First Aid

CHAPTER ONE

SCOPE OF FIRST AID

First Aid
First Aid is the assistance or help given at once to those suddenly taken ill or
injured before being taken home or hospital or before medical expert takes over
or an ambulance arrives.

AIMS OF FIRST AID

a) To save life
b) To prevent the situation from worsening.
c) To promote recovery.

FIRST AIDER
A First Aider is a person who had received training and certificate from an
authorized training body approving him/her to render first aid.

TASKS OF FIRST AIDER

In an emergency the first aider should do the following
1) Assess the situation: Check and ensure safety of the casualty, bystanders and first
aider him/her self. Establish the number of casualties. Identify available facilities e.g.
shelter, telephone.
2) Identify the casualty’s condition:
a) This can be done through primary survey and secondary survey.
b) Get the History, the story of what happened.
c) Check the signs, what the first aider can see e.g. bleeding swelling.
d) Establish symptoms, what the casualty feels or complains of e.g. pain.
3) Give immediate and appropriate help
4) Re-assure the casualty and the bystanders.
5) Arrange for the casualty to be taken either home or hospital

PRIMARY SURVEY
A primary survey is the initial examination of the casualty this is aimed at
identifying any life threatening conditions. In this survey the first aider should
follow the CAB rule of first aid.

CAB RULE OF FIRST AID

C- Circulation of blood. Check whether there is blood circulation by feeling the
casualty’s pulse. Pulse is the wave of pressure that passes along arteries
indicating the pump of the heart.
A- Open and maintain a clear airway i.e. mouth, nose windpipe.
B – Breathing check whether the casualty is breathing. Look, listen and feel for
breathing. If breathing has stopped apply artificial respiration immediately.
Normal breathing rate is 12 to 20 breaths per minute.
NB IF BOTH BLOOD CIRCULATION AND BREATHING HAS JUST STOPPED
QUICKLY DO CADIO PULMONARY RESUSCITATION.

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Secondary survey

A secondary survey is the head to toe examination of casualty; this is the survey
that identifies injuries. This survey can only be done after a primary survey. In this
survey the casualty’s facial expressions may help the first aider to identify
injuries.

BODY PART WHAT TO CHECK FOR

Head Lacerations
Bleeding
Contusion
Depression
Jaw Deformity
Swelling
Bleeding

Ears and nose Blood or fluids

Swelling
Bruises

Mouth Bleeding
Frothing
Foreign bodies
Unusual odors or smell

Eyes Bleeding
Discoloration
Pupil dilation
Swelling
Neck Cervical deformity
Swelling
Bruises/wounds
Bleeding
Pain

Chest Penetrating wounds

Tenderness

CHAPTER TWO

BANDAGES

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Bandages are a length of cotton material used to wrap injuries.

TYPES OF BANDAGES
1) Triangle bandage
2) Roller bandages
3) Adhesive bandages

USES OF BADAGES
To hold dressings in place
To apply pressure in stopping bleeding
To immobilize fractured limbs
To cover wounds against infection
To support injured joins
To prevent swelling

TRIANGULAR BANDAGES

TRIANGLE IN SHAPE
Easy to improvise.
Can be used as a pad
Can be used as an open sling to secure dressing.
Can be folded broad fold bandage to immobilize fractured limbs.
Can be folded into narrow fold bar bandages.

Apex/point

Base End
MAKING ABROAD BANDAGE
1) FOLD A TRIANGULAR BANDAGE HORIZONTALLY WITH POINT TOUCHING THE BASE.

2) Fold the bandage in half again. This completes the bandage.

MAKING A NARROW BANDAGE.

1) Fold a triangular bandage into broad fold bandage (as above).
2) Fold the broad bandage again in half. This completes the bandage.

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GENERAL RULES FOR BANDAGING

a) Explain to casualty what you are going to do.
b) Ensure the casualty is comfortably seated or lying down.
c) Support the injured part.
d) Always work from the injured side or in front of the casualty.
e) Apply bandages firmly. A tight bandage can stop blood circulation whilst a
loose bandage is useless.
f) If possible expose fingers and toes of bandage limbs so that blood circulation
can be easily checked.
g) If you are to bandage limbs together ensure that there is enough padding in
between, especially around joints.
h) When using knot to secure a bandage always use a reef knot.

REEF KNOT
A Reef knot can be used to secure a bandage. A safety pin, adhesive tape or
bandage clip can also be used to secure bandages.

WHY USE A REEF KNOT

a) It does not slip
b) It is comfortable for the casualty.
c) It is neat.
d) It is easy to untie.

METHOD
1) Take one of the bandages in each hand carry the left end over the right and
under. 2) Bring the ends together up again. Carry the right end over the
left and under.
3) Pull the knot tight.
4) Neatly tuck the ends in.

CHAPTER THREE

BREATHING

WHY BREATHE?
All parts of the body need oxygen for life and energy. During the breathing
process another gas carbon dioxide is produced as a waste gas and as such, it
should be remove from the body.

ASPHYXIA
Lack of oxygen in the body.

CAUSES
A) Smothering-this is a condition whereby air cannot even get into the body

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through the mouth and nose e.g. buried alive.

B) Choking –this is the internal blockage of wind pipe e.g. if food goes down the
wind pipe.
C) Strangling – this is the compression of windpipe by a tight band around the
neck.
D) Compression or injury of chest/lungs.
E) Stove in the chest
F) Drowning, gassing, poisoning, electrocution

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

1) Difficulty in breathing.
2) Noisy breathing.
3) Shallow breathing.
4) Inability to talk.
5) Frothing.
6) Blueness of skin especially lips, face and fingernails.
7) Unconsciousness.
8) Breathing may stop.

MANAGEMENT OF ASPHYXIA
 Ensure safety (S)
 Remove cause from casualty or the casualty from the cause.
 Check breathing and blood circulation at 10minutes intervals (C)
 Open and maintain a clear air way.(A)
 If breathing place in the recovery position (B)
 If not breathing apply artificial respiration immediately.
 Put casualty in the recovery position
 Re- assure the casualty
 Prevent shock by providing warmth.
 Documentation
 Get medical help.

CARDIAC ARREST
This is when the heart stops beating.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

No breathing
No pulse
Cyanosis
Cold and clammy skin
Pupil opens wide

MANAGEMENT
Ensure safety
Check for response
Call for help
Open the airway

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Look, listen and feel for breathing for 10secs while at the same time you check
for the pulse and movement of chest
If breathing and pulse is present give 2 rescue breaths
Ask the helper to go and call the ambulance
Give another 2 rescue breaths
If there is no change give 30cardiac compressions
Give another 2 rescue breaths
Continue for 5cycles
Check breathing and pulse for 10secs
If breathing and pulse is now present check for further injuries
Place casualty in recovery position
Reassure and provide warmth
Document and evacuate

ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION
*Ensure safety.
*Lay the casualty flat on his/her back
*Remove any obstructions from the mouth using your first two fingers.
*Kneel on one side of the patient /casualty
*Open the airway by tilting the head backwards and lifting up the chin.
Close the casualty’s nose by pitching it with your index finger and thumb.
 Take a deep breath.
 Completely seal around the casualty’s mouth with your lips.
 Blow firmly but gently into the casualty’s mouth.
 Remove your mouth and allow the chest to fall fully.
 Give nine more blows as above.
 Check if breathing has re-started.
 If breathing has restarted; place the casualty on the recovery position.
 If casualty is still not breathing continue the process until you get medical
help.
 Quickly refer medical aid.
 Prevent shock.

CADIO PULMONARY RESUSCITATION

If the casualty has no pulse and has just stopped breathing, quickly start
cardio pulmonary resuscitation follows;
1. Check safety for yourself, bystanders and the casualty.
2. Clear and maintain an open airway.
3. Apply two full blows in the mouth and give 15 chest compressions. Apply
the same four times.
4. Check for breathing and circulation after every five cycles.
5. Continue the process until the casualty recovers or the Ambulance arrives.
6. If the casualty recovers continue with the secondary survey.

MANAGEMENT OF CHOCKING
- Ensure safety.

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-Encourage the casualty to cough.

-If the obstruction dislodges you may be able to remove it by your fingers
-Re-assure the casualty.
-Prevent shock.
-Get medical help.

CHAPTER FOUR

WOUNDS AND BLEEDING

WOUNDS
A wound is an abnormal break in the skin.

DANGERS OF WOUNDS
 Hemorrhage/ bleeding
 Infection
 Shock

TYPES OF WOUNDS

TYPE DESCRIPTION
1.Incised wound  A clean cut
 Caused by sharp instrument e.g.
razor blade, knife.

2.Lacerated wound  An irregular torn wound.

3.Punctured wound  A stab.
 Caused by sharp pointed object
e.g. nail or spear.
4. Contused wound  Internal injury where the top skin
layer may not be damaged.
 Caused by a blow from a blunt
object e.g.knobkerry, brick.
5.Grazed wound  Bruising of the superficial layer
of the skin.
 Caused by friction against rough
surface.

6. Gunshot wound  Small entry large exit.

 Caused by a bullet.

MANAGEMENT OF WOUNDS
 Ensure safety.
 Thoroughly wash your hands and/or wear gloves.
 Control bleeding if any.
 Remove clothing from the injured part if necessary.

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 Avoid spreading germs to the wound and the equipment to be used.

 Do not remove any foreign objects stuck on the wound. This may lead to
further bleeding and infection.
 Clear around and away of the wound using a clean or sterile dressing or
swab, if possible soak in clean cold, soapy water. Use a fresh
dressing/swab for each stroke.
 Place a sterile dressing over the wound and cover with a clean bandage.
 Prevent shock by providing warmth.
 Re-assure the casualty.
 Get medical help.

BLOOD CIRCULATION
Blood is pumped from the heart through arteries to all parts of the body and
returns to the heart in veins. An adult needs about six litres of blood to survive.

FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
 Distribution of oxygen to all body tissues.
 Distribution of nourishment to all body tissues.
 Distribution of warmth
 Taking away carbon-dioxide.

BLEEDING
Bleeding is blood flowing out of the circulation system. This can be either internal
or external.

ORGANS INVOLVED
The heart pumps blood to various parts of the body
Veins carry deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart
Arteries carry oxygenated blood from the heart to the body

TYPES OF BLEEDING

TYPE CHARACTERISTICS
Arterial  Bleeding from arteries.
 Blood is bright red in colour.
 Blood jets out with pressure.
Venous  Bleeding from the veins.
 Blood is darkish red in colour.
 Blood flows out smoothly.
Capillary Bleeding  Bleeding from capillaries
 Blood oozes slowly.
 Blood is either bright or darkish
red in colour.

WAYS OF STOPPING BLEEDING

a) Direct pressure.

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 Apply pressure on the wound/injury using a sterile pad and bandage firmly.
b) Indirect pressure.
 Apply pressure away from the injury.
 For arterial bleeding, apply pressure at the side of the heart and seize for
venous bleeding.
c) Elevation
 Slightly lift the injury above the level of the heart.

MANAGEMENT OF NOSE BLEEDING

 Ensure safety.
 Sit the casualty in open air with the head slightly bent forward.
 Loosen any tight clothing around the neck.
 Ask the casualty to firmly pinch the soft part of the nose.
 Apply cold compress on the casualty’s forehead.
 Advise the casualty to breathe through the mouth.
 Release pressure at ten minutes intervals.
 If bleeding does not stop after thirty minutes, quickly refer for medical help.
 Prevent shock by providing warmth.
 Re-assure the casualty.
 If bleeding stops, advise casualty not to blow or pork the nose for the next
four hours.

BLEEDING FROM THE EAR

 Ensure safety.
 Sit the casualty with the head slightly inclined to towards the bleeding ear
to allow blood to come out.
 Cover the ear with a clean pad.
 Secure the pad lightly with a bandage.
 Do not plug the ear.
 Prevent shock.
 Re-assure the casualty.
 Get medical aid.

CHAPTER FIVE

SHOCK
It is a condition of circulation collapse due to inadequate blood supply to sustain
the body’s normal activities.

CAUSES OF SHOCK
 Severe bleeding.
 Loss of body fluids.
 Severe vomiting.
 Severe diarrhea.
 Large wounds.
 Large fractures.
 Heart failure.

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 Poisoning.
 Large burns.
 Good or bad news.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

 Pale skin.
 Cold and clammy skin.
 Fast and weak pulse.
 Fast and shallow breathing.
 Blurred vision.
 Thirsty.
 Body weakness.
 Sweating.

MANAGEMENT OF SHOCK
 Ensure safety.
 Lay the casualty down.
 Elevate lower limbs.
 Manage the identified cause.
 Loosen tight clothing.
 Provide warmth, but do not over heat.
 Maintain an open and clear airway.
 Re-assure the casualty.
 Frequently check the pulse.
 Do not give anything by mouth.
 Do not elevate lower limbs if you suspect head injury, spinal injuries
fractures or snake bites.
 Get medical aid/help.

CHAPTER SIX

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

It’s a system that makes us aware of our surroundings. It coordinates and
controls our reaction to external stimuli.

COMPONENTS
Brain: it is the headquarters of the body where everything is controlled and
coordinated.
Spinal chord: acts as a relay centre which carries information to the body and
the brain.
Sensory nerves: send information from the brain into the body via spinal cord.
Motor nerves: receive info from the brain

UNCONSCIOUSNESS

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Is the interruption of the normal brain functions. This may result in the
casualty loosing awareness of his/her surroundings.

CAUSES OF UNCONSCIOUSNESS(FISHSHAPED)
 Fainting.
 Infantile Convulsions.
 Shock.
 Heart attack.
 Stroke.
 Head injuries.
 Asphyxia
 Poisoning.
 Epilepsy.
 Diabetes.

STAGE IN PROGRESSION TO UNCONSCIOUSNESS

STAGE NAME CONDITION
ONE Full consciousness. Fully aware and normally
responding to questions.
TWO Drowsy. Falls asleep now and
then. Responds vaguely
to questions.
THREE Stupor. Can only respond to
painful stimuli.
FOUR Comma. No response at all, but
still alive.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF UNCONSCIOUSNESS

 These can be derived from specific causes.

 Low levels of responsiveness.
 Dizziness.
 Restlessness.
 Confusion.

MANAGEME NT OF UNCONSCIOUSNESS

 Ensure safety.
 Open and maintain a clear airway.
 Loosen tight clothing.
 Manage any identified injuries.
 Control any bleeding.
 Place the casualty into the recovery position.
 Prevent shock.
 Re-assure the casualty.
 Do not give anything by mouth.

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 Do not leave the casualty unattended.

 Get medical aid.

CHAPTER SEVEEN
BURNS AND SCALDS
Burns are injuries caused by dry heat whilst scalds are caused by moist heat.

DANGERS OF BURNS AND SCALDS

 H-hemorrhage/loss of body fluids.

 I-infection.
 S-shock.

SIGNS SYMPTOMS OF BURNS SCALDS

 Blisters.
 Swelling.
 Pain.
 Redness.
 Numbness.
 Skin peeling off.

MANAGEMENT OF BURNS OR SCALDS.

 Apply cold compress, put the burn/scald under clean, cold running water.
 Cover the injury with a light wet cloth or bandage.
 Re-assure the casualty.
 Do not prick blisters.
 Do not apply lotion, eggs, butter or urine.
 Do not apply stick bandages.
 Do not remove stuck clothing.
 Maintain body temperature to prevent shock
 Refer for medical help.

TYPES OF BURNS
Burns caused by heat
Scalds caused by moist heat
Frictional burns
Chemical burns by chemicals
Radiation burns caused by the sun rays
Electrical burns caused by electricity

CLASSIFICATION OF BURNS
st
Superficial burns or 1 degree burns- this is where the epidermis is destroyed
st
and these are more painful than the deep burns. Only 1 layer of skin affected.
nd
Partial/intermediate/2 degree burns- this is when the epidermis and part of the
st nd
dermis are destroyed. 1 and 2 layer of skin affected.
Deep or third degree- the whole thickness is burnt.

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SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF BURNS

Severe burns
Damage to the skin
Blisters may start to appear
Swelling and tenderness

MANAGEMENT
Ensure safety
Remove cause from casualty or casualty from cause
Check CAB
Immense burnt part in cold water for 10min

DANGERS OF BURNS
Paralysis
Disabilities
Shock
Skin damage
Constriction of the limbs

DONTS IN THE MANAGEMENT

Do not apply contact bandages
Don’t pop blisters
No application of lotion urine etc
No interference with the burnt area

RECOVERY POSITION
This is the most comfortable position for breathing unconscious casualties
whose hearts are still beating.

REASONS FOR THE RECOVERY

 To rest properly.
 To avoid the falling back of the tongue.
 To awake up easily.
 To allow vomiting without choking.
 To maintain open airway.

CHAPTER EIGHT

SKELETON
Is the bony framework of the body. It consists of 200-206bones of different
shapes and sizes.

FUNCTIONS OF THE SKELETON

 It shapes the body.
 It protects the vital organs
 It allows grace movement.
 It supports the body muscles.

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 It makes the body firm.

Bones of the skeletal system

Short bones- these are the fingers toes and collar bone
Long bones- femur, tibia, fibula, humurus, radius, ulna
Flat bones- pelvis, calves, ribs, shoulder blade, sternum
Irregular bones- teeth, vertebral column

FRACTURES
A fracture is a break or crack in the continuity of a bone.

CAUSES
a) D-direct force- a bone may break or crack at any point where severe force is
applied. In this case the fracture occurs right at the point of impact.
b) I-indirect force-in this case the bone breaks or cracks some distance from the
site of impart.
c) M-muscular action-a bone may break or crack when a muscle attached to it
pulls violently.
d) I-infection-a bone may become brittle and fracture due to infection.

CLASSIFICATION
a) Closed fracture-this is whereby a bone breaks, but does not affect the
overlaying skin.
b) Open fracture-this is whereby a bone breaks and protrudes thereby damaging
the top layer of the skin.

TYPES
 Simple fracture- is a closed fracture here the bone breaks but does not
damage the overlying skin.
 Compound fracture- when the bone breaks and protrudes damaging the
overlying skin
 Complicated fracture- when a bone breaks and affects the vital parts of
the body.
 Impacted fracture- when the broken part is driven inwards into another
bone.
 Displaced fracture
 Multiple fracture
 Greenstick fracture- when the break is incomplete and found in children.
 Comminuted fracture- the bone breaks into small fragments or pieces at
the site of impact
 Oblique fracture- the bone will be broken diagonally
 Pathological- the bone breaks due to infection
 Transverse- the bone is broken along its shaft
 Spiral-fracture runs around the bone

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

 Pain.

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 Inability to move limb.

 Deformity.
 Swelling.
 De-colorization
 Exposed fragments
 Numbness.
 Bleeding.
 Tenderness.
 Crepitus.

MANAGEMENT OF FRACTURES
 Ensure safety.
 Treat life threatening condition 1st e.g. Stop bleeding if any.
 Treat injured party on the spot
 Cover open wounds.
 Gently immobilize the injured part using splints and adequate padding.
 Maintain body temperature to prevent shock.
 Re-assure the casualty.
 Get medical aid.

CHAPTER NINE
POISONING

POISON
Is any substance which when taken into contact with the body may destroy life or
impair health.

WAYS OF POISONING

Ingestion- swallowing through the mouth.

Inhalation- breathing in through the mouth and nose.

Injection- taken under the skin.

Absorption- taken through skin contact.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS OF POISONING

 Vomiting.
 Diarrhea.
 Burnt lips or skin.
 Unconsciousness.
 Pain.
 Nausea.
 Sweating.
 Difficulty in breathing

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HOW TO PREVENT POISONING

 Keep all poisonous substances out of reach of children.
 Wear protective clothing when using poisonous chemicals.
 Do not put poisonous substances in food containers.
 Do not use poisonous substances without instructions.

MANAGEMENTOF POISONING

1. Swallowed poison are divided into two categories namely burning poisons and
non-burning poisons.

a) NON-BURNINGPOISONS
 Ensure safety.
 If the casualty is conscious dilute the poison by giving the casualty milk or
water drink.
 If conscious induce vomiting by touching the back of his throat.
 If container is available, follow first aid tips on the label.
 Prevent shock.
 Continue giving milk or drinking water.
 Re-assure.
 Quickly refer for medical help and if possible take container with the
casualty.

b) BURNING POISONS

 Ensure safety.
 If the casualty is conscious dilute the poison by giving the casualty milk or
water drink.
 If container is available, follow first aid tips on the label.
 Prevent shock.
 Continue giving milk or drinking water.
 Re-assure.
 Quickly refer for medical help and if possible take container with the
casualty.

2. INHALED POISONS

 Ensure safety.
 Lie casualty down in free air.
 Check for breathing.
 Open and maintain a clear airway.
 If the casualty is unconscious, place him/her in the recovery position.
 Prevent shock.
 Re-assure the casualty.
 Quickly refer for medical help.

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3. CONTACT POISONS

 Ensure safety.
 Remove clothes and jewellery if necessary.
 Rinse the poisoned part with plenty of cold water.
 Prevent shock.
 Re-assure the casualty.
 If container is available, follow first aid tips on the label.
 Quickly refer for medical help and if possible take container with the
casualty.

4. INJECTION POISONS
 Ensure safety.
 Immediately lie down the casualty. This slow down poison circulation in
the body.
 Prevent shock.
 Re-assure the casualty.
 If container is available, follow first aid tips on the label.
 Quickly refer for medical help and if possible take container with the
casualty.

MANAGEMENT OF SNAKE BITES.

 Ensure safety.
 Calm and sit or lie down the casualty.
 Flash the wound with warm soapy water.
 Cover the wound with a bandage.
 Prevent shock.
 Re-assure the casualty.
 Do not suck the wound.
 Do not elevate the injury.
 Immobilize the bitten limb.
 Get medical help.

CHAPTER TEN

JOINT INJURIES

JOINT
A joint is where bones meet. The bones are held together by elastic like cuffs
called ligaments; together these ligaments form a covering capsule that
surrounds the joint. The adjacent bone surface is covered with a gristle called
cartilage which is smooth, hence allows bones to move easily.

SPRAIN
This is a twist which stretches or tears ligaments at the joint.

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MANAGEMENT OF A SPRAIN

 R- Rest the joint in the most comfortable position.

 I- Ice by applying cold compress for about 10minutes
 C- Compress the joint by a thick layer of cotton wool
 E- Elevate the limb
 Reassure the casualty and keep warm.

STRAIN
This is a twist which over-stretches ligaments at the joint.

MANAGEMENT OF STRAIN

 R- Rest the joint in the most comfortable position.

 I- Ice by applying cold compress for about 10minutes
 C- Compress the joint by a thick layer of cotton wool
 E- Elevate the limb
 Reassure the casualty and keep warm.

DISLOCATION
This is a twist or severe wrench which displaces bones at a joint.

SIGNS AND SYMPTOMS

 Pain.
 Inability to move limb.
 Deformity.
 Numbness.
 Swelling.

MANAGEMENT OF DISLOCATION
 Do not try to replace bones.
 Rest the joint in the most comfortable position
 Support the injured joint using a lot of padding.
 Apply a firm narrow bandage.
 Prevent shock.
 Re-assure casualty.
 Quickly refer for medical help.

CHAPTER ELEVEN

MISCALLENEOUS CONDITIONS

FAINTING
Fainting is the temporary lack of oxygenated blood to the brain.

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MANAGEMENT OF FAINTING
 Ensure safety.
 Lie casualty down in open air.
 Open and maintain a clear airway.
 Elevate lower limbs.
 Maintain body temperature.
 Do not give anything by mouth

EPILEPSY
Epilepsy is a temporal interruption of the brains.

MANAGEMENT OF EPILEPSY
A person having major epilepsy fits loses consciousness and falls to the ground.
Violent jerking of the body may occur and recovery normally happens by itself.
 Keep calm and note time.
 Move any object which could be harmful.
 Loosen tight clothing.
 Place a cushion under the head.
 Do not move the casualty unless in danger.
 Do not restrict movements.
 Do not put anything between the teeth.
 Place the casualty in recovery position after the fits.
 Re-assure the casualty afterwards.
 Refer for medical help if the casualty had some injuries or the fits are
prolonged.

CHAPTER TWELVE
HIV/AIDS
DEFINITIONS- HIV- Human Immune Deficiency Virus.

AIDS- Acquired Immune Deficiency syndrome. HIV is the virus that causes AIDS.

MODE OF TRANSMISSION
 Unprotect sexual intercourse with an infected partner.
 Blood to blood contact through sharing skin piercing objects with the
infection.
 Blood to blood contact with the infected through unprotected First Aid
practices.
 Infected mother to her child during pregnancy or birth.
 Breast feeding from an infected mother.

PREVENTION
1) Abstaince
2) Having one faithful HIV free sexual partner.
3) Correct and consistent use of condoms.

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 First Aid

4) Protect First Aid practices.

5) Avoid sharing skin piercing objects.

PROTECTIVE FIRST AID PRACTICES.

BASIC HYGIENE MEASURES IN FIRST AID.

 Wash your hands with soap and water before and immediately after giving
First Aid.
 Avoid contact with body fluids.
 Prevent injury when using, handing, cleaning or disposing off sharp
instruments.
 Cover cuts or any other skin breaks with a dry clean dressing.

AREAS OF CONCERN

a) Giving mouth to mouth respiration

 If possible make use of face shields or mask.
 Use a clean cloth to wipe any blood before applying artificial resuscitation.

b) Dealing with someone who is bleeding.

 If possible, instruct the casualty to apply direct pressure him/herself.
 If the casualty cannot stop bleeding, use gloves; thick clean cloth or
bandage to avoid direct contact with blood.
 If you have gloves, make use of them throughout the procedures.

c) Being in contact with the injured person’s blood.

 If your hands are contaminated with blood, thoroughly wash with soapy
water.
 If any part of your body is splashed with any blood, wash or flash it with
soap and water.
 If your skin is cut by a blood contaminated instrument, wash the wound
thoroughly with soap and water and apply a dry clean dressing.

d) CLEAMING UP BLOOD SPILLS

 Wear general purpose utility gloves.
 Wash the contaminated are with disinfectant.

e) CLEANING MATERIAL CONTAMINATED WITH BLOOD.

 Wear general purpose utility gloves
 When washing contaminated clothes, use a detergent and hot water.
 Soak clothes for at least 25 minutes.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN

FIRST AID KIT CONTENTS

20
 First Aid

ALL MEDICINES, DRUGS MAY BE HARMFUL IF PRECUATIONS ARE NOT TAKEN

WHEN ADMINISTERING THEM.

1) INTRODUCTION
Medicine and drugs have been in History from long, in form such as roots, herbs
and others. When using any form of medicine, the following factors are to be
considered.
 Generic name of the drug, that is the original name of the drug, for
example Acetyl Salicylic Acid, is a generic name of Aspirin. You also need
to know the various trade names used for the same drugs. For example,
Paracetamol is the same as Panadol, Antalgic and others.
 Indications, that is, when the drug should not be used, for example, it is
for heart problem and such other complications.
 Contra indication, that is, when the drug should not be used for people
suffering from gastric ulcers, may not use aspirin. It causes bleeding of
the guts.
 Dosage, that is, how much medicine to give (quantity), is it two tablets of
Panadol at once? Is it 10mls of cough mixture? The dosage is usually
determined by the following factors on a patient:
o Age.
o Weight/height
o Severity of illness.
 Route of administration, that is, the medicine may taken orally, tropically,
intra-muscular (injection), per rectum, per vagina and many others. You
also need to take note of how the medicine is taken, that is, before or after
meals, with plenty of water and others.
 Antidote, that is, the drug given to neutralize the medicine if the patient
reacts (allergy).

2) SOME OF THE ABBREVIATIONS USED IN GIVING DRUGS

b.d - twice a day.

i. m - intra-muscularly (injection).
t.d.s - 3 times a day.
i. v - intravenously (inject into vein).
Norte - at night.
mane - in the morning.
ung - ointment.
stat - at once, single dose.
p.r.n - when necessary.
qd - once a day.
qid - 4 times a day.
a.c - before meals.
mist - mixture.

3) GENERAL SIDE EFFECTS

This is how a person can reacts after taking some medicine.

21
 First Aid

 Nausea.
 Vomiting.
 Dizziness.
 Vertigo-ringing in ear.
 Headaches.
 Rash (goose pimples)
 Itchiness.
 Shock/fainting.
 Coma.
 Rapid pulse.
 Loss of appetite.
 Dermatitis (skin problem, pilling of skin, sores and others)
 Change of colour of stool, urine and others.

4) THE FIRST AID DRUGS

1. Aspirin.
2. Paracetamol.
3. Malaquin.
4. Malison/deltaprin.
5. Magnesium triscilicate.
6. Actal gastrigel.
7. Cough mixture.
8. Burn cream.
9. Eye ointment.
10. Antiseptic cream.
11. White embrocating.

Other contents
1. Adhesive dressing.
2. Unmedicated sterile dressing.
3. Triangular bandages.
4. Gauze bandages (all sizes).
5. Crepe bandages (all sizes).
6. Plastic gloves (disposable).
7. Latex gloves.
8. Resusci acids.
9. Eye pads.
10. Safety pins.
11. Splints.
12. Elastoplasts.
13. Paraffin gauze.
14. Spatula.
15. Scissors.
16. Cotton wool.
17. Cotton pads.

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 First Aid

PRACTICAL DEMOSTRATION.
 Primary survey.
 Secondary survey.
 Artificial respiration.
 Roles of triangular bandages.
 Cardio pulmonary resuscitation.
 Recovery position.
 Choking

Fractures:
 Lower jaw.
 Lower arm.
 Lower leg.
 Hand and finger.
 Collar bone.
 Ribs.
 Upper arm.
 Thigh.
 Foot.
 Spine.
 Skull.
 Pelvis.
 Knee.

Bandages:
 Head cover.
 Foot cover.
 Large arm sling.
 Triangular sling.
 Cut along palm.
 Cut across the palm.
 Elbow bandage.
 Should bandage.
 Hip bandage.
 Chest cover.
 Knee cover.
 Abdominal bandage.
 Abdominal bandage with protruding guts.
 Methods of casualty transportation.
 Management of shock and fainting.
 Management of wounds.
 Management of burns and scalds.

CHAPTER FIFTEEN

23
 First Aid

TRIAGE AND EVACUATION OF CASUALTIES.

TRIAGE
Triage is the sorting of mass casualties according to their severity of injuries so
that those requiring urgent medical attention can be given first priority in
transportation and management.

Colour codes.
Casualties are usually put into four categories and colour codes for easy
identification. The following colour codes are used:
 Red.
This is used for casualties who need first priority. Casualties in this category are
those with life threatening injuries, for example, asphyxia, respiratory failure,
severe bleeding and extensive burns or wounds.
 Yellow.

This is used for casualties with moderate injuries, for example, moderate wounds,
large fractures and moderate burns or would. These casualties should be given
second priority in transportation and management.
 Green.
This colour is used for those casualties with minor wounds, like bruises, sprain,
and minor bleeding. These casualties should be given third priority.
 Black.
This colour is used for those considered dead. These are given the last priority.

MOVEMENT AND TRANSPORTATION OF CASUALTIES.

The Golden rule in casualty transportation is “Do not move a casualty unless it is
absolutely necessary.” However, if professional rescue transport is not available,
the casualties may have to be immobilized and transported.

INDICATION OF IMMEDIATE MOVEMENT.

 Danger of fire or explosion.
 Lack of oxygen due to gasses and fumes.
 Risk of drowning.
 Possibility of collapsing walls or buildings.
 Danger of electrocution.
 Traffic hazards.
 Danger from machinery.

METHODS

Cradle method.
 This can be used for light-weight casualties.
 Pass one of your arms well beneath the casualty’s two knees.
 Pass the other arm around the casualty’s back and lift and carry.

Pick-a-back

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 First Aid

 The casualty must be conscious and be able to hold on.

Kitchen chair
This method may be used to carry a conscious casualty along passages, down or
upstairs.
 Clear the way of obstructions.
 Sit the casualty of the chair.
 One of the First aiders should be behind the chair supporting its back and
the patient.
 The other First Aider should be at the front facing the casualty and
holding the chair by its legs.
 The chair is lifted slightly back, lifted and carried.

Human clutch.
This method can be used for casualties with moderate injuries to the lower
extremities.
 Stand on the injured side of the casualty.
 Place your arms around the casualty’s waist and grasp the clothes on the
uninjured side.
 Pass the casualty’s arm around your neck and grasp the wrist or hand of
that arm with your free hand.
 Instruct the casualty to use your body as a clutch.

THE HAND SEATS

This method may be used to carry a conscious casualty over a short distance
and it requires two First Aiders.
 The may be formed using a hook lock, wrist lock, two handed seat, three
handed seat or four handed seat.
 Instruct the casualty to seat on the hand seat.
 Rise up gently and set off together.

THE DRAG METHOD

If a stretcher is not available, a blanket or rag may be used to drag a casualty.
This method is appropriate for short distances over smooth surfaces.

STRETCHER METHOD
This is the most comfortable method of carrying a casualty. The method requires
four First Aider bearers.

LOADING A STRETCHER
1. Four bearers kneel on their left knees.
2. The first bearer is by the casualty’s right hip, supporting the hips, whilst
the other three are on the left side.
3. The second bearer should support the casualty’s lower limbs, the third
supports the hips whilst the fourth supports the head and shoulders.
4. The first bearer orders the casualty to be gently lifted and placed on the
knees of the other three First Aider bearers.

25
 First Aid

5. While the casualty is on the knees of the three First Aider bearers, the first
bearer place the stretcher under the casualty.
6. The first bearer then resumes his /her position and at his order, the
casualty slightly rose from the knees and then carefully and gently lowered
onto the stretcher.
7. The casualty is then covered with a blanket.

CARRYING A STRETCHER
 A stretcher should normally be carried by four bearers with instructions
from one of them.
 A stretcher should be carried with the feet first. However, there are
conditions when it is advisable to carry the stretcher with the casualty’s
head first. These are as follow;
a) Going uphill or upstairs when the casualty’s legs are not injured.
b) Descending downhill or downstairs when the casualty’s legs are
injured.
c) Loading an ambulance.
d) Bringing a casualty alongside a bed.

CHAPTER SIXTEEN

PREVENTION OF HOME ACCIDENTS.

ACCIDENT.
An accident is an unplanned event that cause damage to property, health or
cause death.

CAUSESES OF ACCIDENTS

1) Unsafe acts.
 Negligence.
 Negative attitudes.
 Lack of knowledge.
2) Unsafe conditions
o Poor housekeeping.
o Hazardous environment.

COMMON ACCIDENTS AND THEIR PREVENTION.

1) BURNS AND SCALDS.
a) When cooking, turn away pot handles so that they do not get knocked off.
b) Cords of electric gadgets should not hang down in a loop to avoid pulling
by children.
c) Keep matches out of reach of children.
d) Keep flammables such as fuel away from kitchen.
e) Use proper ash trays or make sure cigarettes are completely out before
throwing them away.
f) Test the temperature of bathing water before getting or putting a child or

26
 First Aid

patient into the dish.

g) Do not smoke whilst in bed.
h) Dry off meat or vegetables before putting them in hot fat or oil.
i) Fat and cooking oil which catches a light can only be put off by covering
with a lid. Do not pour water or try to carry the pot outside.
j) Do not serve extremely hot food.
k) Do not sleep around a fire.

2) ROAD TRAFFIC ACCIDENTS

a) Do not drink alcohol and drive.
b) Car seats belts should always be worn.
c) Young children should always travel in the back seat of a car.
d) People walking along road at night should wear white or reflective clothes
so that drivers can easily see them.
e) Pedestrians should always walk on the side of the road and should face
the oncoming traffic.
f) Pedestrians should stop, listen and look for traffic from both sides of the
road before crossing a road.
g) Build humps at both sides of pedestrian crossings.

3) DROWNING
a) Never attempt crossing a flooded river.
b) Do not leave children near or in water alone.
c) Keep swimming pools fenced and gated.
d) Protect shallow wells.
e) Do not drink alcohol and swim.
f) People learning to swim, should only do so in shallow pools with the
assistance of a competent swimmer.

WHY SURVEY?

In doing Secondary Survey, you will start from head to toe.

HEAD
The head is also known as the skull or sculp. You palpates, also
looking for bruises, swelling, deformities and depressions and
bleeding.
NECK
Look for lacerations, deformities, tenderness, tracheal deviation,
bulging neck veins and medical bracelets.
CHEST
Look for penetrations, impaled objects, cuts, bruises, equal chest size
and spring the chest to test normal expansion. You palpate and
percuss.

27
 First Aid

ABDOMINAL CAVITY
You divide the abdominal cavity into four quadrants, right upper
quadrant, right lower quadrant, left upper quadrant and left lower
quadrant. You should have knowledge of contains in each quadrant.
You palpate and percuss.
PELVIS
Compress the pelvis testing for fractures, look for male priapism,
which is a sign of spinal injury
UPPER AND LOWER EXTREMITIES
Look out for bone protrusion, dislocations, fractures, deformities,
swelling, lacerations and bleeding

ZIMBABWE RED CROSS SOCIETY

BASIC MINING FIRST AID EXAMINATION (BM 01/13)
TIME: 1 HOUR.

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

1. Write answers on a separate answer sheet.

2. Poor arrangement of work can lead to loss of marks.
3. You will be disqualified if caught cheating.
4. Do not write anything on this question paper.
5. Write your candidate number. province/company and date of exam.

1. What is S.C.A.B? (4)

2. Define accident and list down 2 causes of accident. (4)

3. What is a sepsis'? (2)

4. Why do you give instruction to transport casualties? (5)

5. Why do First Aiders examine and diagnose casualties at the scene of an accident?

6. When are you allowed to use tourniquets/ D.P? (2)

7. Give any 2 reasons for housekeeping. (2)

8. State at least 2 good reasons of the team captain to report to senior judge
during first aid competitions. (2)

28
 First Aid

9. Explain the management of an underground miner who has sustained an

amputation of the left leg at the ankle. (5)

10. Outline the treatment of a casualty who has a wound on top of the head,
bleeding severely, he is unconscious and is lying on his back. (5)

11. How do you manage simple fracture of the lower jaw? (5)

12. When do you apply shell dressing and pressure bandages? (4)

13. Assistant Overseer Miner was barring down a bad hanging while the construction
crew was extending the service pipes. The big hanging fell down damaging the
air and water pipes, this resulted in the crews being injured while trying to run
away. The main control valve was not closed during the barring process.
Explain the course of action you would take as an expert. (5)

TOTAL MARKS: (50)

Zimbabwe Red Cross Society

BASIC INDUSTRIAL FIRST AID (BIFA) Final Examination (B03/12)

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

1. Write answers on a separate answer sheet.

2. Poor arrangement of work can lead to loss of marks.
3. You will be disqualified if caught cheating.
4. Do not write anything on this question paper.
5. Write your candidate number. province/company and date of exam.

1. A policeman sustains 15% burns of the front trunk.

(a) What is a burn? (1)

(b)Give 3 causes of burns. (3)

(c) List any 3 dangers of burns. (3)

(d) What treatment would you give to this policeman? (5)

2. Define the following terms;

(a) Open fracture. (1)

29
 First Aid
(b) Complicated fracture. (1)

(c) Poison. (1)

(d) Shock. (1)

3. List of 5 causes of unconsciousness. (5)

4. Give and describe the levels of consciousness. (8)

5. How do you treat a young boy with a closed fracture of the left radius? (5)

6. Give 5 important signs and symptoms of Asphyxia. (5)

7. State 3 causes of the above condition. (3)

8. How do you prevent yourself from contacting HIV while applying First Aid? (3)

9. Define triaging. (2)

10. List any 4 factors that affect the success of Triage. (4)

Total (50 marks)

ZIMBABWE RED CROSS SOCIETY

BASIC INDUSTRIAL FIRST EXAMINATION (B12/12)

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

1. Write answers on a separate answer sheet.

2. Poor arrangement of work can lead to loss of marks.
3. You will be disqualified if caught cheating.
4. Do not write anything on this question paper.
5. Write your candidate number. province/company and date of exam.

Time: 1hr

1. Why is First Aid important at workplace, home and at leisure time? (3)

2. Define Primary Survey and Secondary Survey. (4)

3. Identify at least 2 fundamental principles of a First Aider. (2)

4 .. What is the SCAB rule of First Aid? (2)

5. Explain in detail why the triangular bandage is the most common bandage
used in First Aid. (5)

6. Draw and label the triangular bandage, (5)

7. Give 5 general rules of bandaging. (5)

30
 First Aid

8. Outline the method of tying a reef knot. (5)

9. How do you manage a bleeding ear? (5)

10. Give at least 4 causes of asphyxia. (4)

11. Poisonous gases displaces oxygen, explain. (3)

12. State any 2 stages in progression to unconsciousness. (2)

13. Mention 1 key word when managing burns and scalds. (1)

14. Give 2 signs and symptoms of fractures. (2)

15. What is poison? (1)

16. Which condition is due to a disturbance in the electrical activity of the brain? (2)

17. What is triaging? (1)

TOTAL MARKS: (50)

Zimbabwe Red Cross Society

BASIC MINING FIRST AID (BMFA) Final Examination (BM 05/12)

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

1. Write answers on a separate answer sheet.

2. Poor arrangement of work can lead to loss of marks.
3. You will be disqualified if caught cheating.
4. Do not write anything on this question paper.
5. Write your candidate number. province/company and date of exam.

Time: 1hr

1. State two Aims of First Aid. (2)

2. Give three reasons of placing a casualty in recovery position. (3)

4. List three signs and symptoms of heart failure. (3)

5. Outline the management of a casualty who has been struck by lightning. (5)

6. List and explain three ways of controlling bleeding. (6)

7. What is a burn? (1)

8. List five signs and symptoms of burns. (5)

31
 First Aid

9. List and describe three types of fractures. (6)

10. List four ways in which poison enters the body. (4)

11. What is fainting? (1)

12. Write down three causes of fainting. (3)

13. Explain the management of infantile convulsions. (3)

14. Describe three ways in which HIV & AIDS is transmitted when managing
casualties. (3)

15. State four lifting techniques that may be used to move casualties from the
scene of accident to a safer zone. (4)

(Total: 50 Marks)

ZIMBABWE RED CROSS SOCIETY

BASIC MINING FIRST AID EXAMINATION (BM 02/13)

TIME: 1 HOUR

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

1. Write answers on a separate answer sheet.

2. Poor arrangement of work can lead to loss of marks.
3. You will be disqualified if caught cheating.
4. Do not write anything on this question paper.
5. Write your candidate number. province/company and date of exam.

1. What is a wound? (2)

2. Differentiate an open and a closed wound. (4)

3. Why do First Aiders keep disposable gloves in the First Aid kits? (5)

4. Why does the Respiratory and Circulatory systems need most urgent attention in
First Aid? (4)

5. Explain the management of fractures. (5)

32
 First Aid

6. Give 3 signs and symptoms of burns and scalds. (3)

7. How can you tell that someone is not breathing normally? (5)

8. Outline the treatment of dislocation. (5)

. 9. When are First Aiders allowed to use rubber tourniquets? (5)

10. Compare sprain injury and strain injury. (4)

11. What are the similarities between shock and fainting? (4)

12. There has been an accident; miners fell from a chain ladder in a shaft and got
injured. You heard some screams and shouting. EVe witnesses say there is rock
debris at the scene of accident. As trained First Aiders, your task is to gently go
in and help. Explain the course of action you are going to take. (5)

TOTAL MARKS: (50)

Zimbabwe Red Cross Society

BASIC INDUSTRIAL FIRST AID (BIFA) Final Examination (B11/14)

Time 1hr

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

1. Write answers on a separate answer sheet.

2. Poor arrangement of work can lead to loss of marks.
3. You will be disqualified if caught cheating.
4. Do not write anything on this question paper.
5. Write your candidate number. province/company and date of exam.

1. What is First Aid? (2)

2. Give three reasons why casualties are placed into the recovery position? (3)

3. Describe the SCAB rule of First Aid? (4)

4. List the three cs of head injury. (3)

5. Outline the management of a casualty who has been struck by lightning. (5)

6. List and explain three ways of controlling bleeding. (6)

33
 First Aid

7. State any 4 ways of preventing infection when rendering First Aid. (4)

8. Identify five signs and symptoms of burns and scalds. (5)

9. Name 4 types of fractures. (4)

10. Write down four ways in which poison enters the body. (4)

11. Explain the general management of an unconscious casualty. (5)

12. Draw a triangular bandage, label it and explain its use. (5)

Total: 50 Marks

ZIMBABWE RED CROSS SOCIETY

BASIC MINING FIRST AID EXAMINATION (BM 01/13)

TIME: 1 HOUR.

INSTRUCTIONS TO CANDIDATES

1. Write answers on a separate answer sheet.

2. Poor arrangement of work can lead to loss of marks.

3. You will be disqualified if caught cheating.

4. Do not write anything on this question paper.

5. Write your candidate number. province/company and date of exam.

1. What is S.c'A.B? (4)

2. Define accident and list down 2 causes of accident. (4)

3. What is a sepsis? (2)

34
 First Aid
4. Why do you give lnstructlon to transport casualties? (5)

S. Why do First Aiders examine and diagnose casualties at the scene of an accident? (5)

6. When are you allowed to use tourniquets/ D.P? (2)

7. Give any 2 reasons for housekeeping. (2)

8. State at least 2 good reasons of the team captain to report to senior judge
during first aid competitions. (2)

9. Explain the management of an underground miner who has sustained an

amputation of the left leg at the ankle. (5)

10. Outline the treatment of a casualty who has a wound on top of the head,
bleeding severely, he is unconscious and is lying on his back. (5)

11. How do you manage simple fracture of the lower jaw? (5)

12. When do you apply shell dressing and pressure bandeqes? (4)

13. Assistant Overseer Miner was barring down a bad hanging while the construction
crew was extending the service pipes. The big hanging fell down damaging the
air and water pipes, this resulted in the crews being injured while trying to run
away. The main control valve was not closed during the barring process.
Explain the course of action you would take as an expert. (5)
TOTAL MARKS: (50)

35