International Journal of Educational Development 103 (2023) 102912

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International Journal of Educational Development

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Comparative and international education in my experience: 1970–2022☆

Stephen P. Heyneman
International Education Policy, Vanderbilt University, USA

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Because of good fortune, I have been privileged to practice the profession of Comparative and International
Comparative education Education for the last 60 years. This essay is supposed to be concise, so I have tried to summarize my efforts
World Bank decade-by-decade. The text contains few references, but the results of the efforts described for each decade may
Education and Development
be found in the appendix. At the end, the summary describes a few dilemmas which need to be addressed in the
International achievement surveys
Corruption
future.
International education policy

When my children were small they asked what I do, when I go to Computers were just beginning to be used in the social sciences and this
work. ‘I build schools’ I used to say. It was more complicated of course, study, called the ‘Coleman Report’ was the first national survey of
but not untrue. To summarize what I did, I need to start from a long time American School children (Coleman et.al., 1966). I used the question­
ago.1 However, I will pass over my early education, my first work for the naires and followed the methods.
Department of Health, Education and Welfare and for a profit-making I drew up a random sample of schools and designed questions for the
firm. I wish to focus on three other stages: the University of Chicago, teachers, the headmaster, and grade seven children about to sit for the
the World Bank and Vanderbilt University. examination necessary to enter a secondary school.3 I visited each
school in the sample. Questionnaires were administered in English. Oral
1. 1970–19802 translations were available in six languages. The number of educational
items (maps, books, desks etc.) were counted each classroom. Student
In 1970, I was a lowly graduate student with no settled topic for a exam scores were matched with their names. After a year, I returned to
dissertation. Professor Philip Foster knocked on my office door. Hey­ my university in Chicago. And there I had a crisis.
neman, he said, Uganda has just advertised a job to study the results of I could find no correlations between family socio-economic status
their primary school leaving examination. I want you to apply. But I and academic achievement. School children in Uganda did not perform
don’t know anything about academic achievement or examinations, and like school children in the United States. James Coleman was on my
I am interested in other topics. He studied me carefully: So, you have a dissertation committee. Try to imagine what it might feel like to argue
viable alternative? I did not. that your findings contradict the findings of the most important person
Soon afterward, I was on a plane to a country I had never visited and on your dissertation committee. I was terrified. But the dissertation
knew little about. I had a contract to administer a survey and a budget passed (Heyneman, 1975).
for supplies. What would be in the survey? How would it be structured? Later I received a call from the Director of the Education Department
Who would be the respondents? I had no idea. So, I did what any at the World Bank. He wanted me to make a presentation to staff. After
graduate student might do: I followed what someone else did before me. that, I was offered a job. I was to be the Bank’s second sociologist in the
Fortunately, a study had just been released by the U.S. Congress which Education Sector. My assignment was to introduce the methods used in
analyzed children’s academic achievement in the United States. my dissertation to ministers of education so they could strengthen their

☆
An earlier version was in the Journal of Comparative Education vol 93, pp. 1–27 and appears here with encouragement of the editors and the Chinese Taipei
Comparative Education Society.
E-mail address: s.heyneman@vanderbilt.edu.
1
References in the annex may be obtained here: http//comparative-education.com/
2
Results during this period can be found in the Appendix, in Sections 1, 2, and 9.
3
In 1970 there were enough places in secondary school for only 2 % of the grade seven children taking the examination.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.2023.102912
Received 8 August 2023; Received in revised form 13 October 2023; Accepted 17 October 2023
Available online 22 October 2023
0738-0593/© 2023 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
S.P. Heyneman International Journal of Educational Development 103 (2023) 102912

response to ministers of finance about what influences student learning was used by every international organization, UNESCO, ILO, OECD, and
and which investments make the most difference. In 1978 the Bank others. When I entered the Bank in 1976, the education sector recog­
approved a research project to broaden the Uganda study by accessing nized no other methodology other than manpower forecasting.
other data sets. The result was a comparison of the influences on aca­ This posed a problem because there was another methodology called
demic achievement across 29 high and low-income countries. It was ‘economic rate of return’ which I had learned at the University of Chi­
discovered that school quality has more impact in lower-income coun­ cago. The differences between Manpower Forecasting and Economic
tries and family background has less impact in lower-income countries Rate of Return were important. Manpower forecasting did not include
(Heyneman & Loxley, 1983). Over the next several decades, this finding costs. Manpower forecasting did not monetize benefits and it was
helped international agencies support arguments for investing in confined results to technical skills and the training in specific skills. By
education. using manpower forecasting there was no way to justify investments in
Is the finding from 1983 true today? There have been many chal­ primary, general secondary or higher education (other than schools of
lenging theories. But some say that yes, the finding is still true (Lee & engineering).
Borgonovi, 2022). Am I happy about that? No. I don’t believe the point Because of the monopoly of manpower forecasting, the Bank could
of scholarship should be to be technically right. I believe the point of not respond to requests from countries for investments in primary,
scholarship should be to help launch a new direction of questions. In this secondary or university education. The Bank had to change its analytic
case, the question launched was not whether children from privileged methods to meet these demands. I have described the fight to make the
families do better in school. The question launched was why there is so change in some detail elsewhere and will not repeat the details here
much variation in the answer to that question, both between and within (Heyneman, 2003; Heyneman, 2022). It included using rates of return
countries. on Bank economic documents, making certain that the new methods
The work in 1983 however, did not address the question of what to were incorporated into the 1980 Bank Education policy paper, and
invest in. Which works? Better curriculum? Better teacher training? impressing managers with the increase in demand from countries to
Pedagogy? Child health? I could not forget what those classrooms expand lending into areas not previously justified when using manpower
looked like in 1971. Many had only one book available. The teacher forecasting.6 Employing the research described above and the new
would have to copy the content of the book onto the blackboard and economic methodology described here, by the end of the 1980′s the Bank
students were required to re-copy what was on the blackboard to their and all other donors were free to engage in assisting general education
copy books. The ‘copy-copy pedagogy’ was typical of poor classrooms in and university development.7
many countries. Across studies, textbook availability was the strongest During the 1980′s I was transferred from the Bank’s ‘center’ with
and most consistent predictor of reading ability. That is when we began inter-regional responsibilities to the Middle East and North Africa
to focus on the requirement of having something for students to read (MENA), one of six regions. I discovered that the countries had no
when trying to teach reading. tangible idea as to how much students were learning because there were
And that, in turn, led to an argument with senior economists in the no statistical measures available. In response, I spent time working with
World Bank. They insisted that the World Bank could not be financially the U.S. National Academy of Science to help generate the necessary
involved because textbooks were a recurrent cost not a capital cost. But international measures of academic achievement and utilize them.
when building a railroad, isn’t a train required? When building a Today these measures implemented by the UNESCO Institute of Statis­
highway, isn’t maintenance equipment required? This argument took us tics, the International Association for the Evaluation of Educational
two years to win, but once textbooks could be treated as a capital cost, Achievement, and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
all World Bank education staff underwent training in the design, pro­ Development have become global.
duction, manufacture, and distribution of reading materials so that they In MENA, I also discovered an absence in understanding the role
could better design projects. Following that, development agencies which Islam plays in school systems. Like other international organi­
became principal international source for school reading materials. That zations, the Bank had many staff who were of the Muslim faith, but the
is what happened within the 1970′s.4 connections between and Islam and public education were not dis­
cussed. I also was ignorant of those connections, so I employed scholars
2. 1980–19905

When African countries met in Addis Ababa in 1961 to discuss

6
development, each arrived with a plan to expand their education system. By this time the World Bank was actively involved with middle income
Each plan was justified by using a methodology called ‘manpower countries – Indonesia, Brazil, Egypt, Romania, Korea—which were dominated
forecasting’. Thirty years later, when countries met in Thailand, each by demands for ‘high level generalizable skills’ requiring attention to post-
had a plan, but none of the plans were justified by using a manpower primary and post-secondary general education capacity and not only voca­
tional training.
forecast. Why? Because of the war against manpower forecasting con­ 7
One astute reviewer of this manuscript asked me to mention the use of
ducted within the World Bank.
education as a human right which had been included in Article 26 of the
Manpower forecasting was a method of estimating the ‘gaps’ in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in 1948. While this was indeed an
number and kinds of technical skills needed to implement large scale important document and led to the international pressure of Universal l Primary
infrastructure investments — in highways, ports, factories. It limited all Education (UPE) with the 1990 Jomtien World Conference on Education for All,
attention to the quantity of engineers and other specialists. The method and the 2000 meeting in Dakar which established the Millennium Development
Goals for 2015, these international goals were established by those without the
authority to make financial commitments but were rather statements of aspi­
ration. And while these aspirations were deeply important within the donor
4
The textbook story, at least in Sub Saharan Africa (SSA) is a sad one. Despite community, they have not been sufficient to achieve UPE in Sub Saharan Africa,
major donor support to develop each link in the textbook production chair – which today is not expected before 2030. In my experience within the World
development, publication, manufacturing, financing, distribution, and class­ Bank, project economic justification required one to rely on more than a human
room use—most countries in SSA failed to do so and continued to rely on donor right rationale to compete with the many other legitimate development prior­
provision. In 2015 most countries in SSA continued to suffer from severe ities for which the Bank was held responsible.
textbook shortages even in key topics such as reading literacy and mathematics
in primary school, and very high costs compared to most countries in Asia
(Fredriksen et al., 2015).
5
Results during this period can be found in the Appendix, Section 3

2
S.P. Heyneman International Journal of Educational Development 103 (2023) 102912

of Islam to explain them and help incorporate some of the lessons into shift away from an analytic monopoly. It had to jettison rate of return
our planning and thinking.8 and use a diversity of methods which could more accurately assess the
benefits at any level of education. This war took a decade and led to me
3. 1990–20009 being declared ‘redundant’ as a staff member. Personal story aside,
eventually the war was won, and today the Bank and other development
When the Soviet Union imploded, many new countries applied to assistance organizations have no analytic monopolies. This is progress.
join the World Bank. I was asked whether I wanted to stay as the
Technical Division Chief in the MENA region or become the Technical 4. 2000–201011
Division Chief for a newly organized region with 28 countries called ECA
(Europe and Central Asia). I spoke none of the languages; I had never In the Russian Federation there were over 100 different languages
studied its history; I knew nothing of its peoples or cultures.10 But and ethnic groups. Each of the world’s major religions have believers in
everyone was ignorant because the region was new to us. But none of us Russia. Every group was suddenly anxious to teach their histories
who chose to work on the problems in ECA would regret it. The chal­ through the schools. And in all cases, their histories were filled with
lenges were globally important, and fascinating. stories of oppression from other groups. The tension which this raised
Countries in ECA had already achieved full school attendance, equal led me to reflect on the purpose of schooling. I was granted a leave of
participation of women, and universal adult literacy. But the shift from a absence at a UNICEF research center in Italy. There I dug into the
command to a market economy required a significant restructuring to literature on the origins of public education and the political debates
their education systems. We had to document the required changes. We over its purpose. I discovered that the origins and debates had less to do
had to illustrate what needed to be done and why it was important. In with skills and monetary rates of return and more to do with the need to
doing this, we had to compete for attention and resources with those achieve society social cohesion. Once I had understood its importance, I
working on the hazards of nuclear power, massive industrial unem­ devoted time to how social cohesion gets influenced by education. This
ployment, and the collapse of pensions, agriculture, transportation, and included ways in which schools can affect social cohesion positively but
public health. Unlike Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Middle East it also negatively.
was not a question of build up what they don’t have, but a question of When working in Central Asia for instance, I discovered how com­
build down what they have and build up what they need for the change mon it was for education to be corrupt; how university faculty collect
in their economies. bribes for grades; how ministries collect bribes for accreditation. After I
For example, kindergartens and vocational education were financed became a professor at Vanderbilt University, I was fortunate to receive
and managed by state owned industries. Fine. But the State-Owned In­ several grants to study the problems of education corruption. I inter­
dustries were bankrupt. So, these education subsectors simply collapsed. viewed faculty, helped design student surveys on corruption, estimated
More importantly though, the economic incentives had changed. the economic costs of corruption and tried to establish a distinction
In the past, once students finished vocational school they were between what is a corrupt act and what is a normal gift in gratitude for a
assigned to a job in a specific enterprise. They had little choice. But after deserving teacher.
youth were allowed to seek employment anywhere, it meant that
graduates could suddenly choose employment independent of their 5. 2010–202312
highly specialized training. So how does a vocational school suddenly
train someone who seeks employment using skills the vocational school Being at a world class university and a leading graduate school of
does not offer? education I became increasingly interested in how things operated in
Universities were managed by sector ministries. In the Russian terms of incentives, costs, strategies, relationships with the local com­
Federation, 42 ministries oversaw universities. The ministry of small munity and the wider public.13 I served on the faculty senate and wit­
engine repairs managed four. All universities were assigned a specific nessed the debates between different factions over whether the
list of specializations for which they had to prepare students. But rectors university should engage in classified defense-related research. Faculty
could see that there were new subjects and new specializations – jour­ at the Divinity School were on one side; faculty at the School of Nursing
nalism, survey research, advertising, business management – for which were on the other. The nursing school faculty argued that the scientific
they could charge desperately-needed tuition. But rectors were ‘hand­ work being conducted on treatment from biological war was state-of-
cuffed’ by their sectoral ministries which allowed them to only offer the-art and Vanderbilt would be sidetracked if it couldn’t compete for
training from proscribed lists of specializations. In sum, the kinds of research leadership in that field even though the research was classified
challenges faced by education in the former Party/States were quite as confidential. When a vote came, the school of nursing won.
different from other parts of the world. That experience helped me reflect on the nature of the university as
These differences gave rise to a second war over methodology. an institution. Although I was surrounded by academic wealth, I could
Manpower planning had been replaced by the economic rate of return. never forget that as a young man I had attended a two-year local com­
Fine. But the highest economic returns were found to be from primary munity college which had helped me get admitted to UC-Berkeley, a
education and less from secondary education and least from higher four-year university. At Vanderbilt I taught a course on Comparative
education. A few senior economists in the Bank interpreted the rate of Higher Education. I utilized what I was learning when asked for ideas by
return results to mean that the Bank should only invest in primary ed­ universities and ministries of higher education.
ucation. But borrowers had changed. They now included Russia, China, I focused on the reasons why universities must compete. I have
Indonesia, India, Brazil, Ukraine, Chile, countries quite different from discovered that at the leading level, academic labor markets are now
Malawi, Niger, and Papua New Guinea. Once again, the Bank needed to global. I once attended a management meeting at a competitive uni­
versity in Denmark. There was a debate about whether the criteria for
promotion should value publications in English over those in Danish. I
8
The report titled Islam and Social Policy was barred from being published could feel the dismay from the Chair of the Danish language department,
by the executive director from Saudi Arabia on grounds that the Bank had no
business addressing the issue of Islam. Publication had to wait for a decade until
11
I was at Vanderbilt University. See Heyneman (2004). Results during this period may be found in the appendix Sections 5 and 6.
9 12
Results during this period can be found in the appendix, Section 4. Results during this period may be found in the appendix Section 7.
10 13
While I was deeply ignorant of the systems of countries of the former Soviet At the time, Vanderbilt’s Peabody Graduate School of Education was ranked
Union, I discovered that ignorance was not confined to one side of the table. number one in the U.S.

3
S.P. Heyneman International Journal of Educational Development 103 (2023) 102912

but the reasoning behind the proposed promotion criteria came from the sciences, engineering, and laboratory sciences, but not humanities or the
chairs in economics, computer sciences, business management, physics, social sciences. Resources are plentiful in business but not history, so­
international law, and medicine. ciology, or the political sciences. In some countries universities are
Some may classify me as ‘neoliberal’ because I acknowledge the confined to teaching. Research money is channeled exclusively through
inevitability of higher education competition. I think the classification government research institutes. Secondly, autocracies employ manage­
may be short-sighted. To acknowledge a reality is not the same as rial oversight to weaken university autonomy, hence maintaining con­
approving it. Aside from how to compete, I have spent quite a lot of trol over definitions of ‘university efficiency’, dictating salaries,
energy helping university systems avoid the negative ramifications of promotion criteria, minimum class time and the like. And lastly, au­
unfettered competition. tocracies place legal barriers to prevent universities from developing
What I try to convey is the utility of divergent purposes. Community economically on their own authority. They prevent universities from
and teaching colleges do not need to promote faculty based on their controlling ownership of their own land, borrowing from banks, setting
publications. On the other hand, where new knowledge is invented, then their own tuitions, and investing in their own endowments. From my
promotion should be consistent with the university’s mission.14 The experience, I don’t believe an autocratic government could allow the
problem comes when governments force every higher education insti­ freedoms necessary for a world class university to genuinely prosper,
tution to try to be research-based. This creates distortions which are because these freedoms are threatening.
both counter-productive and unnecessary. Among the lingering issues we (the world) must contend with is the
But world class universities can also lead in ways other than research. one region which has thus far been the exception to the population
They can be moral leaders as well. I have tried to point out how this benefits of educational expansion. In 1960, SSA accounted for 8 % of the
occurs with world class universities and their ways of admitting and world’s population aged 15–29. By 2020 that share had increased to 17
handling corruption. %. By 2050, it is expected to be 29 %, an increase of 90 % between 2020
and 2050. All other regions of the world are expected to see a decline. It
6. Beyond 202315 is likely that a third of the youth in SSA will enter adulthood illiterate.
And the ramifications of their political prospects suggest that this pop­
About the future, let me mention several issues of concern: Interna­ ulation, for rational reasons, will seek a better life wherever it can be
tional aid to education is a half century old. Several world conferences found.
have tried to set goals for how much resources for education should be Lastly, there is the issue of non-government schools and private
transferred from wealthy to low-income countries. Comparatively less tutoring. Both plague educational planners because the debate is partly a
attention has been paid to the obligation of the recipient countries to question of human rights. It is natural and right for families to seek the
invest more in themselves. The balance of attention now needs to shift. best education which they can afford for their children. And it is normal
Secondly, the question has been raised as to how the international to seek alternatives when public schools fail to meet the family’s
‘aid architecture’ could be changed to be more effective. In my view, requirement. This is particularly the case with respect to the poor who
international assistance should concentrate on three objectives: (i) seek low fee private schools because they have found that local public
assistance to those who have had to flee from natural catastrophe and schools can be dangerous, abusive to females, unable to control bullying
armed conflict; (ii) the underwriting of the public good in education, the of children who suffer from a lack of confidence and ignore a faith in God
collection and analysis of better data for instance16; and (iii) the which a family may believe is a requirement for a good education. When
establishment of a new mechanism to monitor professional standards of families complain of the public-school failings they have a right not to be
social cohesion in the presentation of history, civics, and the teaching of ignored. And these families seek private low-fee alternative schools in
the humanity of other races, ethnicities, religions and neighbors. part because they believe they will be heard. Despite the years of work
Thirdly is the question of whether a ‘world class university’ can on public education, in essence the large machinery of public schooling
prosper in an autocratic country. My short answer is no, it cannot. It is which has resulted can be a failure to these families.
hard to imagine a world class university in a country which places a On the other hand, non-government schools particularly for wealthy
firewall on information from outside sources. As organizations, great families can exacerbate social tensions and lead many youths to hold
universities are powerful not because they control armies. They are loyalties more to their social compatriots than to their nations. This is
powerful not because they have executive power to tax or to compel the destructive to social cohesion and may threaten one of the main pur­
behavior of citizens. Attending university is voluntary and a privilege. poses of public education.
Great universities are powerful because they are endowed with deciding The dilemma of non-government schooling, the dilemma of world
what knowledge is most worth having, who should teach it, and how class universities in an autocracy, the dilemma of aid recipients taking
that knowledge should be acquired. World Class universities must be more responsibility for setting standards, the dilemma of managing
autonomous in making those three decisions. That is how they were education corruption, the dilemma of population pressures is SSA, the
born in the 13th Century, and that is what makes them unique today. dilemma of finding the right standards for civics education which sup­
So far, I have had the privilege to work on education problems in 65 ports social cohesion without exacerbating tensions between groups and
countries. I have found that autocratic governments use three methods between neighboring countries: these are unfinished problems which I
to reduce the risk of intellectual challenges coming from universities. must leave to others to address.
They restrict courses to technical subjects, emphasizing computer
CRediT authorship contribution statement

Stephen P. Heyneman is the sole responsibility for the following:

14
There is no copyright on the word university. The term may be attached to study conception and design, data collection, analysis and interpretation
propitiatory schools, technical institutes, and many other institutional cate­ of results, and manuscript preparation.
gories. I use the term to refer to the institutions which attempt to combine
faculties of humanities, social and physical sciences, history, and graduate
Appendix*
programs across a variety of professions such as law, medicine, engineering,
nursing, art and music.
15
Results from this period can be found in the appendix, Sections 8 and 10. Why Impoverished Children perform Well in School and Heyneman/
16
Only about 3 % of education aid is directed to global public goods, such as Loxley Effect
better statistics and measurement whereas in health the portion is 21 %
(Schaferhoff, et al, 2015). "A Brief Note on the Relationship Between Socioeconomic Status and

4
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