Course Outline

1. Beginning of Christianity in India:

a. Traditions (St. Thomas, St. Bartholomew); sources both Indian and non-Indian.
b. The Syrian connection - Immigrations, Thomas of Cana, and Morwan Sabrisho
with Mor Sabor and Mor Aphroth, the Copper Plates, the stone crosses, etc.
c. The social status of Malabar Christians; aspects of indigenization.
d. Christianity in India and contact through visitors such as friars, travelers (Marco
Polo and the like).
2. Advent of Roman Catholic Christianity in India:
a. Portuguese colonialism and their colonjal and religious policies
b. Francis Xavier and his missionary methods - use of political power
c. Robert de Nobili and the Madurai Mission - Indigenization, and the Rites
controversy
d. The Jesuits and the Mogul Mission-interaction of Gospel and Culture - impact of
and on Christianity
e. Roman Catholic Christianity and the Malabar St. Thomas Christian during the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth centuries with special reference to the Synod of Diamper
and the Coonen Cross incident - Consequences
3. Protestant Christianity in India:
a. The Tranquebar Mission
b. The Serampore Mission
c. Impact of Protestant Mission on St. Thomas Christians
4. The Spread of Protestant Christianity in Different Regions in India: Development of
Christianity in different regions of India (Dalits, Tribals, Adivasis and Subaltern Groups):
a. South India
b. North India
c. North East India
5. Colonialism and Protestant Christian Mission
a. The colonial and religious policy of the Danish, Dutch, French and the British.
b. An evaluation of Colonialism and Protestant Mission
6. Christianity and Nation Building in India.
a. Christianity and National Independence Movement
b. Christianity and the Bengal Renaissance
c. Christianity and Social Transformation: educational ministry, literature, medical
work and the social change
d. Christianity and the empowerment of women
e. Caste and Christianity
f. Communalism and Christianity
7. Indigenous Missionary Movements and the Emergence of Indian Church
a. Development and the quest for Indian identity-Devolution: Self-support, Self-
propagation and Self-government. NMS, IMS, FMPB, and the like.
b. Indigenization including the emergence of Independent movements such as that of
Bhakt Singh, Subba Rao, the Hindu Church of Lord Jesus at Mookupeeri, Tirunelveli
Dist., National Church of Madras (Parani Andy), Bengal Christo Samaj; Ashram
Movement-theology, worship etc.
8. Development of Christianity in Neighboring Countries: Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
Pakistan and Myanmar
9. Emergence of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements and their Impact on the Indian
Churches
10. Post Independent India and Christian Movements
a. The rise of Religious Fundamentalism and the issue of conversion and Baptism
b. Minority Rights
c. Reservation (Dalit Christians)
d. Ashram Movements
e. Theological Institutions
UNIT 1: Beginning of Christianity in India
a. Traditions of Christianity in India
-St. Thomas: According to tradition, St. Thomas the Apostle arrived in India in
the 1st century AD, spreading Christianity particularly in the southern regions,
especially in present-day Kerala.
- St. Bartholomew: Another tradition suggests that St. Bartholomew also
played a role in spreading Christianity to India, although his presence is less
documented than that of St. Thomas.
- Indian Sources: Indian traditions, including local folklore and oral histories,
often mention the presence of these apostles and their evangelization efforts in
India.
- Non-Indian Sources: Early Christian texts and historical records from the
Mediterranean world also mention the travels of St. Thomas and, to a lesser
extent, St. Bartholomew to India.

b. The Syrian Connection

- Immigrations: Syrian Christians, also known as St. Thomas Christians or
Nasranis, trace their lineage back to the early converts of St. Thomas. Over the
centuries, there were immigrations of Syrian Christians to India, contributing to
the growth and establishment of Christianity in the region.
- Thomas of Cana: Tradition holds that Thomas of Cana led a group of Syrian
Christians to India in the 4th century AD.
- Morwan Sabrisho with Mor Sabor and Mor Aphroth: These figures are
associated with the establishment of the Church of the East in India, indicating
the Syrian Christian connection.
- Material Evidences: Various artifacts such as copper plates, stone crosses,
and inscriptions provide archaeological evidence of the presence of Christianity
in India and its Syrian connections.

c. Social Status of Malabar Christians and Indigenization

- Malabar Christians: The St. Thomas Christians of Kerala, also known as
Malabar Christians, occupied a unique social status in Kerala society, often
enjoying privileges and responsibilities distinct from other communities.
- Indigenization: Over time, Christianity in India underwent a process of
indigenization, adopting local customs, traditions, and even incorporating
elements of Hindu and Indian cultural practices into Christian rituals and
ceremonies. This indigenization helped Christianity take root and flourish in the
Indian context.

d. Christianity in India and Contact through Visitors

- Friars and Missionaries: From the medieval period onwards, Christianity in
India saw contact with European friars and missionaries, particularly during the
Portuguese and later colonial eras.
 - Travelers' Accounts: Various travelers, explorers, and merchants, including
Marco Polo, mentioned encounters with Christians in India, providing glimpses
into the presence and influence of Christianity in the region across different
historical periods.
This outline provides a comprehensive view of the beginnings of Christianity in
India, encompassing both traditional narratives and historical evidences of its
origins and development.

UNIT 2: The advent of Roman Catholic Christianity in

India
a. Portuguese Colonialism and Their Colonial and Religious
Policies
- Colonialism: The Portuguese were one of the first European powers to
establish colonial footholds in India, particularly in Goa, during the 16th century.
Their colonial policies were characterized by a blend of military conquest, trade
dominance, and Christian evangelization.
-Religious Policies: The Portuguese colonial administration aggressively
promoted Roman Catholicism in their Indian territories, often resorting to
coercive methods such as forced conversions, destruction of indigenous religious
sites, and imposition of Catholic practices on local populations.

b. Francis Xavier and His Missionary Methods

- Francis Xavier: A prominent figure in the Roman Catholic missionary efforts in
India, Francis Xavier was a Jesuit priest known for his zealous evangelization and
missionary travels across Asia, including India.
- Missionary Methods: Xavier's missionary methods often involved a
combination of preaching, healing, education, and the use of political influence.
He sought the support of local rulers and used their authority to further the
spread of Christianity, sometimes at the expense of indigenous cultures and
traditions.

c. Robert de Nobili and the Madurai Mission

- Indigenization: Robert de Nobili, a Jesuit missionary, is famous for his efforts
to adapt Christianity to Indian culture, particularly in the Madurai region. He
adopted elements of Indian customs, dress, and language to make Christianity
more accessible to the local population.
-Rites Controversy: De Nobili's approach sparked controversy within the
Catholic Church, particularly regarding the adaptation of Indian customs, rituals,
and caste practices. This led to debates known as the "rites controversy" within
the Church hierarchy.

d. The Jesuits and the Mogul Mission

- Interaction of Gospel and Culture: Jesuit missionaries in India, particularly
during the Mughal period, engaged in dialogue and interaction with Indian
culture, philosophy, and religion. They sought to contextualize Christianity within
the cultural and intellectual framework of Indian society, leading to a rich
exchange of ideas and beliefs.
- Impact on Christianity: This interaction between the Gospel and Indian culture
influenced the development of Christianity in India, leading to the emergence of
unique forms of Christian expression and theological reflection that incorporated
elements of Indian spirituality and thought.

e. Roman Catholic Christianity and the Malabar St. Thomas

Christian
- Synod of Diamper: In 1599, the Synod of Diamper, convened by the
Portuguese authorities, sought to bring the St. Thomas Christians of Malabar
under the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. It aimed to enforce Roman
Catholic practices and doctrines, leading to significant changes within the
Malabar Christian community.
- Coonen Cross Incident: The Coonen Cross incident in 1653 was a rebellion by
the St. Thomas Christians against the Portuguese-appointed Latin bishop. It
resulted in a split within the community, with some remaining loyal to Rome and
others asserting their autonomy under the leadership of Thomas I, known as Mar
Thoma I.
- Consequences: These events had profound consequences for Roman Catholic
Christianity in India, shaping its relationship with the indigenous Christian
communities and influencing the trajectory of Christian missions and
ecclesiastical politics in the region.

UNIT 3: Protestant Christianity in India

a. The Tranquebar Mission
- The Tranquebar Mission, also known as the Danish-Halle Mission, was
one of the earliest Protestant missionary endeavors in India. It was
established in 1706 by Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg and Heinrich Plütschau,
two German Lutheran missionaries sent by the King of Denmark.
- The mission was centered in Tranquebar (now Tharangambadi), a
Danish colony on the southeastern coast of India (present-day Tamil
Nadu).
- Ziegenbalg and Plütschau focused on evangelization, education, and
social reform. They translated the Bible and other Christian texts into
Tamil and established schools to educate local children.
- The Tranquebar Mission laid the foundation for Protestant missionary
work in India and played a significant role in the spread of Christianity in
the region.
b. The Serampore Mission
- The Serampore Mission, also known as the Serampore Trio, refers to
the missionary efforts led by William Carey, Joshua Marshman, and William
Ward in Serampore, a Danish colony near Calcutta (now Kolkata), in the
early 19th century.
- William Carey, often called the "father of modern missions," was a
British Baptist missionary who arrived in India in 1793. Along with
Marshman and Ward, he established the Serampore Mission, which
became a center for Protestant missionary activities in India.
- The mission focused on evangelization, education, translation of the
Bible and other religious texts into local languages, and social reform.
Carey's work in linguistics led to the development of numerous Indian
language grammars, dictionaries, and translations.
- The Serampore Mission had a profound impact on the spread of
Protestant Christianity in India, particularly in Bengal and the northeastern
regions, and contributed significantly to the growth of indigenous Christian
movements and churches.
c. Impact of Protestant Mission on St. Thomas Christians
- The arrival of Protestant missionaries in India had a mixed impact on
the St. Thomas Christians, who were already established Christian
communities in Kerala with ancient ties to the East Syriac tradition.
- While some St. Thomas Christians welcomed Protestant teachings and
collaborated with Protestant missionaries, others remained loyal to their
traditional beliefs and practices or aligned themselves more closely with
Roman Catholicism.
- Protestant missionaries engaged in various activities among the St.
Thomas Christians, including education, Bible translation, and social
reform initiatives. These efforts influenced the development of Christian
communities and institutions in Kerala.
- Over time, Protestant Christianity gained a foothold among certain
segments of the St. Thomas Christians, contributing to the diversification
of Christianity in Kerala and India as a whole.
Overall, the Tranquebar and Serampore missions, along with other
Protestant missionary endeavors, played pivotal roles in the expansion of
Christianity in India and the transformation of Indian society through
education, healthcare, and social reform initiatives.

UNIT 4: The Spread of Protestant Christianity in

Different Regions in India
Development of Christianity in different regions of
India (Dalits, Tribals, Adivasis and Subaltern Groups)
a. South India:
 South India has been a significant region for the growth of Christianity,
particularly Protestantism, since the arrival of missionaries in the 18th and
19th centuries. Among the marginalized groups in South India, particularly
in states like Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Kerala,
Protestant Christianity has found resonance among Dalits (formerly known
as untouchables) and other lower caste communities.
Missionary efforts in South India focused on education, social reform,
and empowerment, which appealed to Dalits seeking liberation from the
oppressive caste system. Protestant Christianity offered them dignity,
equality, and access to education and opportunities that were often
denied to them within the Hindu social hierarchy.
The missionaries established schools, colleges, and hospitals to provide
education and healthcare to Dalits and other marginalized communities.
These institutions also served as centers for social upliftment, offering
vocational training and skill development programs.
Today, numerous Protestant churches, schools, and social organizations
cater to the needs of Dalits and other marginalized communities in South
India. These institutions continue to play a vital role in promoting social
justice, economic empowerment, and human rights among these groups.
b. North India:
North India presents a diverse cultural and religious landscape, with a
significant presence of Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, and other indigenous
faiths. Protestant Christianity in North India has seen growth primarily
among marginalized communities such as Dalits, tribals, and subaltern
groups, especially in states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and
Rajasthan.
Missionary efforts in North India have focused on addressing socio-
economic inequalities, illiteracy, and exploitation prevalent among these
marginalized groups. They have established schools, hospitals, and
vocational training centers to uplift the disadvantaged communities and
provide them with opportunities for a better future.
Despite challenges and resistance from dominant religious and social
structures, Protestant Christianity continues to make inroads among
marginalized communities in North India. It offers hope, empowerment,
and a sense of belonging to those who have long been marginalized and
oppressed by caste-based discrimination and social injustices.
c. North East India:
North East India is a region characterized by its ethnic diversity, with
numerous tribal communities and indigenous cultures. Protestant
Christianity has gained significant traction among the tribal and
indigenous peoples of North East India, particularly in states like
Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, and Meghalaya.
 The spread of Christianity in this region can be attributed to missionary
activities dating back to the 19th century. Missionaries focused on cultural
adaptation, contextualization of the Gospel, and community development,
which resonated with the tribal communities.
Many tribal communities in North East India have embraced Protestant
Christianity as a means of preserving their cultural identity while
embracing modernity and education. Churches play a central role in
community life, providing spiritual guidance, social support, and avenues
for socio-economic development.
The influence of Protestant Christianity in North East India is visible in
various aspects of life, including education, healthcare, and governance.
Christian missions have contributed to the overall development of the
region, fostering peace, unity, and social harmony among diverse ethnic
groups.

UNIT 5: Colonialism and Protestant Christian Mission

a. The Colonial and Religious Policies of the Danish, Dutch,
French, and British:
Danish Colonial and Religious Policies:
- The Danish colonial presence in India was primarily centered around
the trading post of Tranquebar (now Tharangambadi) in Tamil Nadu.
- Danish colonial policy focused on maintaining control over trade routes
and securing economic interests rather than extensive territorial
expansion.
- In terms of religion, the Danish authorities allowed for religious
freedom and did not impose strict religious policies on the local
population. However, they supported Protestant missionary activities,
particularly Lutheran missions, such as the Tranquebar Mission.
Dutch Colonial and Religious Policies:
- The Dutch East India Company established a significant presence in
India, particularly in regions such as present-day Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and
the Coromandel Coast.
- Dutch colonial policy aimed at monopolizing trade, extracting
resources, and expanding territorial control.
- In terms of religion, the Dutch were initially tolerant of diverse religious
practices but later enforced strict religious policies, particularly favoring
Protestantism (Reformed Church) and suppressing Catholicism and
indigenous religious traditions.
French Colonial and Religious Policies:
 - The French East India Company established colonies in India, notably in
regions such as Pondicherry, Chandernagore, and Mahe.
- French colonial policy focused on establishing commercial dominance
and expanding territorial control, particularly in coastal areas.
- In terms of religion, the French authorities practiced a policy of
religious tolerance, allowing for the coexistence of Catholicism,
Protestantism, and indigenous religious traditions. They supported
Catholic missionary activities but did not aggressively promote
conversion.
British Colonial and Religious Policies:
- The British East India Company and later the British Crown established
colonial rule over large parts of India, including Bengal, Madras, and
Bombay presidencies.
- British colonial policy aimed at economic exploitation, political control,
and cultural dominance, often leading to the displacement of local rulers
and traditional systems of governance.
- In terms of religion, the British initially adopted a policy of religious
neutrality but later favored Protestant Christianity, particularly
Anglicanism, and marginalized other religious groups, including Catholics
and indigenous faiths. They supported Protestant missionary activities and
established missionary societies such as the Society for the Propagation of
the Gospel (SPG) and the Church Missionary Society (CMS).
b. Evaluation of Colonialism and Protestant Mission:
- Positive Impact:
- Education and Healthcare: Protestant missions established schools,
colleges, and hospitals, contributing to the spread of literacy, modern
education, and healthcare services in colonial India.
- Social Reform: Protestant missions advocated for social reforms,
including abolition of practices such as sati (widow burning), child
marriage, and caste discrimination, promoting social justice and equality.
- Translation and Literature: Protestant missionaries translated religious
texts, including the Bible, into local languages, preserving indigenous
languages and literature and facilitating access to Christian teachings.
- Negative Impact:
- Cultural Imperialism: Protestant missions, like other colonial
institutions, promoted Western cultural values and norms, often
undermining indigenous cultures, traditions, and knowledge systems.
 - Conversion Coercion: Some Protestant missions resorted to coercive
methods to promote conversion, exploiting vulnerable communities and
exacerbating social tensions.
- Economic Exploitation: Protestant missions, along with colonial
powers, were complicit in economic exploitation and land grabbing,
leading to socio-economic inequalities and dispossessing indigenous
communities of their resources.
- Mixed Legacy:
- Legacy of Conflict: The association of Protestant missions with
colonial powers sometimes led to conflicts and tensions with local
populations, particularly those who resisted colonial rule and perceived
Christianity as a tool of cultural imperialism.
- Legacy of Faith: Despite the complexities and contradictions,
Protestant missions left a lasting legacy of faith and Christian communities
in India, contributing to the diversity of religious landscape and shaping
the socio-cultural fabric of the nation.
In conclusion, the colonial and religious policies of the Danish, Dutch,
French, and British colonial powers had a profound impact on the spread
of Protestant Christianity in India, with both positive and negative
consequences. While Protestant missions played a role in promoting
education, healthcare, and social reform, they were also implicated in
cultural imperialism, conversion coercion, and economic exploitation,
highlighting the complexities of the colonial encounter and its legacy in
Indian society.

UNIT 6: Christianity and Nation Building in India

a. Christianity and the National Independence Movement
- Christian participation in the Indian independence movement was
multifaceted, with individuals and organizations contributing in various
ways to the struggle for freedom from British colonial rule.
- Prominent Christian leaders such as C.F. Andrews, Annie Besant,
and George Joseph had significant roles in the Indian National Congress
and other nationalist movements, advocating for political rights and social
reforms.
- Christian institutions, including churches, schools, and colleges,
became centers of nationalist activities, hosting meetings, organizing
protests, and promoting the values of freedom, equality, and justice.
- The Christian contribution to the national independence movement
highlighted the diversity and inclusivity of the struggle, emphasizing the
unity of purpose among Indians of different religious backgrounds in their
quest for self-determination and sovereignty.
 b. Christianity and the Bengal Renaissance
- The Bengal Renaissance was a cultural and intellectual movement
in 19th-century Bengal, characterized by a revival of arts, literature,
science, and social reform.
- Christian missionaries and Bengali Christian intellectuals played
significant roles in promoting education, social reform, and cultural revival
during the Bengal Renaissance.
- Christian missionaries, such as William Carey and Alexander Duff,
established schools and colleges, translating Western literature and
scientific texts into Bengali, contributing to the spread of modern
education and knowledge.
- Bengali Christian intellectuals like Rabindranath Tagore, Dwarkanath
Ganguli, and Keshub Chunder Sen were influenced by Christian ideas and
values, advocating for social reforms such as women's education, abolition
of sati, and caste equality.
c. Christianity and Social Transformation
- Christianity has been instrumental in bringing about social
transformation in India through various ministries and activities aimed at
addressing social injustices and empowering marginalized communities.
- Christian educational ministries have established schools, colleges,
and universities, providing quality education to underprivileged children
and youth, enabling them to break the cycle of poverty and
discrimination.
- Christian literature, including novels, poetry, and essays, has
addressed social issues such as caste discrimination, gender inequality,
and religious intolerance, raising awareness and promoting dialogue for
positive change.
- Medical missions and healthcare initiatives by Christian
organizations have provided healthcare services to the poor and
marginalized, addressing health disparities and improving the overall well-
being of communities.
d. Christianity and the Empowerment of Women
- Christianity has played a significant role in empowering women in
India by promoting education, leadership opportunities, and advocacy for
gender equality.
- Christian missionaries and organizations have established schools,
colleges, and vocational training centers for girls and women, providing
them with access to education and skills development.
 - Christian theology emphasizes the dignity and equality of all
individuals, including women, challenging patriarchal norms and practices
within society and the church.
- Women's organizations within the church have advocated for
women's rights, empowerment, and leadership roles, contributing to the
advancement of gender equality and social justice.
e. Caste and Christianity
- Christianity has challenged the caste system in India by promoting
the idea of equality and dignity for all individuals, regardless of caste or
social status.
- Christian missions have welcomed converts from all castes and
backgrounds, providing a sense of belonging and acceptance to those
marginalized by the caste system.
- However, caste prejudices and practices have sometimes persisted
within Christian communities, leading to caste-based discrimination and
inequality, which have been addressed through social reform movements
and advocacy for social justice within the church.
- The Dalit Christian movement has sought to address the issues of
caste discrimination and marginalization within the Christian community,
advocating for the rights and dignity of Dalit Christians and challenging
caste-based hierarchies and practices.
f. Communalism and Christianity
- Christianity has often been viewed as a threat to communal
harmony by communalist forces seeking to promote religious divisions
and conflicts for political gain.
- Christian leaders and organizations have advocated for interfaith
dialogue, peace-building, and communal harmony, emphasizing the
common humanity and shared values of different religious communities.
- Despite challenges from communalism, Christianity in India
continues to promote values of tolerance, understanding, and
cooperation, contributing to efforts for peace and reconciliation in a
diverse and pluralistic society.
- The Christian community has been actively involved in efforts to
promote communal harmony and bridge religious divides, fostering a
culture of mutual respect, understanding, and cooperation among people
of different faiths.

UNIT 7: Indigenous Missionary Movements and the

Emergence of the Indian Church
a. Development and the Quest for Indian Identity
 - Indigenous missionary movements in India emerged as a response
to the need for contextualized expressions of Christianity rooted in Indian
culture and identity.
- These movements emphasized self-support, self-propagation, and
self-government, seeking to establish autonomous and self-sustaining
Christian communities in India.
- Organizations such as the National Missionary Society (NMS), Indian
Missionary Society (IMS), and Friends Missionary Prayer Band (FMPB) were
established to promote indigenous missionary work and empower local
leadership.
- Devolution of authority and decision-making to Indian Christians
was a key aspect of these movements, reflecting a desire for self-
determination and a shift away from dependency on Western missionary
support.
b. Indigenization and the Emergence of Independent
Movements
- Indigenization refers to the process of adapting Christianity to local
cultures, languages, and customs, resulting in the emergence of
independent Christian movements in India.
- Leaders such as Bhakt Singh, Sadhu Sundar Singh, and Bakht Singh
played pivotal roles in promoting indigenous expressions of Christianity,
blending Christian faith with Indian spirituality and cultural practices.
- Independent movements like the Hindu Church of Lord Jesus at
Mookupeeri (Tirunelveli District), National Church of Madras (Parani Andy),
Bengal Christo Samaj, and Ashram Movement represented diverse
theological perspectives and worship styles rooted in Indian traditions.
- These movements contributed to the development of a distinctly
Indian form of Christianity, fostering a sense of ownership and identity
among Indian Christians and challenging the dominance of Western
missionary models.

UNIT 8: Development of Christianity in Neighboring

Countries
- Christianity has also made significant inroads in neighboring countries
such as Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Pakistan, and Myanmar, each with
its unique historical, cultural, and socio-political context.
- In Bangladesh, Christianity has grown among ethnic minority
communities, particularly in the Chittagong Hill Tracts, despite challenges
and tensions with the majority Muslim population.
 - Sri Lanka has a long history of Christian presence dating back to
colonial times, with both Catholic and Protestant denominations having
established strong footholds in the country.
- In Nepal, Christianity has faced restrictions and persecution under
Hindu-majority rule but has nevertheless grown steadily, particularly
among marginalized communities and Dalits.
- In Pakistan, Christians constitute a religious minority facing
discrimination and persecution, yet vibrant Christian communities exist,
especially in urban areas such as Karachi and Lahore.
- Myanmar has witnessed both growth and challenges for Christianity,
with ethnic minority groups such as the Karen and Kachin embracing
Christianity while facing persecution and violence from the military junta.

UNIT 9: Emergence of Pentecostal and Charismatic

Movements
- Pentecostal and Charismatic movements have emerged as significant
expressions of Christianity in India, characterized by emphasis on spiritual
gifts, divine healing, and experiential worship.
- These movements have had a profound impact on Indian churches,
attracting large numbers of followers, particularly among younger
generations and those seeking a more dynamic and participatory form of
worship.
- Pentecostalism has also contributed to social transformation and
community development through initiatives such as education,
healthcare, and economic empowerment.
- However, Pentecostalism has also been criticized for its emphasis on
prosperity gospel, sensationalism, and lack of theological depth, leading
to debates within the broader Christian community about its theological
and ethical implications.

UNIT 10: Post-Independent India and Christian

Movements
a. Rise of Religious Fundamentalism and the Issue of
Conversion
- Post-independence India has seen a rise in religious
fundamentalism and communal tensions, leading to challenges for
religious minorities, including Christians.
- The issue of conversion and baptism has been contentious, with
accusations of forced conversions and anti-conversion laws enacted in
some states, restricting religious freedom and exacerbating interfaith
tensions.
 - Christian organizations and leaders have advocated for the right to
freedom of religion and expression, challenging discriminatory laws and
defending the rights of religious minorities.
b. Minority Rights
- Christians in India, along with other religious minorities, have
sought to protect their rights and ensure equal treatment under the law,
advocating for minority rights and representation in governance and
policymaking.
- Despite constitutional guarantees of religious freedom and minority
rights, Christians have faced discrimination, violence, and marginalization
in certain contexts, necessitating ongoing advocacy and activism.
c. Reservation (Dalit Christians)
- The issue of reservation for Dalit Christians, who face socio-
economic disadvantages similar to their Hindu counterparts, has been a
matter of debate and advocacy within the Christian community.
- Dalit Christians have argued for inclusion in government reservation
policies to address historical injustices and inequalities, while some
Christian leaders have opposed reservation on the grounds of maintaining
religious identity and autonomy.
d. Ashram Movements and Theological Institutions
- Ashram movements, inspired by Indian spiritual traditions and
Christian mysticism, have emerged as alternative expressions of
Christianity, emphasizing contemplative prayer, community living, and
engagement with social issues.
- Theological institutions have played a crucial role in training clergy,
theologians, and Christian leaders, nurturing indigenous theological
reflection, and promoting contextualized approaches to ministry and
mission in India.