al., 2006), we may expect
66 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82

that experiences of happiness and meaning likely co-occur the task. In contrast, among people who completed the
at work and produce similar outcomes. Indeed, people who more meaningful task, positive mood was positively
take great enjoyment in their work, such as an artist or associated with perceived meaningfulness. Thus, positive
carpenter, are likely to experience it as highly meaningful. moods may enable people to discriminate between
Measures of happiness, including positive affect and life meaningful and meaningless tasks. These results suggest
satisfaction, are associated with numerous markers of that different types of positive affect (induced versus
workplace success, including higher work engagement, dispositional) can have divergent effects on people’s
better performance, and stronger organizational commit- interpretations and motivation towards meaningful versus
ment (e.g., Field & Buitendach, 2011; Fisher, 2010; more meaningless tasks. Just making people happy in a
Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; Staw & Cohen-Charash, 2005). way that is not directly related to a task may not transform
The associations between happiness and performance are a patently meaningless, boring task, into a meaningful one.
typically small to moderate (for a review see Tenney et al., Rather, momentary positive affect may enhance a person’s
2016), suggesting that perhaps there are moderators of this sensitivity to the inherent meaningfulness of any activity
relationship, one of which may be the experience of (King et al., 2006).
meaning in life. Life satisfaction and positive affect have Positive affect comes from many different sources but
also been linked to job satisfaction and perceiving work as one of the most robust predictors of positive mood is social
meaningful (Steger et al., 2012; Tenney et al., 2016), interaction. Next we review the evidence for the role of
demonstrating that people who are generally happy also social connections in the meaningful life.
tend to be happy with their work and believe it provides an
outlet for meaning-making. Much of this research on Significance: mattering to the social world
happiness and workplace outcomes is correlational, and it
is easy to imagine that satisfaction with one’s life and with Social connections are a very strong predictor of well-
one’s career share a reciprocal relationship, each reinforc- being generally and they play an important role in the
ing each other. Meaning in life may similarly share a experience of one’s life as meaningful. Being socially
bidirectional relationship with positive work outcomes, as excluded has a profound effect on a person’s sense of his or
it is likely to be enhanced by success at work as well as her existence as meaningful (Williams, 2007a, 2007b).
encourage further motivation towards goal pursuit (e.g., Moreover, research has demonstrated that even very
Emmons, 2003; Machell et al., 2015). subtle rejection, as having someone forget one’s name,
Although the association between positive affect and can damage the sense that life is meaningful (King & Geise,
meaning in life is generally straightforward, positive 2011). Work is a context in which individuals have an
moods share a more complex relationship with the opportunity to matter and to obtain feedback on their own
attitudes people have towards specific tasks. Research indispensability. Work can allow us to provide for our
has demonstrated that induced and dispositional positive loved ones, to extend the self through professional identity,
affect can influence people’s attitudes about the meaning- and to build a legacy for the future. Here we review two
fulness of tasks and work engagement. In a sample of broad indications of personal significance: social relation-
workers in diverse occupations, people with more positive ships and generativity.
affective dispositions—higher proneness to experience
positive attitudes towards various objects and topics— Social relationships
exhibited higher work engagement than those with low A wealth of research demonstrates that social relation-
positive affective dispositions when work was considered ships are an important source of and contributor to
to have low meaning (Steger et al., 2013). However, when meaning in life. Feeling that one is accepted and cared for
people perceived their work as having high meaning, by their social group, referred to as relatedness need
positive affective dispositions were unrelated to work satisfaction, is related to higher meaning in life (Hicks &
engagement. People who have a generally positive King, 2009; Hicks, Schlegel, & King, 2010). Similarly, a
disposition appear to have stronger motivation towards sense of belongingness—feeling that one accords with the
their work, regardless of whether they interpret the work people they know and in the social roles they occupy—has
as meaningful. been found to predict meaning in life in studies using
Whereas positive affective dispositions facilitate work correlational, experimental, and longitudinal designs
engagement even when the work is considered lacking in (Lambert et al., 2013). Conversely, feelings of loneliness
meaning, induced positive affect appears to make people (such as those elicited by social exclusion) lead to lower
less prone to find meaning in relatively meaningless tasks. meaning in life (Stillman et al., 2009). People’s sense of
King et al. (2006; Study 6) examined whether positive meaning is highly attuned to their acceptance within the
moods affect the meaning people perceive in meaningful social sphere and thus meaning is likely to suffer when
versus meaningless tasks After reporting their current people feel they are not adequately accepted, appreciated,
mood, participants in this experiment were randomly or acknowledged by others.
assigned to either a meaningful or meaningless task Family relationships provide an especially potent
(pondering important passages vs. counting the number of source of meaning. In a study of young adults, 68% chose
“e’s” in them), and then completed ratings of how their families as the most important contributor to their
meaningful they considered the task. Among people personal meaning in life (Study 1; Lambert et al., 2010). In
assigned to complete the meaningless task, positive mood another study, people selected their family as the most
was negatively related to the perceived meaningfulness of important source of meaning in relation to other potential
 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82 67

sources of meaning, including religion, personal growth, and actions that convey social disaffirmation at work are
and helping others, to name a few (Study 2; Lambert et al., likely to lower an employee’s feelings of significance and
2010). Positive relationships with one’s family also worth in the organization, as well as the specific meanings
contribute to higher meaningfulness (Lambert et al., people attach to their role at work (Wrzesniewski et al.,
2010). These results demonstrate how social relationships, 2003). It is thus important for organizations—and individ-
particularly familial bonds, are a robust source of meaning uals within these organizations—to foster organizational
in life, even when considered alongside other critical contexts that encourage positive social interactions that
features of life considered to contribute to meaning. reinforce employees’ value to the organization. Affirming
Just as social belongingness in general can promote social interactions can promote higher meaningfulness at
meaning (Lambert et al., 2013), positive social relation- work and, in turn, reinforce standards for courteous
ships at work can improve well-being and meaning. Ragins interpersonal interactions (Wrzesniewski et al., 2003).
and Button (2007, p. 5) maintained that positive relation- Discrimination faced at work is likely to have an especially
ships are “the means by which work is done and meaning is pernicious effect on meaning and psychological well-being
found in organizations.” The myriad social interactions an (e.g., Pascoe & Smart Richman, 2009; Schmitt, Branscombe,
employee has at work exert strong influences on employ- Postmes, & Garcia, 2014). People who perceive their
ees’ perceived significance and meaning of their lives and workplace or specific individuals within their workplace
of their work (e.g., Dutton, 2003; Wrzesniewski et al., as discriminatory are likely to experience a lower sense of
2003). Positive interpersonal interactions can promote a belongingness, which hinders meaning (Lambert et al.,
sense of personal value and worth to the organization 2013).
(Dutton, 2003). Feeling social connected and accepted by In addition to negative social interactions thwarting
one’s coworkers is also linked to greater job satisfaction meaning, occupations that offer minimal social interaction
and performance (e.g., Baard, Deci, & Ryan, 2004; Ilardi, may also be detrimental to meaning, as loneliness and
Leone, Kasser, & Ryan, 1993). Organizational climates that social exclusion decrease meaning (e.g., Hicks & King,
foster supportive interactions can help workers to form 2009; Stillman et al., 2009). People who have minimal
essential social bonds that provide encouragement, social interactions at work, either as a result of frequently
motivation, and meaning. telecommunicating, completing isolating tasks, or working
Emerging evidence has begun to suggest that meaning at a very small company, can experience lower well-being
in life may also benefit social interactions. Among a and worse relationships with coworkers (e.g., Gajendran &
sample of white adults, purpose in life was found to Harrison, 2007; Grant, Wallace, & Spurgeon, 2013). Indeed,
increase comfort with ethnically diverse interactions and some occupations are inherently solitary, such as being a
living in a diverse environment (e.g., Burrow & Hill, 2013; truck driver, writer, or actuary, and people in these
Burrow, Stanley, Sumner, & Hill, 2014). People with a occupations are likely to derive their social belongingness
strong purpose in life may be better able to thrive in from relationships outside of work.
diverse environments because they are more strongly
focused on broader collective goals that benefit society Generativity
(Burrow et al., 2014). Interestingly, meaning in life also Work not only provides a context for important social
promotes social appeal: In two studies, people with high relationships, but along with parenting (Morfei, Hooker,
meaning in life were rated by observers as being more Carpenter, Mix & Blakeley, 2004), it is a key way that
likeable and desirable potential friends than people with individuals contribute to the world in a larger sense (Clark
low meaning (Stillman, Lambert, Fincham, Baumeister, & Arnold, 2008). Generativity involves a person’s interest
2011). This association held when controlling for relevant in and dedication to benefitting future generations
personality factors (e.g., extraversion, agreeableness, self- (Erikson, 1963; McAdams, 2006). Generativity concerns
esteem) and happiness of the target. People may be serve as a motivational force, guiding which goals people
drawn to those who appear purposeful and confident in prioritize and pursue. Concerns with generativity can lead
their actions. The social appeal of meaning has not yet people to strive to make a broader impact to the world
been studied within organizational settings, yet an through their contributions at work, in civic engagement,
interesting application of these findings would be to and to their families and friends. People with high
examine whether they extend to leadership: Are leaders generativity perceive their futures with optimism, be-
with higher meaning in life perceived by observers as lieving that their legacies will outlast their life and benefit
more likeable and competent compared to those with future generations (McAdams, 2006). Engaging in activi-
lower meaning? Leaders with a high sense of meaning ties that are believed to promote generativity instills a
may convey more confidence and ambition in their sense of significance and purpose to one’s life, making
speech or behavior, leading to admiration from others in people feel that their contributions extend beyond the
the workplace. self and that their existence is serving broader and
The power of social relationships to create meaning in potentially profound goals (de St. Aubin, 2013).
the workplace implies as well that negative social The workplace provides many opportunities for
experiences at work are thus likely to impair meaning. experiencing generativity through one’s direct work
Negative social interactions can damage performance and contributions and the social relationships formed in this
psychological well-being (Dutton, 2003). Employees’ context. Imbuing work projects and even small tasks with a
perceptions of their worth within their organization are larger focus on their benefits to society can help people to
often gleaned from their social interactions. Statements feel that their work is valuable to others and will have a
68 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82

positive impact. Workplace social relationships involving Purpose, goals, and motivation
training and mentoring are also integral to experiencing
one’s work and life as significant. Feeling that one has Goals represent concrete examples of the desired
made important contributions at work can leave a lasting objectives and events people believe will lend purpose
sense of generativity that extends into retirement. For to their lives and therefore provide an important source of
instance, past experience with mentoring others in the meaning (e.g., Emmons, 2003). Goals also provide motiva-
workplace predicted higher generativity and meaning tion and order to people’s lives, guiding them towards
among a sample of retired adults (Miranda-Chan & actions that are imbued with personal significance and
Nakamura, 2015). value (e.g., Emmons, 2003). Pursuing goals that one finds
People are likely to be concerned about their overall personally valuable improves well-being (e.g., Sheldon &
contribution to the world throughout multiple stages in Elliot, 1999), including meaning in life (e.g., Emmons,
life, but considerations of generativity heighten as people 2003; King et al., 2006). Success or failure at living up to
reach middle and late adulthood (e.g., McAdams, 2006). one’s goals can also influence fluctuations in meaning. A
As people age, they become increasingly concerned with two-week study of people’s daily experiences demonstrat-
the legacy and generativity of their life and work, placing ed that events related to achievement increased daily
more emphasis on goals that offer meaningful outcomes meaning, even when controlling for mood (Machell,
rather than more individualistic pursuits (e.g., Lang & Kashdan, Short, & Nezlek, 2015). In contrast, experiencing
Carstensen, 2002; McAdams, 2006; Ng & Feldman, 2010). negative achievement-related events predicted decreases
Just as people’s concerns about generativity are likely to in daily meaning. People’s daily well-being and meaning is
increase as they get older, meaning is also likely to tied to their ability to achieve valued goals and feel
heighten with age. Older people tend to report higher accomplished; if these goals are thwarted, people will
meaning in life than younger people, who are more likely experience momentary feelings of lower meaning and
to report searching for meaning (Steger, Oishi, & Kashdan, happiness. Such feelings may play an important role in
2009). The higher meaning among older adults may be self-regulation (e.g., in redoubled efforts or goal disengage-
due to older adults’ stronger sense of generativity, having ment).
had a chance to contribute to the next generation. Older The workplace is an important domain for goal pursuit
adults also prioritize jobs that offer the opportunity to and personal growth, as people have ample opportunities
train younger employees as a means of promoting to gain knowledge, master new tasks, and tackle novel
generativity (Mor-Barak, 1995). These findings suggest challenges, all of which can promote feelings of personal
that it may be valuable to emphasize and offer more achievement. Constantly tackling novel tasks in the
mentoring opportunities for older employees who are workplace enables people to grow and develop themselves
looking to teach their skills to their coworkers, as this can and feel purposeful as they achieve important milestones
provides more opportunities for these employees to at work. One specific way through which goal attainment
realize the significance of their work. may foster purpose is by increasing beliefs that one can
Prioritizing generativity may inform the types of successfully accomplish tasks (self-efficacy), which is
careers people seek out in hopes of achieving a meaningful related to higher purpose in life (DeWitz, Woolsey, &
existence and leaving a legacy. People with stronger Walsh, 2009). Self-efficacy also drives people to persist in
concerns for generativity may be drawn to careers related attempts to achieve their goals (Bandura, 1982; Judge,
to more altruistic pursuits (e.g., social work, medicine) Bono, Erez, & Locke, 2005), suggesting that the successful
versus careers more centered on extrinsic rewards. Careers pursuit of goals may impel people towards additional
that allow people to devote themselves towards broader success and a corresponding sense of purpose.
goals can promote feelings of personal significance, Goal pursuit can connect individuals to a big picture
making one feel that their work is critical to the within their organization and society. Personal goals may
advancement of society. People who strongly value be especially powerful predictors of well-being when they
generativity may also desire careers that offer the provide a means to important, broader ends (King,
opportunity for mentoring others in hopes of directly Richards, & Stemmerich, 1998). By achieving goals at
contributing to the well-being and advancement of other work, people can envision how their contributions benefit
people. Teachers and those engaged in voluntary work others and their organization, fostering feelings of
with youth showed higher levels of generativity than purpose. However, not all personal goals contribute
people employed in other contexts (McAdams, Diamond, equally to the pursuit of meaning: Pursuing goals that
de St. Aubin, & Mansfield, 1997). A survey of mid-career align with a person’s core values and interests is more
men found that work generativity was separate from likely to promote life satisfaction and positive affect
generativity in the parenting domain (Clark & Arnold, (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999) as well as enhance motivation
2008). Moreover, those who experienced generativity at towards future goal pursuit (Sheldon & Houser-Marko,
work reported greater job satisfaction and career success 2001). If a person’s goals do not reflect their deeper values,
(Clark & Arnold, 2008). then pursuit of these goals is unlikely to promote well-
Generativity involves a concern for contributing to the being and may instead lead people to exhaust energy and
well-being of others. As such, it is an important aspect of a lose motivation (Sheldon, 2002). This is because people
person’s goals or life mission. In this sense, generativity sits will not feel very personally drawn to value-inconsistent
at the very intersection of social relationships and our next goals, instead feeling that they are being forced to pursue
topic, purpose. them for an external purpose. Pursuing activities that one
 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82 69

has little personal interest in detracts one’s energy from support as well as increased work schedule flexibility may
more meaningful goal pursuits (e.g., Sheldon, 2002). This provide more benefits to employees’ meaning than higher
issue is central to Self Determination Theory, as we review salaries, as money offers declining benefits to well-being
below. once people’s basic needs are met (Diener & Biswas-
Research within organizations has provided support for Diener, 2002; Diener et al., 2010). People who work long
the benefits of pursuing goals that are congruent with hours while being reluctant (versus pleased) to do so
one’s values and motivated by internal, rather than from experience lower purpose in life and life satisfaction
external, factors. In a longitudinal study of diverse (Bonebright, Clay, & Ankenmann, 2000). It is important for
employees within the United States, people who pursued people to seek careers and organizations that align with
goals that were aligned with their interests and were their expectations for how much they want to work, as
internally (versus externally) motivated had higher subse- people’s attitudes about how much they would like to
quent goal attainment and job satisfaction (Judge et al., work will shape the extent to which their purpose and
2005). Pursuing goals that are personally meaningful and happiness is impeded by enduring long work hours. Of
valuable can enhance motivation, leading to better goal course, people may have difficulty anticipating the
attainment and satisfaction with one’s job. demands of their chosen career, and mismatch between
Just as congruence between personal goals and one’s one’s expectations and the true nature of their career may
organizational environment is important for fostering hinder well-being.
motivation and well-being, it is also likely that meaning is The fact that goals exist within a context of multiple
enhanced when a person is well suited for their job and motivational impulses suggests the need to prioritize some
organizational culture. Person-job fit is related to satisfac- concerns over others. The optimal prioritization of
tion with one’s job, organization, supervisor, and cow- motivational pursuits is a topic that is central to our next
orkers (e.g., Caldwell & O’Reilly, 1990; Kristof-Brown, topic in this section, Self Determination Theory.
Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005). Believing that one’s
personal values are congruent with one’s job and Self Determination Theory
organization is vital to feeling positively about one’s place The role of motivation in a meaningful life is well-
within each. People’s perceptions of how well their values delineated by Self-Determination Theory, which proposes
align with an organization’s culture inform how well they that people have three primary universal and innate needs:
believe they will fit in with the organization as well as their competence, relatedness, and autonomy (Ryan & Deci,
intentions to accept or leave a job (Cable & Judge, 1996). It 2000; Deci & Ryan, 2012). Competence involves feelings of
is also important for workers to feel that their organiza- mastery and knowledge from developing one’s interests
tions encourage their goals. Perceiving one’s workplace as and skills. Relatedness refers to feeling connected to others
supportive of personal goals is related to higher job in one’s social world. Autonomy reflects the desire to have
satisfaction and organizational commitment (Maier & control over one’s life and act in a manner consistent with
Brunstein, 2001), illustrating the importance of fostering one’s personal values. Self-Determination Theory posits
workplaces that provide support for workers’ unique aims that people’s motivation towards relatedness, autonomy,
within the organization. People are best able to achieve and competence is intrinsically motivated, reflecting
feelings of meaningfulness when they accomplish goals desires for internal growth and exploration rather than
that they find personally valuable within a career and extrinsically motivated by external rewards (Ryan & Deci,
organization that provides support and harmony with 2000).
these personal goals. A wealth of research has documented the well-being
Of course, people do not typically pursue only career- benefits of fulfilling these basic psychological needs.
relevant goals. Every goal exists in a context of multiple Having high levels of autonomy, competence, and related-
goals and desires (e.g., Kruglanski, Chernikova, Rose- ness is associated with higher satisfaction with life,
nzweig, & Kopetz, 2014). When these goals conflict, positive affect, and meaning in life (e.g., Church et al.,
well-being is likely to suffer (Emmons & King, 1988; Gray, 2013; Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan, Huta, & Deci, 2013;
Ozer, & Rosenthal, 2017). When placed in the context of the Sheldon, Ryan, Deci, & Kasser, 2004; Trent & King, 2010).
multiple goals a person wishes to attain, workplace goals Not only are trait differences in autonomy, competence,
may conflict with other pursuits, particularly those related and relatedness predictive of general well-being, but the
to family life, a key predictor of meaning in life. The time extent to which these needs are met throughout a day
people spend at work is related to more interference with influences fluctuations in well-being. Experience sampling
family life and increased psychological distress (Major, studies have demonstrated that on days when people felt
Klein, & Ehrhart, 2002). Employees with children may be more autonomy, competence, and relatedness during their
especially prone to experience lower meaning and activities, they experienced higher positive affect and
psychological well-being when their work interferes with lower negative affect (e.g., Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, &
their family life, given the strong importance of family as a Ryan, 2000; Sheldon, Ryan, & Reis, 1996).
source of meaning (Lambert et al., 2010). In order to best Organizational environments that enable people to
promote meaning and well-being more broadly, it is experience autonomy, competence, and relatedness can
important for organizations to emphasize schedules that help people to experience more meaning and happiness at
allow people sufficient time off to spend with their families work. The broad benefits of satisfying these needs has been
and pursue goals outside of the workplace. Indeed, documented in diverse work settings, including workers in
company benefits that provide for better health and family a factory, a psychiatric rehabilitation program, a bank
70 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82

operations center, and an investment firm (Baard et al., 2001). People who are in autonomy supporting environ-
2004; Kasser, Davey, & Ryan, 1992; Ilardi et al., 1993) as ments are more apt to exhibit internalized motivation and
well as in a collectivist-culture, Bulgaria (Deci et al., 2001). to experience more positive emotions from performing
In these diverse settings, competence, autonomy, and tasks at work (e.g., Gagné, Senecal, & Koestner, 1997; Gagné
relatedness were related to improved psychological well- & Deci, 2005; Sheldon et al., 2003). Because autonomy
being, more positive attitudes towards work, and better supporting environments make people more invested in
job performance (e.g., Baard et al., 2004; Deci et al., 2001; their tasks at work, they can promote better performance
Kasser et al., 1992; Ilardi et al., 1993). Though research on and job satisfaction (e.g., Blais & Brière 1992; Bono & Judge,
general populations suggests need satisfaction promotes 2003; Deci, Connell, & Ryan, 1989; Gagné & Deci, 2005),
higher meaning in life (e.g., Church et al., 2013), none of the both of which are likely to bolster meaning in life.
aforementioned studies conducted within organizational Autonomy is closely related to feelings of personal
settings assessed meaning in life. Meaning in life is highly control, the belief that one can manage events and respond
correlated with other features of well-being employed in to negative setbacks in life (often referred to as internal
these studies (e.g., positive affect and life satisfaction; locus of control; e.g., Rotter, 1966). Personal control is
Steger et al., 2006; Zika & Chamberlain, 1992) so it is likely related to stronger purpose in life (Jackson & Coursey,
that it is also benefitted through need satisfaction, yet this 1988; Ryff, 1989). Working fosters a higher sense of
remains to be tested in future research. personal control (Price, Choi, & Vinokur, 2002), which is
Our previous considerations of the roles of social likely to benefit meaning and may also improve goal
relationships and goal achievement in promoting meaning pursuit and performance in the workplace. People who
in life have exemplified the importance of relatedness and believe they have control over their actions exhibit higher
competence for meaning. As noted earlier, social related- effort and persistence towards their goals (Turban, Tan,
ness and a sense of belongingness are tied to meaning in Brown, & Sheldon, 2007), as well as higher performance
life (e.g., Hicks & King, 2009; Hicks, Schlegel et al., 2010; and job satisfaction (Greenberger, Strasser, Cummings, &
Lambert et al., 2013) and meaning in the workplace is Dunham, 1989). Work environments that promote higher
facilitated through positive social relationships (e.g., feelings of controllability and autonomy can aid in
Dutton, 2003). Feelings of competence are also vital to facilitating the well-being and performance benefits of
well-being in the workplace. Competence is experienced personal control.
through the achievement of important and personally
valued goals, which, as noted earlier, can promote meaning Job crafting
in life and happiness (e.g., Machell et al., 2015; Sheldon & When considering the roles of supervisors and organi-
Elliot, 1999). Workplaces that enable people to conquer zational environments, it may seem that employees have
novel challenging tasks and form positive social connec- little personal control over whether they can achieve
tions can facilitate employees’ fulfillment of these needs. autonomy, competence, and relatedness in the workplace.
Having autonomy—perceived control and decision- However, workers do have the potential to exercise control
making capacity—in one’s life and work is vital to over their experiences at work in ways that provide
motivation and well-being (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Sheldon, meaning. “Job crafting” involves the process through
Turban, Brown, Barrick, & Judge 2003). The most direct which employees can define and structure their tasks
way organizations can support people’s needs for autono- and environment at work in ways they find meaningful
my is through effective leadership. Transformational (Wrzesniewski & Dutton, 2001). By taking more control
leaders inspire workers to adopt autonomous goals that over the design and nature of their job, people can derive
are viewed by employees as especially important and self- more meaning from their work. Job crafting allows
congruent (Bono & Judge, 2003). Sheldon et al. (2003) employees to harness meaning at work through three
proposed that transformational leaders promote autono- primary avenues: (1) exercising greater control over tasks,
mous goals by appealing to workers’ values, causing higher (2) determining the way tasks are perceived, and, finally,
internalization of goals. Transformational leaders may also (3) deciding which social contexts and relationships to
encourage higher motivation of goals by supplying a encounter at work (Berg, Dutton, & Wrzesniewski, 2013).
“vision” that includes the specific goal as well as reasons Regardless of the objective importance of one’s work,
and justification for pursuing the goal, which often appeal people have the ability to interpret their work in a manner
to workers’ values and identities (e.g., Shamir, House, & that emphasizes its broader value and purpose. Berg et al.
Arthur, 1993; Sheldon et al., 2003). Transformational (2013) highlighted that one way to encourage meaning at
leadership is linked to higher perceptions of meaningful work is by expanding how one views the importance of
work and positive affect (Arnold, Turner, Barling, Kelloway, their work, focusing on the holistic value of the job rather
& McKee, 2007). Charismatic, transformational leaders than on discrete tasks. This can allow a worker to realize
that provide workers with inspirational visions can thus the larger purpose of their work, fostering more appre-
inspire stronger motivation and well-being. ciation for the value of one’s role and, correspondingly,
Leaders and supervisors can provide support for higher meaning. For instance, a person who works as a
employees’ autonomy in organizations in several ways cook in a fast food restaurant may envision the broader
beyond grand visions, including valuing the expertise of significance of their work role, considering how they
their employees, offering employees more control over provide nourishment to several busy people, as opposed to
their work, and advocating for employees to take initiative thinking of the specific food-preparatory steps they
over their own work (e.g., Deci & Ryan, 1985; Deci et al., perform at work. Another form of job crafting involves
 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82 71

exerting more control over social relationships at work. For schedules characterized by habits and routines. Because
example, an employee may find a way to mentor meaning in life is bolstered by environmental regularity
coworkers while performing a task at work, thus promot- and thwarted by chaos (e.g., Heintzelman et al., 2013), the
ing feelings of generativity and fostering relatedness. These routines and structure that work provides are likely to
examples of job crafting illustrate how employees can improve meaning, specifically through their influence on
exercise greater autonomy in their roles at work in ways feelings of coherence. For instance, in a longitudinal study
that align with their personal values and preferences in of employment and well-being, people who experienced
order to promote higher meaning at work and in their lives unemployment had a lower sense of coherence than
more broadly. people who remained continuously employed (Feldt,
Leskinen, & Kinnunen, 2005). A sense of coherence can
Coherence and structure also mitigate the effects of negative experiences in the
workplace. In studies of employed adults, a sense of
People strive to make sense of the situations and coherence was associated with better psychological health
experiences they encounter, particularly those that defy and fewer symptoms of negative psychological functioning
expectations (Weick, Sutcliffe, & Obstfeld, 2005). Bau- (Feldt, 1997; Kinman, 2008). Workplaces that promote
meister and Vohs (2002) suggested that, in the simplest coherence may help employees to be less affected by
sense, a meaningful life is one that makes sense to the negative experiences, fostering improved well-being and
person living it. Meaning in life is likely to be enhanced by meaning in life. Consider as well that structure may
living in a world that is perceived as making sense (King, mitigate the negative effects of unemployment on well-
2012, 2014). Research has started to demonstrate that being. Studies show that maintaining a regular daily
environmental regularities and patterns can bolster structure reduces the decline in well-being that follows
meaning in life. In a series of experiments conducted by unemployment (McKee-Ryan et al., 2005; Van Hoye &
Heintzelman et al. (2013), participants were exposed to Lootens, 2013).
photographs of trees, either presented in a random or In addition to promoting coherence, the structured
seasonal order, as well as series of words that were either environments offered by many workplaces may also
incoherent or coherent. Across experiments, people benefit goal progress. In a series of experiments, people
exposed to the coherent stimuli had higher meaning in who were induced to think about structure (versus
life than people exposed to the incoherent stimuli. These randomness) displayed higher motivation to pursue
effects did not depend on mood, showing that the higher personal goals (Kay, Laurin, Fitzsimons, & Landau, 2014).
meaning elicited by environmental regularities is not An additional series of experiments illustrated that
simply due to these being experienced as more pleasant. exposure to a structured environment lead to higher
Additional support for the importance of environmental elaboration and confidence about subsequent decisions
coherence comes from a study examining how the ease (Rahinel, Amaral, Clarkson, & Kay, 2016). These studies
with which information is processed influences meaning. demonstrate that environments characterized by structure
People rated their lives as more meaningful when rating may make people more goal oriented and thorough, and in
items with an easier (versus harder) to read font (Trent, turn, foster higher purpose (and meaning).
Lavelock, & King, 2013). Experiences that feel “right” are Research has demonstrated that a sense of coherence
thus apt to be perceived as more meaningful (Hicks, Cicero, may predict additional workplace outcomes, especially in
Burton, Trent, & King, 2010). the social realm. Because a sense of coherence allows
Further corroboration of the importance of environ- people to perceive environmental stimuli as structured
mental regularity in supporting meaning is provided by and predictable, it may also enable people to perceive their
The Meaning Maintenance Model, which posits that workplace more favorably. A longitudinal study demon-
expectancies about what may happen in one’s environ- strated that a sense of coherence was related to positive
ment provide a source of meaning (Heine, Proulx, & Vohs, attitudes about organizational climate, measured with
2006). According to this model, meaning is threatened statements pertaining to believing one’s workplace is
when people encounter unexpected situations, informa- socially supportive, open, and cooperative (Feldt, Kivimäki,
tion, or perceptual anomalies. When people’s expectancies Rantala, & Tolvanen, 2004). Research has also shown that a
are violated, people will consider these experiences sense of coherence can mitigate symptoms of posttrau-
negative and seek to reestablish meaning to relieve their matic stress among targets of workplace bullying, though
discomfort (Proulx & Inzlicht, 2012) through various the protective benefits of coherence decrease as the
means. For instance, participants who were exposed to severity of bullying increases (Nielsen, Matthiesen, &
absurdist (versus abstract) art subsequently reported a Einarsen, 2008).
higher need for structure (Proulx, Heine, & Vohs, 2010). Of course, coherence and structure do not represent a
Given the widely touted benefits of creativity and panacea for the meaningful life or for meaningful work.
unstructured environments, it may at first seem counter- Externally imposed structure may threaten a sense of
intuitive that stability and coherence are beneficial. Yet, autonomy. Perfect predictability may lead to boredom, an
together, the findings from these various lines of research experience likely to reduce (not enhance) a sense of
suggest that having a stable environment characterized by meaning. People are intrinsically drawn towards roles that
coherence bolsters a sense of meaning. offer them opportunities to conquer new challenges,
Workplace settings can facilitate feelings of coherence which provides personal growth and meaning (e.g., Ryan
by providing people with structured settings and & Deci, 2000; Deci & Ryan,2012). If people find their work
72 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82

tasks overly predictable and tedious, they may begin to these are known to relate to improved well-being and
consider their work and life insignificant. Finally, as with work-family balance (e.g., Costa et al., 2004; Fritz &
any other factor associated with meaning in life, there are Sonnentag, 2006; Hill, Hawkins, Ferris, & Weitzman, 2001).
likely individual differences in the capacity to thrive in a Income’s association with well-being may at times be
relatively disorganized environment. The benefits of altered by other factors, such as mood or personality. Ward
structure and coherence for meaning may depend on and King (2016b) demonstrated that induced positive
other individual differences, such as a need for structure or affect can attenuate the association between meaning and
boredom proneness, which is an interesting area for future income. Although income was positively related to
research. Some people may find unstructured environ- meaning in a control condition, after a positive mood
ments more conducive to productivity and well-being. We induction, meaning and income were unrelated. In the
might also consider, as the notion of job crafting implies, positive mood condition, meaning in life was high across
that individuals who are able to create their own structure levels of income, suggesting that being in a good mood can
might be especially likely to experience meaning within buffer the negative effects of low income on meaning in
that structure. life.
The factors considered thus far have been rooted in Research has not yet probed the moderational influence
basic science that has often employed experimental of personality traits in the association between income and
designs to examine the impact of variables on the meaning. Yet, research has demonstrated that factors, such
experience of meaning in life. We end this section as emotional stability and higher perceptions of control
considering two correlates of meaning that are not over life, can mitigate the effects of low income on life
amenable to such designs: financial resources and religion. satisfaction (e.g., Lachman & Weaver, 1998; Soto &
Research has demonstrated that these “person” variables Luhmann, 2013). Similarly, it may be that the association
predict meaning in life. between meaning and income is moderated by other
factors, such as job satisfaction or optimism. People who
Financial resources are highly satisfied with their careers and optimistic about
their future may have a strong sense of meaning despite
Research has demonstrated that income and other lower incomes.
indices of economic success, such as education, are Certainly, it is easy to imagine why financial resources
positively associated with meaning in life (e.g., Kobau may benefit well-being and meaning in life, yet it is also
et al., 2010; Pinquart, 2002; Ryff & Singer, 1998a, 1998b; possible that people with higher well-being may be more
Ward & King, 2016b). It is easy to imagine how economic successful in their pursuit of financial success. Perceiving
resources may heighten various components of meaning. one’s life as meaningful has been shown to predict higher
Economic resources may allow people to have more gains in income across time. In a longitudinal study noted
control over their lives, enabling a more structured and earlier, higher purpose in life predicted greater income and
coherent existence. Financial resources can enable a net worth over time when controlling for initial levels of
person to pursue their personal goals in the workplace each as well as life satisfaction and personality traits (Hill
and in the social sphere, fostering higher purpose. Finally, et al., 2016). The authors did not determine precisely how
economic resources can allow a person to contribute to perceptions of purpose benefitted income, but one can
bettering their family or to philanthropic pursuits, boost- easily imagine this may be due to stronger motivation or
ing feelings of significance and generativity (e.g., Smeets, increased success at work. People with high dispositional
Bauer, & Gneezy, 2015). positive affect exhibit better job performance, and as a
Because of the benefits income has on meaning in life as consequence, higher pay and more promotions (e.g.,
well as life satisfaction (Diener, & Biswas-Diener, 2002; Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; Staw & Cohen-Charash, 2005).
Diener, Ng, Harter, & Arora, 2010; Ward & King, in press), it Meaning may function in a similar fashion in promoting
is likely that people in higher paying occupations will have performance. Understanding how meaning in life may
higher well-being. However, income’s association with benefit one’s future earnings and motivation towards work
meaning in life and life satisfaction is curvilinear, offering is an intriguing area for research.
decreasing benefits at high levels of income (e.g., Diener, &
Biswas-Diener, 2002; Diener et al., 2010; Ward & King, in Religion
press). If employees receive high enough incomes to live
comfortably and meet their basic needs, they are likely to A final well-established and robust predictor of
enjoy the well-being benefits that financial resources can meaning in life is religion. A variety of studies have shown
offer. However, it is unlikely that workers’ meaning in life that people who are religious report higher meaning in life
and life satisfaction will be strongly benefitted by pay than the nonreligious (e.g., Hicks & King, 2008; Oishi &
increases once they are already living comfortably. Pay Diener, 2014; Park, 2005). Religion can exert an influence
increases may also be accompanied by job changes, such as on meaning in a multitude of ways. Religion can provide a
greater responsibility, longer work hours, or stress, helping sense of purpose and guidance for one’s life, helping
to explain why increased pay beyond a certain point does people to feel secure about themselves and pursue their
not enhance well-being. In instances where employees goals (e.g., Emmons, 2005). By integrating one’s personal
already earn high incomes, it may be more valuable for goals into a broader purpose, religion can also promote
organizations to offer benefits that facilitate worker health generativity and personal significance. Religion also
or offer increased vacation time or scheduling flexibility, as provides a framework for how to live one’s life, fostering
 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82 73

coherence and a way to cope with the vicissitudes of life. believe work will provide meaning. Next, we turn to
Finally, religion may facilitate social interactions, a vital people’s attitudes towards the meaning they seek through
contributor to meaning in life (e.g., Hicks & King, 2009; their work, examining how people’s views of their jobs
Lambert et al., 2013). shape whether they expect to derive meaning from work.
Although many people are religious, they often feel that Then, we examine the factors that make people more
they cannot express religious values at work (Mitroff, inclined to seek meaning in their work.
Mitroff, & Denton, 1999). Indeed, the roles of religion and
spirituality in the workplace are controversial (e.g., Chan- Work orientations
Serafin, Brief, & George, 2013; Hicks, 2002), yet there is a
growing interest in the roles of both in the workplace Research on work orientations emphasizes that people
(Duffy, 2006). Religion may benefit work outcomes in tend to view their work in three primary ways—as a calling,
varying ways. Religion is linked to higher self-efficacy in a career, or a job—and that these orientations towards work
career decisions as well as higher job satisfaction (e.g., shape people’s interpretation of the meaning of their work,
Duffy & Blustein, 2005; Duffy, 2006; Robert, Young, & Kelly, their motivation towards their work, and the broader
2006). Religion can also influence people’s orientation meaning and satisfaction people derive from their work
towards their work, with many religious people viewing (Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Rozin, & Schwartz, 1997).
their occupations as a “calling,” as we consider in greater People who view their work as a calling are primarily
detail below. Finally, religion may promote prosocial drawn to the occupation because it can provide personal
values that benefit workplace interactions, though it fulfillment. Callings are often viewed as contributing to a
may also make people feel morally superior to others, broader social goal beyond the self and are frequently
which may lead to negative organizational consequences imbued with religious significance (e.g., Davidson &
(Chan-Serafin et al., 2013). Thus, the beneficial and Caddell, 1994). Career orientations emphasize attaining
deleterious effects of religion in the workplace are ripe rewards, achievement, and advancement within one’s
for further exploration. occupation, rather than the personal fulfillment that
Clearly, the many factors we have considered in this characterizes a calling. Finally, job orientations are
section are intertwined in important ways and nowhere is characterized by a focus on the direct financial benefits
this more evident than in the case of religion. Religiosity is of work rather than the long-term advancement or
associated with heightened positive affect and often personal fulfillment that are emblematic of career and
promotes social support (Diener, Tay, & Myers, 2011). It calling orientations, respectively (Rosso et al., 2010;
also provides people with a ready-made set of goals toward Wrzesniewski et al., 1997).
which to strive. It allows the individual to attach his or her Of all these work orientations, callings are considered to
experience to a larger narrative of grand meaning. It is provide the highest personal meaning because they
interesting to consider how other valued social groups and involve pursuing one’s unique purpose or mission in life
organizations might facilitate these experiences. and are often deeply embedded in people’s values (e.g.,
The six sources of meaning and examples of each are Elangovan, Pinder, & McLean, 2010; Rosso et al., 2010).
shown in Table 1. Although meaning in life is likely to result Research corroborates the beneficial effects of callings on
from profound experiences, the examples in Table 1 both psychological well-being and positive work out-
highlight the ways that quotidian experiences may feed comes. Viewing one’s occupational choice as a calling is
into a sense of life as meaningful. People’s lives and associated with higher life satisfaction and meaning in life
workplaces are filled with numerous opportunities to (e.g., Duffy & Sedlacek, 2010; Wrzesniewski et al., 1997) as
experience meaning through happiness, social relation- well as perceiving one’s work as meaningful (e.g., Lips-
ships, goal pursuit, and personal growth. Wiersma & Wright, 2012; Steger et al., 2012). Calling
orientations are also associated with higher job satisfac-
Attitudes about meaning and work tion, career commitment, and organizational commitment
(e.g., Bunderson & Thompson, 2009; Duffy, Dik, & Steger,
Although the sources of meaning reviewed above may 2011; Wrzesniewski et al., 1997; Wrzesniewski, 2003). The
be widely available in most workplaces, not all people beneficial effects of perceiving one’s occupational choice as
necessarily look to their work to provide these sources of a calling have been demonstrated in a variety of
meaning, or any broader meaning at all. People’s attitudes occupations. Teachers who perceived their occupation as
towards their work influence the extent to which they a calling had a stronger appreciation for their careers,

Table 1
Meaning sources in the workplace.

Source Examples of everyday meaning

Happiness Feeling enjoyment about one’s tasks
Significance Training and mentoring coworkers
Purpose & goals Achieving personally valued goals
Coherence and structure Lack of chaos and presence of reasonable predictability
Financial resources Getting bonuses or other benefits
Religion Religious values guide compassionate work behavior
74 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82

higher career commitment, and more openness to work- to contribute to meaning and well-being within a given
related sacrifices than teachers who did not view their context.
occupational choice as a calling (Serow, 1994). In a sample As exemplified by the Protestant Work Ethic, religion
of zookeepers, a sense of calling related to higher can be an important influence on whether people seek
perceptions of the significance and meaning of their work meaning through work. Religiosity is related to stronger
and higher occupational identification (Bunderson & desires to pursue callings and to beliefs that work should
Thompson, 2009). contribute to a broader purpose (e.g., Davidson & Caddell,
Although in general calling orientations lead to better 1994; Duffy & Sedlacek,2010; Hernandez, Foley, & Beitin,
performance in the workplace and greater well-being, 2011). Religious people are often drawn towards specific
there is the potential for viewing one’s work as a calling to careers that they believe God wants them to pursue (e.g.,
be detrimental to well-being. People who view their work Hernandez et al., 2011) and this may promote confidence
as a calling are more likely to make sacrifices to improve in one’s career decisions (e.g., Duffy & Blustein, 2005) as
their work performance, including settling for lower pay, well as serve as a motivator at work. Although the
longer hours, and lower comfort (e.g., Bunderson & association between religiosity and higher meaning in life
Thompson, 2009; Serow, 1994). When these sacrifices (e.g., Oishi & Diener, 2014; Park, 2005) may be explained by
come at the expense of sources of meaning in life, such as numerous factors, it is possible that work decisions and
time with family, happiness, and coherence, they may outcomes may help explain this association. It would be
thwart meaning in life. Certainly, some people may be valuable for future research to investigate to what extent
highly successful at work but feel a lack of meaning and career choices, career commitment, and job satisfaction
unhappiness in their lives, overall. Moreover, people who may account for this association. If religious people are
feel that they have “unanswered callings”—the inability to more drawn to careers they view as callings, they may
pursue what they were meant to do—can experience regret experience higher meaning by enacting these callings and
and stress (Berg, Grant, & Johnson, 2010). Thus, perceiving feeling stronger commitment to their organizations and
one’s occupational as a calling can improve work career.
commitment and performance, but may in some cases Research on predictors of calling work orientations has
promote psychological distress and lower meaning if demonstrated that some groups are more inclined to view
people are unable to pursue their callings or make too their occupations as a calling, including women (Davidson
many sacrifices in pursuit of it. & Caddell, 1994) and people with higher educational
attainment (Duffy & Sedlacek, 2010). These findings
Who is most apt to seek meaning from work? suggest that women and people with higher educational
attainment may be more prone to seek careers that offer
The research on callings demonstrates the variability in opportunities for personal fulfillment that can promote
how people approach their work and the meaning they meaning. It is interesting to consider demographic factors
expect to derive from their workplace contributions. that influence calling orientations within the context of the
Although all people strive for a meaningful life, not all career choices people make. Professions involving helping
people expect to find this meaning through their work. others and working with children (e.g., nursing, childcare,
There are cultural and historical differences in the extent to elementary/secondary educational services, social ser-
which work is expected to provide individuals with vices) are predominantly occupied by women (United
meaning. Contemporary Western culture emphasizes that States Department of Labor, 2010). Although numerous
people should seek personal fulfillment and happiness social and economic factors likely underlie gender
through their work, and it is often socially normative for disparities in these occupations, it is also possible that
people to prioritize career goals over social or leisurely they may result from gender differences in the expected
pursuits. Much of these attitudes about the importance of meaning these careers can offer, as women may be more
devotion to work stem from what Weber described as the inclined than men to believe that work involving helping
“Protestant Work Ethic” (1958), Protestant teachings others contributes to meaning and consequently pursue
during the Reformation that hard work and wealth were careers consistent with these goals. Just as work orienta-
a sign of personal goodness and the likelihood of salvation tions can influence the types of careers people pursue (e.g.,
in an afterlife. The Protestant Work Ethic encouraged Dik, Duffy, & Eldridge, 2009), expectations of which careers
people to pursue their callings from God by working hard will provide the highest meaningfulness may also influ-
and striving for success and prestige at work, ideals which ence career choices.
helped contribute to modern day capitalism (Weber, 1958; People’s baseline levels of meaning may also predict
Furnham, 1990). In contemporary society, many people which type of career they seek out in their hopes of
still believe that devotion to hard work is necessary for a attaining a meaningful occupation. For instance, adoles-
good life. However, in many cultures, people are expected cents with higher meaning in life exhibited stronger
to find meaning through their families, friendships, and motivations to pursue occupations that offered benefits
hobbies rather than through work, potentially viewing beyond the self (Yeager & Bundick, 2009). Perhaps people
their work with a “job” orientation that emphasizes with high meaning seek out careers that enable them to
financial compensation but not a broader purpose of the make contributions to the broader world.
work. Given these important cultural differences, it is The previous discussion highlighted how people’s
necessary to consider the broader cultural context and personality, educational background, and gender can
norms when evaluating whether people will expect work shape the types of careers they believe will provide them
 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82 75

with meaning. Indeed, people adopt a variety of orienta- shape their decisions to change occupations in pursuit of a
tions towards work—calling, careers, and job—which meaningful career.
influence whether they expect their work to be a great
source of personal fulfillment and meaning. People’s What, specifically, promotes meaning at work?
backgrounds and their beliefs about work can thus
influence whether they perceive their work as relevant As we reviewed earlier, there are a host of potential
to their meaning in life. sources of meaning in the workplace. Our review of these
factors suggests that they are likely to be related to the
Directions for future research meaning in life people derive from work, yet this is a
nascent area of research with many open questions.
Compared to other aspects of well-being, the experi- Acknowledging that the experience of meaning is likely
ence of meaning in life has received less attention from to be commonplace and linked to everyday experiences
organizational scholars. In addition to simply encouraging calls for greater theorizing about meaning in life and its
scientists to include well-validated measures of meaning likely relation to specific aspects of work. Some features of
in life in organizational research, we next review potential work may be especially important in promoting meaning
research directions inspired by considering meaning in life whereas others may be less influential, so it would be
in an organizational context. Specifically, we consider five valuable for future research and theory to probe which
research directions that would offer important informa- factors are most strongly predictive of meaning. Moreover,
tion about how the workplace facilitates (or threatens) a it would be useful for research to probe the specific links
sense of meaning in life. These directions include between meaning, sources of meaning in organizations,
examining the relationship between meaning in life and and organizational outcomes such as performance and
career choices, identifying the proximal mediators of the motivation. Do positive social relationships and autonomy
experience of meaning at work, considering the positive promote meaning in life and happiness, which then
benefits of meaning in the workplace, examining the subsequently encourage stronger motivation and work-
components of meaning in life within an organizational place performance? Or may meaning and happiness
context, and, finally, methodological recommendations. facilitate better autonomy and social relationships in the
workplace, which then foster stronger motivation? Be-
Meaning and career choices cause these variables are all related to some extent, it may
be difficult to establish causality, but nevertheless,
Research on work orientations and callings has made establishing the causal directions between sources of
great headway, yet there is still much to know about well-being, well-being outcomes, and organizational out-
whether people’s perceptions of a career’s ability to comes remains an important research avenue. Theoretical
provide personal meaning can guide decisions to pursue models that promulgate predictions with regard to the
such a career. It would be valuable to examine how career directionality of these relationships would be beneficial in
choices are guided by the meaning the occupation is expect illuminating the potential pathways between these factors.
to provide, and how individual differences inform the The research on meaning in work could also be
types of careers people expect to be meaningful. For benefitted by a larger focus on the specific factors that
example, people with strong empathy may seek out contribute to making work feel meaningful. Research on
careers that allow them to help others (e.g., nursing, meaningful work has largely focused on defining what
nonprofit organizations) because they believe these meaningful work entails and identifying positive organi-
occupations will provide meaning. Similarly, extraverts zational outcomes of meaningful work (e.g., Fairlie, 2010;
may pursue careers that offer more social interaction, Lips-Wiersma & Wright, 2012; Steger et al., 2012). Much
believing that they will find more meaning in these remains to be known about the organizational factors and
careers. Moreover, it would be valuable to examine experiences that contribute to perceptions that one’s work
whether people’s beliefs about which careers will provide is meaningful. It is possible that workplace factors that are
them with meaning relate to the actual meaning derived conducive to meaning in life also support meaningful
from the work. Understanding how meaning in life is work. It would be valuable to examine how features of
affected by people’s congruence with their occupation and broader organizational culture, such as corporate values
organizational culture is an important avenue for future and vision statements, influence how meaningful work is
research. perceived to be. Relatedly, leadership styles can also shape
In addition, beliefs about an occupation’s ability to workers’ perceptions of the value and meaning of their
provide personal meaning may encourage motivation even work. Past research has shown transformational leader-
when occupational stressors are encountered. For in- ship is associated with finding work more personally
stance, a doctor may experience stress and long hours fulfilling and meaningful (Arnold et al., 2007). Transfor-
during their work week, but nonetheless maintain high mational leaders may create meaning by tying work tasks
levels of motivation and performance due to considering to broader missions and goals that people find valuable.
the work an essential contributor to meaning in life. In Because transformational leadership encompasses many
contrast, people who believe their work is not integral to features, including being empowering and supportive to
their personal meaning may be less inclined to persist employees, as well as being charismatic, ethical, inspira-
when experiencing setbacks. People’s beliefs about tional, and creative (e.g., Avolio & Yammarino, 2013;
whether their work provides personal meaning may also Carless, Wearing, & Mann, 2000), it would be important for
76 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82

future research to identify which specific features are most Understanding whether the components of meaning have
beneficial for meaning. similar antecedents and consequences in the workplace (or
in everyday life) can help glean important insights into the
Positive effects of meaning in the workplace experience of meaning. Because of its clear relevance to the
hypothesized components of meaning, work may be the
Most of the extant research on meaning in life has ideal context for such investigations.
sought to identify predictors rather than consequences of
meaning. Investigating the motivational and performance New methodological approaches
benefits of meaningfulness is a much needed area of
research. Meaning in life is associated with many Most of the organizational well-being research
individual differences that are known to benefit perfor- reviewed here involved cross-sectional study designs,
mance and motivation, including self-efficacy and opti- making it impossible to probe the dynamic interplay
mism (e.g., DeWitz et al., 2009; Ju, Shin, Kim, Hyun, & Park, between well-being variables, workplace motivation, and
2013; Ho, Cheung, & Cheung, 2010), so it may help provide performance. Much of the research on meaning has been
people with stronger adherence to their goals. Past conducted online or in the laboratory with samples of
research noting links between goal pursuit and meaning students or diverse adults rather than samples in
in life has been either theoretical or correlational in nature organizational context. Consequently, one useful method-
(e.g., Emmons, 2003; King et al., 2006), so though it is ological approach for future research on meaning is field
known that meaning does relate to successful goal pursuit, experiments, where organizational processes can be
it is unclear whether meaning can promote persistence studied as they unfold. Field experiments can illuminate
and attainment of goals. Past research has suggested how meaning is affected by the implementation of new
happiness and satisfaction with life can boost performance organizational policies, either by comparing meaning
in the workplace (e.g., Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; Tenney before and after employees’ experience a new change,
et al., 2016), so it is possible that meaning in life may or, alternatively, by comparing meaning between workers
similarly provide benefits to performance and goal pursuit. who were randomly assigned to conditions that receive
Meaning can also potentially mitigate the effects of different experimental treatments. Field experiments
negative states on performance. Meaning in life can serve would provide more understanding about how organiza-
as a protective factor against the negative effects of stress tional contexts affect meaning and illuminate the causal
and depression (e.g., Krause, 2007; Wang, Lightsey, factors underlying these changes (e.g., Hauser, Linos, &
Pietruszka, Uruk, & Wells, 2007), which are both known Rogers, in press).
to hinder job performance (Motowidlo, Packard, & In addition to field experiments, another promising
Manning, 1986). People who find their lives highly methodological approach is experience sampling, which
meaningful may be better able to cope with negative captures people’s thoughts, feelings, and self-reported
setbacks in life and in the workplace, an intriguing area for behaviors in real time, typically involving multiple assess-
future research. ments throughout a day. Experience sampling methods
In addition to facilitating motivation and performance, could help to illuminate several intriguing aspects of
meaning may also benefit social interactions in the meaning in the workplace, including how specific aspects
workplace. Past research has shown that people with high of the work environment (e.g., collaboration with col-
meaning in life and happiness are viewed as more socially leagues, perceived support of one’s colleagues or supervi-
appealing by others (e.g., Lyubomirsky et al., 2005; sor) and personality characteristics (e.g., optimism)
Stillman et al., 2011). In the workplace, people may be promote meaning. They can also enable an investigation
drawn to coworkers who exhibit a high sense of purpose in into whether perceptions of meaning at work facilitate
their pursuits. People with strong concerns about gen- better performance and motivation.
erativity may also be viewed favorably by others, perhaps One especially intriguing topic—exemplifying the
because they may focus on improving the well-being of utility of experience sampling technologies—would be to
their coworkers through mentoring and training. examine how the meaningfulness people experience while
working compares to that experienced during other
Components of meaning experienced in the workplace activities during their daily lives. Although happiness
and meaning in life are strongly related (King et al., 2006),
As noted earlier, purpose, coherence, and significance it is possible that people may view them differently in
are all reflected in global feelings of meaning in life (Krause relation to their attitudes about work. May work promote
& Hayward, 2014). Throughout our review, we noted how more meaning than happiness? A recent large-scale
some aspects of work may be especially relevant to specific experience sampling study (Bryson & MacKerron, 2017)
components of meaning. For instance, successful goal demonstrated that people reported less happiness when
pursuit is likely to instill a sense of purpose, yet it may be working when compared to a host of other positive and
less relevant to coherence. In contrast, workplaces negative activities they engaged in during their daily lives
characterized by chaos may provoke a lower sense of (e.g., reading, doing chores, waiting in line, childcare). The
coherence but not affect workers’ purpose or significance. authors concluded that work is negatively associated with
However, because the components of meaning in life are hedonic well-being, despite people generally being posi-
highly correlated (e.g., Krause & Hayward, 2014), they may tive about their work when reflecting on it. Thus, people
covary and not exhibit any noteworthy distinctions. may exhibit differences in their overall beliefs about work
 S.J. Ward, L.A. King / Research in Organizational Behavior 37 (2017) 59–82 77

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