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Lunar and
Interplanetary
Trajectories
Robin Biesbroek
Springer Praxis Books
Astronautical Engineering
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5495
Robin Biesbroek
123
Robin Biesbroek
ESTEC/TEC-SYE
Noordwijk
The Netherlands
Since the early years of the twentieth century, many books have been published about
planetary and/or interplanetary trajectory design of space missions. A substantial amount
of these books are of either Soviet Union or American origin. Almost all of these books focus
on the, often complicated, mathematics involved with mission design.
Not everybody has the same background in mathematics and not everybody has the same
interest in the actual techniques behind trajectory design. For spacecraft system engineers, the
results of the trajectories, their properties (propellant required, duration, etc.), and their impact
on other systems, such as which launcher is applicable with that trajectory, are of more
importance.
It is with this in mind that the report is written: it aims at providing the reader an intro-
duction to both lunar and interplanetary trajectory design using a system engineering
approach. Complex mathematics is avoided. Instead, the books serve as a reference for tra-
jectories, providing lookup tables and figures from which any engineer can derive
trajectory-related parameters such as propellant mass, transfer time, departure dates, and
launcher performance. Finally, the impact of trajectories on the spacecraft system design is
discussed and highlighted with several examples throughout the book.
vii
Contents
2 Transfer to a Planet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 Positions of the Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Devising Trajectories to Other Planets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
ix
x Contents
2.3 Launch Windows and C3 Values for Direct Transfers to the Planets . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Direct Transfer to Mercury . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.2 Direct Transfer to Venus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.3.3 Direct Transfer to Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.3.4 Direct Transfer to Jupiter. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.5 Direct Transfer to Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.3.6 Direct Transfer to Uranus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.7 Direct Transfer to Neptune . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.3.8 Direct Transfer to Pluto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.4 Avoiding Mars Dust Storms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.5 Return Missions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.6 Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6.1 Mission to Mars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.6.2 Mission to Neptune. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
4 Deep-Space Maneuvers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1 High-Thrust Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1.1 Mission to Mercury Using DSM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1.2 Mission to Venus Using DSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.1.3 Mission to Mars Using DSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.1.4 Mission to the Outer Planets Using DSM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.2 Low-Thrust Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2.1 Powering Low-Thrust Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.2.2 Reducing Low-Thrust Transfer Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.2.3 Low-Thrust Transfers to the Inner Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.2.4 Low-Thrust Transfers to the Outer Planets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.3 Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.3.1 Mission to Saturn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.3.2 Mission to Neptune. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5 Lunar Transfers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.1 Characteristics of the Moon’s Orbit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.2 Direct Transfers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.2.1 Transfer Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.2.2 Direct Transfers from an Ariane 5 Launch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2.3 Direct Transfers from a Soyuz Launch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.2.4 Direct Transfers from a Proton Launch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Contents xi
xiii
Introduction
This book takes the reader through a journey starting from the launch of an interplanetary or
lunar spacecraft, to the final orbit around a planet or moon.
It starts with ‘Launching to Interplanetary Orbits’ (Chap. 1) where some launcher perfor-
mance figures are shown for commonly used launchers. The next step is the ‘Transfer to a
Planet’ in Chap. 2 which describes the energy required to reach other planets. Chapter 3 deals
with ‘gravity assist maneuvers,’ often used to either decrease the transfer time or increase the
spacecraft payload mass. More and more missions nowadays use large ‘deep space maneu-
vers’ to which Chap. 4 is dedicated. Lunar transfers are shown in Chap. 5. When arrived at a
planet, the choice exists to land on it or to orbit it: Chap. 6 shows cases for both these options.
For planetary orbits, Chap. 7 shows a large number of different orbits and their impact on
satellite design. Finally, Chap. 8 shows auxiliary data such as eclipse times, ground station
coverage, and how to summarize budgets and apply margins to the design.
Throughout the book two different examples will be given for invented missions to the
Moon and to the planet Neptune. For each destination, the examples will show different
scenarios of the mission, i.e. different launchers, direct transfers, gravity assists, and deep
space maneuvers.
All 3D trajectory plots were created using the Satellite Took Kit version 9, a software
product of Analytical Graphics, Inc.
xv
Launching to Interplanetary Orbits
1
A spacecraft’s trajectory starts with its launch. Although the version of Ariane 5, need to go directly into the escape orbit.
trajectory of the launcher is not calculated by a space sys- Sometimes a different method is used. ESA’s spacecraft
tems engineer, the trajectory in which the spacecraft is put Rosetta was launched on an Ariane G version by putting the
by the launcher is of extreme importance. Not only is it the Ariane 5 upper-stage with the spacecraft into a ballistic
starting point for the trajectory design, it also determines the trajectory. At the highest point in the ballistic flight, the
spacecraft mass which makes the launcher selection a critical upper-stage was ignited to enter the escape trajectory. If the
decision during any spacecraft design. ignition failed, both upper-stage and spacecraft would have
re-entered the Earth’s atmosphere.
Ariane 5, Atlas 5 and Proton are considered ‘heavy-class’
1.1 Launchers Overview launchers, capable of launching in the order of 20 tons to LEO
(Low-Earth Orbit), and in the order of 10 tons to GTO
At the moment there are over 30 launchers available from (Geostationary Transfer Orbit). Soyuz is considered a
Europe, the United States, USSR, China, Japan, India, Brazil middle-class launcher (5–10 tons in LEO) and VEGA a
and Israel. Many of the launchers are small and incapable of typical small launcher (1–2 tons in LEO). Many launchers
launching a spacecraft into an interplanetary trajectory. Only come in a variety of different versions, depending on what
a few launchers have that capability, of which the most used kind of upper-stage is used, how many strap-on boosters,
are the Russian Proton and Soyuz, the American Atlas and which fairing and even what kind of main stage. For Ariane 5,
Delta, and the Japanese H2. The European Ariane 5 launcher typical versions are G (Generic), E (Evolution), ES (evolution
(Fig. 1.1) has proven capability for interplanetary missions with Storable propellant upper-stage) and ECA (Evolution
by launching the ESA (European Space Agency) satellite with Cryogenic upper-stage type A). For Soyuz, typical ver-
Rosetta in 2004. sions are Soyuz-Fregat and Soyuz/ST-Fregat (used for laun-
The task of the launcher is to put the satellite into an ‘escape ches from French Guyana). For Proton we have Proton-M and
trajectory’. In order for the spacecraft to reach another planet, it Proton-K depending on the type of upper-stage and fairing.
should have a very specific velocity and direction at the time A launch typically lasts 15–100 min, depending on the
the spacecraft leaves (or ‘escapes from’) the Earth. There are launch strategy. A direct ascent uses all stages in sequence
different ways to achieve this velocity and direction. The (or simultaneous) without the use of long coast arcs, and
Russian Soyuz (Fig. 1.2) and Proton (Fig. 1.3) for example normally lasts between 15 and 30 min. This is valid for
often use a parking orbit before injecting into a hyperbolic example for Ariane 5 E and Ariane 5 ECA. Some launchers
escape trajectory. The first stages of the launcher put both the may use coast arcs or parking orbits (typically at 200 km
launcher’s upper-stage and the attached spacecraft into a altitude) before igniting the upper-stage to reach the final
200 km altitude circular orbit. At the right time, the upper-stage orbit. It could be that the upper-stage was already used to
is ignited until the proper hyperbolic escape trajectory is reach the parking orbit, or not. Due to the use of a coast arc,
reached and the spacecraft is on its way to its target planet. which may be almost a complete orbit, an additional 90 min
In order to use this parking orbit technique usually a is required for the launch duration.
restartable upper-stage is required, since the upper-stage is Sometimes the launcher’s performance for escape tra-
also used to actually reach this parking orbit. The Russian jectories is given in user manuals, sometimes it is not. Quite
Fregat, Breeze and Varyag upper-stages are good examples often only a few data-points are available. It is therefore not
of restartable upper-stages. Launchers without a restartable unusual for a space systems engineer to predict the launcher
upper-stage, such as the ECA (Etage Cryotechnique A) performance by extrapolating from only one or a few points
can offer. Besides, most project managers will not be in favor difference at the Earth makes a large difference when
of a 12 year cruise time. The only solution to decrease the reaching for example Mars. This difference would have to be
launch C3 and/or the cruise time is the use of gravity assists. compensated either by the launcher or by the spacecraft itself.
Because the Earth rotates, any right ascension (α) can be The declination (δ) is much more important: not every
reached. It is simply a matter of launching at the right hour. declination can be reached. We can define the inclination of
The Earth rotates 360.99° per day, or 15° per hour, or 1/4° per an orbit by the angle between the orbit plane, and the plane
minute. In other words, every hour in the day the right through the equator of the planet. If a launch is performed
ascension will increase with 15°. It can also be seen that the exactly towards the East, the inclination of the orbit is the
launch hour is quite delicate: when the launch is delayed by same as the latitude from which the launch took place. For
only 4 min, the right ascension has increased by 1°. Since 1° example, eastward launches from Baikonur (Proton) give an
4 1 Launching to Interplanetary Orbits
Table 1.1 Example C3 values for transfers to different planets 23°. This is no problem when launching from Cape Canaveral
2 2 or Baikonur but when launching from Kourou in French
Planet Launch C3 [km /s ] Transfer time
Guyana an inclination change will have to be performed
Moon a
−2.0 5 days
which goes at the expense of the Ariane’s performance since
Venus 7.2 0.36 years this requires a substantial amount of propellant. Kourou is
Mars 10.2 0.90 years therefore a competitive launch site for transfers to the Geo-
Jupiter 82.6 3.69 years stationary orbit (inclination 0°) but not for most interplanetary
Pluto 188.0 12.48 years transfers (declination usually much higher than 5°).
a
Not really an interplanetary mission, and since the Moon is bound to How exactly the required launch energy and declination
the Earth, a Lunar transfer orbit is not an escape trajectory. Therefore are calculated is shown in Chap. 2. In the next sections it will
the C3 energy is negative be shown how to estimate the launcher’s performance.
Fig. 1.8 Front and side-view of an injection from a parking orbit (inclination = 51.8°) to escape trajectory with declination 51.8°. The argument of
perigee is close to −90° (perigee in the South)
6 1 Launching to Interplanetary Orbits
Fig. 1.9 Front and side-view of an injection exactly the same parking orbit to escape trajectory with declination 0°. The argument of perigee is
close to 0° (perigee close to the Equator)
1.3 Performance Estimation latitude, since for other inclinations an inclination change
needs to be given by the launcher.
The previous section showed that the two main parameters
for performance estimation are the launch energy C3
[km2/s2] and the declination δ [°]. For launches from high 1.4.1 Ariane 5 LEO Performance
latitudes though, such as Plezetsk and Baikonur, almost
any required declination for interplanetary trajectories Ariane 5 performance to LEO is typically in the order of 20
can be reached leaving only the launch energy as tons when the ES version is used; see Fig. 1.10 for the
parameter. Ariane 5 ES performance to LEO.
Quite often the launcher’s performance can be found The Ariane 5 performance gets higher for lower inclina-
from literature or on the internet, such as Encyclopedia tions as expected; the maximum should occur for an incli-
Astronautica [1] and obviously the launcher user manuals nation of 5.2° in LEO.
themselves which can be found on the web pages of the
launch service provider. The following sections show
interplanetary and lunar trajectory performances for vari- 1.4.2 Soyuz LEO Performance
ous launchers. As LEO and GTO orbits are also used at
some occasions as parking orbits for interplanetary For Soyuz-Fregat, this performance is about 14 tons lower.
transfer, the LEO and GTO performances are shown as Unfortunately, LEO performance for Soyuz launched from
well. Kourou is unknown. Only one LEO is performance is given:
2000 The Proton User Manual [5], does not give performances
1900 plots however states the following LEO performance for a
1800
1700
180 km orbit at 51.5° inclination: 23,000 kg.
1600
1500
1400
1.4.5 Falcon LEO Performance
1300
1200
1100 The small launchers Falcon 1 and Falcon 1e may provide a
1000 low-cost access for a mini satellite to the Moon, while the
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
Inclination [deg] heavy-lift launcher Falcon 9 provides interplanetary access.
As a reference, we take the 185 km LEO at 30° inclination
Fig. 1.11 VEGA performance to 300 km LEO, based on data from [4] for Falcon 1e: 950 kg, from Fig. 1.12. For Falcon 9, we take
the 185 km LEO at 28.5° inclination as reference: 11,250 kg,
satellites going to the Moon. As a reference, we take the from Fig. 1.13.
performance to 300 km LEO at 30° inclination: 2200 kg, It should be noted here that the Falcon 9 data sheet
from Fig. 1.11. mentions that typical maximum payload capability of Falcon
800
Falcon 1e
700
600
500
400
300
Falcon 1
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Inclination [deg]
8 1 Launching to Interplanetary Orbits
12000 often shared i.e. two satellites, both in the range of 1000 kg
to 8000 kg are launched at the same time.
Falcon 9 performance [kg]
11000
10000
1.4.6 Atlas V LEO Performance A cost-effective alternative for GTO launches is the Indian
PSLV-XL launcher. However the upper-stage does not have
Atlas V is currently the most powerful launcher available. a high performance and therefore for the Chandrayaan lunar
Many versions exist, since the launcher can be reconfigured mission, a lower apogee elliptic orbit was selected. This
with strap-on boosters and the addition of a STAR48 solid ‘sub-GTO’ for PSLV-XL is defined as:
upper-stage. As a reference, we take the 200 km LEO at
28.5° inclination using Atlas V version 551 (the most • Apogee altitude 22,858 km
powerful version) as reference: 18,814 kg, taken from [8]. • Perigee altitude 257 km
• Argument of perigee: unknown
• Inclination 17.9°
1.5 GTO Performances
The sub-GTO performance for PSLV-XL is 1380 kg.
The definition of ‘GTO’ is different for each launcher;
though the apogee should end up being 35,786 km, the
perigee and inclination are different for different launchers as 1.5.4 Proton GTO Performance
they are optimized for each case. Based on the same user’s
manuals used for the LEO performances, we can find the The GTO for Proton is defined as:
GTO and LTO (Lunar Transfer Orbit) performances.
• Apogee altitude 35,786 km
• Perigee altitude 2175 km
1.5.1 Ariane 5 GTO Performance • Argument of perigee: 0°
• Inclination 31.1°
The GTO for Ariane 5 ECA is defined as:
The GTO performance for Proton is 6920 kg [5].
• Apogee altitude 35,786 km (defined at 1st apogee
crossing)
• Perigee altitude 250 km (defined at injection) 1.5.5 Falcon 9 GTO Performance
• Argument of perigee: 178°
• Inclination 6° The GTO for Falcon 9 is defined as:
The GTO performance for Ariane 5 ECA is 10,050 kg • Apogee altitude 35,788 km
[2], though it must be said that Ariane 5 GTO launches are • Perigee altitude 185 km
1.5 GTO Performances 9
• Argument of perigee: 0° or 180° leads to a performance of: 2140 kg. For this value the same
• Inclination 28.5° inclination as the Lissajous orbit can be assumed (15°). To
summarize:
The GTO performance for Falcon 9 is 4540 kg [7].
• Apogee altitude 385,600 km
• Perigee altitude 250 km
1.5.6 Atlas V GTO Performance • Inclination 15°
The GTO for Atlas V is defined as: The LTO performance for Soyuz is then 2140 kg.
1.6.2 Soyuz LTO Performance The LTO performance for Falcon 9 is 2600 kg. Note
though that this is substantially larger than a previous doc-
The user manual of Soyuz only lists a low-inclination LTO. ument, the Falcon Launch Vehicle Lunar Capability Guide
The parameters are: rev 2 where a performance of 1925 kg was predicted.
recent [11] only gives the reference for one point 1200
(C3 = 12.5 km2/s2 and declination = −2°). Furthermore the
1000
declination related to this plot is unknown, however it can be 0 5 10 15 20 25
assumed that the optimal escape declination (−5° for Ariane C3 [km2/s2]
5) is used. The values in the figure are decreased by 1900 kg
to match the current performance for a C3 of 12.6 km2/s2) as Fig. 1.15 Soyuz-Fregat performance for zero degrees declination,
based on data from [3]
the older user manual was predicting a performance of
1900 kg higher than the most recent version.
1700
1600
possible.
4900
4500
1.7.3 Proton Escape Performance
4100
7000 12000
6500
10000
5500
5000
8000
4500
4000
3500 6000
3000
2500 4000
2000
1500
2000
1000
500
0 0
C3 [km2/s2] C3 [km2/s2]
Fig. 1.17 Proton M performance, based on data from [10]. Launch Fig. 1.19 Atlas V 551 escape performance, based on data from [8]
from Baikonur. Applicable to declinations from −51.6° to +51.6°
4500
3500
3000 Table 1.2 gives a summary for different performance for all
2500 launchers mentioned.
2000
1500
1000
1.9 The Rocket Equation and Engine
500
Performance
0
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 The Rocket Equation will be the only equation given in this
C3 [km2/s2] book, as it is a highly important equation for any space
systems engineer to estimate satellite masses. Derived by the
Fig. 1.18 Falcon 9 Block 2 escape performance, based on data from [7]
imperial Russian school teacher and scientist (in fact, the
first ‘rocket scientist’) Konstantin Tsiolkovski in 1903, the
1.7.5 Atlas V Escape Performance Rocket Equation links the satellite mass to the engine effi-
ciency and the change in velocity:
Figure 1.19 gives the performance of Atlas V 551 to escape
DV
Ispg
trajectories. Note that an extra upper-stage is used for C3 mf ¼ mi e 0
Table 1.2 Performance (in kg) for different mission types and different launchers. See text for constraints on inclination and escape declination
Type LEO GTO Moon Venus Mars
C3 [km2/s2] −60 −16 −2 7 10
Falcon-1e 950 – – – –
VEGA 2200 – – – –
PSLV-XL 1380 – – –
Soyuz 5050 3060 2140 1350 1230
Falcon-9 11,250 4545 2600 2023 1850
Ariane 5 21,000 10,050 7000 4600 4500
Proton M 23,000 6920 5890 4890 4580
Atlas V 18,814 8900 6740 5720 5420
12 1 Launching to Interplanetary Orbits
The engine’s specific impulse is basically an indication of 1.10 Parking Orbit Optimization
how efficient the engine is. After all, a higher Isp in the
Rocket Equation leads to a smaller difference between the In some cases it is advantageous to use the main engine of
initial and final mass, i.e. a smaller fuel consumption. the spacecraft to reach the transfer orbit (for example, to
Table 1.3 gives an overview of different engines, their escape from the Earth) instead of just using the launcher to
specific impulse Isp and their applications. directly inject the spacecraft into the transfer orbit. This is in
One could think ‘why not always use an ion engine’ as particular true for launchers that have an upper-stage with an
this engine seems to be the most efficient; the problem engine that is less efficient, i.e. have a lower Isp, than the
however is that typically, the higher the specific impulse, the engine of the spacecraft. For these cases, the launcher should
lower the thrust level. A minimum amount of thrust is typ- inject the spacecraft into a parking orbit, after which the
ically needed to move a mass mi, so that often limits the spacecraft ignites its own engine to leave that parking orbit
engine choice: it is impossible to launch a 100 ton launcher and injects itself into the transfer orbit.
with an ion thruster, since the thrust is so low the launcher The question is: which parking orbit should be used? This
would never lift off. On the other hand, some solid motors is subject to optimization. When we define the parking orbit
have such a high thrust that if attached to a non-agile as an elliptic orbit around the Earth as shown in Fig. 1.20,
spacecraft it may break apart when the thrust is started. with its closest distance to the Earth called the perigee alti-
See [13] for an explanation of rocket engines. Table 1.3 tude, and it is furthest distance to the Earth called the apogee
will be used in this book as an Isp reference for calculating altitude, we can fix the perigee altitude to 200 km and try to
satellite masses using the Rocket Equation. find the optimal apogee altitude that maximizes the space-
craft mass into the escape orbit. This will be different though
for different launchers (as different launchers have different
performance) and different satellite engines (as different
Table 1.3 Overview of engine types and typical values for the specific engines have different specific impulses and therefore dif-
impulse ferent propellant consumption).
Engine type Typical Applications Let’s first have a look at the ΔV required to reach a C3
specific from a parking orbit. In Fig. 1.21 we fixed the perigee
impulse
Isp [s] altitude to 200 km and let the apogee altitude range from
200 km (i.e. circular orbit) to 400,000 km (i.e. LTO). The
Cold-gas 50 Spacecraft attitude control
plot gives the ΔVs required to reach a range of C3 values
Mono-propellant 220 Attitude control or spacecraft
(from −2 to 100 km2/s2). The ΔVs have been scaled up by
main engine for all orbit transfers
10 % to compensate for gravity losses (the fact that a ΔV
Solid 250 Launchers and rocket stages
cannot always be given at the optimal location due to the
Bi-propellant 320 Larger attitude control or
duration of the burn, which leads to losses in the efficiency
spacecraft main engine for all
orbit transfers. More effective of the burn; see also section 6.3.1).
than mono-propellant, but more We see from Fig. 1.21 that the higher the escape energy,
complex too the higher the required ΔV; and the higher the parking orbit
Cryogenic 450 Launchers (cryogenic engines apogee, the lower the required ΔV. Both observations are
can only be used until a few days quite logical however we also notice that the curve flattens at
after launch)
high parking orbit apogees, which means that in the end
Hall-effect (HET) 1650 Deep-space maneuvers/spiraling choosing a parking orbit of 300,000 km apogee or
out to the Moon
1,000,000 km apogee will not have a large impact on the
Ion 3000 Deep-space maneuvers
ΔV. The optimal parking orbit apogee is subject to
1.10 Parking Orbit Optimization 13
ΔV [km/s]
C3 = 50 km2/s2
4 C3 = 40 km2/s2
C3 = 30 km2/s2
3 C3 = 20 km2/s2
C3 = 10 km2/s2
2
C3 = 5 km2/s2
1 C3 = 0 km2/s2
C3 = -2 km2/s2
0
100 1000 10000 100000 1000000
Parking Orbit Apogee Altitude [km]
250
100
50
0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Escape C3 [km2/s2]
optimization, however often this optimum lies closely to the (Proton-M) and Fig. 1.29 (Atlas V). The most common
GTO orbit (apogee 35,876 km altitude) and sometimes engine types are used: mono-propellant, solid, and
closely to the LTO orbit (apogee 400,000 km altitude). bi-propellant engines, in order of efficiency (and therefore
A satellite would typically have propellant worth to up to a final satellite mass).
few km/s of ΔV. For example, most communication satellites We can immediately see that using a parking orbit could
have a maximum ΔV of roughly 1.5 km/s. Already with this give advantages in mass: in Fig. 1.25 above we see that the
number, using for example a bi-propellant engine, 40 % of the LTO performance of Soyuz (direct insertion) is 2140 kg.
spacecraft consists of propellant. It is therefore very difficult to However if a GTO parking orbit is used and a bi-propellant
reach a C3 of 100 km2/s2 from a parking orbit as the ΔV even engine of the satellite gives the ΔV to get from GTO into
from a parking orbit with 400,000 km altitude, is at least LTO, the satellite mass is 2410 kg: 300 kg more than the
4.3 km/s. Using the Rocket Formula we see (taking again a direct case.
bi-propellant engine with Isp 320 s) that a ΔV of 4.3 km/s The downfall is an increased mission risk (the satellite
(4300 m/s) leads to a satellite consisting for 75 % of propellant. needs to perform extra, large, burns) and increased com-
For the different launchers mentioned in this chapter, and plexity (as it obliges to implement a large propellant system)
using the performances of Table 1.2, we can now calculate which typically goes hand in hand with increased cost. For
the satellite mass in escape orbit starting from LEO, the this reason, often propulsion stages with solid motors such as
GTO or the LTO orbit, using the ΔV figures of the previous the American STAR motors, are used, despite the lower
plot. The results are shown in Fig. 1.22 (Falcon 1e), efficiency than bi-propellant engines. The solid motors are
Fig. 1.23 (VEGA), Fig. 1.24 (PSLV-XL), Fig. 1.25 (Soyuz), relatively simple in design, available off-the-shelf at rela-
Fig. 1.26 (Falcon-9), Fig. 1.27 (Ariane 5), Fig. 1.28 tively low cost, and have high thrust which means that one
14 1 Launching to Interplanetary Orbits
200
100
0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Escape C3 [km2/s2]
800
LEO, mono-prop
600 LEO, solid
LEO, bi-prop
400
200
0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Escape C3 [km2/s2]
0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Escape C3 [km2/s2]
burn is necessary (and possible) to reach the desired escape An extra aspect to be taken into account is that when using
C3. Engines with chemical propulsion have lower thrust and the GTO as a parking orbit, this GTO is typically designed
typically divide the escape ΔV over at least 3 burns (in some such that the apogee lies in the Earth equator (argument of
cases even 10 burns) in order to keep the gravity loss to perigee 0° or 180°). This also means though, that when a burn
under 10 %. is given at perigee to reach an escape orbit, the infinite velocity
1.10 Parking Orbit Optimization 15
500
0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Escape C3 [km2/s2]
1000
0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Escape C3 [km2/s2]
1000
0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Escape C3 [km2/s2]
is typically almost parallel to the equator. So even if the GTO advantageous as often interplanetary trajectories have higher
has an inclination of 28.5°, the escape declination is close to 0° declinations. To solve this, an inclination change (which is
(as shown in Fig. 1.9). As mentioned in Sect. 1.2, this is not often costly in terms of propellant) needs to be given.
16 1 Launching to Interplanetary Orbits
1000
0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Escape C3 [km2/s2]
1.11 Examples For option 3, the mass in LTO can also be found in
Fig. 1.26: for a C3 of −2 km2/s2 and a bi-propellant stage
Throughout this book we’ll focus on two example missions: the mass is 3750 kg when using LEO as a parking orbit, or
a mission to the Moon and to the outer planet Neptune. 3580 kg when using GTO as a parking orbit. This leads to
Typically we also give another example depending on the 7500 kg propellant used for LEO and 965 kg of propellant
subject of the chapter. used for GTO. 7500 kg is still too much for a propulsion
stage. So despite the fact that the GTO performance is
larger, we’ll take the GTO as a parking orbit. The system
1.11.1 Lunar Mission engineer should then find a solid motor that has 965 kg of
propellant.
Exercise: Evaluate three different system options for a After the TLI the propulsion stage is ejected. Therefore
mission to the Moon using a Falcon 9 launcher, in terms of the final mass in LTO for Option 3 is 3580–190 = 3390 kg.
mass in LTO. Option 1 is a direct injection. Option 2 uses a Which option is preferred, is a trade-off involving more
propulsion stage with a solid motor that is ejected after the than just the mass in LTO. In terms of cost, option 1 is most
Trans-Lunar Injection (TLI). The ejected dry mass of the likely the cheapest, as no stage needs to be bought or
solid stage is 150 kg. Option 3 uses a propulsion stage with a developed (and no interfaces to the stage developed). Option
bi-propellant engine that is ejected after the TLI. The ejected 3 is most likely the most expensive, as bi-propellant systems
dry mass of the bi-propellant stage is 190 kg. Assume a C3 are complex. Option 2 should lie in the middle.
of −2 km2/s2. In terms of risk, option 1 most likely has the highest
Result: For option 1 we refer to Table 1.2: 2600 kg in reliability; the responsibility lies with the launcher provider
LTO. to deliver the satellite in LTO. Option 2 has one extra burn,
The mass in LTO for Option 2 can be found in Fig. 1.26: given by the satellite, and a separation system involving
for a C3 of −2 km2/s2 and a solid stage the mass is 2750 kg mechanisms. All of this decreases mission reliability. Option
when using LEO as a parking orbit, or 3350 kg when using 3 most likely has several engine burns by a complex engine,
GTO as a parking orbit. Since we know that Falcon 9’s LEO has a separation system, and therefore probably has the
performance is 11,250 kg and its GTO performance is lowest reliability.
4545 kg, this means that 8500 kg for LEO and 1195 kg for It is a common exercise to trade payload mass against
GTO of propellant is used respectively. 8500 kg is too much cost and mission reliability.
for a propulsion stage: a STAR 63 engine, for example, has
about 3250 kg of propellant. Since also the GTO perfor-
mance is larger, we’ll take the GTO as a parking orbit. The 1.11.2 Mission to Mars
system engineer should find a solid motor that has 1195 kg
of propellant, since solids cannot be switched off and Exercise: in this second example we examine a large Mars
therefore burn the total propellant in one go. lander. Launch should be in 2020. Maximize the launcher
After the TLI the propulsion stage is ejected. Therefore performance. Consider also a propulsion stage based on
the final mass in LTO for Option 2 is 3350–150 = 3200 kg. cryogenic propellant. A set of trajectories is found:
1.11 Examples 17
1. A launch in July 2020 with a launch C3 of 14 km2/s2 and and Atlas V are candidates. Figures 1.14, 1.17 and 1.19 give
declination 26° the performance of these three launchers. From Fig. 1.14 we
2. A launch in July 2020 with a launch C3 of 18 km2/s2 and can estimate the Ariane 5 performance to reach a C3 of
declination −5° 15.4 km2/s2: 3300 + 700 kg = 4000 kg. However Ariane 5 is
limited to the −5° declination (in terms of performance
As we need to maximize the launcher performance, we availability) and therefore not a candidate for such a high
focus on two heavy-lift launchers Proton M and Ariane 5. declination.
Proton M can handle high escape declinations so both From Fig. 1.17 we see that Proton M can deliver slightly
trajectories are applicable; we take the one with the lowest more than 4000 kg. The declination fits within the possible
C3 (trajectory 1). From Fig. 1.17 we find a performance of range of declinations that Proton M can launch to.
about 4100 kg for a C3 of 14 km2/s2. From Fig. 1.19 we see that Atlas V can deliver 5000 kg.
For the Ariane 5 case we can look at both trajectories. The declination related to this performance is maximum
Figure 1.14 gives the performance for a −5° escape decli- 28.6° however this does not mean that the higher declination
nation and using trajectory 2 we find a performance of cannot be reached, in particular as Atlas V uses a circular
3300 kg for a C3 of 18 km2/s2, 800 kg lower than Proton. parking orbit: all it needs to do is use a parking orbit at
Let’s look at trajectory 1 for Ariane 5. In Fig. 1.27 we see inclination 42.7° instead of 28.6°. In order to get a very
the performance from LEO, which fits with the escape rough order of magnitude we can look at the performance
declination. When using a bi-propellant propulsion stage, the decrease as function of inclination shown in Fig. 1.13. While
performance is 5350 kg. an inclination of 42.7° is not shown in that graph, we can
Propulsion stages based on cryogenic propellant are not interpolate between the graph of 28.6° and 60°, for a 100-km
shown in Fig. 1.27, so we need to calculate this ourselves. In altitude, and find that the performance decrease for 42.7°
Fig. 1.20 we find that the ΔV to reach a C3 of 14 km2/s2 is should be around 15 % (±10,700 kg instead of 12,500 kg).
about 4.2 km/s (or 4200 m/s). Using the Rocket Equation This would give 5000–15 % = 4250 kg. We do not need to
with an Isp of 450 s (Table 1.3) we get the following final calculate the precise performance; all we need to prove is
mass: that the performance is higher than 2000 kg. This first
DV
indication confirms this.
Ispg 4200
mf ¼ mi e 0 ¼ 20500 e4509:80665 ¼ 7914 To conclude, we can conclude that Proton M and Atlas V
are launchers compatible with the required C3 and
To account for inaccuracies in reading the ΔV plot we declination.
round this down to 7900 kg.
To summarize, we found the following performances:
In the previous chapter the importance of the escape energy, the ecliptic plane with the Earth equator plane, and the Z-axis
C3, was highlighted and how it was used to calculate perpendicular to the ecliptic plane. The Y-axis makes up for a
launcher performance. In this chapter we take a closer look right-handed axes system (Figs. 2.1 and 2.2).
at C3 values for transfers to different planets. We’ll limit this Even though a coordinate system based on the ecliptic
to a 10-year period of 2020–2030 however the values of this plane seems the obvious choice as a reference system for
range should be a good indication of other periods as well. planet positions, often the ICRF is used. This frame uses the
Solar System barycenter as origin, and the Earth’s equator as
reference plane. The X and Y-axis lie within the equator plane
2.1 Positions of the Planets with the X-axis pointing towards the vernal equinox on Jan-
uary 1st 2000, and the Z-axis points perpendicular to the
Without knowing where planets are located in space, it will be Earth’s equator plane on January 1st 2000 (i.e. towards the
impossible to create a trajectory between them. Mathematical North Pole). The Y-axis makes up for a right-handed axes
formulas exist, which can be used to determine the position of system.
a planet as function of the date. The Horizon program of JPL One advantage of using the ICRF frame to calculate
(Jet Propulsion Laboratory, see [1]) is a useful tool to give the planet positions, is that we can then calculate the trajectories
most accurate positions of celestial bodies currently available. within this frame, and immediately know the declination of
This ephemeris module is also implemented in the Satellite the escape vector, as the declination is also defined with
Tool Kit software (download from [2]). However when respect to the equator plane.
positions are given, they relate to a certain coordinate system The average distance from the Sun to the Earth is called
consisting of an origin and three axes. As origin, typical Astronomical Unit (AU), and is equal to 149,597,870 km,
choices are the Sun, the barycenter of the Solar System (which almost 150 million km. Table 2.1 gives an overview of the
is actually situated inside the Sun), or the Earth. average distances from all planets to the Sun, measured in
In terms of axes two systems are mostly used for planet AU. Pluto, which was considered a planet until recently, is
positions: the ecliptic plane and the ICRF (International included as well, along with the asteroid Apophis.
Celestial Reference Frame) system. The ecliptic plane is Note that most planet orbits are slightly elliptical.
simply the plane of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun. It was Therefore the actual distance to the Sun for a specific point
named ecliptic because a solar eclipse can only occur when in time may be quite different from the average distance.
the Moon crosses this plane. The plane moves over time so it Celestial bodies like Apophis and Pluto are more elliptical
should be accompanied by an epoch and typically the first of than the planets: the shortest distance from the Sun to
January of the year 2000 is used. While the Earth moves Apophis (or ‘Perihelion’) is 0.75 AU and the largest distance
within the ecliptic frame, the other planes are located near this (‘Aphelion’) is 1.1 AU.
plane: the orbits of the other planes are not largely inclined Planetary trajectories are only feasible if the planets that
with respect to the ecliptic plane. The ecliptic plane intersects are touching the trajectory (like the departure planet and the
the Earth’s equator plane by a line between two imaginary arrival planet) are correctly aligned. Figure 2.3 shows the
points: the vernal equinox and the autumn equinox. This positions of Earth and Mars at time of launch in July 2020.
allows for a definition of axes based on the ecliptic plane: the At this time, Earth and Mars are correctly aligned for a
X and Y axes are located within the ecliptic plane with the transfer. If this launch window is missed, we need to wait for
X-axis pointed to the vernal equinox along the intersection of the next time that the planets have a similar alignment (due
Equator plane
Ecliptic plane
Vernal equinox
Equator plane
Ecliptic plane
Vernal equinox Fig. 2.3 Earth and Mars positions at time of launch in July 2020. The
trajectory is shown as an ellipse connecting the two near-circular planet
Fig. 2.2 Definition of ICRF axes based on the equator plane orbits
Table 2.1 Average distances to the Sun and synodic period for all planets. This means that every year there is a launch
planets, Pluto and Apophis
opportunity for Jupiter and all planets beyond Jupiter, while
Planet or celestial body Average distance Synodic period missions to Mars are possible only once every two years.
to Sun [AU] [year]
Mercury 0.4 0.32
Venus 0.7 1.6 2.2 Devising Trajectories to Other Planets
Apophis (Asteroid) 0.9 7.8
Earth 1 – So how do we calculate a trajectory from one planet to the
Mars 1.5 2.1 other? The easiest solution to this is to follow this sequence:
Jupiter 5 1.1
1. Determine the position of the departure planet at time T1.
Saturn 10 1.0
We call this position R1.
Uranus 20 1.0
2. Determine the position of the arrival planet at time T2.
Neptune 30 1.0 We call this position R2.
Pluto 40 1.0 3. Find a trajectory starting at position R1 at time T1 and
ending at position R2 at time T2. In other words: the
travel time is: (T2–T1).
to the fact that the planet orbits are elliptical the new
alignment will not be completely the same). The time it takes The first two actions can be determined as discussed the
to be aligned again depends on the relative velocity between previous chapter: using JPL’s Horizon program we can get
the planets. the position vector within a Sun-centered ICRF frame for
The time it takes for a celestial body to reappear at the any planet at any time.
same point in relation to two other objects (of which one is The third action is more difficult and can only be found
usually the Sun) is called the Synodic Period. Table 2.1 by solving what is called Lambert’s problem, see Fig. 2.4.
shows the Synodic Period between Earth and the other This ‘Lambert solver’ basically does three steps:
celestial bodies of the table. We see periods higher than one
year for planets that are relatively close to the Earth (and 1. It is assumed that the connecting trajectory lies in a plane
therefore have a small relative velocity), like Mars and defined by three points: R1, R2 and the center of
Venus, and a Synodic Period of about 1 year for all outer attraction (in this case, the Sun).
2.2 Devising Trajectories to Other Planets 21
Table 2.3 Solutions for a direct transfer from Earth to Mercury, constrained to 28.5° launch declination
Year Launch date Arrival date C3 launch [km2/s2] C3 arrival [km2/s2] Declination [°] Transfer time [yr]
2024 12-Sep-24 5-Jan-25 54.7 180.7 −28.5 0.31
2025 30-Aug-25 21-Dec-25 62.1 191.5 −27.8 0.31
2030 20-Sep-30 14-Jan-31 51.2 174.4 −28.4 0.32
• A maximum absolute launch declination of 51.8° was We also see that there are three years: 2024, 2025 and
applied (higher declinations are not achievable by any of 2030 where the launch declination is higher than 28.5°. This
the launchers mentioned in Sect. 1.6.4). means that this launch would be incompatible with a launch
from Cape Canaveral without performing an expensive
The following sections give the optimal solutions for each inclination change during the launch. We can constrain the
year in the 2020–2030 timeframe. The solutions contain declination and re-optimize for these cases: the results are
launch date and C3, arrival date and C3, launch declination shown in Table 2.3; the constraint leads different dates and a
and transfer time. higher arrival C3.
A ‘launch window’ is often defined taking a three-week Figure 2.5 shows the departure and arrival C3 in graph-
period surrounding the optimal launch date found. This ical form.
means that the C3 value changes depending on the day in the Note how high the arrival C3 is. This would lead to huge
launch window, and therefore the allowable launch mass. insertion ΔVs. The arrival C3 can only be minimized by
Often a launch occurs on the first or second day in the implementing swing-bys and/or Deep-Space Maneuvers
window, which is typically a worse solution than the optimal within the trajectory. Figure 2.6 shows a typical
solution that probably lies somewhere in the middle of the Earth-Mercury trajectory.
launch window. A mission analyst would need to calculate a
trajectory for each day in the launch window, and a system
engineer would need to assume the worst-case scenario 2.3.2 Direct Transfer to Venus
within that launch window. An alternative is to use the
optimal solution only and apply a margin. For example, a Table 2.4 shows the results for transfers to Venus. Since we
1.5 % margin can be put on the launch mass of the optimal know from Table 2.1 that the Synodic Period is 1.6 years,
solution to account for the other dates in the launch window. there are years where there is no short-transfer solution for a
transfer to Venus. A long transfer is then the result (>1 year),
which allows the spacecraft to ‘wait in orbit’ for the next
2.3.1 Direct Transfer to Mercury arrival possibility. In 2025 no solution was found.
We also see that there are two years: 2020 and 2028
Table 2.2 shows the results for transfers to Mercury. Note where the launch declination is higher than 28.5°. Again, we
that according to Table 2.1 we should have multiple possi- constrained the declination and re-optimized for these cases:
bilities per year. The table shows only 1 solution per year; the results are shown in Table 2.5; the constraint leads dif-
the one leading to the lowest ΔV. ferent dates and a higher arrival C3.
2.3 Launch Windows and C3 Values for Direct Transfers to the Planets 23
140
C3 [km2/s2]
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
Launch year
C3 launch C3 arrival
Figure 2.7 shows the departure and arrival C3 in graph- provided for 800 W of power at Earth. Figure 2.10 shows an
ical form. artist’s overview of Venus Express.
Figure 2.8 shows a typical Earth-Venus trajectory.
ESA’s Venus Express mission was launched on 9
November 2005 from Baikonur using a Soyuz-Fregat 2.3.3 Direct Transfer to Mars
launcher and arrived at Venus on 11 April 2006 after a
153-day direct transfer (see Fig. 2.9). Table 2.6 shows the results for transfers to Mars. We know
Based on ESA’s Mars Express platform, launched five from Table 2.1 that the Synodic Period is 2 years, so every
years earlier, the 1270 kg Venus Express spacecraft carried other year there is no solution for a transfer to Mars.
570 kg of propellant for Venus orbit insertion applied using Figure 2.11 shows the departure and arrival C3 in
a bi-propellant 400 N engine, and orbit maintenance, applied graphical form.
using small thrusters on the corners of the spacecraft. Figure 2.12 shows a typical Earth-Mars trajectory.
Communication to Earth was done using a high-gain 1.3 m Practically every mission to Mars uses a direct transfer.
antenna. Two solar panels covering a total area of 5.8 m2 NASA’s Mars Science Laboratory (MSL) mission is no
Fig. 2.6 Earth-Mercury trajectory seen from a 3D perspective. Planet positions are shown at time of arrival
24 2 Transfer to a Planet
Table 2.5 Solutions for a direct transfer from Earth to Venus, constrained to 28.5° launch declination
Year Launch date Arrival date C3 launch [km2/s2] C3 arrival [km2/s2] Declination [°] Transfer time [yr]
2020 1-Apr-20 21-Sep-20 9.2 36.6 28.4 0.47
2028 31-Mar-28 20-Sep-28 9.4 37.6 28.5 0.47
20
C3 [km2/s2]
15
10
0
2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
Launch year
C3 launch C3 arrival
exception. Launched on 26 November 2011 by the Atlas V constrained the declination and re-optimized for this case:
launcher, MSL arrived at Mars on 6 August 2012 when its the results are shown in Table 2.8; the constraint leads dif-
rover ‘Curiosity’ landed on the surface of Mars, inside the ferent dates and a higher arrival C3 but lower launch C3.
Gale crater. Figure 2.13 shows the trajectory. Figure 2.14 shows the departure and arrival C3 in
graphical form.
Note that the launch C3 is already higher than any
2.3.4 Direct Transfer to Jupiter launcher can give using a direct injection. Figure 2.15 shows
a typical Earth-Jupiter trajectory.
Table 2.7 shows the results for transfers to Jupiter. We know
from Table 2.1 that the Synodic Period for all outer planets is
about 1 year, so we find a solution for every year. 2.3.5 Direct Transfer to Saturn
We also see that there is one year (2024) where the
launch declination is higher than 28.5°. Again, we Table 2.9 shows the results for transfers to Saturn.
2.3 Launch Windows and C3 Values for Direct Transfers to the Planets 25
Fig. 2.8 Earth-Venus trajectory seen from a 3D perspective. Planet positions are shown at time of arrival
We see that the first five years the launch declination is optimized results led to a transfer time of 10 years, equal to
higher than 28.5°. Again, we constrained the declination and the maximum forced transfer time. Since that transfer time
re-optimized for these cases: the results are shown in would be too long for Saturn (compared to the
Table 2.10; the constraint led to different dates and a much non-constrained transfers) and it was found that the total ΔV
higher departure C3. Another outcome was that the did not change much when decreasing the transfer time from
2.3 Launch Windows and C3 Values for Direct Transfers to the Planets 27
12
10
C3 [km 2/s2]
8
0
2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
Launch year
C3 launch C3 arrival
10 to 7 year, a maximum transfer time of 7 years was Figure 2.18 shows the departure and arrival C3 in
enforced for these particular cases. graphical form.
Figure 2.16 shows the departure and arrival C3 in Figure 2.19 shows a typical Earth-Uranus trajectory,
graphical form. constrained to 10 years transfer time.
Figure 2.17 shows a typical Earth-Saturn trajectory.
Table 2.11 shows the results for transfers to Uranus. Table 2.12 shows the results for transfers to Neptune.
For these cases the maximum transfer constraint of There is a similar behavior to the Uranus cases here: same
10 years is clearly active: all cases converged to this maxi- launch period, same transfer time (10 years) and same C3
mum transfer time. All transfers are therefore relatively values over the decennium.
similar; all launching in the June-August timeframe, and all Figure 2.20 shows the departure and arrival C3 in
departure and arrival C3’s are of the same magnitude. graphical form.
Fig. 2.12 Earth-Mars trajectory seen from a 3D perspective. Planet positions are shown at time of arrival
28 2 Transfer to a Planet
Table 2.8 Solution for a direct transfer from Earth to Jupiter, constrained to 28.5° launch declination
Year Launch date Arrival date C3 launch [km2/s2] C3 arrival [km2/s2] Declination [°] Transfer time [yr]
2024 22-Aug-24 31-Oct-26 68.9 38.4 28.5 2.19
2.3 Launch Windows and C3 Values for Direct Transfers to the Planets 29
70
C3 [km2/s2]
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
Launch year
C3 launch C3 arrival
Figure 2.21 shows a typical Earth-Neptune transfer, constraining the escape declination to 28.5° declination
constrained to 10 years transfer time. would lead to departure C3’s of over 600 km2/s2.
Figure 2.22 shows the departure and arrival C3 in
graphical form.
2.3.8 Direct Transfer to Pluto Figure 2.23 shows a typical Earth-Pluto trajectory, con-
strained to a transfer time of 10 years.
Table 2.13 shows the results for transfers to Pluto.
All transfers lead to extremely high C3’s and high
declinations. In fact, for launches in 2023–2030 all opti- 2.4 Avoiding Mars Dust Storms
mization results were not only constrained by the maximum
transfer time of 10 years, but also the maximum escape In important aspect of missions to Mars is highlighted here:
declination of 51.8°. This constraint has a strong impact: the the fact that every two years a global dust storm appears on
departure C3 is increasing rapidly. It is of little use Mars. Typically the global dust storm season occurs for a
re-optimizing these transfers for lower declination: solar longitude (the Mars-Sun angle, measured from the
Fig. 2.15 Earth-Jupiter trajectory seen from a 3D perspective. Planet positions are shown at time of arrival
30 2 Transfer to a Planet
Table 2.10 Solution for a direct transfer from Earth to Saturn, constrained to 28.5° launch declination and 7 years transfer time
Year Launch date Arrival date C3 launch [km2/s2] C3 arrival [km2/s2] Declination [°] Transfer time [yr]
2020 18-Mar-20 18-Mar-27 145.0 32.6 4.9 7.00
2021 1-Apr-21 31-Mar-28 144.4 33.7 7.7 7.00
2022 15-Apr-22 14-Apr-29 141.1 34.9 9.5 7.00
2023 30-Apr-23 29-Apr-30 135.6 35.9 11.4 7.00
2024 15-May-24 15-May-31 128.4 36.7 13.1 7.00
120
C3 [km2/s 2]
100
80
60
40
20
0
2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
Launch year
C3 launch C3 arrival
Northern hemisphere spring equinox) from 180° to 340°. • Enter Mars orbit and wait in orbit until the storm is over
Table 2.14 gives an overview of when the typical dust storm • Use an interplanetary trajectory that arrives after the
seasons are in the 2020–2030 timeframe. storm
The year 2031 is also included since a launch in 2030
applies arriving in 2031. Typically one would not want to Often Mars landers are entering the Martian atmosphere
land a rover or take high resolution pictures of the surface immediately, without going into orbit first, so often the
when a dust storm is covering Mars, therefore these seasons second approach is taken. It should be noted though that the
are usually avoided. There are two ways to avoid this: dates in Table 2.14 are just predictions based on historical
2.4 Avoiding Mars Dust Storms 31
Fig. 2.17 Earth-Saturn trajectory seen from a 3D perspective. Planet positions are shown at time of arrival
120
100
C3 [km2/s2]
80
60
40
20
0
2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
Launch year
C3 launch C3 arrival
32 2 Transfer to a Planet
Fig. 2.19 Earth-Uranus trajectory, constrained to 10 years transfer time, seen from a 3D perspective. Planet positions are shown at time of arrival
170
160
C3 [km2/s 2]
150
140
130
120
110
100
2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
Launch year
C3 launch C3 arrival
2.4 Avoiding Mars Dust Storms 33
Fig. 2.21 Earth-Neptune trajectory, constrained to 10 years transfer time, seen from a 3D perspective. Planet positions are shown at time of arrival
data. The dust storm could easily start a month later. How- Table 2.15 gives an overview of transfers for 2026, 2028
ever the dates contain margins so we take them as a and 2030 with the constraint to arrive after the dust storm
reference. season.
Looking at Table 2.6, we see that there are transfers Figure 2.24 shows a typical Earth-Mars transfer with an
with arrivals in or just before the dust storm season. The arrival date after the dust storm.
2026 transfer is an example: the arrival time is 3 September The USA launched the Mariner 9 mission (see Fig. 2.25)
2027 and the dust storm season starts in 18 October 2027. on 30 May 1970 by an Atlas rocket. It arrived at Mars on 14
The same applies to the 2028 and 2030 launches. For these November in the same year. It became the first spacecraft to
transfers, we would prefer to arrive after the dust storm orbit another planet however after it entered Mars orbit,
season (5 July 2028, 23 May 2030 and 9 April 2032 Mars was covered with clouds and the pictures did not reveal
respectively). Typically this is done by following a full any feature of the surface. After months of waiting, the storm
orbit around the Sun at least once before arriving at Mars. finally disappeared and the 560 kg spacecraft started the first
34 2 Transfer to a Planet
C3 [km2/s2]
250
200
150
100
2018 2020 2022 2024 2026 2028 2030 2032
Launch year
C3 launch C3 arrival
Fig. 2.23 Earth-Pluto trajectory, constrained to 10 years transfer time, seen from a 3D perspective. Planet positions are shown at time of arrival
2.5 Return Missions 35
Table 2.15 Solutions for a direct transfer from Earth to Mars, arriving after dust storms
Year Launch date Arrival date C3 launch [km2/s2] C3 arrival [km2/s2] Declination [°] Transfer time [yr]
2026 5-Jul-26 5-Jul-28 11.5 8.2 10.5 2.00
2028 12-Sep-28 24-Mar-31 13.4 7.1 10.3 2.53
2030 28-Sep-30 5-Mar-33 11.6 6.1 14.7 2.43
Fig. 2.24 Earth-Mars trajectory using one complete heliocentric orbit, constrained to arrive after a dust storm, seen from a 3D perspective. Planet
positions are shown at time of arrival
put on the other planet. Studies have been performed for could leave Venus in June 2021 (and only arrive at Earth in
Venus Sample Return and Mars Sample Return missions, so September 2022) or wait a bit and leave in December 2021,
this section will show return legs for these two planets. and arrive earlier (March 2022). Figure 2.27 shows a typical
A constraint is that the return leg should start after the Venus-Earth transfer.
Earth-to-planet arrival date. Another constraint often applied Table 2.17 shows an overview of possible Mars-Earth
is the arrival infinite velocity (and therefore the Earth arrival return legs for launches (from Earth) in the 2020–2030
C3). This has to do with the maximum heat flux that the timeframe.
Thermal Protection System can handle. Often the arrival C3 And Fig. 2.28 shows a typical Mars-Earth transfer.
is constrained to be below 10 km2/s2. Also, there is no final The Russian Federal Space Agency launched the
orbit; a direct entry into the Earth’s atmosphere is assumed. Phobos-Grunt spacecraft on 9 November 2011 using a
Table 2.16 gives an overview of possible Venus-Earth return Zenith launcher, to become the first interplanetary sample
legs for launches (from Earth) in the 2020–2030 timeframe. return mission. Its objective was to capture a sample from
The first return leg (2020 launch) follows a complete Mars’ moon Phobos, and return it to Earth. Figure 2.29
heliocentric orbit around the Sun before returning to Earth, shows the mission profile.
and actually arrives later than the return leg shown for the Phobos-Grunt was one of the most complex robotic
2021 launch. The first row is therefore to highlight possible mission designs ever, with the spacecraft consisting of four
transfers. If the satellite is launched to Venus in 2020, it stages as shown in Fig. 2.30. First, a bi-propellant propulsion
2.5 Return Missions 37
Fig. 2.27 Venus-Earth trajectory, seen from a 3D perspective. Planet positions are shown at time of arrival
Fig. 2.28 Mars-Earth trajectory, seen from a 3D perspective. Planet positions are shown at time of arrival
38 2 Transfer to a Planet
CHAPITRE XVIII
DE LA FAUSSE SCIENCE
La superstition de la science se révèle par la croyance en ce fait que
le vrai savoir nécessaire à la vie de tous les hommes est contenu
dans les seules connaissances prises au hasard dans le domaine
illimité du savoir qui, à un moment donné, ont attiré l'attention d'un
petit nombre d'hommes, de ceux-là même qui se sont affranchis du
travail indispensable à la vie et qui mènent, par suite, une vie
déraisonnable et dépravée.
5
Les sciences expérimentales, lorsqu'on s'en occupe pour elles-
mêmes, en les étudiant sans aucun but philosophique, ressemblent à
un visage sans yeux. Elles représentent une des occupations qui
convient aux capacités moyennes, privées de dons suprêmes qui ne
feraient qu'entraver leurs recherches minutieuses. Les gens doués de
ces capacités moyennes concentrent toutes leurs forces et tout leur
savoir sur un champ d'études limité, où ils peuvent, par suite,
atteindre des connaissances aussi complètes que possible, mais à
condition d'être complètement ignorants dans tous les autres
domaines. Ils peuvent être comparés aux ouvriers qui travaillent
dans les ateliers d'horlogerie dont les uns ne font que les roues, les
autres les ressorts, et les troisièmes les chaînes.
SCHOPENHAUER.
6
Ce n'est pas la quantité des connaissances qui importe, mais leurs
qualités. On peut savoir bien des choses et ignorer ce qui est le plus
nécessaire.
7
Socrate n'avait pas la faiblesse commune de parler pendant ses
entretiens de tout ce qui existe, de chercher la provenance de ce
que les sophistes appelaient nature et de remonter jusqu'aux causes
premières dont sont sortis les corps célestes. Est-ce possible, disait-
il, que les gens croient avoir pénétré tout ce qu'il importe à l'homme
de savoir, s'ils s'occupent de ce qui se rapporte si peu à l'homme?
Il s'étonnait surtout de l'aveuglement des faux savants qui ne se
doutent pas de ce que la raison humaine est incapable de pénétrer
ces mystères. C'est pourquoi, disait-il, ceux qui s'imaginent savoir en
parler ne sont pas d'accord dans leurs principes même, et lorsqu'on
les entend parler ensemble on se croirait parmi des fous. De fait,
quels sont les signes particuliers de ceux qui sont pris de folie? ils
craignent ce qui n'a rien d'effrayant et n'ont pas peur de ce qui est
réellement dangereux.
XÉNOPHON.
8
La sagesse est une chose vaste et grande: elle demande tout le
temps libre qui peut lui être consacré.—Indépendamment du
nombres de questions que tu pourrais résoudre, tu devras,
néanmoins, te tourmenter d'une quantité de questions, qui doivent
être examinées et résolues. Ces questions sont tellement vastes et
nombreuses qu'elles exigent l'expulsion de notre esprit de toute
chose superflu, afin d'offrir une liberté entière au travail de la raison.
Dois-je dépenser ma vie en vaines paroles? Il arrive fréquemment,
néanmoins, que les savants pensent plus aux paroles qu'à la vie.
Remarque quel mal produit la philosophie outrée et combien elle
peut être dangereuse pour la vérité.
SÉNÈQUE.
10
Les hiboux voient dans l'obscurité, mais deviennent aveugles à la
clarté du soleil. Il en est de même des savants. Ils connaissent
quantité de futilités scientifiques, mais ils ne savent pas et ne
peuvent rien savoir de ce qui est le plus nécessaire dans la vie:
comment l'homme doit vivre sur la terre.
11
Le sage Socrate disait que la bêtise ne provient, pas de peu de
science, mais de ce qu'on ne se connaît pas soi-même, et qu'on croit
connaître tout ce que l'on ignore. Il appelait cela bêtise et ignorance.
12
Quand l'homme connaît toutes les sciences et parle toutes les
langues, mais ignore ce qu'il est et ce qu'il doit faire, il est bien
moins instruit que la vieille femme illettrée qui croit à son Seigneur
le sauveur, c'est-à-dire en Dieu, selon la volonté duquel elle
reconnaît qu'elle vit, et elle sait que ce Dieu exige d'elle une vie
juste. Elle est plus instruite que le savant, parce qu'elle possède la
réponse à la question essentielle: ce qu'est sa vie et comment doit-
elle vivre; tandis que le savant, tout en possédant des réponses
ingénieuses à toutes les questions complexes, mais peu importantes
de la vie, n'a pas de réponse à la question principale de tout homme
de raison: pourquoi je vis et que dois-je faire?
13
Les gens qui croient que la science est l'œuvre principale de la vie,
sont pareils aux papillons attirés par la clarté de la bougie: ils
périsssent eux-mêmes et obscurcissent la lumière.
5
Les superstitions et les erreurs tourmentent les hommes. Il n'y a
qu'un moyen pour s'en débarrasser: la vérité. Or, nous apprenons la
vérité tant par nous-mêmes que par l'entremise de sages et de
saints qui ont vécu avant nous. C'est pourquoi pour mener une vie
de bien, il faut chercher soi-même la vérité, tout en profitant des
indications qui sont venues jusqu'à nous des anciens sages et des
saints.
6
L'un des moyens les plus puissants de connaître la vérité qui libère
des superstitions, consiste à apprendre tout ce que l'humanité a fait
dans le passé pour connaître et exprimer la vérité commune à tous
les hommes.
6
Combien de lectures multiples nous aurions pu éviter si nous savions
réfléchir avec indépendance.
Est-ce que la lecture et l'étude sont la même chose? Quelqu'un a
affirmé, non sans raison, que si l'impression des livres a contribué au
développement plus vaste de l'instruction, cela a été au détriment de
leur qualité et de leur teneur. Trop lire est mauvais pour la pensée.
Les plus grands penseurs, rencontrés parmi les savants que j'ai
étudiés, étaient précisément les moins érudits.
Si l'on avait enseigné aux hommes comment ils doivent penser, et
non pas à quoi ils doivent penser, le malentendu aurait pu être évité.
LICHTENBERG.
CHAPITRE XIX
L'EFFORT
Les péchés, les tentations, les superstitions arrêtent, voilent à
l'homme son âme. Pour se révéler à soi-même son âme, l'homme
doit faire des efforts de conscience. C'est donc dans ces efforts de
conscience que consiste l'œuvre principale de la vie de l'homme.
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