1

EMILE DURKHEIM
1858-1917

Dr. HUMA HASSAN

2

Topic 4.2: Emile Durkheim - Division of

labour, social fact, suicide, religion and
society.
3
UPSC CSE MAINS PYQ ON EMILE DURKHEIM

1.Give an assessment of Durkheimian notion of ‘sacred’ and ‘profane’

in sociology of religion. (2017 / 10 Marks)

2.Discuss distinct sociological method adopted by Emile Durkheim in

his study of ‘suicide’. (2017 / 20 Marks)

3.Explain Durkheim’s basic arguments on suicide. Can you analyse

high suicide rates of contemporary Indian society with Durkheim’s
theory? (2018 / 20 Marks)
4
4. In what way did Durkheim perceive religion as functional to
society? (2018 / 10 Marks)

5. How well do you think Tonnies, Durkheim, Weber and Marx predicted
the character of modern society? Critique. (2019 / 10 Marks)

6. Critically analyse Durkheim’s views on elementary forms of religious life

and role of religion. Also discuss the consequences of religious revivalism
in contemporary society. (2020 / 20 Marks)

7. What are the problems in observing social facts in Durkheim’s views?

(2020 / 10 Marks).
5

8. Explain whether Durkheim’s theory of Division of Labour is relevant in

the present day context. (2021 / 10 Marks)

9. Durkheim argued that society is more than the sum of

individual acts. Discuss. (2022 / 10 Marks)

10. Critically examine how Durkheim and Merton explicate

Anomie. (2022 / 20 Marks)

11. Critically examine the relevance of Durkheim’s views on

religion in contemporary society. (2022 / 10 Marks)
6
Who was Émile Durkheim?
7

Emile Durkheim was a famous French

philosopher and sociologist known as the father
of the French school of sociology for his
methodology combining empirical research with
sociological theory.
8

LET'S HAVE A BRIEF DETAIL OF

HIS LIFE BEFORE DELVING INTO
HIS THEORIES.
9
BRIEF OUTLINE OF LIFE
● Émile Durkheim (1858-1917) was born in Épinal,
France, on April 15, 1858, to a devout French Jewish
family.
● His father, grandfather, and great-grandfather had all
been rabbis, and it was assumed that he would follow
their lead when they enrolled him in a rabbinical school.
Moïse Durkheim
Durkheim's father

Epinal in France
10 1.Education and Early Influences:

● Initially enrolled in a rabbinical school,

where he was likely to receive a
religious education and training.
● However, Durkheim chose a different
path.

2.Intellectual Independence:
● At an early age, Durkheim decided not
to follow the traditional path of
becoming a rabbi.
● He switched schools after realizing that Synagogue of Epinal, where his
he preferred to study religion from a father was famong officiating rabbi.
more agnostic standpoint rather than
being indoctrinated.
11 3.Educational Achievements:
● Despite the initial expectation for him to
become a rabbi, Durkheim's academic
excellence led him to the École
Normale Supérieure (ENS), a
prestigious graduate school in Paris.
● He pursued studies in philosophy.

Durkheim at École
Normale Supérieure
(ENS), with his
classmates
12 4.Marriage and Family Life:

● In 1887, Émile Durkheim married Louise Dreyfus. The couple had two
children together.
● His wife, Louise, was supportive of his intellectual pursuits.

5.Academic Struggles:
● Durkheim faced challenges within the French academic system, which
lacked a social science curriculum during his early career.
● His interest in sociology and scientific approaches to society often
conflicted with the prevailing academic norms.
13
6.Exile and Professional Recognition:
DO YOU KNOW that there is
● During his career, Durkheim spent a city called Bad Durkheim in
time in exile, particularly in Germany, Germany?
where he studied sociology.
● He faced challenges in gaining a Although Durkheim spent
major academic appointment in Paris quite a time in Germany, he
early on. has not visited here. It was a
Jew majority city.
14

7. Last work and death:

● In 1912, he published his last major work,

“The Elementary Forms of The Religious
Life,”a book that analyzes religion as a social
phenomenon.
● Émile Durkheim died of a stroke in Paris on
November 15, 1917, and is buried in the
city’s Montparnasse Cemetery

Grave of Émile Durkheim,

the founder of sociology, in
Montparnasse Cemetery,
Paris, France.
15
EFFECT OF FRENCH REVOLUTION
FRENCH REVOLUTION has impacted
society in many terms, be it class, political,
economic or on ideology basis. It led to
description in ancient decision of society.

Emile Durkheim examined its after effects that

how societies change as a result of an
increase in dynamic density. It also impacted
his theory of SOCIAL INTEGRATION.

After taking inspiration from French

Revolution, Emile Durkheim talked about
social Integration while Karl marx
observed Social Conflict.
16 OTHER FACTORS IN WESTERN EUROPE( FRANCE)

INDUSTRIA
LISATION

URB ON
OF M ENCE
CLA LE
IDD

ANI
SS
RG

SAT
EME

I
O
ST LD S
DI RU OC C AL
SI CT IA I
NT U L L IT GES
E R PO HAN
ED GR ES
AT C
17
INFLUENCES ON EMILE DURKHEIM

1. Auguste Comte:
● Comte's emphasis on applying scientific methods to
study society and his idea of positivism, which
seeks to understand social phenomena through
empirical observation, laid the foundation for
Durkheim's own approach to sociology.

Comparison in next slides.

18 TIMELINE OF POSITIVISM AND STRUCTURALISM
1800

1850 SAINT SIMMON

KARL MARX
1900
COMTE
DURKHEIM

1930

SPENCER

1960
PARSONS

FUNCTIONALISM FULLY EVOLVED

19
1.Positive Philosophy:
Comte's Influence:

Auguste Comte advocated for a

positivist approach in sociology,
emphasizing the application of
scientific methods to study
society.

He believed in understanding
social phenomena through
empirical observation and the
use of the scientific method.
20

Durkheim's Response:
Durkheim embraced Comte's
positivist perspective.

He shared Comte's view that

sociology should be a science
guided by empirical research
and systematic observation.

Durkheim applied this scientific

approach to study social facts.
21
2.Social Order and Stability:
Durkheim's Response:
Comte's Influence:
Comte was concerned Durkheim, building on Comte's ideas,
with social order and focused on social order and stability as
stability, and he well.
proposed a "science of
He explored the role of social
society" to address
integration, collective conscience, and
social issues and
social facts in maintaining a cohesive
maintain social
and functioning society.
cohesion.
Durkheim's work often aimed at
understanding and promoting social
solidarity.
22
3.Organic Analogy:

Comte's Influence:

Comte used the organic analogy to

describe society as a living organism
with various parts working together,
much like the organs in a body.
23

Durkheim's Response:
Durkheim extended and refined the
organic analogy in his functionalist
perspective.

He saw society as an organism

with interrelated parts, where each
part plays a role in maintaining the
overall health and functioning of the
social system.

This is evident in Durkheim's

concept of social functions and
the division of labor.
24

Focus on Social Order and Progress:

Durkheim's Response:
● Comte's Influence: Durkheim shared Comte's
Comte was interested in interest in social progress.
understanding the laws He sought to identify the social
governing social order forces that contribute to stability
and believed that
and advancement, emphasizing
through scientific inquiry,
the importance of shared values
societies could progress
and social integration for
and improve.
societal well-being.
25

● While Durkheim was influenced by Comte's ideas, it's important to note

that Durkheim also developed his unique contributions to sociology,
particularly in his emphasis on the study of social facts, the role of
religion, and the concept of anomie.

● Durkheim expanded on and adapted Comte's ideas to address the

complexities of understanding and analyzing social phenomena.
26

2. Herbert Spencer:

● Herbert Spencer came to sociology via

biology. Therefore he drew analogy
between the society and the biological
organism.

● “He established the hypothesis that

society, is like a biological organism and
then proceeded to defend it against all
objections with great logical force.”
27
28
Durkheim's functionalism has similarities to Spencer's organic analogy but
with a more sociological and functional perspective.
29
Social Evolution:

Spencer's Influence: Spencer was a proponent of social evolution, suggesting that

societies evolve from simple to complex states over time.
30
Durkheim's Response:
Durkheim engaged with the idea
of social evolution to some
extent.
However, he was more
concerned with understanding
the functions of social institutions
in the present and maintaining
social order rather than
predicting a linear path of
societal development.
31
Division of Labor:
● Spencer's Influence: Spencer
discussed the benefits of the
division of labor in society, seeing it
as a natural and evolutionary
process.

● Durkheim's Response:
Durkheim, in his work on the
division of labor, acknowledged the
importance of specialization but
focused more on the social and
moral implications.
● He studied how the division of labor
contributes to social solidarity and
integration.
32

3.FERDINAND TONNIES

● Ferdinand Tönnies, a German sociologist, had a

notable influence on the work of Emile
Durkheim, particularly in the area of social
theory.
● Tönnies is best known for his concepts of
Gemeinschaft (community) and Gesellschaft
(society), which influenced Durkheim's thinking
about the nature of social relationships and
social change.
33
Tonnies worked on TRANSITION IN SOCIETY. This concept led to
development of many other concepts and theories.

Emile Durkheim Robert Redfield Mckim Marriott

Traditional to Little traditions and Parochialization

modern Societies Great traditions and urbanisation
34

These concepts
and correlation
will help you in
Paper 2.
35
1. Gemeinschaft and Gesellschaft:

● Tönnies' Influence:

Tönnies distinguished between

Gemeinschaft, characterized by
close-knit, community-based
relationships with strong social
bonds, and Gesellschaft,
characterized by more
impersonal, contractual, and
individualistic relationships
found in modern societies.
36
Durkheim's Response:

● Durkheim was influenced by this

Gemeinschaft-Gesellschaft distinction.
● While he did not adopt these terms explicitly, he
explored similar ideas in his works, especially in
his analysis of mechanical solidarity (similar to
Gemeinschaft) and organic solidarity (akin to
Gesellschaft).
● Durkheim was interested in understanding how
societies transition from traditional,
community-oriented structures to more complex,
industrial societies with a focus on individualism.
37 2.Social Change and Solidarity:

● Tönnies' Influence: Tönnies ● Durkheim's Response: Durkheim

argued that modernization and was concerned with understanding
the shift from Gemeinschaft to the effects of social change on
Gesellschaft could lead to social solidarity. He explored the transition
disintegration and a decline in from mechanical solidarity (typical of
social bonds. Gemeinschaft) to organic solidarity
(characteristic of Gesellschaft) in
industrial societies. Durkheim,
however, was more optimistic about
the potential for organic solidarity to
maintain social order and cohesion.

NOTE- We will read it in Division of Labour.

38

4. IMMANUEL KANT
Immanuel Kant was an 18th-century German
philosopher.

Durkheim was heavily influenced by Kant.

He was literally, a neo-Kantian philosopher, by

training, and, from 1906 to the end of his life.
39

1. Kant and Durkheim on Morality

Immanuel Kant says that-there is a
definite "right" and "wrong" regarding
moral decisions.

He establishes the moral law as an a

priori truth by grounding it in the
categories of thought (i.e. time,
space, causality, etc.), which are, for
him, given a priori
40

Emile Durkheim agrees that

morality is grounded in the
categories of thought, and
moreover, that the moral law is a
universal law.
However, he disagrees with Kant
as to the origin of the categories
of thought.
The categories of thought are not
programmed by nature, but rather,
were constructed by primitive
societies in order to fit the
particular needs of each society.
Source: International Encyclopedia of
Philosophy
41
2. Idealism and Social Theory:

● Kant's Influence: Kant's

philosophical approach, known
as transcendental idealism,
emphasized the role of the
mind in constructing reality and
understanding the world.
42
43

● Durkheim's Response: While Durkheim

did not adopt Kant's idealism, he, too, was
concerned with understanding how social
reality is constructed.

● Durkheim's focus on social facts and the

external forces shaping individual behavior
reflects a similar interest in the social
construction of reality.
44

5. Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, an 18th-century

philosopher, was known for his works on
political philosophy, education, and social
contract theory.
45
1.Social Contract and Collective Will:

● Durkheim's Response:
● Rousseau's Influence: Durkheim, in his sociological
● Rousseau's social contract work, explored the concept of
theory emphasized the idea of a the collective conscience.
collective will formed through the ● While not a direct adaptation of
agreement of individuals in a Rousseau's social contract,
community. Durkheim's emphasis on
● He argued for the importance of shared values, norms, and a
a general will that represents the collective conscience echoes
common interests of society. the idea of a collective will that
binds individuals in a society.
46 2.Individualism vs. Social Solidarity:
● Durkheim's Response:
● Rousseau's Influence: ● Durkheim, in his analysis of the
Rousseau critiqued the transition from mechanical solidarity
emergence of private to organic solidarity, addressed
property and concerns related to the changing
individualism in society, nature of social bonds.
expressing concern ● He explored how societies maintain
about the potential loss cohesion amid increasing
of the general will and individualism, emphasizing the
social harmony. importance of shared values for
social solidarity.
47
48
6. Baron de Montesquieu

Charles-Louis de Secondat, Baron de

Montesquieu, was an influential French
political philosopher of the Enlightenment
era.
49
A.Separation of Powers and Social Structures:

● Durkheim, in his sociological work, was

concerned with understanding the functions of
various social institutions, including the state. \

● Durkheim's examination of social order and the

division of labor in society reflects an interest
in how different social structures require
specific forms of regulation.
50
B. Societal Factors and Legal Systems:
● Durkheim's Response:
● Montesquieu's Influence:
Montesquieu believed that
laws should be influenced by ● Durkheim's work in sociology
geographical, historical, and included an examination of how
cultural factors. societal factors influence various
aspects of social life, including
legal systems.
● He emphasized the relationship
between social facts and the
types of law that emerge in
different societies.
51 7.John Stuart Mill
● John Stuart Mill, a
19th-century British
philosopher and political
economist, was an
influential figure during
his time.

● There are some thematic

and conceptual
connections between
works of Durkheim and
Mills.
52

UTILITARIANISM ON DURKHEIM

● Durkheim, in his sociological works, engaged with questions of

morality and social order.
● While he did not adopt utilitarianism, Durkheim's exploration of social
facts and the collective conscience reflects a concern with the moral
and ethical dimensions of society.
● His approach goes beyond individual happiness to understand the
collective moral life of a society.
53
EMILE DURKHEIM
AND
KARL MARX
54
1. Focus on Society:

● Durkheim: Emphasized the

● Marx: Focused on social conflict
importance of social order and
and class struggle.
integration. ● Marx analyzed how societies are
● He was concerned with shaped by economic structures,
understanding how societies particularly the relationship
maintain stability and between the bourgeoisie (capitalist
coherence. class) and the proletariat (working
● His work often explored the class).
role of shared values, norms, ● His work emphasized the role of
and institutions in fostering economic factors in shaping social
social solidarity. relations.
55
2. Division of Labor:

● Durkheim: Explored the ● Marx: Analyzed the division

concept of the division of labor of labor in the context of
in society. capitalist societies.
● He distinguished between ● He highlighted how
mechanical solidarity (found in economic class divisions,
traditional, less complex particularly between
societies) and organic solidarity capitalists and workers,
(characteristic of more create social conflict and
complex, industrial societies) contribute to alienation
and examined how the division among the working class.
of labor contributes to social
cohesion.
56
3. Anomie and Alienation:

● Marx: Emphasized
● Durkheim: Introduced the alienation, a sense of
concept of anomie, referring estrangement and
to the breakdown of social disconnection experienced by
norms and values, which the working class in capitalist
could lead to feelings of societies.
disintegration and ● Alienation results from the
detachment from society. commodification of labor and
the separation of workers
from the products of their
labor.
57
4. Methodology:

● Marx: Employed historical

● Durkheim: Advocated for a materialism and a dialectical
scientific and positivist method.
approach to sociology. ● Marx's approach involved
● He focused on empirical analyzing historical
research, statistical analysis, developments, economic
and the study of social facts structures, and the
as external, observable contradictions inherent in
phenomena. social systems.

COMPARISON WITH WEBER TOO

58
5. Role of Religion:

● Durkheim: Examined religion ● Marx: Considered religion as

as a social institution that an ideological tool used by the
reinforces and expresses the
ruling class to maintain control
collective conscience of a
society. and justify social inequalities.

● He saw religion as a source of ● He famously referred to religion

social solidarity. as the "opium of the people."
59

6. Vision for Social Change:

● Marx: Envisioned a
● Durkheim: Advocated for revolutionary transformation of
social reform and believed society.
that a certain level of ● Marx believed that the
integration and regulation proletariat, through class
was necessary for a stable struggle, would overthrow the
capitalist system and establish
and healthy society.
a classless, communist society.
60

NOW, LET’S LOOK AT

DURKHEIM’S THEORIES BUT
BEFORE THAT LETS
UNDERSTAND HIS STAND.
61
● Emile Durkheim played a major role in development
of Sociology as a discipline.

● Like Comte, and other academics at the

time, Durkheim was alarmed at the chaos
he saw in society.

● It was important therefore, to scientifically

observe and study this society and the
social dynamics to find out what was going
on. Chaos caused by War
62
● While Auguste Comte left the field
of Sociology into disrepute,
Durkheim attempted to re-establish
the discipline.

● He therefore became the first French

academic Sociologist. It was no easy
task.

● Durkheim, like most early Sociologists

were all academic men but were still
considered by their colleagues as
intruders representing a discipline that
had little claim to legitimate status
Comte, founder of Sociology
faced vehement criticism.
63
He had a lot of work The very first attempt
to do in order to Durkheim made was to reduce
make Sociology a
the micro view of biology &
discipline in its own
right. psychology to explain social
phenomena.

Thus, Durkheim was

also the first to Rather, he decided to look at
successfully apply structures (institutions, norms
the macro theory of & values), which for him
Sociology. determined mankind’s social
problems.
64

Durkheim’s main contributions to Sociology:

● Functionalism
● Division of Labour
● Mechanical & Organic Solidarity
● Social Facts
● Collective Conscience
● Anomie
● Religion
● Suicide
65

FUNCTIONALISM
Emile Durkheim is the founding father of Functionalism.

● Functionalism is a theory in society that promotes the view that

everything is functional, necessary, positive and beneficial albeit in small
quantities in some cases.
● They believe that parts of society continue to persist only if they
served useful functions.
● If not, they become obsolete.
66
LET’S UNDERSTAND FUNCTIONALISM IN SIMPLER WAYS
Imagine you're at a big, bustling party.
Everyone has a role to play - some are
dancing, some are chatting, and some are
making sure there's enough food and drinks for
everyone. Now, think of society like that party.
67
Let's break it down:

1.Parts have a purpose: Just like the DJ keeps the music going,
teachers educate, and police keep order. Each part of society has a
role, or function, to keep things in balance.
2.Interconnected like a web: Durkheim believed that everything in
society is connected, like a spider web. If you tweak one part, it affects
the whole system. For example, if the DJ suddenly starts playing sad
songs, the mood of the party changes.
68

3.Social glue - shared values: Imagine the party-goers sharing common

ideas and values. This "glue" holds them together, just like shared beliefs
and values keep society stable. This shared glue is what Durkheim called
"collective conscience."

4.Bad vibes - social issues: Now, imagine someone spills a drink or

steps on the DJ's foot. It creates a problem, right?

Durkheim looked at things like crime, poverty, and conflict as "social

issues" – disruptions in the party that need fixing.
69
LET'S TAKE ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF HOSPITAL

DOCTORS NURSES
70

Emile Durkheim, looked at society like a living organism, just like a

party with different parts working together. He called this idea
"functionalism."

So, what's the deal with functionalism? Well, Durkheim thought that
every part of society has a purpose, just like every job at the party.

If everyone does their part, the party (or society) runs smoothly.
71
In a nutshell, Durkheim's functionalism is like looking at society as a
well-organized party where everyone has a job, things work together, and when
problems arise, it's a signal that something needs attention.
72

TO UNDERSTAND THESE
INTERCONNECTEDNESS AND SOCIAL
ISSUES, DURKHEIM CHOSE POSITIVISM
AND SCIENTIFIC METHOD TO PROCEED
FURTHER

SINCE WE HAVE STUDIED

POSITIVISM IN DETAIL IN TOPIC
2, WE WILL JUST KEEP IT BRIEF
HERE.
73
POSITIVISM
74
POSITIVISM OF EMILE DURKHEIM
● Durkheim's positivism is like treating
society as a giant puzzle.

● He wanted to use scientific methods to

gather data, analyze patterns, and
understand the laws governing social life.

● It's about applying the scientific approach

to social phenomena, much like scientists
do in the natural sciences.
75
HE USED SCIENTIFIC METHODS-
1.Observation and Measurement: Just like a
scientist collects data in a lab, Durkheim
believed in observing and measuring social
facts. These are aspects of social life, like
institutions, norms, and values, that can be
studied objectively.

2.Quantitative Analysis: Durkheim was all

about numbers. He liked to count things,
analyze statistics, and look for patterns. It's like
counting how many people are dancing at the
party or figuring out the most popular song.
76
3.Cause and Effect: Positivism is all about
finding cause-and-effect relationships.
Durkheim wanted to know why certain social
phenomena occurred. For example, if crime
rates went up, he wanted to figure out the
social factors causing this change.

4.Predict and Control: Just like a weather

forecaster predicts the weather, Durkheim
aimed to predict and control social behavior.
If he could understand the causes of social
issues, he believed society could make
changes to improve itself.
77

SOCIAL FACTS
BY
EMILE DURKHEIM
78
79
BREAKDOWN OF THIS KEY CONCEPT IN SIMPLER TERMS-
1.Imagine Society as a Big Puzzle:

● Durkheim looked at society like a giant

puzzle made up of different pieces.
● These pieces are what he called "social
facts."
● They're not tangible things like puzzle
pieces you can hold; instead, they're
aspects of social life that shape and
influence individuals.
80
2.Definition of Social Facts:
● Social facts, according to Durkheim, are the
external, collective forces that constrain and
guide individual behavior.

● They exist outside of any one person but have a

powerful impact on how people think and act.

● Examples of social facts include institutions,

norms, values, and social structures.
81

3.They're Like the Air We Breathe:

● Durkheim compared social facts to the

air we breathe. We might not see it,
but it's all around us, influencing us.

● Similarly, social facts are present in

our everyday lives, shaping our
thoughts, actions, and interactions.
82
4.External and Coercive:

● Social facts are external to

individuals. They exist independently
of any one person.
● They're also coercive, meaning they
have the power to shape and control
our behavior.
● Think of them as societal pressures
that guide us to conform to certain
norms and values.
83
5.Example - Language:
● One classic example of a social
fact is language.
● No one person creates a
language, but it's a powerful force
that shapes how we communicate.
● We use words and grammar that
are collectively agreed upon by
society.
● Language, in this sense, is a
social fact that influences our
thoughts and interactions.
84
6.Role of Social Integration:

● Durkheim believed that strong social

integration, where individuals feel
connected to their community and share
common values, is essential for social
stability.

● Social facts help maintain this integration

by providing a shared structure and order.
85
DIFFERENT FACTORS CONTRIBUTE TO SOCIAL INTEGRATION
86
Hence….
● Durkheim's theory of social facts is like looking at the invisible forces that
guide and shape our behavior in society.

● These forces are all around us, influencing the way we think, act, and
interact with one another.

● They're the pieces of the social puzzle that, when understood, help us make
sense of how societies work.
87

WHAT DURKHEIM
MENTIONED ABOUT
SOCIAL FACTS?
88
Social Facts Defined:
● Durkheim views sociology as the "science of civilization" and
focuses on the analysis of social facts.
89

● Social facts are defined as external and collective

elements that shape, structure, and constrain
individual behavior.

● These are ways of acting that exert external constraints

over individuals or are general over the entire society.
90
HOW DID DURKHEIM SAW SOCIETY?

● Society, for Durkheim, is not a mere collection of individuals but a collectivity with
its own features and characteristics.
● It includes social relationships, patterns, and forms of organization. Society, as a
whole, independently regulates individual and group behavior, encompassing
more than the sum of its individual parts.
91
Concept of Sui Generis Reality:

● Durkheim introduces the concept of "sui

generis reality," emphasizing that society
has its own collective reality with a force
independent of individuals.

● This reality influences and shapes

individuals' actions, making society a distinct
entity that cannot be reduced to individual
consciousness.
92

The major levels of social reality in Durkheim's work can be

depicted as follows:

A. Material Social Facts

1. Society
2. Structural components of society (for example, church and state)
3. Morphological components of society (for example, population
distribution, channels of communication, and housing
arrangements) (Andrews, 1993)
93
MATERIAL SOCIAL FACTS
94

B. Nonmaterial Social Facts

1. Morality
2. Collective conscience
3. Collective representations
4. Social currents

The levels within the two categories are

listed in terms of descending order of
generality.
95
DURKHEIM EXPLANATION OF MATERIAL AND NON MATERIAL FACTS

Durkheim differentiated between two broad types of social facts-material and

nonmaterial.
Material social facts are the clearer of the two because they are real,
material entities, but they are also of lesser significance in Durkheim's work.
As Durkheim put it, "The social fact is sometimes materialized so far as to
become an element of the external world" (1897/1951:313).
Architecture and the law would be two examples of what he meant by
material social facts.
96
The bulk of Durkheim's work, and the heart
of his sociology, lies in the study of non- How can nonmaterial social
material social facts. facts like norms and values be
external to the actor?

Durkheim said: "Not all social Where could they be found

except in the minds of actors?
consciousness achieves ... externalization
And if they are in the minds of
and materialization" (1897/1951:315). actors, then are they not
internal rather than external?
What sociologists now call norms and
values, or more generally culture are good
examples of what Durkheim meant by
nonmaterial social Facts. Led to many
questions
97
Durkheim's argument was
contending that while material
social facts are clearly external
To answer questions of previous slide-
and coercive, nonmaterial social
facts are not so clear-cut.

The best way to conceptualize nonmaterial social

facts is to think of them as external to, and
coercive of, psychological facts.

In this way we can see that both psychological

facts and some social facts exist within and
between consciousness.
98

Do you know this very concept make distinction

between Sociology and Psychology discipline?

Sociology is concerned with mental phenomena, but they are usually of a different
order from the mental concerns of psychology.

Durkheim thus was arguing that sociologists are interested in norms and values,
whereas psychologists are concerned with such things as human instincts.
99

CONCEPT OF MORALITY
100
101
102
According to(Mestrovic, 1988; Turner, 1993)- At the most general and
all-inclusive level, Durkheim (1887/1993) was a sociologist of morality.

While, Ernest Wallwork (1972:182) argued that Durkheim’s sociology is

merely a by-product of his concern with moral issues.

That is,Durkheim’s interest in the moral problems of his day led him as a
sociologist to devote most of his attention to the moral elements of social life.
103

At its most basic level, Durkheim’s great concern was with the declining strength
of the common morality in the modern world.

In Durkheim’s view, people were in danger of a “pathological” loosening of moral

bonds.

These moral bonds were

important to Durkheim, for
People would be impelled by
without them the individual
their passions into a mad
would be enslaved by search for gratification, but
ever-expanding and insatiable each new gratification would
passions. lead only to more and more
needs.
104

DURKHEIM’S VIEW ON MORALITY WAS A PARADOX

Durkheim held the seemingly paradoxical
view that the individual needs morality and
external control in order to be free.

This is curious definition of freedom.

WHAT ARE YOUR VIEWS?
Do you agree that we need
control to be free?
105
In Durkheim’s view, people were in danger of a “pathological” loosening of
moral bonds. These moral bonds were important to Durkheim, for without
them the individual would be enslaved by ever-expanding and insatiable
passions.
People would be impelled by their passions into a mad search for
gratification, but each new gratification would lead only to more and
more needs.
According to Durkheim, the one thing that every human will always want is
“more.” And, of course, that is the one thing we ultimately cannot have.
If society does not limit us, we will become slaves to the pursuit of
more.
106

Durkheim held the seemingly paradoxical view that the

individual needs morality and external control in order
to be free.

This view of the insatiable desire at the core of every

human is central to his sociology.

Can you relate this to increasing

crime rates in Live in
Relationship?
107

Collective Conscience-
Non material fact
108
Durkheim attempted to deal with his interest in common morality in various ways
and with different concepts.

In his early efforts to deal with this issue, Durkheim developed the idea of the
collective conscience, which he characterized in The Division of Labor in
Society in the following way:

The totality of beliefs and sentiments common to average citizens of the same
society forms a determinate system which has its own life; one may call it the
collective or common conscience.... It is, thus, an entirely different thing from
particular consciences, although it can be realized only through them.

(Durkheim, 1893/1964:79-80)
109
Durkheim thought of the collective conscience as occurring throughout a
given society when he wrote of the "totality" of people's beliefs and
sentiments.
Durkheim clearly conceived of the collective conscience as being an
independent, determinate cultural system.

Although he held such views of the collective conscience, Durkheim also

wrote of its being "realized" through individual consciousness.
110

This concept of collective conscience

plays key role in Durkheim’s Division
of labour, transformation of society
and in solidarity theories. Later on he
will connect those to morality using
this concept.
111

Collective Representation and

Social Currents are two other non
material facts
112

COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS
Émile Durkheim's conceptualization of the collective conscience, while influential,
posed challenges due to its broad and abstract nature.

The collective conscience refers to the shared beliefs, values, and norms that bind
individuals together in a society.

Durkheim argued that it was difficult to study the collective conscience directly
and, therefore, proposed studying it through related material social facts.

One of the avenues he explored was the legal system, using it as a means to
understand and analyze the collective conscience.
113
However, Durkheim became dissatisfied with the limitations of the
collective conscience concept, leading him to shift his focus to a
more specific concept known as "collective representations."

The term "collective representations" or "idées collectives" in

French refers to shared ideas or social forces that emerge
within a society.

This shift allowed Durkheim to delve into more concrete and tangible
aspects of collective life.
114
CHARACTERISTICS OF COLLECTIVE REPRESENTATIONS
1. Nature of Collective
2.Connection to Beliefs
Representations:
and Values:

● Durkheim used the term to

● Collective
encompass both collective
representations are
concepts and social forces within
symbolic expressions of
a society.
collective beliefs, norms,
● Examples of collective
and values.
representations include religious
● They play a role in
symbols, myths, and popular
motivating individuals to
legends.
conform to these
● These representations serve as
collective claims.
ways in which society reflects
upon itself.
115
3.Direct Study and Connection to 4.Emergence from Social
Material Symbols: Interactions:
● Unlike the elusive nature of the
collective conscience, collective ● Collective
representations can be studied more representations, like the
directly. collective conscience, are
● They are often connected to material not reducible to
symbols such as flags, icons,
individual thoughts or
pictures, or practices like rituals.
● This connection to tangible elements actions.
allows sociologists to explore how ● They emerge from social
certain representations align or interactions and shared
conflict with each other. experiences within a
community.
116
SOCIAL CURRENTS
Definition of Social Currents:
Coercive Power of Social
Currents:
● Social currents are
nonmaterial and ephemeral
● Despite being less concrete,
social facts that do not
social currents have a
present themselves in a
coercive power over
crystallized form like other
individuals.
social organizations.
● Individuals are swept along by
● Durkheim provides
these social currents, and their
examples, such as "waves
influence is felt even if
of enthusiasm, indignation,
individuals become aware of it
and pity" that arise in public
only when they resist common
gatherings.
feelings.
117
Critiques and Conceptual Challenges:

● The idea of social currents has faced

criticism, particularly regarding the
notion of independent social currents
coursing through the social world.
● Critics argue that Durkheim may be
accused of having a "group-mind"
orientation, suggesting that he
attributed an autonomous existence
to nonmaterial social facts, separate
from individual actors.

Social current will help you in understanding

Suicide by Durkheim
118

Now back to Social Facts and

its different features and
effects.
119
External Constraints on Individuals:

● Through various social structures,

customs, and norms, society
constrains how individuals think, feel,
and act.
● These external constraints exist
independently of individuals and have
an objective reality.
● For example, societal expectations
around marriage exist regardless of
individual perceptions.
120

Objective Existence of Social Facts:

● Social facts have an objective and external existence independent of

individual experiences.

● The collective incidence of social phenomena, such as divorce or

economic inequality, is separate from any one individual's
experience but contributes to the overall societal phenomenon.
121
Distinguishing Social Facts from Statistical Facts:

● Social facts should not be equated

with statistical facts, such as
percentages or rates.

● While statistical facts shape social

behavior, social facts encompass a
broader range, including all ways in
which social structures and norms
constrain social behavior.
122
Scientific Study of Social Facts:

● Durkheim emphasizes the scientific study of social

facts by considering them as things.

● Despite the difficulty in measuring social phenomena

directly, he suggests defining and operationalizing
variables in terms of observable indicators.

● Sociologists study social life by substituting an

external measure that symbolizes a social
phenomenon.
123

SOCIOLOGICAL OBJECTIVITY ON SOCIAL FACTS

Durkheim's Perspective:

● Durkheim emphasizes the importance of sociological

objectivity in studying social facts.
● By treating social facts as objectively existing entities
outside individuals and measuring them using indicators,
sociologists can analyze phenomena irrespective of
personal views or feelings.
124
Example of Religion:

Consider religion, a domain filled with unknowns.

Questions about the existence of God, the efficacy of
prayers, or an afterlife are inherently unverifiable.

● Nonetheless, sociologists, following

Durkheim, study religion as a social fact,
focusing on objective indicators like church
attendance.

● This allows them to investigate how such

indicators relate to and influence other social
behaviors, such as volunteering or voting. Example of religious survey
125
Study of Various Social Phenomena:

● Sociologists extend this approach to studying

a myriad of social phenomena like crime,
homelessness, friendship, divorce, and income
inequality.

● These phenomena possess an external,

independent existence in society, allowing
sociologists to investigate their objective
aspects.
An example of survey
126
Detached Consideration of Social Phenomena:
According to Durkheim, social
phenomena must be considered
independently of the conscious beings
who form mental representations of
them.

This detachment requires sociologists

to set aside preconceived ideas derived
from personal immersion in society.
127
Contextual Study of Social Facts:

● Instead of examining crimes

solely through an individual
Durkheim urges criminal's psyche, sociologists
sociologists to should explore the social
study social facts in conditions and circumstances
giving rise to crimes.
their social context. ● This contextual approach
enhances the understanding of
social phenomena beyond
individual psychology.
128
Durkheimian Perspective on Social Problems as Social Facts:

1.Sociological Normality of Social Problems:

● Durkheim's emphasis on social facts as objective entities implies

that phenomena like crime, homelessness, and other perceived
"social problems" are sociologically normal.
● They exist within society as part of the collective, allowing for
measurement and comparison across different regions with
similar socio-economic development.
129
Example- Different social problem with us Aspirants
130 Crime as a Normal Social Phenomenon:

● Durkheim contends that crime, defined as any

punishable action, is normal because a society
entirely free of it is impossible.

● He argues that criminals play a normal role in

social life alongside judges, laws, and prisons.

● From this perspective, crime is not an

aberration but an inherent aspect of societal
functioning.
131

Pathology of Social Phenomena:

● Social problems, often considered abnormal, are, for

Durkheim, pathologies that emerge when their incidence
becomes abnormally high compared to regular occurrences
in society or similar developed countries.

● An abnormal surge in phenomena like unemployment or

drug addiction raises concerns and becomes a focus for
investigation.
132 Durkheim's Core Concern: Social Cohesion:

Durkheim's central preoccupation

lies in the maintenance of social
cohesion.

His substantive focus is on

understanding how various social
phenomena contribute to or disrupt
the normal functioning and
cohesiveness of specific
communities and society as a
whole.
133

THE NATURE OF SOCIETY

134
CONCEPT ACCORDING TO DURKHEIM
Durkheim, emphasizing the distinct and collective nature of social life,
focus into the core task of sociology: understanding how
individuals, with different individual natures, coexist within
society.

The crux lies in analyzing social morality, which, for Durkheim, extends
beyond conventional moral distinctions of right and wrong.

It encompasses formal and informal social rules that regulate

individuals' behavior toward each other.
135
1.Morality as Social Rules:
● Morality, as defined by
Durkheim, consists of socially
prescribed rules of conduct
reflecting and reinforcing the
reciprocal nature of social life.

● These rules are not derived from

religious or philosophical beliefs but
are embedded in the fabric of societal
structures.
136
2. Social Solidarity through Rules:
● Durkheim asserts that social ● Society's cohesive and
solidarity emerges from the social ordered existence
rules and structures. relies on individuals'
capacity to regulate
their desires in relation
to others, fostering
mutual and reciprocal
dependence.
137
3.Navigating Individual and Collective Needs:
● Humans possess basic selfish
biological drives, but as a social
species, they must transcend
self-centered appetites.

● Durkheim argues for a socially

learned capacity to cooperate,
allowing individuals to attach
themselves to something beyond
personal interests—namely, the
external society.
138
4.Importance of Socialization:
● Socialization plays a crucial role in this
process.

● From infancy, individuals are taught to

interact and behave as social beings.

● It involves sacrificing self-interest to align

with the interests of the collective—be it
the family, community, or society.
139 5.Cooperation as the Key:

● Through socialization, individuals learn to

cooperatively coexist within various
communities.
● This cooperation extends to family, friends,
work environments, and broader societal
structures.
● The key is recognizing that social life
depends on reciprocity and consideration for
others.
140
6.Regulation and Constraint:
● The relation between the individual and society
requires regulation and constraint due to society's
collective nature.

● Durkheim acknowledges that society's requirements

often necessitate perpetual and costly sacrifices, as
individual interests do not always align with the
interests of the whole.
141
6.Tension and Compromise:
● Durkheim describes the tension arising when
individual inclinations clash with the nature of
community/society.

● The resolution involves reciprocal compromising,

where individuals rein in their desires to maintain
effective social functioning.

● This tension and compromise are ubiquitous,

occurring in families, workplaces, and broader
societal and political contexts.
142
7. Reciprocity in Social Interaction:

● Reciprocity becomes central to

social life and all forms of social
interaction.

● Durkheim emphasizes that

individuals and groups, to
coexist successfully, must curb
selfish impulses daily,
fostering a sociologically
oriented feeling of reciprocity.
143

Karl Marx talked about

negative reciprocity. He
emphasises on profit made
by capitalists,
Meanwhile Durkheim talked
about reciprocity in terms of
sociological orientation by
making it central to the role
of social interaction and
social life. This is called
SELFISH BEING.
144
WHY DURKHEIM EMPHASISES ON RECIPROCITY?
We all are members of society & definitely Durkheim also understand humans
have selfish nature, they think precisely for themselves.

As humans have capacity to think and promote solidarity through the process
of social interaction men learn to adapt themselves to leave, to abandon their
selfish individual being and they feel to give back to society by promoting
social cohesion.

For instance Individuals may earn money by crime (looting bank) but society
will tell how it will create problem for other members of society because in that
bank there is also money of common people. Bank will go into loss. This will
emerge as challenge in society. Thus reciprocity means promoting goods
in society and leaving human selfish motive.
145
146

SOCIETAL
TRANSFORMATION AND
SOCIAL COHESION
147

FROM SIMPLER TO COMPLEX SOCIETIES

In the midst of significant economic, social, and technological transformations in
the late 19th century, Emile Durkheim, akin to Marx and Max Weber, focused on
understanding the impact of these changes on society.

The era witnessed industrialization, urbanization, immigration, and

population growth, marking the transition from traditional to modern
societies—a transition intensified by the convergence of these dynamic
forces.
148
SIMPLER TO COMPLEX
149
1.Mass Immigration and Industrialization:

● The latter part of the 19th century saw massive

immigration, in the United States, with diverse
groups like the Irish, Italians, Germans, Swedes,
and Poles contributing to the rapidly expanding
LETS
UNDERSTAND
manufacturing industries.
THESE
CHANGES IN
TERMS OF THE
UNITED STATES ● Industrialization, propelled by inventions like the
power loom, transformed textile production from a
craft-based household activity to a highly
specialized, factory-driven process in urban areas.
150
2.Societal Transformation Illustrated at London Olympics

● The transformative impact of these changes

was vividly portrayed in the opening ceremony
of the London 2012 Olympics, highlighting
Britain's shift from pastoral landscapes to dark
industrial factories dominating the urban
skyline.

● This visual representation symbolized the

broader societal shift from traditional to modern
forms of social organization.
151

One of the opening scenes showing peasant village in

England covered in smoke of industrialization.
152
Durkheim's Interest in Social Change:

Durkheim, fascinated by the implications of large-scale social

change, delved into understanding how such transformations
influence social relations, societal order, and cohesion.

In the face of societal upheaval, his inquiry sought to answer

critical questions: What mechanisms hold society together
during times of change? Can society maintain cohesion amid
significant shifts?
153
Analytical Distinction Between Traditional and Modern Societies:

Drawing from Ferdinand Tonnies' conceptualization of Gemeinschaft

(small-scale local community) and Gesellschaft (large-scale, urban
society with impersonal associations), Durkheim analytically
distinguishes between traditional and modern societies.

This division becomes crucial in finding out how variations in social

structure give rise to different mechanisms fostering social cohesion or
solidarity.
We have already
understood these two
concepts in previous
slides.
154

Durkheim's work serves as a foundational exploration of the

intricate interplay between societal changes and the
mechanisms fostering social order.
His insights continue to resonate in contemporary
discussions about the challenges posed by globalization,
economic shifts, and evolving migration patterns.
155

TRADITIONAL
SOCIETIES
156

Traditional societies, rooted in agriculture and

pre-industrial modes of living, are characterized
by a profound sense of sameness and similarity
among individuals.

In these settings, such as rural farming

communities , a uniformity prevails in terms of
occupations, methods, and daily life.

This contrasts with the specialized and divided

labor seen in modern industrial production.
157
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRADITIONAL SOCIETIES
1. Absence of Competence:
● In farming communities, individuals engage in a range of farming
activities using similar tools and methods.

● Unlike modern specialization, where individuals focus on specific

tasks, farmers possess a breadth of competence, allowing them to
perform various chores required on any neighboring farm.

● This broader skill set fosters a community where mutual assistance

is commonplace.
158
Homogeneity in Communities:
● Traditional societies exhibit homogeneity
not only in the skills and practices of
individuals but also in the overall
appearance of farms, farmers, and families.

● The visual and occupational similarities

contribute to a sense of community
sameness, creating a cohesive social
fabric.
159
Social Solidarity in Sameness:
● Maintaining social ties and solidarity is
relatively straightforward in traditional
societies due to the shared commonalities.
● Geographical and occupational immobility
ensures that families reside in the same
place and engage in similar occupations
across generations.
● Additionally, there is uniformity in ethnicity,
religious beliefs, and culture.
160 Overlapping Social Contexts:

● Everyday life in traditional communities

is marked by overlapping social
contexts.
● Individuals encounter each other in
various settings like churches, diners,
post offices, and stores.
● Children attend the same schools,
participate in shared activities like
football teams, and create intersecting
domains of family, school, work, and
leisure.
161 Tight-Knit Social Networks:

● Traditional communities embody a

social structure where everyone either
knows each other personally or is
familiar with their family background.

● This interconnectedness, whether in

rural locales or within urban areas,
creates tight-knit social networks that
facilitate the maintenance of social
solidarity with minimal effort.
162

Durkheim's observation that closely-knit societies require

less effort to maintain social ties finds resonance in the
communal dynamics of traditional settings.
The shared routines, common spaces, and overlapping
social interactions contribute to a cohesive social order that
is deeply rooted in sameness.
163

Mechanical Solidarity In
Traditional Communities:
164

In traditional societies, characterized by structural and cultural

sameness, Emile Durkheim introduces the concept of mechanical

solidarity.

This form of solidarity is marked by the automatic creation and

maintenance of social ties, embedded within the very fabric of the

community.
165
According to Durkheim, mechanical solidarity prevailed to the
extent that; “ideas and tendencies common to all members of
the society are greater in number and intensity than those which
pertain personality to each member.”

He suggested solidarity which comes from likeness, “is at its

maximum when the collective conscience completely envelops
our whole conscience and coincides in all points with it.”

This solidarity can grow only in inverse ratio to personality.

166

A DIFFERENT FORM OF SOLIDARITY IS

ORGANIC SOLIDARITY WHICH IS
CHARACTERISTIC OF MODERN SOCIETY.
BUT LET’S UNDERSTAND IT HERE BY
MAKING COMPARISON.
167
168

ORGANIC SOLIDARITY

In contrast to mechanical solidarity in a heterogeneous society

where the likeness and the resemblance are missing, the
coherent unity of the collectivity is expressed by
differentiation; the solidarity that exists is organic solidarity.

Such a society is characterized by an advanced form of division of

labour.
169
● According to Durkheim, increasing population density is the
major key to developing the division of labour.
● This is mainly witnessed in modern industrial societies. The
individuals are no longer similar.
● They may be differentiated in terms of thinking, emotions,
and values.
● They have no collective conscience.
● Organic solidarity is characterized by specialization and
individualism.
170

Basic of Difference Mechanical Solidarity Organic Solidarity

-Low level of population -High volume of population

Morphological features -Low material and moral density -High moral density
-Little interdependence -Greater interdependence

-Restitutive law
-Repressive law
Type of norms -Co-operative law, civil, criminal
-Penal law
commercial, and administrative

-Low volume
-High volume
Formal features of conscience -Low determinateness
-High determinateness
collective -More room for individual
-Collective authority
initiative

Content of conscience -Highly religious -Secular and human-oriented

collective -concrete and specific -Abstract and general
171

MODERN SOCIETIES/
COMPLEX SOCIETIES
172
CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN SOCIETY

TOKYO, JAPAN
173

1. Population Density and Urbanization:

● Modern societies are marked by high population density and urbanization.

● Large, densely populated cities become symbols of modernity.

● The concentration of people in urban areas leads to increased anonymity and

reduced familiarity among individuals.
174

2.Geographical and Social Mobility:

● Modern societies embrace

geographical and social mobility.
● People move freely for various
reasons, such as education,
employment, or lifestyle choices.
● This mobility disrupts the stability
and continuity of relationships seen
in traditional communities.

EDUCATION AS A MAJOR TOOL OF SOCIAL MOBILITY

175
3.Diversity in Occupational, Religious, Political, Ethnic, and Cultural Groups

● Modern societies exhibit a diverse range of

occupational pursuits, religious beliefs,
political ideologies, ethnic backgrounds, and
cultural practices.

● This diversity fosters individual differences

rather than the shared sameness found in
traditional communities.
176 4.Personal Freedom, Anonymity, and Impersonality:

● Diversity in modern societies contributes to

personal freedom, allowing individuals to
pursue their interests without conforming to a
collective conscience.

● Anonymity and impersonality become the

norm, as people interact with a multitude of
individuals without deeply knowing one
another.
177

5. Diminished Collective Conscience:

● Durkheim argues that as society becomes denser and more

expansive, the collective conscience weakens.

● The pressure of social opinion has less force in large population centers.
Individuals in modern societies are, therefore, more liberated from the
collective expectations that were prevalent in traditional, closely-knit
communities.
178
6.Reduced Interpersonal Connections:

● The distractions and diversions in modern

life result in reduced interpersonal
connections.

● Even neighbors and family members, while

physically close, may be in contact less
frequently, leading to a decrease in the
depth and regularity of interactions.
179

Despite these challenges, Durkheim acknowledges the persistence of relatively

homogenized, traditional communities within modern urban settings.

These pockets of shared identity and solidarity, such as Boston’s Italian North End or
Brixton’s "Little Jamaica" in London, highlight the coexistence of diverse and traditional
elements within the broader framework of modern societies.

The tension between individual freedom and the need for social cohesion remains a
central theme in Durkheim's analysis of the evolving social fabric.
180
EXAMPLES IN DELHI:
Lajpat nagar has Afghani doll makers are making
their impact through crafts.
become second home
to Afghani refugees.
Their colony is so
homogenised that it
has become a tour
destination because of
food, clothing, ethnic
products etc. This
cultural amalgamation
yet differentiation in
City of Delhi is one
thing that Durkheim is
saying in previous
slide.
181

Similarly CR Park area

in Delhi is famous for
its ethnicity.
It showcases Bengali
culture, livelihood and
cuisine.
182

LAWS IN SOCIETY
183

● In "The Division of Labor in Society," Durkheim explored the differences

between societies with mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity.

● Mechanical solidarity is associated with a strong common morality, leading to

repressive law, while organic solidarity, characterized by weaker common

morality, is associated with restitutive law.

184 Repressive Law (Mechanical Solidarity):

● In societies with mechanical solidarity, people are similar, and there is a strong
belief in a common morality.

● Offenses against the shared value system are significant to most individuals.

● Wrongdoers are likely to face severe punishment due to the collective emotional
reaction to offenses.

● Punishments can be extreme, such as cutting off hands for theft or removing the
tongue for blasphemy.
185
Restitutive Law (Organic Solidarity):

● Societies with organic solidarity have a weaker common morality, and

offenses are viewed as committed against specific individuals or
segments of society.
● Offenses do not evoke strong emotional reactions from the entire
community.
● Offenders are required to make restitution to those harmed by their
actions.
● Restitutive law focuses on repairing the harm caused by the offense
rather than punishing the offender severely.
● While some repressive law may exist (e.g., the death penalty), restitutive
law is predominant, especially for minor offenses.
186 REMEMBER THIS CONCEPT THROUGH THIS FLOW CHART

SIMPLE SOCIETIES COMPLEX SOCIETIES

Low Division of Labour High Division of Labour

Little Human Diversity= Significant Human Diversity=
MECHANICAL SOLIDARITY ORGANIC SOLIDARITY

All rules are sacred; Fewer rules are sacred;

violations of any are more legal conflicts are
seen as violations of private and interpersonal
collective conscience

REPRESSIVE LAW RESTITUTIVE LAW

187

After going through characteristics of modern

society, we saw that there is individual freedom,
mobility, diversity, and weaker collective feeling.

Despite of all these factors, there is Social

Cohesion…

How is this possible???

188

To Explain this Durkheim came with

the theory of
DIVISION OF LABOUR
189
Durkheim's analysis of the

highly specialized division of

labor in modern societies

serves as a key explanation for

how social cohesion is

maintained despite the

challenges posed by individual

freedom, diversity, and

weakened collective feelings.

190
Durkheim argues that this highly specialized division of labor contributes to

social cohesion by creating interdependence among individuals and groups.

Each specialized role or function relies on others for its proper functioning,

fostering a sense of social solidarity.

In modern societies, the collective conscience may be less forceful, but the

interlocking nature of specialized roles and functions helps maintain social order

and cohesion.
 191
LET’S UNDERSTAND SPECIALIZATION THROUGH EXAMPLES
Specialization Across Various Sectors:

● Modern societies exhibit a specialized

division of labor not only in economic
activities, such as factory production but
also in political, administrative, judicial,
artistic, and scientific domains.

● The influence of the division of labor

extends to diverse sectors of society.
192 Functions in Society:

● Specialization is not confined to

economic life; it permeates
various functions within society.
● Political, administrative, and
judicial functions become more
specialized.
● The same trend is observed in
the arts and sciences, reflecting
an increasing influence of the
division of labor across different
societal sectors.
193
Child Socialization as an Example:

● Durkheim highlights child socialization as

an illustrative example of the dispersed
and specialized nature of functions in
modern society.

● In contrast to traditional societies, where

socialization functions may be more
concentrated within the family or
community, modern societies disperse
these functions across multiple institutions,
including the family, church, and education
system.
194
Specialization in Education:
● Within educational institutions like LET'S TAKE EXAMPLE OF JNU
universities, there is a specialized
division of labor.

● Different colleges and schools

focus on specific areas of study
(business, law, liberal arts), and
within these, further specialization
occurs in departments and
disciplines (e.g., sociology,
economics, history, English).
195
FUNCTIONAL EXPLANATION
196

DURKHEIM PERSPECTIVE ON DIVISION OF LABOUR

197
WHAT DOES THE THEORY TALKED ABOUT?

1.Relation to Population Growth and Density:

● As populations grow and become

● Durkheim argues that more concentrated, the need for a
the division of labor is specialized division of labor
intricately linked to the increases.
size and density of ● This specialization is not just a
societies. response to population growth but
is also influenced by the density of
interactions among individuals.
198
2.Moral Effect and Social Interdependence:

● Unlike Marx, Durkheim sees the division of labor not as a source of

alienation but as a factor that reinforces social interdependence.

● Specialization in occupations requires individual specialization, and each

person's unique contribution becomes vital to the functioning of the
entire society.

● This heightened interdependence has a "moral effect" as it strengthens

ties among individuals.
199

3.Division of Labor as a Product of Society:

● Durkheim emphasizes that the division of

labor is not antisocial because it is a
product of society itself.

● It organically connects individuals and

creates a system of rights and duties,
fostering a sense of belonging and
integration.
200

4.Social Solidarity and Cooperation:

● According to Durkheim, the division of labor results in a system of

rights and duties that bind individuals together.

● It creates social solidarity and cooperation among people.

● Contrary to utilitarian views that emphasize individual self-interest,

Durkheim argues that moral life permeates all cooperative
relationships in modern society.
201

5.Functional Accommodation to Urbanization:

● Durkheim sees the division of labor as a functional accommodation

to the challenges posed by population growth and the concentrated
density associated with urbanization.

● As people live in close proximity, the division of labor becomes a

mechanism that facilitates and requires reciprocity and cooperation.
202

6.Increased Social Interaction and Dependence:

● The increase in social relationships, according to Durkheim, is a

natural outcome of population growth and urbanization.

● As more people live closely together, they inevitably engage in more

social interactions and become mutually dependent on one another.
203

HOW DIVISION OF LABOUR

AFFECT
SOCIAL INTERACTION?
204

The division of labor was a material social fact to

Durkheim because it is the pattern of interaction in
the social world.

Another, and closely related, material social fact is the

major causal factor in Durkheim's theory of the
transition from mechanical to organic solidarity-
dynamic density.
DYNAMIC DENSITY refers to the number of
people in a society and the amount of
interaction that occurs among them.
205
Neither population increase nor an increase in interaction, when
taken separately, is a significant factor in societal change.

An increase in numbers of people and an increase in the interaction

among them (which is dynamic density) lead to the change from
mechanical to organic solidarity because together they bring about
more competition for scarce resources and a more intense struggle
for survival among the various parallel and similar components of
primitive society.
206
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL INTERACTION
1.Diversity in Social Interactions:

● In modern society, regular contact with

family and relatives may not be as frequent
as in traditional societies.

● However, the diversity of interactions

increases as people encounter numerous
others in their daily activities—getting
coffee, working, attending events, etc.
207

2.Physical Density and Population Density:

● The physical density of the

environment is emphasized, referring Population density of
to the number of people encountered Karol Bagh may be
much higher than your
daily. hometown but
Physical density of
your hometown will be
higher, because you
● The mention of census reports using interact with more
people than here.
population density distinguishes between
areas with high (cities) and low (rural
areas) population density.
208
3. Social and Moral Density:

● Durkheim's perspective focuses on the social or moral

density that arises from physical density.
● The more people one meets, the more social interactions
occur, leading to increased constraints by social-moral
norms.
● This social or moral density is a key concept in
understanding societal cohesion.
209

4.Society's Effectiveness and Concerted Movement:

● Society becomes more effective in moving together when

labor is divided.

● This is an acknowledgment of the positive aspect of the

division of labor, as it allows society to function cohesively
while individuals retain their unique roles and movements.
210

THE
MORAL-SOCIAL BASIS
OF CONTRACT
211
Emile Durkheim's perspective on the moral-social
basis of contracts within modern society.
1.Interdependence in Modern Society:

● Durkheim contends that the interdependence in modern society is not

solely determined by contractual exchanges, despite the proliferation
of laws.
● While contracts play a crucial role in regulating social relationships
formally, they are not the sole determinants of interdependence.
212
2.Society's Conferment of Binding 3.Contracts as an Expression of
Force to Contracts: Social Morality:

● Durkheim argues that the binding ● Unlike the utilitarian view of

force of a contract comes from contracts based on individual
society itself. self-interest, Durkheim posits that
● Contracts have legitimacy because contracts are an expression of
they institutionalize the social morality.
expectations and customs that ● They originate within society,
society deems necessary for representing inter-individual
maintaining and enforcing norms of cooperativeness that society
human reciprocity. considers moral.
213
4.Social Origin and Obligatory 5.Pre-Contractual Moral
Force: Element:
● Contracts, as social facts, have
● Durkheim emphasizes that
their origin within society, and
all contractual relationships
society gives them their obligatory have a pre-contractual,
(moral) force. moral (social) element
● They do not exist independently or beyond protecting individual
have power outside of society. interests.
● Contracts emerge to protect social ● Contracts, in this view, serve
relationships and maintain social to protect and maintain the
functioning of society and its
order.
interdependent relationships.
214
6.Mutual Interests and Social
5.Social Cooperation Beyond
Solidarity:
Contractual Requirements: ● Durkheim argues that while
● Actions that go beyond contractual individuals have self-interests, it is
requirements demonstrate the not these interests alone that make
moral-social basis of society. society social.
● Examples include volunteering and ● Mutual interests create only an
generosity observed after natural external bond, and when
disasters. self-interests dominate, individuals
● These actions underscore the moral remain apart.
force toward cooperation exerted by ● Durkheim asserts that self-interest
society, showcasing individuals' is variable and can lead to conflict,
attachment to others and society. whereas true social solidarity arises
from a deeper, moral connection
among individuals.
215

THEORY
OF
SUICIDE
(1897)
216

● "Suicide" is recognized for its methodological

innovation, demonstrating the scientific approach
advocated by Durkheim in sociology.

● It stands as one of the first major empirical

studies in sociology, showcasing a methodical
examination of suicide rates in nineteenth-century
Europe.
217

WHY DURKHEIM CHOSE TO STUDY ABOUT SUICIDE?

1. He wanted to demonstrate the usefulness of
sociology in understanding human
behaviour.
2. Little was known about the subject and he
was interested in the topic.
3. Data was easily available( death
records,etc.) making study scientifically easy
to conduct.
218

SOCIAL CONDITIONS CONDUCIVE FOR SUICIDE

a. Dependence on Social Integration:

● The study aligns with Durkheim's broader sociological emphasis on social

integration.
● Durkheim investigates how varying degrees of social integration or regulation,
influenced by different social structures, impact the likelihood of suicide.
● He views social integration as crucial for attaching individuals to society.
219 B. Social Integration and Regulation:

● Durkheim examines the impact of social integration and regulation on suicide

rates.
● Egoistic suicide, for instance, is associated with weak social integration, while
altruistic suicide is linked to excessive social integration.

EGOISTIC
LOW SUICIDE

INTEGRATION

HIGH
ALTRUISTIC
SUICIDE
220

● Anomic and fatalistic suicides are tied to disruptions in social regulation.

ANOMIC
LOW SUICIDE

REGULATION

HIGH FATALISTIC
SUICIDE
221
WHY DURKHEIM’S SUICIDE IS THEORETICALLY
IMPORTANT?

1.This theory further elaborates his core theoretical emphasis on the significance of
social interdependence and how social structures function to attach the individual to
society.

2. His highlighting of particular categories or types of suicide allows him to

show how different social conditions or circumstances can produce different social
consequences.
222

WE HAVE SEEN DURKHEIM AS A

PROPONENT OF SCIENTIFIC
METHOD.

NOW WE WILL SEE HOW HE APPLIED

SCIENTIFIC METHODS IN RESEARCH
FOR THIS THEORY
223
● Durkheim in his Le Suicide,1897 defines Suicide as any case of
death caused by directly or indirectly, positive or negative action
of the victim himself which he knows will produce this result.
● He examined a seemingly personal phenomenon in a
sociological way.
● Used the scientific methodology in Sociology for the first time.
● It is based on data which can be directly observed and
measured.
● This theory is well known for the pragmatic approach of
Durkheim in understanding social problems.
224
METHODOLOGY

1. He took data from police 3. Rejected the existing

records from various regions explanations which linked
of Europe. suicide to factors like
imitation, stress and
modernity.

2. Reviewed the 4. Proved that suicide

existing literature on cannot be explained
suicide. through psychological,
geographical, climatic,
hereditary factors, etc.
225

5. Explains
6. He explored causes of suicide
sociological in other social causes by using
causes of suicide statistical techniques and found
by correlating concomitant relation between
suicide rates with suicide rate and different social
various social variables.
factors.

7. The variables are

marital status, locality,
religious orientation, male
or female, etc.
226

CONCLUSIONS DRAWN BY DURKHEIM’S RESEARCH

● Males have greater suicidal tendency as compared to females.

● Rate of suicide is found more among the bachelors as marriage
protects individuals against suicide by integrating individuals into
stable social relations.
● Underdeveloped countries have less rate of suicide than
developed countries.
● Protestants commit more suicide than Catholics.
227 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS BY DURKHEIM

● Those who have a higher tendency of committing suicide are less integrated
into society in one way or the other.
● Thus, he concluded that suicide is a social phenomenon.
● Identified two types of bonds that integrate individual into society:
● Forces of Integration – Over-integration and low integration

• Altruistic Suicide – it is the • Egoistic Suicide – it is a

.
result of over integration of an result of low integration of
individual. individuals in a society.
Acts like Sati is an example. Examples include suicides
resulting from failure and
depression
228

● Forces of Regulation – Over-regulation and Under-regulation.

• Anomic Suicide – periods of • Fatalistic Suicide – results

destruction unleash currents of of excessive (Over-regulation)
Anomie like moods of control of society over an
rootlessness and individual.
normlessness. Suicide of a slave out of
Increase in suicides during hopelessness is an example.
economic boom or bust is an
example (Under-regulation)

These types will be explained later.

229
230

Like every other theories, this one was also criticised-

● David Freedman accused Durkheim of committing ecological fallacy as he
tried to analyse an apparent personal phenomenon.
● Durkheim relied on poor quality data as it was taken from police stations
which do not include unreported suicides. Also did not include attempted
suicides.
● Undermined psychological factors for suicide.
231

SUICIDE-
A SOCIAL FACT
232

1.Suicide as a Social Phenomenon:

● Durkheim argues that suicide is not

only an individual act but also a social
phenomenon.

● Despite its association with personal

circumstances, he contends that
suicide is a normal social fact present
in every society.
233

2.Normality in the Durkheimian Sense: 3.Harriet Martineau's Definition:

● Durkheim's concept of "normal" ● Durkheim aligns with the early

differs from the colloquial nineteenth-century definition of
understanding. suicide by Harriet Martineau.
● In the Durkheimian sense, normality ● She defined suicide as the
refers to the idea that every society "voluntary surrender of life from
experiences a certain level of any cause" and recognized it as
suicide. It is considered normal in a normal social fact indicative of
the context of varying levels of prevailing moral notions and
social regulation and integration. religious sentiment.
234

4.Study in the Antecedent Social Context:

● From a sociological perspective, Durkheim suggests that suicide should

be studied in terms of its antecedent social context.

● He focuses on its relation to social integration, asserting that suicide

rates vary inversely with the degree of integration of social groups.
235

5.Collective Force and Social Integration:

● Durkheim argues that a strongly integrated society exerts a collective

force that restrains suicide.

● The sense of belonging to a tightly integrated group binds individuals

to life, preventing them from willfully disposing of themselves.

● Social cohesion, according to Durkheim, is critical to preventing

suicide.
236

6.Psychological vs. Sociological Approach:

● While many people approach suicide from a psychological

perspective, Durkheim views and studies it as a social fact.
● Rather than focusing solely on individual psychological factors
such as depression, he emphasizes the social or group
relationships that constrain individuals.
237

7.Differences in Traditional and Modern Society:

● Durkheim identifies different societal contexts leading to distinct

conditions for suicide.

● He categorizes egoistic and anomic suicide as more characteristic of

modern society, while altruistic suicide is associated with
pre-modern eras or tightly bonded social circumstances.
238

TYPES OF SUICIDE
239

1. ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE
The concept of altruistic suicide, as formulated by
Emile Durkheim, pertains to situations in traditional
societies where individuals are excessively bound to
or absorbed by the community.

In such highly socially integrated settings, suicide

can be viewed as an honorable and obligatory option
for individuals who fail to meet the community's
expectations.
240

Definition of Altruistic Suicide:

Altruistic suicide is characterized by individuals having an

exceptionally strong commitment or orientation toward the
community or group.

The term "altruism" is used to describe this intense dedication to

others.
241
POINTS MENTIONED BY EMILE DURKHEIM

A. Honorable Option in Traditional Societies:

● In traditional societies, individuals may see suicide as the honorable and

obligatory course of action when they are unable to fulfill the expectations set
by the community.
● The obligation to the community becomes so profound that sacrificing one's
life is considered an honorable response to perceived failure.
242

B. Examples from Japanese History:

● Durkheim points to Japan as an example with a historical context of high

suicide rates linked to the loss of honor in the community.
● This loss of honor could be attributed to various factors, such as defeat in
military battles or economic failure.
● In such cases, individuals may feel compelled to commit suicide as an act of
loyalty or adherence to community values.
243

C. Contemporary Examples:

● Altruistic suicide is not confined to historical contexts; it can also manifest in

contemporary situations.

● An example is provided where two miners, responsible for safety, committed

suicide following a mining disaster in West Virginia in 2005.

● Despite not being blamed for the disaster, the individuals may have felt a strong
responsibility for their co-workers' loss and could not envision continuing to live
and work in the close-knit community.
244

D. Yoke of the Collectivity:

● Durkheim describes the social pressure leading to altruistic suicide as the

"yoke of the collectivity."
● This signifies the strong influence exerted by the community or group,
pressuring individuals to conform to its expectations even to the extent
of sacrificing their own lives.
245

E. Sense of Responsibility and Inability to Continue:

● Individuals contemplating altruistic suicide may experience a profound sense

of responsibility for perceived failures or losses within the community.

● In the West Virginia mining example, the miners may have found it
unbearable to continue living and working in the community after the tragic
event, despite not being directly responsible.
246

DO YOU THINK MASS SUICIDE BY FAMILIES

AGAINST INTERCASTE MARRAIGES ARE AN
EXAMPLE OF ALTRUISTIC SUICIDE?

DISCUSS
247

2. EGOISTIC SUICIDE

The concept of egoistic suicide, as articulated by Emile

Durkheim, refers to situations where individuals are excessively
self-oriented and, as a result, only loosely bound to others and
social groups.
248
WHO ARE PRONE TO EGOISTIC SUICIDE?

A. Self-Oriented Individuals in Modern Western Society:

● Egoistic suicide occurs in social conditions where

individuals are overly self-oriented, lacking strong
connections to others and social groups.

● Durkheim notes that modern Western society places a

high value on individualism, emphasizing personal
freedom and ambition.
249

B. Advanced Division of Labor and Individual Specialization:

● The advanced division of labor, a characteristic of industrialization,

encourages individual specialization.
■
● While this enhances productivity, Durkheim emphasizes that it may also
contribute to the loosening of social bonds, as the collective conscience
does not effectively restrain individual egoistic appetites.
250
C. Limited Outlets for Social Relations:

● In egoistic suicide, individuals may

become so self-oriented that they have
fewer outlets and opportunities for social
relations, including with family, friends,
and the community.

● The celebration of individual freedom in

modern society may inadvertently lead to
social isolation for some individuals.
INCREASING USE OF SMARTPHONES
HAVE LED TO DECREASED SOCIAL
INTERACTIONS.
251

D. Corporate Culture and Egoistic Individuals:

● The corporate world, particularly in

fields such as law and finance, often
fosters a culture of individualism and
intense competition.
● Young graduates aspiring to successful
corporate careers may prioritize work
over social activities, leading to limited
social ties.
● The demanding and competitive nature
of such environments may contribute to
the egoistic suicide phenomenon.
252
Stress in Corporate Environments:

● Egoistic suicide is illustrated in the

context of corporate environments,
where intense competition and
individualism can create a "cut-throat"
culture.
● The stress and competition may lead
to clashes between strong individual
egos, contributing to a lack of
supportive social ties.
253

E. Lack of Social Constraints and Attachments:

● Durkheim suggests that the personality type favored in the corporate

world and modern society more broadly—characterized by egoistic
tendencies—may lack the social constraints and attachments that
serve as protective factors against suicide.

● Social ties, both within and outside the workplace, can offer support
and buffer against the stressors that may contribute to suicidal
tendencies.
254

ROLE OF SOCIAL STRUCTURES AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP

A. Marriage as a Constraining Condition:

● Durkheim found that single individuals were more likely to commit suicide
than married individuals.

● Marriage is seen as a constraining condition because it binds individuals

to each other, serving as a regulatory and socially integrating force in an
individual's life.
255

B. Inversely Varying Suicide Rates with Children:

● Durkheim noted an inverse relationship

between suicide rates and the number of
children per marital household.

● Having children intensifies the constraining

effect, as the everyday and everynight
demands of parenthood create additional
pressures that discourage suicide.
256
C. Differences in the Structure of Social Relationships:

● Durkheim emphasizes that it is not

just social relationships in general but
differences in the structure of social
relationships that matter.

● Certain social structures, such as

marriage and parenthood, are more
likely to integrate individuals into
society and reduce the propensity for
suicide.
257

D. Comparison of Suicide Rates in Catholic and Protestant Countries:

● Durkheim compared suicide rates in predominantly Catholic countries

(e.g., Spain, Portugal, Italy) with predominantly Protestant countries (e.g.,
Germany, Denmark).

● He observed lower suicide rates in Catholic countries and argued that the
difference is not due to doctrinal variations but to differences in the social
organization of the churches.
258
E. Social Constraining Force of the Catholic Church:

● Durkheim argued that the Catholic Church is Durkheim concluded that the
more socially constraining of the individual higher incidence of suicide in
compared to Protestantism. Protestantism results from it
being a less strongly
integrated church than the
● Protestantism, with its emphasis on individual Catholic Church.
interpretation of the Bible, is associated with the
individualism of modern capitalist society. The freedom given to
individual thought in
Protestantism, while fostering
free inquiry, leads to a lesser
● In contrast, Catholicism embeds individuals in
degree of social cohesion and
layered church relationships and practices,
vitality.
requiring integration with the Catholic collectivity.
259

F. Role of Doctrine and Social Organization:

● Durkheim highlighted that the difference in suicide rates

is not due to doctrinal opposition to suicide but stems
from the variation in the social organization of the
churches.

● Catholicism, with its extensive and firm body of doctrine

and practices, provides a more unified and strong
society that buffers against suicide.
260

3. FATALISTIC SUICIDE

Durkheim (1897/1951:276) described those who are more likely to

commit fatalistic suicide as “persons with futures pitilessly blocked and
passions violently choked by oppressive discipline.”
The classic example is the slave who takes his own life because of the
hopelessness associated with the oppressive regulation of his every
action.
Too much regulation—oppression—unleashes currents of melancholy
that, in turn, cause a rise in the rate of fatalistic suicide
261
KEY FEATURES OF FATALISTIC SUICIDE

SENSE
OF
HOPELESSNESS
Lead to a
belief that
EXCESSIVE
REGULATION
death is
the only
means of
escape
OVER REGULATION
OF THE
INDIVIDUAL
262

4. ANOMIC SUICIDE

Emile Durkheim's concept of anomic suicide is rooted in the idea that social upheaval
and disruption of established norms can lead to a breakdown in the individual's
connection with society.
263

Definition of Anomie:

● Anomie, a French word meaning the absence

of norms or established standards, refers to
circumstances when the normal patterns of
social life are suddenly uprooted.

● It signifies a state where the usual social norms

that guide behavior are disrupted.
264
CHARACTERISTICS OF ANOMIC SUICIDE

A. Rootless Communities and Anomie:

● Communities characterized as "places without roots," often attracting

transient populations, face difficulties providing a socially integrating anchor
for individuals and families.

● In such anomic places, where norms and social stability are lacking, higher
suicide rates can be expected.
265

B.Anomie in Times of Social Change:

● Anomie can also occur in communities with deep roots

during times of rapid social change or cultural turmoil.

● When established norms are overturned, individuals

may experience a lack of regulation and orientation,
leading to disorientation of appetites and desires.
266

C. Public Conscience and Equilibrium:

● Anomic suicide results when social forces are freed due to upheaval, and a
new equilibrium cannot be immediately established.

● The public conscience, representing collective opinions and norms, is in

turmoil, making it challenging for society to regulate aspirations and
behaviors.
267

D. Examples of Economic Events Causing Anomie:

● Economic events, such as downturns, crop failures, or the closure of large

factories, can lead to anomie.

● Changes that bring sudden wealth to a community can also weaken social
cohesion, as seen in "boomtown blues" scenarios.

Explained in next
slide
268 WHAT IS BOOMTOWN BLUES?

First published in 1989, Boomtown Blues examines the remarkable 100-year history of oil shale
development and chronicles the social, environmental, and financial havoc created by the industry's
continual cycles of boom and bust.

In 1980, Exxon U.S.A., the world's largest corporation, began development of a five-billion-dollar oil shale
industry in the pristine Colorado River Valley.

Within eighteen months, Exxon had canceled its elaborate Colony project and 2,100 workers were
immediately laid off. Boomtown Blues chronicles the social, environmental, and economic havoc created by
one of the most expensive boom and bust cycles in the history of the American West.

This 100-year historical account of the turbulent oil shale industry describes exploration and settlement in
the Colorado River Valley as well as land ownership changes brought about since the first boom of
1915-1925.
269

E. Economic Transformation and Anomie:

● Economic transformations, whether

through downturns or sudden wealth
influx, can contribute to anomie.

● Changes in economic conditions

impact established ways of life and
social structures, leading to a
weakening of social cohesion.
270

ABNORMALITIES THAT THREATEN SOCIAL COHESION

Emile Durkheim identified certain abnormalities that, when present in a

society, could threaten social cohesion and indicate a rupture in social
ties.

These abnormalities are related to crises in the division of labor and the
potential breakdown of functional interdependence.
271
a. Abnormally High Rates of Social Issues:

● Durkheim acknowledged that

phenomena such as suicide,
crime, homelessness, and
unemployment are normal
social facts to some extent.

● However, if these rates

become abnormally high within
a societal context, it suggests a
social pathology and a rupture
in social ties.
272

b.Crisis in the Division of Labor:

● Durkheim pointed out that crises in the division of labor could lead
to abnormalities.

● For example, if one social group seeks to live at the expense of

another, it can create conflict and anomic conditions.

● Industrial development, market expansion, and conflicts between

labor and capital were identified as factors contributing to this crisis.
273

C. Conflict and Anomic Conditions:

Durkheim recognized that increased specialization in industrial

functions could lead to fiercer struggles and decreased solidarity.

Unlike Marx, who saw such conflict as a precursor to the

overthrow of capitalism, Durkheim viewed it as an
abnormality that could be reformed.

He believed it didn't necessarily threaten the existence of

industrial society but needed addressing.
274
D. Excessive Individualism:
● Another abnormality occurs when the
individualism required by the division of labor
becomes excessive.

● Durkheim was concerned about individuals

isolating themselves from others, believing their
specialized activities were superior.

● This form of individualism, characterized by

narcissism and self-satisfaction, could displace
the morally anchored individualism necessary for
modern society.
275
E. Moral, Socially Anchored Individualism vs. Narcissistic Individualism:

Durkheim emphasized the importance of When individualism becomes overly self-seeking and
maintaining a moral, socially anchored self-satisfied, it deviates from the cooperative and
individualism within modern society. interdependent nature necessary for social cohesion.

Moral, Socially
Anchored Individualism

Narcissistic
Individualism
276

F. Threat to Social Interdependence:

● Abnormalities in the functioning of society that weaken either

inter-individual or inter-group ties pose a significant threat to social
interdependence and cohesion.

● Durkheim's concern was not just with the presence of individualism

but with the nature of individualism that either supported or
undermined social ties.
277

ANOMIE THAT FOSTERS SOCIAL COHESION

Emile Durkheim recognized that while societal
anomie could lead to conditions increasing
suicide rates by causing detachment from
society, certain crises or disruptive events could
foster social cohesion.

War, in particular, was highlighted as an example

of a social disturbance that could strengthen,
rather than weaken, social cohesion.
278

EXAMPLES OF ANOMIE CAUSING SOCIAL COHESION:

A.Decrease in Suicides during War:

● Durkheim observed a decrease in the incidence of suicides in urban

areas (but not rural areas) in France during the Franco-Prussian
War of 1870–1871.
● This led him to explore the larger societal circumstances that contributed
to this phenomenon.
279

B. Impact of War on Urban Population:

● Durkheim concluded that the war had a

significant moral or socially integrating
effect, particularly on the urban
population.

● Urban areas, being more sensitive,

impressionable, and better informed about
current events, experienced a decrease in
suicide rates during the war.
280

C. Collective Sentiments and Integration:

● Great social disturbances and major wars

were seen as events that could arouse
collective sentiments, stimulate partisan
spirit, patriotism, and political and national
faith.

● These collective responses concentrated

activity toward a common end, leading to
a temporary but stronger integration of
society.
281
D. Examples from Modern Disasters:

● Durkheim's insight into the socially

binding effect of crises is illustrated
by modern events such as the
collective response to natural
disasters like Hurricane Katrina,
the Indonesian tsunami, and the
Sichuan earthquake. These events
prompted widespread volunteerism
and a sense of solidarity among
affected communities.
282

G. Need for Attachment Beyond the Self:

● Durkheim's overarching idea was that individuals need to attach

themselves to something beyond the self.
● Crises, by bringing people together to face common challenges,
can provide a shared focus that strengthens social ties and
reinforces a sense of connection and solidarity.
283

WHAT COULD BE
ATTACHMENT BEYOND
SELF?
284

KINDNESS?
LOVE?
OR
GOD?
285

GOD or presence of almighty is one

plausible explanation, bringing together
most of the population across the world.
286

And RELIGION is organized system

of beliefs and practices centred
around one or more God.
Hence Emile Durkheim chose to
Study Religion.
287

STUDY OF RELIGION
BY EMILE DURKHEIM

PUBLISHED IN 1912
288
WHAT IS RELIGION?
289

Material and Nonmaterial Social Facts:

Religion as the Ultimate
● Durkheim's earlier works Nonmaterial Social Fact:
focused on material
manifestations of nonmaterial Religion is considered by
social facts, such as law and Durkheim as the ultimate
suicide rates. nonmaterial social fact.
● In "The Elementary Forms of
Religious Life," he directly It possesses a "dynamogenic"
addresses nonmaterial social quality, elevating individuals
facts, particularly religion. above ordinary abilities and
dominating them.
290

What was Empirical Basis for Durkheim's Study?

● Durkheim, committed to
empirical science, grounds his ● Primitive societies
study of religion in published provide a clearer
data. insight into the
● He relied on studies of the essential nature of
primitive Australian tribe, Because religion, with
the Arunta, to explore the religious forms
essential nature of religion. displayed more
transparently and
less complexity.
291
WHO ARE ARUNTA TRIBE?
Arunta are a group of Aboriginal
Australian peoples who live in the Arrernte
lands, at Mparntwe (Alice Springs) and
surrounding areas of the Central Australia
region of the Northern Territory.
292
WHAT DURKHEIM FOUND?

1.Less Developed Ideological Systems:

● Ideological systems of primitive religions are less developed than
those of modern religions, reducing obfuscation. This allows for a
study of religion in its most pristine form.

2.Intellectual and Moral Conformity:

● In primitive societies, there is intellectual and moral conformity,
providing an opportunity to study religion in its most original and
unaltered form.
293
3.Studying Primitive Religion to Understand Modern Religion:
● Durkheim's study of primitive religion is not an isolated interest but a
means to understand religion in modern society.
● He aims to unveil an essential and permanent aspect of humanity
through the study of primitive religion.

4.Primitive Religion as Collective Conscience:

● In primitive societies, religion equates to the collective conscience. It
represents an all-encompassing collective morality.
294
5.Transformation of Religion in Modern Society:
● As society develops and becomes more specialized, religion's domain
narrows. Instead of being the collective conscience, it becomes one of
many collective representations alongside institutions like law and
science.

6.Source of Modern Religion:

● Durkheim's ultimate question is the source of modern religion. He
contends that society, through individuals, is the source of all
religion. Society defines certain phenomena as sacred, creating a
distinction between the sacred and the profane.
295

7.Conditions for Religion's Development:

● For the development of religion, three conditions are crucial:

1. the differentiation between the sacred and the profane,

2. the development of religious beliefs and the establishment of religious
rites,
3. the formation of a church or moral community.
296
The question is: Where does primitive (and
Definition of Religion:
modern) religion come from?

Operating from his basic methodological position

● Durkheim defines
that only one social fact can cause another social
religion as a unified
fact, Durkheim concluded that society is the
system of beliefs and
source of all religion (Ossio, 1997).
practices that unites
individuals into a single
moral community called Society (through
a Church. individuals) creates
religion by defining
certain phenomena
as sacred and others
as profane.
297
Sacred and Profane

The ultimate question for Durkheim was the source of modern religion.

Because specialization and the ideological smokescreen make it impossible to study

directly the roots of religion in modern society, Durkheim addressed the issue in the
context of primitive society.
298

The sacred brings out an attitude of

Those aspects of social reality that are
reverence, respect, mystery, awe, and
defined as sacred- that is, that are set
honor.
apart and deemed forbidden-form the
essence of religion.

The rest are defined as profane-the The respect accorded to certain

everyday, the commonplace, the phenomena transforms them from the
utilitarian, the mundane aspects of life. profane to the sacred.
299
300

CONDITIONS TO DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN SACRED AND PROFANE

The differentiation between the sacred and the profane, and the elevation of some
aspects of social life to the sacred level, are necessary but not sufficient conditions
for the development of religion. Three other conditions are needed.
1. RELIGIOUS BELIEFS

First, there must be the development of a set of religious beliefs. These

beliefs are "the representations which express the nature of sacred
things and the relations which they sustain, either with each other or
with profane things" (Durkheim, 1912/1965:56).
301 3. MORAL COMMUNITY
2. RELIGIOUS RITES

Finally, a religion requires a church, or

Second, a set of religious rites is
a single overarching moral community.
necessary. These are "the rules of The interrelationships among the
conduct which prescribe how a sacred, beliefs, rites, and church led
man should comport himself in the Durkheim to the following definition of
presence of these sacred objects" a religion:

(Durkheim, 1912/1965:56).

"A religion is a unified system of beliefs and

practices which unite into one single moral
community called a Church, all those who adhere
to them" (1912/1965:62).
302
Totemism and Society:

● Durkheim's examination of totemism among the Australian

Arunta aligns with his view that society is the source of
religion.
● Totemism, the primitive form of religion, is paralleled by the
clan, a primitive form of social organization.
303
1. Clan as the Source of Totemism:

Durkheim argues that if the clan is shown to

be the source of totemism, it would
substantiate his claim that society is the root
of religion.

Totem of a Beach Clan

304

2. Interrelated Set of 3.Totems as Material

Ideas in Totemism: Representations:
Totemism is viewed as the
Totems are not viewed as separate
most elementary religion,
beliefs about specific animals or
representing an interrelated set
plants but as material
of ideas that give the clan a
representations of the immaterial
complete representation of the
force—the collective conscience of
world.
society—that underlies them.
305

4.Totemism as Religion of an
Impersonal Force:

● Totemism is considered the religion of an

anonymous and impersonal force, existing in
each being but not to be confused with any
individual.
● This force, the collective conscience, remains
constant across generations.
306
Collective Effervescence

The collective conscience is the source of religion, but where does the
collective conscience itself come from?

In Durkheim's view, it comes from only one

source-society. "Religious force is nothing
other than the collective
In the primitive case examined by Durkheim, and anonymous force of
this meant that the clan is the ultimate source ofthe clan" (1912/1965:253).
religion:
307
How does the clan create totemism?

The answer lies in a central but little He seemed to have in mind, in a

discussed component of Durkheim's general sense, the great
conceptual arsenal-collective moments in history when a
effervescence (Ono, 1996; Tiryakian,
collectivity is able to achieve a
1995).
new and heightened level of
The notion of collective effervescence
collective exaltation that in turn
is not well spelled out in any of
Durkheim's works. can lead to great changes in the
structure of society.
308

The Reformation and the Renaissance would be

examples of historical periods when collective
effervescence had a marked effect on the structure of
society.
309
Durkheim also argued that it is out of collective effervescence that religion arises: "It is in the midst of
these effervescent social environments and out of this effervescence itself that the religious idea seems to
be born" (1912/1965:250).

During periods of collective In sum, totemism is the

effervescence, the clan symbolic representation of
members create totemism. the collective conscience,
and the collective
conscience, in turn, is
derived from society.
310
Therefore, society is the source of the collective conscience, religion,
the concept of God, and ultimately everything that is sacred (as
opposed to profane).

In a very real sense, then, we can argue that the sacred (and ultimately God,
as something sacred) and society are one and the same. This is fairly
clear-cut in primitive society.

It remains true today, even though the relationship is greatly obscured by the
complexities of modern society.
311

● In the end, Durkheim argued that religion and society are one and the
same, two manifestations of the same general process.
● Because he identified society with God, and because he deified
society, Durkheim did not urge social revolution.
●
● Instead, he should be seen as a social reformer interested in improving the
functioning of society.
●
● Whereas Marx saw irreconcilable differences between capitalists and
workers, Durkheim believed that these groups could be united in
occupational associations.
312

● He urged that these associations be set up to restore some collective

morality to the modern world and to cope with some of the curable
pathologies of the modern division of labor.
● But in the end, such narrow, structural reforms could not really cope
with the broader cultural problems that plague the modern world.
● Here Durkheim invested some hope in the curious modern system of
collective morality that he labeled the "cult of the individual."
313
CONCLUSION
● Durkheim’s writings demonstrate the content and rules of a scientific
sociology.
● In particular, his discussion of social facts; his differentiation between
traditional and modern society and of the different forms of social
organization that produce different types of solidarity; his analysis of
suicide as a function of social integration; and his study of religion as
the collective representation of the sacred in society, all serve to show
the breadth of Durkheim’s sociological focus and the range of topics
that sociologists study.
314

ANSWER ENHANCING POINTS

ABOUT SUICIDE
315

● It has been suggested that Durkheim’s study of suicide is the paradigmatic

example of how a sociologist should connect theory and research (Merton,
1968).
● Indeed, Durkheim makes it clear in the “Preface” that he intended this study
not only to contribute to the understanding of a particular social problem, but
also to serve as an example of his new sociological method. (For a series of
appraisals of Suicide nearly 100 years after its publication, see Lester, 1994.)
● Durkheim chose to study suicide because it is a relatively concrete and
specific phenomenon for which there were comparatively good data available.
● However, Durkheim’s most important reason for studying suicide was
to prove the power of the new science of sociology.
316
● Suicide is generally considered to be one of the most private and
personal acts.
● Durkheim believed that if he could show that sociology had a role to play
in explaining such a seemingly individualistic act as suicide, it would be
relatively easy to extend sociology’s domain to phenomena that are much
more readily seen as open to sociological analysis.
● As a sociologist, Durkheim was not concerned with studying why any
specific individual committed suicide (for a critique of this, see Berk,
2006).
● That was to be left to the psychologists. Instead, Durkheim was
interested in explaining differences in suicide rates; that is, he
was interested in why one group had a higher rate of suicide
than did another.
317

● Psychological or biological factors may explain why a particular

individual in a group commits suicide, but Durkheim assumed that
only social facts could explain why one group had a higher rate of
suicide than did another.
● (For a critique of this approach and an argument for the need to
include cultural and psychological factors in the study of suicide,
see Hamlin and Brym, 2006.) Durkheim proposed two related
ways of evaluating suicide rates. One way is to compare
different societies or other types of collectivities.
● Another way is to look at the changes in the suicide rate in
the same collectivity over time. In either case, cross
culturally or historically, the logic of the argument is
essentially the same.
318

● If there is variation in suicide rates from one group to another or from one time
period to another, Durkheim believed that the difference would be the
consequence of variations in sociological factors, in particular, social currents.
● Durkheim acknowledged that individuals may have reasons for committing
suicide, but these reasons are not the real cause: “They may be said to
indicate the individual’s weak points, where the outside current bearing the
impulse to self-destruction most easily finds introduction.
319

● But they are no part of this current itself, and consequently cannot help us to
understand it” (1897/1951:151).
● Durkheim began Suicide by testing and rejecting a series of alternative ideas about
the causes of suicide.
● Among these are individual psychopathology, alcoholism, race, heredity, and
climate. Not all of Durkheim’s arguments are convincing (see, for example, Skog,
1991, for an examination of Durkheim’s argument against alcoholism).
● However, what is important is his method of empirically dismissing what he
considered extraneous factors so that he could get to what he thought of as the
most important causal variables.
320
● In addition, Durkheim examined and rejected the imitation theory
associated with one of his contemporaries, the French social psychologist
Gabriel Tarde (1843–1904).
● The theory of imitation argues that people commit suicide (and
engage in a wide range of other actions) because they are imitating
the actions of others.
● This social-psychological approach was the most important
competitor to Durkheim’s focus on social facts.
● As a result, Durkheim took great pains to discredit it. For example, Durkheim
reasoned that if imitation were truly important, we should find that nations that
border on a country with a high suicide rate would themselves have high
rates, but an examination of the data showed that no such relationship
existed.
321
● Durkheim admitted that some individual suicides may be the result of
imitation, but it is such a minor factor that it has no significant effect on
the overall suicide rate.
● Durkheim concluded that the critical factors in differences in suicide rates
were to be found in differences at the level of social facts.
● Different groups have different collective sentiments, which produce different
social currents.
● It is these social currents that affect individual decisions about suicide.
● In other words, changes in the collective sentiments lead to changes in social
currents, which, in turn, lead to changes in suicide rates.
322

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