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 ISSUE
No.5
December 2018 —January 2019

Space &Physics

On a
New Moon
Also:
THE FIRST
FEMALE

Far, Far Away

PHYSICS
LAUREATE IN
55 YEARS

GLIMPSES OF AN EXOMOON ORBITING A

PLANET 8,000 LIGHT-YEARS FROM EARTH FIXING OUR
SPACE JUNK
PROBLEM

A NEW WAY
OF SEEING
WITH COVERAGE FROM
QUANTUM
MECHANICS
FROM
THE SPACE
EDITOR &PHYSICS
Your Opinion
Matters!
Help shape the future
of this digital magazine.
Let us know what you
think of the stories within
these pages by emailing us:
editors@sciam.com.
LIZ TORMES

A Universe of Possibilities
Astronomers estimate that every star in the universe has about one planet in orbit, on average. Given that there are
somewhere in the neighborhood of 250 billion (yes, with a “b”) stars in the Milky Way alone, the number of potential
planets out there is staggering. Despite this apparent plethora, researchers have yet to conclusively observe any
moons orbiting one of these faraway worlds. As Lee Billings writes in “Astronomers Tiptoe Closer to Confirming First
Exomoon,” Columbia University investigators have reported compelling data that a Neptune-size exomoon is circling
a planet around the sunlike star called Kepler 1625 b, about 8,000 light-years from Earth.

Elsewhere in this issue, Alexandra Witze covers the latest efforts to clean up the 20,000 junk items that humans
have littered in space (see “The Quest to Conquer Earth’s Space Junk Problem”). And fascinating new research is
focused on the human eye to get at one of the unresolved issues in quantum mechanics: the measurement problem
(see “The Human Eye Could Help Test Quantum Mechanics”). From moons to single photons, astronomy and phys-
ics never fail to stagger the mind and the imagination.

On the Cover
Andrea Gawrylewski

RON MILLERW
An artist’s rendition of the moon
Collections Editor (in the distance) from the planet
editors@sciam.com that orbits Kepler 1625 b.

2
 WHAT’S December 2018—January 2019
Vol. 1 • No. 5
FEATURES

INSIDE
12.
Astronomers Tiptoe
Closer to Confirming
First Exomoon
Signals seen by the
Hubble Space Telescope
GETTY IMAGES

suggest a Neptune-size
moon may orbit a gas-giant
planet around a star some
NEWS 8,000 light-years from
4. Earth
Search for Alien Life Should Be a 15.
Fundamental Part of NASA, New The Quest to Conquer
Report Urges Earth’s Space Junk
A blue-ribbon committee finds the Problem
science of astrobiology is worthy of Zombie satellites, rocket
shards and collision debris

GETTY IMAGES
deep integration into the space
agency’s exploration efforts are creating major traffic
6. risks in orbits around the
India’s “Vyomanauts” Seek to Join planet. Researchers are
the Elite Club of Spacefaring OPINION working to reduce the
Nations by 2022 29. threats posed by more than
Based on more than a decade of What Does Quantum Theory Actually 20,000 objects in space
preparations, the nation’s ambitious Tell Us about Reality? 22.
time line for human spaceflight seems Nearly a century after its founding, physicists The Human Eye Could
feasible to many senior space and philosophers still don’t know—but they’re Help Test Quantum
scientists working on it Mechanics
7. 32. Experiments to confirm
Reimagining of Schrödinger’s Cat Will Pluto Be the Last Habitable World? we can see single photons
Breaks Quantum Mechanics—and The sun’s future is going to change the status quo offer new ways to probe
Stumps Physicists 34. our understanding of
In a multi-“cat” experiment the textbook Einstein’s Famous “God Letter” quantum reality
interpretation of quantum theory seems Is Up for Auction 26.
to lead to contradictory pictures of A note the physicist wrote in 1954 reveals his Beyond the Shadow of
reality, physicists claim thinking on religion and science a Doubt, Water Ice
10. 36. Exists on the Moon
“Optical Tweezers” and Tools Sky Report Deposited in perpetually
Used for Laser Eye Surgery Snag The sky is always changing. To appreciate this dark craters around the
GETTY IMAGES

Physics Nobel ever-changing view, grab these sky maps, go poles, the ice could be a
The award’s recipients include the first outside at night and look up! boon for future crewed
female physics laureate in 55 years Sky maps: December, p. 40; and January, p. 41. lunar outposts

3
NEWS

An image taken by the Viking 2 lander from

Utopia Planitia on the surface of Mars in 1976.
The Viking missions to Mars were the last time
the space agency performed a direct, explicit
search for life on another world.

FOR DECADES MANY researchers examples. And although organisms creasing maturity and clout, a new
Search for Alien have tended to view astrobiology as were previously thought to need the congressionally mandated report
Life Should Be a the underdog of space science. The relatively mild surface conditions of from the National Academy of
Fundamental Part field—which focuses on the investi- our world to survive, new findings Sciences (NAS) urges NASA to
gation of life beyond Earth—has of- about life’s ability to persist in the make the search for life on other
of NASA, New ten been criticized as more philo- face of extreme darkness, heat, worlds an integral, central part of its
Report Urges sophical than scientific, because it salinity and cold have expanded exploration efforts. The field is now
A blue-ribbon committee finds the lacks in tangible samples to study. researchers’ acceptance that it well set to be a major motivator for
science of astrobiology is worthy Now that is all changing. Whereas might be found anywhere from the agency’s future portfolio of
of deep integration into the space astronomers once knew of no Martian deserts to the ice-covered missions, which could one day let
agency’s exploration efforts planets outside our solar system, oceans of Saturn’s moon Enceladus. humanity know whether or not we

NASA
today they have thousands of Highlighting astrobiology’s in- are alone in the universe. “The

4
 NEWS

opportunity to really address this Optical/Infrared (LUVOIR) telescope odds of success. His community had exploration of the solar system,” he
question is at a critically important and the Habitable Exoplanet Obser- yet to realize that in order to do large says. “Not as an add-on, but as one
juncture,” says Barbara Sherwood vatory (HabEx), are current contend- projects it needed to band together of the essential disciplines.”
Lollar, a geologist at the University ers for a multibillion-dollar NASA and show how its goals aligned with Above and beyond the recent
of Toronto and chair of the commit- flagship mission that would fly as those of astronomers less profession- NAS reports, NASA is arguably
tee that wrote the report. early as the 2030s. Either observato- ally interested in finding alien life, he already demonstrating more interest
The astronomy and planetary ry could use a coronagraph, or adds. “If we want big toys,” he says. in looking for life in our cosmic
science communities are currently “starshade”—objects that selectively “We need to play better with others.” backyard than it has for decades.
gearing up to each perform their block starlight but allow planetary There has also been tension in the This year the agency released a
decadal surveys—once-every-10-year light through—to search for signs of past between the astrobiological request for experiments that could
efforts that identify a field’s most habitability and of life in distant goals of solar system exploration be carried to another world in our
significant open questions—and atmospheres. But either would need and the more geophysics-steeped solar system to directly hunt for
present a wish list of projects to help massive and sustained support from goals that traditionally underpin such evidence of living organisms—the
answer them. Congress and govern- outside astrobiology to succeed in efforts, says Jonathan Lunine, a first such solicitation since the 1976
ment agencies such as NASA look to the decadal process and beyond. planetary scientist at Cornell Univer- Viking missions that looked for life
the decadal surveys to plan research There have been previous efforts to sity. Missions to other planets or on Mars. “The Ladder of Life Detec-
strategies; the decadals, in turn, look back large, astrobiologically focused moons have limited capacity for tion,” a paper written by NASA
to documents such as the new NAS missions such as NASA’s Terrestrial instruments, and those specialized scientists and published in Astrobi-
report for authoritative recommenda- Planet Finder concepts—ambitious for different tasks often end up in ology in June, outlined ways to
tions on which to base their findings. space telescope proposals in the ferocious competitions for a slot clearly determine if a sample
Astrobiology’s reception of such mid-2000s that would have spotted onboard. Historically, because the contains extraterrestrial creatures—a
full-throated encouragement now Earth-size exoplanets and character- search for life was so open-ended goal mentioned in the NAS report.
may boost its odds of becoming a ized their atmospheres (if these and difficult to define, associated The document also suggests NASA
decadal priority. projects had ever made it off the instrumentation lost out to hardware partner with other agencies and
Another NAS study released in drawing board). Instead, they suffered with clearer, more constrained organizations working on astrobiolog-
September could be considered a ignominious cancellations that taught geophysical research priorities. Now, ical projects, as the space agency did
second vote in astrobiology’s favor. astrobiologists several hard lessons. Lunine says, a growing understand- last month when it hosted a work-
This “Exoplanet Science Strategy” There was still too little information at ing of all the ways biological and shop with the nonprofit SETI Institute
report recommended NASA lead the the time about the number of planets geologic evolution are interlinked is on the search for “techno-signatures,”
effort on a new space telescope that around other stars, says Caleb Scharf, helping to show that such objectives potential indicators of intelligent
could directly gather light from an astrobiologist at Columbia Univer- do not have to be at odds. “I hope aliens. “I think astrobiology has gone
Earth-like planets around other stars. sity, meaning advocates could not that astrobiology will be embedded from being something that seemed
Two concepts, the Large Ultraviolet/ properly estimate such a mission’s as a part of the overall scientific fringy or distracting to something that

5
 NEWS

seems to be embraced at NASA as a

major touchstone for why we’re doing India’s “Vyomanauts”
space exploration and why the public
cares,” says Ariel Anbar, a geochemist
Seek to Join the Elite
at Arizona State University in Tempe. Club of Spacefaring
All this means is astrobiology’s Nations by 2022
growing influence is helping bring
Based on more than a decade of
what once were considered outland- preparations, the nation’s ambitious
ish ideas into reality. Anbar recalls time line for human spaceflight
attending a conference in the early seems feasible to many senior space
1990s, when then NASA administra- scientists
tor Dan Goldin displayed an Apol-
lo-era image of Earth from space and
suggested the agency try to do the INDIA’S PRIME MINISTER Narendra
same thing for a planet around anoth-
Modi has announced a plan to send
er star. humans to space by 2022, when the
“That was pretty out there 25 years
nation will celebrate the 75th anni-
ago,” he says. “Now it’s not out there
versary of its independence. If suc-
at all.” cessful, India will join Russia, the U.S.
—Adam Mann and China in the elite club of coun- During a speech on August 15, 2018, Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced the nation’s
tries to achieve homegrown human plan to send humans into space by 2022.

spaceflight. India’s only citizen to

travel to space as yet has been China’s taikonauts, Gaganyaan crew also successfully demonstrated the
Rakesh Sharma, a pilot in the coun- members will be called “vyo- prototype of the crew module, a
try’s air force who orbited Earth in manauts”—a moniker derived from capsule to take humans to space, as
1984 as part of the Soviet Union’s vyoma, the Sanskrit word for “space.” well as a launch-abort system, which
space program. Kailasavadivoo Sivan, chairman of is needed to eject the crew in case of
The planned Gaganyaan (Sanskrit the Indian Space Research Organiza- a failure.” Next, Sivan says, come the
for “sky craft”) mission aims to send a tion, or ISRO, is confident about the more intricate aspects of the pro-
three-person crew to low Earth orbit 2022 deadline. “Most critical technol- gram: ensuring the rocket and crew

GETTY IMAGES
for up to a week. In keeping with the ogies required for the Gaganyaan module meet stringent safety require-
localized naming traditions set by U.S. program have been developed by ments, developing life-support
astronauts, Russia’s cosmonauts and ISRO engineers,” he says. “ISRO has systems and heat shields for atmo-

6
 NEWS

spheric reentry, and constructing occasional launch failures and faulty Also, not every Indian aerospace achieved at remarkably low costs
communications and crew-training satellites. The launch of India’s next expert is so sanguine about the compared with its global counterparts.
facilities. The program’s entire cost, high-profile space science effort, nation’s rocketry being ready in time. At $78 million, its Mars mission cost
Sivan says, will be less than the Chandrayaan 2—which aims to orbit Ajey Lele, a senior fellow in the less than the production and market-
equivalent of $1.4 billion. the moon and place a lander at the Institute for Defense Studies and ing of a typical Hollywood movie. And
From humble beginnings in the lunar south pole—has been delayed Analyses in New Delhi, says “the if ISRO’s budgetary projections hold,
1960s and 1970s—when India began twice in the past year and is now major problem is going to be the its first human spaceflight will
developing its first rockets and slated for January 2019. availability of the rocket for the consume roughly one seventh of
satellites—the nation’s space program Even so, A. S. Kiran Kumar, former mission. ISRO needs to make the what NASA is spending on a single
has blossomed. Besides partnering ISRO chairman and one of the GSLV Mk III operational—fast.” space observatory, the $9.6-billion
with other spacefaring countries on a masterminds behind Chandrayaan 1 A more fundamental (and political) James Webb Space Telescope.
variety of missions, India has also and Mangalyaan, is ebullient about concern facing India’s pursuit of a —Shekhar Chandra
launched scores of satellites and the 2022 deadline for India’s human domestic human spaceflight program
even two farther-flung craft: Chan- mission. ISRO, he notes, has for many may be balancing such aspirations
drayaan 1, its lunar orbiter, operated years been diligently advancing the against its goals of continuing its Reimagining of
at the moon from 2008 to 2009; its core technologies for human space- economic development and lifting Schrödinger's Cat
Mars orbiter, Mangalyaan, reached flight. The nation has selected its more of its citizens out of poverty.
the Red Planet in 2013. Specific newest, heaviest and most powerful Kumar, however, sees India’s space
Breaks Quantum
plans for a crew to fly date back to at rocket, the GSLV Mk III, to carry its program not as a frivolous distraction Mechanics­—and
least 2006, according to G. Madha- crews to orbit, and Kumar says from this goal but rather as an Stumps Physicists
van Nair, a space scientist who multiple test flights in the next few affordable necessity that will create
In a multi-“cat” experiment
served as ISRO’s chairman from years should further refine the new jobs and lead to technological the textbook interpretation of
2003 to 2009. That was the year the rocket’s capabilities. Nair shares spin-offs, which enhance and stimu- quantum theory seems to lead
agency completed a study advocating Kumar’s optimism about the GSLV late development. “It is necessary to to contradictory pictures of reality,
such a project as the next logical step Mk III as well as meeting the 2022 meet the growing needs of the physicists claim
for India’s burgeoning space program, deadline, but he worries “India hasn’t economy,” he says. “Space has
and began lobbying the government yet started the process of selecting become the fourth frontier after land,
for formal approval and further and training astronauts for the air and water.” IN THE WORLD’S most famous
funding. mission”—a task that is time-consum- ISRO’s total budget since its thought experiment, physicist Erwin
But this series of successes has ing. To accelerate the crew selection establishment, he notes, is less than Schrödinger described how a cat in
been accompanied by setbacks process, Nair says, ISRO may seek what NASA now spends in a single a box could be in an uncertain pre-
typical of any country striving to collaborations with the U.S. or year; this is in keeping with India’s dicament. The peculiar rules of quan-
advance in spaceflight, such as Russian space agencies. major space successes being tum theory meant that it could be

7
 NEWS

both dead and alive, until the box Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Niels Bohr and Werner Heisenberg, nism that would release a poison on
was opened and the cat’s state mea- in Zurich, posted their first version of and is called the Copenhagen the basis of a random occurrence,
sured. Now, two physicists have de- the argument online in April 2016. interpretation, after the city where such as the decay of an atomic
vised a modern version of the para- The final paper appeared in Nature Bohr lived. It says that the act of nucleus. In that case, the state of
dox by replacing the cat with a phys- Communications in September. observing a quantum system makes the cat was uncertain until the
icist doing experiments—with (Frauchiger has now left academia.) the wavefunction collapse from a experimenter opened the box and
shocking implications. spread-out curve to a single data checked it.
Quantum theory has a long history WEIRD WORLD point. In 1967, the Hungarian physicist
of thought experiments, and in most Quantum mechanics underlies The Copenhagen interpretation left Eugene Wigner proposed a version
cases these are used to point to nearly all of modern physics, ex- open the question of why different of the paradox in which he replaced
weaknesses in various interpreta- plaining everything from the struc- rules should apply to the quantum the cat and the poison with a
tions of quantum mechanics. But ture of atoms to why magnets stick world of the atom and the classical physicist friend who lived inside a
the latest version, which involves to each other. But its conceptual world of laboratory measurements box with a measuring device that
multiple players, is unusual: it shows foundations continue to leave (and of everyday experience). But it could return one of two results, such
that if the standard interpretation of researchers grasping for answers. was also reassuring: although as a coin showing heads or tails.
quantum mechanics is correct, then Its equations cannot predict the quantum objects live in uncertain Does the wavefunction collapse
different experimenters can reach exact outcome of a measurement— states, experimental observation when Wigner’s friend becomes
opposite conclusions about what for example, of the position of an happens in the classical realm and aware of the result? One school of
the physicist in the box has mea- electron—only the probabilities that it gives unambiguous results. thought says that it does, suggest-
sured. This means that quantum can yield particular values. Now, Frauchiger and Renner are ing that consciousness is outside
theory contradicts itself. Quantum objects such as electrons shaking physicists out of this the quantum realm. But if quantum
The conceptual experiment has therefore live in a cloud of uncertainty, comforting position. Their theoretical mechanics applies to the physicist,
been debated with gusto in physics mathematically encoded in a wave reasoning says that the basic then she should be in an uncertain
circles for more than two years—and function that changes shape smooth- Copenhagen picture—as well as state that combines both outcomes
has left most researchers stumped, ly, much like ordinary waves in the other interpretations that share until Wigner opens the box.
even in a field accustomed to weird sea. But when a property such as an some of its basic assumptions—is Frauchiger and Renner have a yet
concepts. “I think this is a whole electron’s position is measured, it not internally consistent. more sophisticated version (see
new level of weirdness,” says always yields one precise value (and “New Cats in Town” graphic). They
Matthew Leifer, a theoretical yields the same value again if mea- WHAT’S IN THE BOX? have two Wigners, each doing an
physicist at Chapman University in sured immediately after). Their scenario is considerably more experiment on a physicist friend
Orange, Calif. The most common way of under- involved than Schrödinger’s cat— whom they keep in a box. One of
The authors, Daniela Frauchiger standing this was formulated in the proposed in 1935—in which the the two friends (call her Alice) can
and Renato Renner of the Swiss 1920s by quantum-theory pioneers feline lived in a box with a mecha- toss a coin and—using her knowl-

8
 NEWS NEW CATS IN TOWN
Physicists have devised a variation of the iconic Schrödinger’s cat
thought experiment that involves several players who understand
quantum theory. But surprisingly, using the standard interpretation
of quantum mechanics, the observers sometimes seem to come to
edge of quantum physics—prepare DUELING INTERPRETATIONS different conclusions about a particular event — suggesting that
the interpretation contradicts itself for complex systems.
a quantum message to send to the Physicists are still coming to terms
other friend (call him Bob). Using with the implications of the result. It
his knowledge of quantum theory, has triggered heated responses from
Bob can detect Alice’s message experts in the foundations of quan- Alice Bob
and guess the result of her coin tum theory, many of whom tend to
toss. When the two Wigners open be protective of their pet interpreta-
their boxes, in some situations they tion. “Some get emotional,” Renner
can conclude with certainty which says. And different researchers tend
side the coin landed on, Renner to draw different conclusions. “Most
says—but occasionally their conclu- people claim that the experiment
sions are inconsistent. “One says, shows that their interpretation is the
‘I’m sure it’s tails,’ and the other only one that is correct.”
one says, ‘I’m sure it’s heads,’” For Leifer, producing inconsistent
Renner says. results should not necessarily be a Alice tosses a coin and, using her Using his knowledge of quantum
The experiment cannot be put into deal breaker. Some interpretations knowledge of quantum physics, theory, Bob can detect Alice’s message
sends a quantum message to Bob. and guess the result of her coin toss.
practice, because it would require of quantum mechanics already
the Wigners to measure all quantum allow for views of reality that
properties of their friends, which depend on perspective. That could

CREDIT: NATURE , SEPTEMBER 18, 2018; DOI: 10.1038/D41586-018-06749-8

includes reading their minds, points be less unsavory than having to
out theorist Lídia Del Rio, a col- admit that quantum theory does not
league of Renner’s at ETH Zurich. apply to complex things such as Two observers
Yet it might be feasible to make people, he says.
two quantum computers play the Robert Spekkens, a theoretical
parts of Alice and Bob: the logic of physicist at the Perimeter Institute for
the argument requires only that they Theoretical Physics in Waterloo,
know the rules of physics and make Canada, says that the way out of the
decisions based on them, and in paradox could hide in some subtle
principle one can detect the com- assumptions in the argument, in
plete quantum state of a quantum particular in the communication When the two observers open their boxes, in some situations they
computer. (Quantum computers between Alice and Bob. can conclude with certainty how the coin landed — but their
conclusions are different. This means that the standard interpretation
sophisticated enough to do this do “To my mind, there’s a lot of situa- of quantum theory gives an inconsistent description of reality.
not yet exist, Renner points out.) tions where taking somebody’s

9
 NEWS

knowledge on board involves some

translation of their knowledge.”
Perhaps the inconsistency arises
from Bob not interpreting Alice's
message properly, he says. But he
admits that he has not found a
solution yet.
For now, physicists are likely to
continue debating. “I don’t think we’ve
made sense of this,” Leifer says.
—Davide Castelvecchi

“Optical Tweezers”
and Tools Used
for Laser Eye
Surgery Snag
Physics Nobel
The award’s recipients include
the first female physics laureate
in 55 years

OPTICAL PHYSICISTS ARTHUR his invention of “optical tweezers,” short, high-intensity laser pulses At 96, Ashkin is the oldest person
Ashkin, Gérard Mourou and Donna lasers that can probe the machinery now routinely used in corrective eye to win a Nobel. His development of
Strickland have won this year’s No- of life without causing damage. The surgery and precision machining. optical tweezers traces back to the
bel Prize in Physics for “ground- other half will be split jointly be- Strickland is the first female physics 1960s, and culminated in 1986
breaking inventions in the field of tween French physicist Gérard laureate in 55 years, and only the during his tenure at Bell Laborato-
laser physics.” Mourou and Canadian physicist third in the prize’s long, venerable ries in New Jersey. The technique

GETTY IMAGES
Half of this year’s nine-million-kro- Donna Strickland for their develop- history. The new laureates will uses the gentle pressure of light
nor (about $1-million) prize goes to ment of “chirped pulse amplification” receive their prizes in December at itself to trap and push a microscopic,
American physicist Arthur Ashkin for (CPA)—a method for making ultra- a ceremony in Stockholm. transparent sphere into the center

10
 NEWS

of a laser beam. The laser-controlled member of the Nobel physics phone from her home in Waterloo,
sphere can make and measure committee, speaking during the Strickland reacted with surprise
exceedingly minute forces when press conference. “It wasn’t possible when told only two women had
tethered to a biological sample, to go to higher intensity because of preceded her in winning the prize:
allowing researchers to delicately amplifier damage.” “Is that all, really?” she asked. “I
manipulate microbes, viruses and With CPA, Mourou and Strickland thought there might have been
even a cell’s individual components. shattered this wall, sparking a trend more…. We need to celebrate
In a video played during a press that allowed lasers to, on average, women physicists because we’re out
conference at the Royal Swedish double in intensity twice per decade. there, and hopefully in time it’ll start
Academy of Sciences in Stockholm, The technique relies on first stretch- to move forward at a faster rate. I’m
Anders Irbäck, a physicist at Swe- ing out short, energetic laser pulses honored to be one of those women.”
den’s Lund University and member in time, reducing their peak power —Lee Billings
of the Nobel Committee for Physics, and allowing them to be safely fed
provided a simple demonstration of through an amplifier, after which
the principle behind Ashkin’s they are finally compressed back to
tweezers, using exhaust from a hair their original size—dramatically
dryer to hold and manipulate a boosting their intensity. The resulting
ping-pong ball in midair without ultrabrief, ultrasharp beams can be
touching it. used to make extremely precise cuts
Mourou, 74, now a professor at the and holes in a variety of materials,
École Polytechnique in France, was and have been used in surgery to
Strickland’s academic advisor at the correct nearsightedness in millions
University of Rochester in New York of people.
State in the 1980s, where together “This year’s prize is about tools
they created CPA. Strickland, 59, is made from light,” said Göran Hans-
now an associate professor at the son, secretary general of the Royal
University of Waterloo in Ontario. Swedish Academy, summarizing
Before their breakthrough, optical awards during his remarks at the
physicists had hit a wall in develop- press conference. It was, to some
ing lasers of ever-increasing intensi- degree, also about recognizing the
ty. “The technology wasn’t scalable,” achievements of women in the phys-
said Mats Larsson, a physicist at ical sciences.
Sweden’s Stockholm University and Taking reporters’ questions via

11
 Artist’s impression of the
exoplanet Kepler 1625 b tran-
siting its star, trailed by a
candidate exomoon.

Astronomers
Tiptoe
Closer to
Confirming
First
Exomoon Signals seen by the
Hubble Space Telescope
suggest a Neptune-size moon
may orbit a gas-giant planet
around a star some 8,000
light-years from Earth

DAN DURDA
By Lee Billings

12
 Lee Billings is an associate editor
for Scientific American. He covers
space and physics.

HAVE ASTRONOMERS JUST FOUND THE FIRST-EVER Pandora may be exceedingly rare. decade pioneering the hunt for exomoons. “If this was the
exomoon, a lunar companion of a planet orbiting anoth- Moons, it is thought, can form in three ways: coalescing 10th known object of its type, we would be calling it a ‘dis-
er star? Definitely maybe. from rings of gas and dust leftover from a planet’s forma- covery,’ no question. But because it’s the first of its kind, it
Using data from NASA’s Kepler and Hubble space tele- tion; from debris knocked into orbit around a planet from demands a higher level of scrutiny…. I can’t yet convince
scopes, Columbia University astronomers Alex Teachey a giant impact; or by being gravitationally captured by a myself 100 percent this is definitely real.”
and David Kipping report the potential signal of a Nep- planet via rare close encounters with pairs of co-orbiting “We are urging caution here—the first exomoon is obvi-
tune-size moon around a planet three times heavier than asteroids or comets. But this newly proposed exomoon ously an extraordinary claim, and it requires extraordinary
Jupiter, all orbiting a nearly 10-billion-year-old sun-like fails to fit neatly in any of those origin stories. It appears evidence,” says Teachey, the study’s lead author and a Ph.D.
star called Kepler 1625 b about 8,000 light-years from to be too big to easily coalesce alongside its planet, which candidate under Kipping’s wing at Columbia. “We are
Earth. Such a large moon defies easy explanation based itself is too massive and gassy to readily eject debris from not cracking open champagne bottles just yet on this
on prevailing theories. The findings appear in a study any conceivable impact. Capture via close encounter, one.”
published October 3 in Science Advances, and follow although possible, would require an implausibly perfect Scarcely anything else is known about this potential sat-
from the duo’s earlier work reported last year that first concatenation of unlikely circumstances. “If valid, this ellite, save that its estimated size and three-million-kilo-
offered more tentative evidence of the moon. would probably open up a new formation scenario for meter separation from its planetary host would make it
If confirmed, this discovery would challenge scientists’ moons,” says René Heller, a theorist at the Max Planck appear in that world’s skies twice as large as Earth’s own
current understanding of planet and moon formation Institute for Solar System Research in Germany who was moon. Based on the planet-moon pair’s 287-day orbit
while bearing potentially profound implications for the not part of the study. “Actually, the very existence of the around its star, Teachey and Kipping have crudely calcu-
prevalence of life throughout the cosmos, revealing once proposed moon would call for a need to rethink our con- lated average temperatures there might approach that of
again that when it comes to alien worlds, the universe is cepts of what a ‘moon’ actually is in the first place.” boiling water—uncomfortably warm, to be sure, but easy
often stranger than anyone can suppose. For perspective, consider that our solar system’s largest enough for Earth’s hardiest microbes to thrive in. Biology’s
moon, Jupiter’s Ganymede, is less than half as massive as bigger challenge would be the lack of surfaces on both the
AN EXTRAORDINARY EXOMOON our sun’s smallest planet, Mercury. Kepler 1625 b’s moon, planet and its moon—expect no aliens there.
if our solar system is any guide at all, moons should by contrast, would be about 10 times as massive as all the
vastly outnumber planets in the universe, and could terrestrial planets and the hundreds of moons in our solar CAUGHT IN TRANSIT
make up most of the habitable real estate in any given system combined. This suggests, Heller says, “that this claims of exomoons have come and gone over the years,
galaxy. Pinning down how—and how often—they form moon would have formed in a completely different way but a couple stand out as particularly plausible. In 2013
would thus give astrobiologists a leg up on finding life than any moon in our solar system.” scientists reported the potential detection of what could
elsewhere in our galaxy. Already, Kipping and Teachey’s Even the study’s authors agree their potentially historic have been either a Mars- to Neptune-mass exomoon cir-
statistics derived from Kepler data suggest moons are claim should give pause—no one has ever conclusively dis- cling a Jupiter-mass exoplanet floating freely through
conspicuously absent around planets in temperate orbits covered an exomoon before, let alone one so utterly space—or a Jupiter-like gas giant orbiting a small, faint
around their stars—hinting that most large lunar com- bizarre. “This moon would have fairly surprising proper- star. Whatever its nature, the system was only detected in
panions must lurk farther out in colder climes, and that ties, which is a good reason for skepticism,” says Kipping, the first place due to a phenomenon called gravitational
habitable moons akin to Star Wars’ Endor or Avatar’s an assistant professor at Columbia who has spent the last microlensing that occurs just once and entirely by chance

13
in any given instance, and thus could not be observed “A moon is the simplest, ods caused the already borderline signs of the exomoon
again. Then, in 2015, a separate analysis of a gargantuan
ring system found around the “super-Saturn” exoplanet
most elegant and to fade to insignificance in the Kepler data. “I think this
shows how fluid the interpretation can be, with so few
J1407 b revealed multiple gaps potentially cleared by self-consistent hypothesis— observed transits [of Kepler 1625 b],” McCullough says.
what might be several Mars- to Earth-mass exomoons
otherwise hidden in the rings. Yet beyond these circum-
that’s why we favor it.” “The researchers are fully aware of that—they are the
world’s experts in this field. It’s just the nature of the
stantial findings no credible candidates existed. —David Kipping problem—it’s hard.”
The first hints of a breakthrough discovery emerged last Teachey and Kipping maintain that after spending
year, as part of a five-year hunt Kipping and Teachey con- almost a year being their own harshest critics and try-
ducted for exomoons around nearly 300 planets from just five hundredths of 1 percent. Stars dim more than that ing as best they can to explain away the evidence, their
Kepler’s massive data set, which contains thousands of all the time due to starspots and convective patterns on most extraordinary claim remains the most compel-
known worlds. Almost all of Kepler’s planets transit, their surfaces, but basic observational tests suggest such ling. “As far as we can tell, there is no way to kill this
meaning they cross the faces of their suns as seen from stellar activity was not the culprit here, Kipping says. signal—there really is a second dip in the star’s light,”
Earth, casting a shadow toward us that astronomers mea- Instead, he says, the minuscule signal was consistent with Kipping says. And yes, the time shift in Kepler 1625 b’s
sure as a star’s brief dimming. If some of those planets a Neptune-size moon “trailing the planet like a dog follow- transit could alternatively be due to the influence of a
harbor conspicuously large moons in wide orbits, the ing its owner on a leash.” very massive unseen planet—but no such planet has
moons might detectably transit, too, imprinting their own Alas, Kipping and Teachey’s allotted Hubble time been found despite Kepler’s and Hubble’s combined
much smaller diminution in a star’s light either shortly expired before they could capture the conclusion of the scrutiny. “A moon is the simplest, most elegant and
before or after a planet’s passage. Kipping and Teachey smaller transit’s conclusion, rendering their data set self-consistent hypothesis—that’s why we favor it.” Kip-
spied what looked to be just such a signal in three transits incomplete and leaving wide open the possibility that the ping says. “The time has come to let the community
of Kepler 1625 b. This was enough to net them 40 hours of apparent shadow of the moon had been something else interrogate our findings.”
time using Hubble’s Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) instru- entirely. There is only one way to truly settle the issue: more
ment for a follow-up observation of a single additional data. NASA’s upcoming James Webb Space Telescope
transit of the planet and its potential moon, predicted to A TIME TO KILL should be more than capable of definitively ruling for or
take place on October 28 and 29, 2017. In addition to look- “i don’t see any reason why it wouldn’t be an exomoon,” against this hoped-for first exomoon, but it is not slated
ing for a moon’s transit, their Hubble program would also says Peter McCullough, an astronomer and expert on Hub- to launch until 2021 at the earliest. In the meantime Kip-
attempt to pin down the precise timing of Kepler 1625 b’s ble’s instrumentation at Johns Hopkins University who ping and Teachey are awaiting approval of another Hub-
transit, which could be altered by the gravitational tug- was not involved in the research. “Alternatively, I don’t see ble observing proposal, which would use twice as much
ging of a moon or a nearby nontransiting planet. any reason why it would be. Either statement is telescope time to catch complete transits of Kepler 1625
Reaching four times greater precision than Kepler’s justifiable.” b and of its putative moon during the celestial pair’s next
data, Hubble’s observations revealed that, indeed, this Against the exomoon hypothesis, McCullough and oth- predicted crossing in May 2019.
transit of Kepler 1625 b was shifted in time, arriving about er researchers familiar with the results note Hubble’s This time, they predict the moon will be on the oppo-
75 minutes ahead of schedule—just as would be expected WFC3 instrument is notorious for routinely exhibiting site side of its orbit, with a transit preceding that of the
if the planet’s motions were being perturbed by a massive minor, hard-to-pin-down variations in its performance planet itself. “We should see a separate, clean moonlike
accompanying moon. Additionally, 3.5 hours after the that could mimic the subtle signal of a moon. Further- event,” Kipping says. “If we see that, then I think we’re
planet’s transit concluded, Hubble picked up a second, far more, they point to the latest data release from the Kepler done.... I think we’d have a very closed case on this sys-
smaller dip as the star’s brightness appeared to fade by mission, in which new, state-of-the-art analytical meth- tem.” Except, of course, on how it formed in the first place.

14
An illustration of the space
debris surrounding Earth, with
each piece greatly enlarged
for emphasis.

The Quest to Conquer

Earth’s Space Junk Problem

MACIEJ FROLOW GETTY IMAGES

Zombie satellites, rocket shards and collision debris are creating major
traffic risks in orbits around the planet. Researchers are working to reduce
the threats posed by more than 20,000 objects in space
By Alexandra Witze
15
 Alexandra Witze works for
Nature magazine.

O
n Monday July 2, the CryoSat-2
spacecraft was orbiting as usual, TRAFFIC IN ORBIT
just over 700 kilometers above The space junk problem is growing quickly: more than
1,800 new objects joined the crowded skies in 2017.
Earth’s surface. But that day, mis-
sion controllers at the European
ACCUMULATION OF ALL OBJECTS IN EARTH ORBIT

Number of objects (thousands)

Space Agency (ESA) realized they 20

NATURE , SEPTEMBER 5 2018, DOI: 10.1038/D41586-018-06170-1; SOURCE: ESA ANNUAL SPACE ENVIRONMENT REPORT
had a problem: a piece of space
15
debris was hurtling uncontrollably
toward the €140-million (U.S. $162-million) satellite, which 10
monitors ice on the planet. 5
As engineers tracked the paths of both objects, the chances
0
of a collision slowly increased—forcing mission controllers to
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
take action. On 9 July, ESA fired the thrusters on CryoSat-2 to
boost it into a higher orbit. Just 50 minutes later, the debris SATELLITES LAUNCHED EACH YEAR BY TYPE
rocketed past at 4.1 kilometers a second. 400

Number of objects
Communications Imaging Science Other
300
This kind of maneuver is becoming much more common each year, as space around
Earth grows increasingly congested. In 2017, commercial companies, military and civil 200
departments and amateurs lofted more than 400 satellites into orbit, over four times the
yearly average for 2000–2010. Numbers could rise even more sharply if companies such 100
as Boeing, OneWeb and SpaceX follow through on plans to deploy hundreds to thousands
of communications satellites into space in the next few years. If all these proposed mega- 0
constellations go up, they will roughly equal the number of satellites that humanity has 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010
launched in the history of spaceflight.
All that traffic can lead to disaster. In 2009, a U.S. commercial Iridium satellite smashed

16
 BUSY SKIES
There are currently more than 20,000 objects in orbit around Earth,
according to catalogues that track operational satellites, dead ones and
other human-made debris, such as pieces from rockets.

TYPE OF DEBRIS A visualization by

= 10 × Payload related NASA depicts the
= 10 × Rocket related traffic of objects in
orbits around Earth.
= 10 × Unknown

LOW EARTH ORBIT (LEO): MEDIUM EARTH

altitudes up to 2,000 kilometers ORBIT (MEO)
Not all objects in this count are altitudes between 2,000
confined to low Earth orbit. Some and 35,000 km
pass through LEO and travel
farther from the planet. OTHER ORBITS
Includes medium
Earth orbits

1,488 objects

GEOSTATIONARY ORBIT (GEO)

altitudes around 35,000 km
Used for some communications
and weather satellites. This count
includes objects that pass through
GEO orbits.

2,931 objects

15,900 objects

NATURE, SEPTEMBER 5 2018, DOI: 10.1038/D41586-018-06170-1; SOURCE: ESA ANNUAL SPACE ENVIRONMENT REPORT. EARTH DEBRIS IMAGE: NASA GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER AND JSC
17
into an inactive Russian communications satellite called
Cosmos-2251, creating thousands of new pieces of space
shrapnel that now threaten other satellites in low Earth
orbit—the zone stretching up to 2,000 kilometers in alti-
tude. Altogether, there are roughly 20,000 human-made
objects in orbit, from working satellites to small shards
of solar panels and rocket pieces. And satellite operators
can’t steer away from all potential collisions, because
each move consumes time and fuel that could otherwise
be used for the spacecraft’s main job.
Concern about space junk goes back to the beginning of
the satellite era, but the number of objects in orbit is ris-
ing so rapidly that researchers are investigating new ways
of attacking the problem. Several teams are trying to
improve methods for assessing what is in orbit, so that sat-
ellite operators can work more efficiently in ever-more-
crowded space. Some researchers are now starting to com-
pile a massive data set that includes the best possible
information on where everything is in orbit. Others are
developing taxonomies of space junk—working out how
to measure properties such as the shape and size of an
object, so that satellite operators know how much to wor-
ry about what’s coming their way. And several investiga-
tors are identifying special orbits that satellites could be Damage to the Space Shuttle Endeavour from a collision with piece of space debris or a micrometeorite.
moved into after they finish their missions so they burn up
in the atmosphere quickly, helping to clean up space. project that would send millions of small copper needles with the American Historical Association and NASA.
The alternative, many say, is unthinkable. Just a few into orbit. The needles were meant to enable radio com- Since the Soviet Union launched the first satellite,
uncontrolled space crashes could generate enough debris munications if high-altitude nuclear testing were to wipe Sputnik, in 1957, the number of objects in space has
to set off a runaway cascade of fragments, rendering out the ionosphere, the atmospheric layer that reflects surged, reaching roughly 2,000 in 1970, about 7,500 in
near-Earth space unusable. “If we go on like this, we willradio waves over long distances. The Air Force sent the 2000 and about 20,000 known items today. The two big-
reach a point of no return,” says Carolin Frueh, an astro-needles into orbit in 1963, where they successfully formed gest spikes in orbital debris came in 2007, when the Chi-
dynamical researcher at Purdue University in West a reflective belt. Most of the needles fell naturally out of nese government blew up one of its satellites in a missile
Lafayette, Ind. orbit over the next three years, but concern over dirtying test, and in the 2009 Iridium-Cosmos collision. Both
space nevertheless helped to end the project. events generated thousands of fresh fragments, and they
DIRTYING ORBITS It was one of the first examples of the public viewing account for about half of the 20-plus satellite maneuvers
Astronomers and others have worried about space junk space as a landscape that should be kept clean, says Lisa that ESA conducts each year, says Holger Krag, head of

NASA
since the 1960s, when they argued against a U.S. military Rand, a historian of science in Philadelphia and a fellow ESA’s space-debris office in Darmstadt, Germany.

18
 Each day, the U.S. military issues an average of 21 warn-
ings of potential space collisions. Those numbers are
likely to rise dramatically next year, when the Air Force
switches on a powerful new radar facility on Kwajalein
in the Pacific Ocean. That facility will allow the U.S. mil-
itary to detect objects smaller than today’s 10-centime-
ters limit for low Earth orbit, and this could increase the
number of tracked objects by a factor of five.
Even as our ability to monitor space objects increases,
so too does the total number of items in orbit. That
means companies, governments and other players in
space are having to collaborate in new ways to avoid a
shared threat. Since the 2000s, international groups such
as the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Commit-
tee have developed guidelines for achieving space sus-
tainability. Those include inactivating satellites at the
end of their useful lifetimes by venting leftover fuel or
other pressurized materials that could lead to explosions.
The intergovernmental groups also recommend lower-
ing satellites deep enough into the atmosphere that they
will burn up or disintegrate within 25 years.
But so far, only about half of all missions have abided
by this 25-year guideline, says Krag. Operators of the
planned megaconstellations say they will be responsible
stewards of space, but Krag worries that the problem Tiny CubeSats are released from the International Space Station in 2012.
could increase, despite their best intentions. “What hap-
pens to those that fail or go bankrupt?” he asks. “They are today are used to avoid potential collisions. “If you knew tion of the planes down to one meter in accuracy.
probably not going to spend money to remove their sat- exactly where everything was, you would almost never The same can’t be said for space debris. Not all objects
ellites from space.” have a problem,” says Marlon Sorge, a space-debris spe- in orbit are known, and even those included in databas-
cialist at the Aerospace Corporation in El Segundo, Calif. es are tracked to varying levels of precision. On top of
TRAFFIC COPS FOR SPACE The field is called space-traffic management, because that, there is no authoritative catalogue that accurately
In theory, satellite operators should have plenty of room it’s analogous to managing traffic on the roads or in the lists the orbits of all known space debris.
for all these missions to fly safely without ever nearing air. Think about a busy day at an airport, says Moriba Jah illustrates this with a Web-based database that he
another object. So some scientists are tackling the prob- Jah, an astrodynamicist at the University of Texas at Aus- developed, called ASTRIAGraph. It draws on several
lem of space junk by trying to understand where all the tin: planes line up in the sky like a string of pearls, land- sources, such as catalogues maintained by the U.S. and
debris is to a high degree of precision. That would alle- ing and taking off close to one another in a carefully cho- Russian governments, to visualize the locations of

NASA
viate the need for many unnecessary maneuvers that reographed routine. Air-traffic controllers know the loca- objects in space. When he types in an identifier for a par-

19
ticular space object, ASTRIAGraph draws a purple line
to designate its orbit.
Only this doesn’t quite work for a number of objects,
such as a Russian rocket body launched in 2007 and des-
ignated in the database as object number 32280. When
Jah enters that number, ASTRIAGraph draws two purple
lines: the U.S. and Russian sources contain two com-
pletely different orbits for the same object. Jah says that
it is almost impossible to tell which is correct, unless a
third source of information could help to cross-correlate
the correct location.
ASTRIAGraph currently contains some, but not all, of
the major sources of information about tracking space
objects. The U.S. military catalogue—the largest such
database publicly available—almost certainly omits
information on classified satellites. The Russian govern-
ment similarly holds many of its data close. Several com-
mercial space-tracking databases have sprung up in the
past few years, and most of those do not share openly.
Jah describes himself as a space environmentalist: “I
want to make space a place that is safe to operate, that is
free and useful for future generations.” Until that hap-
pens, he argues, the space community will continue
devolving into a tragedy of the commons, in which all
spaceflight operators are polluting a common resource.
He and other space environmentalists are starting to
make headway, at least when it comes to U.S. space poli-
cy. Jah testified on space-traffic management in front of
Congress last year, at the invitation of Ted Cruz, a Repub-
lican senator from Texas who co-introduced a space-reg-
ulations bill this July. In June, President Donald Trump
also signed a directive on space policy that, among other
things, would shift responsibility for the U.S. public
space-debris catalogue from the military to a civilian
agency—probably the Department of Commerce, which A piece of space debris that
is thought to be from a space
regulates business. shuttle mission in 1998.

NASA
The space-policy directive is a rare opportunity to dis-

20
cuss space junk at the highest levels of the U.S. govern- at the University of Surrey in Guildford, U.K., will exper- ly showed that there is a dense web of orbital resonances
ment. “This is the first time we’re really having this con- iment with a net to ensnare a test satellite. The project, that dictates how objects behave in MEO (J. Daquin et al.
versation in a serious fashion,” says Mike Gold, vice pres- called RemoveDEBRIS, will then redirect the satellite Celest. Mech. Dyn. Astr. 124, 335–366; 2016). Rosengren
ident for regulatory, policy and government contracts at into an orbit that will re-enter the atmosphere. thinks this might offer a potential solution. There are
Maxar Technologies in Westminster, Colo., which owns But such active approaches to cleaning up space junk paths in this web of resonances that lead not to MEO, but
and operates a number of satellites. aren’t likely to be practical over the long term, given the directly into the atmosphere, and operators could take
huge number of objects in orbit. So some other experts advantage of them to send satellites straight to their doom.
THE ORBITING DEAD consider the best way of mitigating space junk to be a pas- “We call it passive disposal through resonances and insta-
The space around Earth is filled with zombies: some 95 sive approach. This takes advantage of the gravitational bilities,” says Rosengren. “Yeah, we need a new name.”
percent of all objects in orbit are dead satellites or piec- pulls of the sun and the moon, known as resonances, that Other researchers have explored the concept before,
es of inactive ones. When someone operating an active can put the satellites on a path to destruction. At the Uni- but Rosengren is trying to push it into the mainstream.
satellite gets an alert about an object on a collision versity of Arizona in Tucson, astrodynamicist Aaron “It’s one of the newer things in space debris,” he says.
course, it would be helpful to know how dangerous that Rosengren is developing ways to do so. These disposal highways in the sky could be easy to
incoming debris is. “With more and more objects, and Rosengren first came across the idea when studying the access. At a space conference in July in Pasadena, Calif.,
the uncertainties we currently have, you just get collision fates of satellites in medium Earth orbit (MEO). These Rosengren and his colleagues reported on their analysis
warnings no end,” says Frueh. (Micrometeorites repre- travel at altitudes anywhere between about 2,000 kilome- of U.S. Orbiting Geophysical Observatory satellites from
sent a separate threat and can’t be tracked at all.) ters up, where low Earth orbit ends, and 35,000 kilome- the 1960s. The scientists found that changing the launch
To assess the risk of an impending collision, satellite ters up, where geostationary orbits begin. date or time by as little as 15 minutes could lead to huge
operators need to know what the object is, but tracking Satellites in low Earth orbit can be disposed of by forc- differences in how long a satellite remains in orbit. Such
catalogues have little information about many items. In ing them to re-enter the atmosphere, and most satellites information could be used to help calculate the best
those cases, the military and other space trackers use in the less heavily trafficked geostationary region can be times to depart the launch pad.
telescopes to gather clues in the short period before a safely placed in “graveyard” orbits that never interact with Being proactive now could head off a lot of trouble
potential collision. other objects. But in MEO, satellite trajectories can be down the road, as operators of satellites such as Cryo-
Working with the Air Force, Frueh and her colleagues unstable over the long term because of gravitational Sat-2 have found. When ESA decided to take evasive
are developing methods to rapidly decipher details of resonances. action in early July, its engineers had to scramble and
orbiting objects even when very little is known about An early hint that spacecraft operators could harness work through the weekend to get ready for the maneu-
them. By studying how an object reflects sunlight as it this phenomenon came from ESA’s INTEGRAL γ-ray ver. Once the space junk had safely flown by, CryoSat-2
passes overhead, for instance, she can deduce whether it space telescope, which launched in 2002. INTEGRAL took a few days to get back into its normal orbit, says
is tumbling or stable—a clue to whether or not it is oper- travels in a stretched-out orbit that spans all the way Vitali Braun, a space-debris engineer with ESA.
ational. Her team is also experimenting with a from low Earth orbit, through MEO, and into geostation- But the alerts didn’t stop coming. In the weeks that
machine-learning algorithm that could speed up the pro- ary orbit. It would normally have remained in space for followed, mission controllers had to shift various satel-
cess of characterizing items. more than a century, but in 2015, ESA decided to tweak lites at least six times to dodge debris. And in August,
Once researchers know what an orbiting object is its orbit. With a few small thruster burns, mission con- they nudged the Sentinel-3B satellite out of the way of
made of, they have a number of potential ways to reduce trollers placed it on a path to interact with gravitational space junk for the first time. It had been in orbit for only
its threat. Some sci-fi–tinged proposals involve using resonances. It will now re-enter the atmosphere in 2029, four months.
magnets to sweep up space junk, or lasers to obliterate or rather than decades later.
deflect debris in orbit. In the coming weeks, researchers In 2016, Rosengren and his colleagues in France and Ita-

21
The Human
Eye Could
Help Test
Quantum
Mechanics
Experiments to confirm we can
see single photons offer new
ways to probe our understanding
of quantum reality
By Anil Ananthaswamy

TKTKTKTKTKTKTK
GETTY IMAGES
 22
 Anil Ananthaswamy is the author of The Edge of
Physics, The Man Who Wasn't There and, most recently,
Through Two Doors at Once: The Elegant Experiment
That Captures the Enigma of Our Quantum Reality.

Paul Kwiat asks his volunteers to sit inside a small, er at Los Alamos National Laboratory.
The effort to determine whether humans can directly
dark room. As their eyes adjust to the lack of light, each detect single photons has a storied history. In 1941
researchers from Columbia University reported in Sci-
volunteer props his or her head on a chin rest—as you ence the human eye can see a flash from as few as five
would at an optometrist’s—and gazes with one eye at a photons landing on the retina. More than three decades
later Barbara Sakitt, a biophysicist then at the Universi-
dim red cross. On either side of the cross is an optical ty of California, Berkeley, performed experiments sug-
fiber, positioned to pipe a single photon of light at either gesting that the eye could see a single photon. But these
experiments were far from conclusive. “The problem
the left or the right side of a volunteer’s eye. Even as he with all these experiments is that they were just trying
verifies the human eye’s ability to detect single photons, to use ‘classical’ light sources” that do not reliably emit
single photons, Holmes says. That is, there was no guar-
Kwiat, an experimental quantum physicist at the antee each of these early trials involved just one photon.

University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and his Then, in 2012, came firm evidence that individual
photoreceptors, or rod cells, can detect single photons—
colleagues are setting their sights higher: to use human at least in the eyes of a frog. Leonid Krivitsky of the
Agency for Science, Technology and Research in Singa-
vision to probe the very foundations of quantum pore and his colleagues extracted rod cells from adult
mechanics, according to a paper they submitted to the frogs’ eyes and performed laboratory tests showing the
cells reacted to single photons. Now, “there’s absolutely
preprint server arXiv on June 21. no doubt that individual photoreceptors respond to sin-
Rather than simply sending single photons toward a standing of the quantum world, opening the door to alter- gle photons,” Kwiat says. That is not the same as saying
volunteer’s eye through either the left or the right fiber, native theories that argue for a dramatically different view those rod cells do the same in a living frog—or, for that
the idea is to send photons in a quantum superposition of nature in which reality exists regardless of observations matter, a human being. So Kwiat, along with Illinois col-
of effectively traversing both fibers at once. Will humans or observers, cutting against the grain of how quantum league physicist Anthony Leggett and others, began
see any difference? According to standard quantum mechanics is interpreted today. “It could possibly be evi- envisioning tests of human vision using single-photon
mechanics, they will not—but such a test has never been dence that something’s going on beyond standard quan- sources. Soon Kwiat’s group, which now included
done. If Kwiat’s team produces conclusive results show- tum mechanics,” says Rebecca Holmes, Kwiat’s former stu- Holmes, was actually experimenting. But “we got beat on
ing otherwise, it would question our current under- dent who designed equipment, and who is now a research- that,” Holmes says.

23
 In 2016 a team led by biophysicist Alipasha Vaziri,
then at the University of Vienna, reported using sin-
bility of being seen on the left
or the right. The photon’s inter-
“Is there any taneously; the more massive
the object in superposition,
gle-photon sources to show “humans can detect a sin- action with the visual system perceptual the faster its collapse. One
gle-photon incident on their eye with a probability sig-
nificantly above chance.”
acts as a measurement that is
thought to “collapse” the wave
difference consequence of this would be
that individual particles
Kwiat’s team, somewhat skeptical of the result, wants function, and the photon ran- on the part of could remain in superposi-
to improve the statistics by doing a much larger number domly ends up on one side or the person when tion for interminably long
of trials with many more subjects. Their key concern is the other, like a tossed coin times, whereas macroscopic
the low efficiency of the eye as a photon detector. Any coming up “tails” or “heads.” they directly objects could not. So, the infa-
incident photon has to get past the cornea, the clear out- Would humans see a difference observe mous Schrödinger’s cat, in
er layer of the eye, which reflects some of the light. The
photon then enters a lens that, together with the cornea,
in the photon counts on the
left versus the right when per-
a quantum event?” GRW, can never be in a super-
position of being dead and
focuses the light on the retina at the back of the eye. But ceiving superposed photons as —Paul Kwiat alive. Rather it is always
between the lens and the retina is a clear, gel-like sub- compared with photons in either dead or alive, and we
stance that gives the eye its shape—and this too can classical states? “If you trust only discover its state when
absorb or scatter the photon. Effectively, less than 10 quantum mechanics, then we look. Such theories are
percent of the photons that hit the cornea make it to the there should be no difference,” Kwiat says. But if their said to be “observer-independent” models of reality.
rod cells in the retina, which result in nerve signals that experiment finds an irrefutable, statistically significant If a collapse theory such as GRW is the correct descrip-
travel into the brain, causing perception. So getting sta- difference, it would signal something amiss with quan- tion of nature, it would upend almost a century of
tistically significant results that rise above chance is a tum physics. “That would be big. That would be a quite thought that has tried to argue observation and mea-
daunting challenge. “We are hoping in the next six earth-shattering result,” he adds. surement are central to the making of reality. Crucially,
months to have a definitive answer,” Kwiat says. Such a result would point toward a possible resolution when the superposed photon lands on an eye, GRW
That has not stopped them from dreaming up new of the central concern of quantum mechanics: the would predict ever-so-slightly different photon counts
experiments. In the standard setup a half-silvered mir- so-called measurement problem. There’s nothing in the for the left and the right sides of the eye than does stan-
ror steers a photon to either the left or the right fiber. theory that specifies how measurements can collapse dard quantum mechanics. This is because differently
The photon then lands on one side or the other of a vol- the wave function, if indeed wave functions do collapse. sized systems in the various stages of the photon’s pro-
unteer’s retina, and the subject has to indicate which by How big should the measuring apparatus be? In the case cessing—such as two light-sensitive proteins in two rod
using a keyboard. But it is trivial (using quantum optics) of the eye, would an individual rod cell do? Or does one cells versus two assemblies of rod cells and associated
to put the photon in a superposition of going through need the entire retina? What about the cornea? Might a nerves in the retina—would exhibit different sponta-
both fibers, and onto both sides of the eye, at once. What conscious observer need to be in the mix? neous collapse rates after interacting with a photon.
occurs next depends on what one believes happens to Some alternative theories solve this potential problem Although both Kwiat and Holmes stress it is highly
the photon. by invoking collapse independently of observers and unlikely they will see a difference in their experiments,
Physicists describe a photon’s quantum state using a measurement devices. Consider, for instance, the “GRW” they acknowledge that any observed deviation would
mathematical abstraction called the wave function. collapse model (named after theorists Giancarlo Ghirar- hint at GRW-like theories.
Before the superposed photon hits the eye its wave func- di, Alberto Rimini and Tullio Weber). The GRW model Michael Hall, a theoretical quantum physicist at the
tion is spread out, and the photon has an equal proba- and its many variants posit wave functions collapse spon- Australian National University who was not part of the

24
 Keep up with the cutting-edge advances
and discoveries in neuroscience and
study, agrees GRW would predict
a very small deviation in the pho-
“Consciousness… Prevedel thinks first absorption
by a rod should destroy the pho- human behavior with a Scientific
ton counts but says such devia- arises in ton’s superposition. But “if we American Mind Digital Subscription.
tions would be too tiny to be our brain as the can see quantum [superposition]
detected by the proposed experi-
ment. Nevertheless, he thinks any
combined effect in any of the subsequent levels
inside the different cell layers in LEARN MORE
aberration in the photon counts of millions, the retina, or any downstream
would deserve attention. “It
would be quite serious. I find that
if not billions, neuronal circuits even, that
would be really a breakthrough,”
unlikely but possible,” he says. of cells and he says. “This would be an amaz-
“That would be amazingly
interesting.”
neurons.” ing finding.”
There is, of course, an elephant
Kwiat also wonders about the —Robert Prevedel in the room: human conscious-
subjective perception of quantum ness. Could conscious perception
states versus classical states. “Is ultimately cause the collapse of
there any perceptual difference on the part of the per- the quantum state, making the photon show up on one
son when they directly observe a quantum event?” he or the other side? Prevedel doubts consciousness has
asks. “The answer is ‘probably not,’ but we really don’t anything whatsoever to do with measurement and
know. You can’t know the answer to that unless either collapse.
you have a complete physical model down to the quan- “Consciousness … arises in our brain as the combined
tum mechanical level of what’s going on in the human effect of millions, if not billions, of cells and neurons. If
visual system—which we don’t have—or you do the there is a role of consciousness in the detection of quan-
experiment.” tum superposition, it’d involve a really macroscopic
Robert Prevedel, a member of Vaziri’s 2016 team who object on the level of the entire brain, i.e. a huge ensem-
is now at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory ble of atoms and electrons that make up the biological
in Germany, is more interested in teasing out exactly cells,” Prevedel says. “From all that we know, this kind of
where collapse actually occurs in the chain of events. macroscopic object would not be able to sustain quan-
Does it happen at the beginning, when a photon strikes tum [superposition].”
a rod cell? Or in the middle, with generation and trans-
mission of neural signals? Or does it happen at the end,
when the signals register in conscious perception? He
suggests firing superposed photons at extracted retinas
and recording from different levels of visual processing
(say, from rod cells or from the different types of photo
cells that make up the retina) to see how long the super-
position lasts.

25
Beyond the
Shadow of
a Doubt,
Water Ice
Exists
on the
Moon
Deposited in perpetually
dark craters around the
poles, the ice could be
a boon for future crewed
lunar outposts
By Leonard David

NASA, GSFC AND ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY

Mosaic of 983 images of
the moon’s north polar
region. Taken over the
course of a month by the
Lunar Reconnaissance
Orbiter Camera.

26
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
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