Biological science – TBIT101L

Digital Assessment

Name: K.YOKESH
Reg.no: 24MPI0039

Analysing the information gave by the biophysicists on Biological Science and the
controversy made in those days based on the thesis gave with combination biology and
physics.
Luigi Galvani

Luigi Galvani was a pioneer in the field of electrophysiology, the branch of science
concerned with electrical phenomena in the body.

Luigi Galvani was born on

September 9, 1737 in
Bologna, Italy. In his youth,
Galvani intended to pursue
a theology. Largely due to
parental influence,
however, when he entered
the University of Bologna it
was to study medicine. He
graduated in 1759 but chose
to continue his education at
the institution. Galvani received a doctorate in medicine
three years later. His

Luigi Galvani thesis focused on the study of

the human skeleton and his research primarily was
concerned with comparative anatomy. Galvani
accepted a position as lecturer at his alma mater
following the defense of his thesis. Only a few years
later he began teaching obstetrics at the Institute of
Sciences as well. By 1772, he gained an appointment as
president of the Institute.
Luigi Galvani

In the early 1770s, Galvani began lecturing on the anatomy of the frog and later that
same decade initiated experiments employing the basic equipment used for studying
electricity at that time, an electrostatic generator for producing an electrical charge
and a Leyden jar for storing charge. It was through the accidental overlap of these two
seemingly dissimilar areas of scientific effort that Galvani made his greatest discoveries.
He noticed that the dissected legs of frogs in his laboratory seemed to jump to life under
various conditions. For instance, when one of his assistants placed a scalpel against the
exposed nerve of one specimen, which was sitting on a table previously used in
electrostatic experiments, the legs of the frog suddenly kicked. In a similar event, when
Galvani used a scalpel made of steel to cut the leg of a frog anchored on a brass hook,
the leg visibly twitched. Based on such unusual observations Galvani concluded that
there was a type of electrical fluid inherent in the body, which he dubbed animal
electricity. According to his view, the nervous system delivered animal electricity to
muscle tissue.

Galvani knew that his concept of animal electricity would likely be controversial. As a
result, he delayed publishing on his work until 1791, when he finally released the treatise
“De Viribus Electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius” (“Commentary on the Effect
of Electricity on Muscular Motion”). As Galvani anticipated, not all of his contemporaries
agreed with his views, though many did, at least initially. The Italian
physicist Alessandro Volta, a professor at the University of Pavia, was the most notable
opponent of Galvani’s conclusions. Volta proposed that it was not electricity inherent
within the body of the frog that caused the twitching legs Galvani witnessed, but rather
charge passing between two dissimilar metals, such as the steel of a scalpel and the
brass in the hook. Volta described his theoretical electrical fluid as metallic electricity.

Galvani and Volta were respectful of each other despite their scientific disagreement;
still, considerable rancor grew between many of their followers. In the end, both
scientists were partly correct. Muscular contractions do occur due to electrical stimuli,
as Galvani believed, though no unique animal electricity exists, a fact that Volta
correctly deduced. Moreover, Volta rightly realized that contact between different
metals can cause an electric current to flow, but he incorrectly attributed all
electrophysiological effects to such a current source.
The opinions of both men had a tremendous impact on the future of science. Galvani’s
work pioneered the field of electrophysiology, the branch of science concerned with
electrical phenomena in the body, and Volta’s experiments resulted in his development
of the voltaic pile, an early form of the battery.

Interestingly, Galvani’s groundbreaking experimentation not only spurred notable

advances in science, but also inspired one of the most famous works in all of English
literature. Intrigued by the possible implications of the scientist’s work, Mary Shelley
reportedly discussed Galvani with her husband, Percy Shelley, and Byron, both famous
British Romantic writers. When she wrote Frankenstein, the prospect that electricity
could animate lifeless flesh was clearly seeded in her mind. From a lifeless
amalgamation of cadavers, lightning and galvanism (a term coined by Volta in honor of
Galvani) produced a conscious monster in her horror novel.

In his latter years, Galvani experienced several disappointments in his personal life.
Following the death of his wife, Lucia, in 1790, his health began to decline. Then, in
1796, the army of Napoléon invaded Bologna. Since Galvani would not take an oath of
allegiance to the republic declared by Napoléon, the new political powers forced him to
leave his academic posts. Having lost his income, he decided to move in with his
brother, at the home in which they were born. Galvani died there on December 4, 1798.

Luigi Galvani: Pioneer of Bioelectricity and His Enduring Legacy

Luigi Galvani stands as a transformative figure in the history of science, renowned for
his groundbreaking investigations into the relationship between electricity and living
organisms. His serendipitous discovery of what he termed "animal electricity" not only
revolutionized the scientific understanding of life itself but also ignited a fervent debate
with Alessandro Volta that ultimately paved the way for the invention of the electric
battery. Galvani's work marked a significant departure from purely physical
interpretations of electrical phenomena, suggesting a fundamental role for electricity in
biological systems. The ensuing controversy with Volta, while initially casting a shadow
on Galvani's contributions, spurred significant advancements in both the nascent field
of electrophysiology and the development of a practical source of continuous electrical
current. This report aims to provide a comprehensive account of Luigi Galvani's life, his
pivotal experiments, the scientific context of his discoveries, the intellectual battle with
Volta, the profound impact of his work, the enduring recognition of his contributions,
and the later perspectives on his findings.
The Life and Times of Luigi Galvani
Luigi Galvani was born on September 9, 1737, in Bologna, which was then part of the
Papal States. His father, Domenico Galvani, was a goldsmith. While Galvani initially
harbored aspirations for a religious life, his parents encouraged him to pursue a career
in medicine, a path he ultimately followed. He received his education at the University
of Bologna, a renowned institution, where he earned degrees in both medicine and
philosophy in 1759. According to some accounts, he received a degree in medicine and
surgery followed by one in philosophy in 1756. In 1762, he defended his

doctoral thesis, De ossibus, which focused on the formation and development of

bones.
Following his graduation, Galvani embarked on an academic career at the University of
Bologna. He was appointed as a lecturer in anatomy and later became a professor of
obstetrics at the separate Institute of Arts and Sciences. His personal life saw him
marry Lucia Galleazzi, the daughter of one of his professors, and he subsequently
assisted in his father-in-law's laboratory. Upon his father-in-law's passing in 1775,
Galvani succeeded him as professor and lecturer. Over the years, he held various
prestigious academic positions at the university, including professor of anatomy and
keeper of the anatomical rooms. In the 1770s, Galvani's research interests began to
shift from comparative anatomy, which had been the focus of his early work, towards
exploring the relationship between electricity and life. This transition was marked by his
lectures on the anatomy of the frog in 1773 and on electrophysiology in the late 1770s.

Galvani was known to be a deeply religious man, having considered taking religious
vows at a young age and later becoming a member of the Third Order of St. Francis. The
political climate of the time also significantly impacted his later years. In 1797, when
the Cisalpine Republic, a French client state, was established, Galvani refused to swear
an oath of allegiance to the new authority. This refusal led to the loss of his academic
and public positions, as well as the termination of his salary. Facing financial hardship
and the loss of his income and home, Galvani moved in with his brother. He died in
Bologna on December 4, 1798, in poverty and reportedly depressed. He was buried next
to his wife, who had passed away in 1790, in the church of Corpus Domini. His passing
occurred at a time when the world was on the cusp of a major electrical revolution, a
revolution to which his own work had significantly contributed.

year Event
1737 Born in Bologna, Papal States (Italy) on September 9

1759 Obtained degrees in medicine and philosophy from the

University of Bologna

1762 Defended doctoral thesis De ossibus

1775 Succeeded his father-in-law as professor at the University of

Bologna

1780s Began experimenting with electricity and its effects on frogs

1791 Published De viribus electricitatis in motu musculari

commentarius
 1797 Refused to swear oath to the Cisalpine Republic, lost
academic positions

1798 Died in Bologna on December 4

Unveiling "Animal Electricity": Galvani's Groundbreaking Experiments

Galvani's foray into electrical experimentation was inspired by the growing

interest in medical electricity during the 1770s. He acquired an electrostatic machine,
which could generate sparks, and a Leyden jar, a device for storing static electricity. His
initial focus was on understanding how static electricity affected animal physiology,
particularly the nerves and muscles of frogs, a subject he had lectured on extensively.

The pivotal moment in Galvani's research came through a series of accidental

observations. One frequently cited anecdote recounts an incident where an assistant
was using a scalpel on the nerve of a dissected frog's leg. At the same moment, a
nearby electrostatic generator produced a spark, causing the frog's leg to twitch.
Another observation involved Galvani himself using a steel scalpel to cut the leg of a
frog that was held in place by a brass hook, which also resulted in a visible twitch. These
unexpected reactions led Galvani to believe that the twitching was intrinsically linked to
electrical activity.

Driven by these initial findings, Galvani embarked on a series of systematic

investigations. He experimented with various metals to stimulate frog nerves and
induce muscle contractions. Notably, he observed that when brass hooks attached to
the spinal cords of frogs were hung on an iron railing, the legs would twitch even in the
absence of an electrostatic machine. He further demonstrated that muscle contraction
could be elicited by simply touching the exposed muscle of one frog with the nerve of
another, suggesting an internal electrical source. Galvani also explored the effects of
natural electricity, such as lightning, on frog preparations, observing similar muscle
contractions.

Based on these experiments, Galvani formulated his theory of "animal

electricity". He proposed that animal tissues possessed an innate vital force, which he
identified as a unique form of electricity. He believed this "animal electricity" was
distinct from both natural electricity (lightning) and artificial electricity (static electricity
generated by friction). Galvani theorized that the brain was the primary organ
responsible for secreting this "electric fluid," which then traveled through the nerves to
the muscles, causing them to contract. He even drew an analogy between the muscle
and nerve tissues and the components of a Leyden jar, suggesting a mechanism for the
storage and discharge of this electrical force. Galvani meticulously documented his
findings and his theory in his seminal work, "De viribus electricitatis in motu musculari
commentarius" (Commentary on the Effect of Electricity on Muscular Motion), which
was published in 1791 and later in 1794.

Electricity Before Galvani: The Prevailing Scientific Landscape

Prior to Galvani's groundbreaking work, the understanding of electricity had

evolved over centuries, though it remained largely focused on phenomena distinct from
biological processes. Ancient civilizations were aware of the peculiar shocks delivered
by electric fish, such as the electric eel and torpedo ray. The ancient Greeks had also
observed the effects of static electricity, noting that rubbing amber could cause it to
attract small objects. William Gilbert, in 1600, made a significant contribution by
distinguishing between the effects of magnetism and static electricity.

The 18th century witnessed significant advancements in the study of electricity.

A crucial invention was the Leyden jar in 1746, which provided a means to store static
electrical charge. Benjamin Franklin's famous kite experiment in 1752 demonstrated the
electrical nature of lightning, further solidifying the understanding of this natural
phenomenon. Electrostatic machines were developed to generate electrical charges,
becoming essential tools for experimentation. Experiments by Stephen Gray and
Charles Dufay established the concepts of electrical conductors and insulators, and
revealed the existence of two types of electrical charges, positive and negative. Even
Alessandro Volta, Galvani's future adversary, had already made contributions to the
field of electricity with his invention of the electrophorus, a device for generating static
charge. By the latter part of the 18th century, while the understanding of static
electricity was growing, a reliable source of continuous electrical current remained
elusive. The prevailing scientific view of electricity was largely rooted in physics, and
Galvani's work was novel in its assertion of an intrinsic electrical force within living
organisms, thereby bridging the gap between the physical and biological sciences.

The Frog's Twitch: A Closer Look at the Defining Experiment

The experiments involving frogs, particularly the observation of their legs

twitching, became the hallmark of Galvani's discovery. His investigations primarily
utilized dissected frog legs, often with the sciatic nerve carefully exposed. Frogs were
chosen as the experimental model due to the ease with which their muscle
contractions could be observed and their nerves dissected.

The most famous of Galvani's experiments involved the use of a bimetallic arc.
He would connect the frog's nerve and muscle using an arc made of two different
metals, such as a brass hook inserted into the spinal cord and an iron railing on which
the hook was hung, or a steel scalpel touching a brass hook. Remarkably, the frog's leg
would twitch even in the absence of any external electrical source like a Leyden jar or an
electrostatic machine.

Galvani interpreted this phenomenon as evidence of "animal electricity"

originating within the frog's tissues. He proposed the existence of a "nerveo-electrical
fluid" that was responsible for these muscular movements. Galvani likened the frog's
leg to a Leyden jar, suggesting that it stored this animal electricity. The visual impact of a
seemingly lifeless frog leg twitching upon contact with metal captured the imagination
of both the scientific community and the public, making this experiment a defining
moment in the understanding of bioelectricity. The crucial role of the two different
metals in the arc, however, would later become a central point of contention in the
debate with Alessandro Volta.

A Battle of Ideas: The Scientific Debate Between Galvani and Volta

Alessandro Volta, a distinguished professor of physics, initially showed interest

in Galvani's findings. However, he soon began to question Galvani's interpretation that
the electricity causing the muscle contractions originated within the animal tissue
itself. Volta hypothesized that the electricity was not "animal" in nature but rather arose
from the contact between two dissimilar metals in the presence of a moist conductor,
such as the frog's tissues. He termed this phenomenon "metallic electricity" or "contact
electricity". To support his theory, Volta conducted numerous experiments using
different combinations of metals, even testing their effects on his own tongue to
perceive the electrical sensation.

Galvani staunchly defended his concept of "animal electricity." He countered

Volta's arguments by demonstrating instances of muscular action where only materials
of the same kind were used. A particularly compelling experiment involved causing a
muscle to contract by touching the exposed muscle of one frog with the nerve of
another, without the involvement of dissimilar metals. As Galvani himself was reluctant
to directly engage in the escalating controversy, his nephew, Giovanni Aldini, became a
prominent defender of the theory of animal electricity. Galvani further elaborated on his
ideas in his 1794 publication, "Dell'uso e dell'attività dell'arco conduttore nella
contrazione dei muscoli," published anonymously.

The debate reached a critical juncture with Volta's invention of the voltaic pile in
1800. This first electric battery consisted of alternating discs of zinc and silver
separated by cloth soaked in brine. Volta's creation demonstrated that electricity could
indeed be generated without the involvement of animal tissue. The voltaic pile provided
a continuous source of electrical current, a significant advancement that revolutionized
the study and application of electricity.

Ultimately, the scientific community largely sided with Volta's explanation,

particularly after the advent of the battery. However, with the benefit of hindsight and
further scientific investigation, it became clear that both Galvani and Volta had made
crucial contributions and were, in part, correct. Galvani was correct in his fundamental
assertion that muscular contractions are triggered by electrical stimuli, and he was the
first to demonstrate the existence of bioelectric forces within living tissue. While his
concept of a unique "animal electricity" as a vital force was not entirely accurate, his
work undeniably laid the foundation for the field of electrophysiology. Volta, on the
other hand, correctly identified that the contact between dissimilar metals could
generate an electric current, a principle that led to the invention of the battery. However,
he was incorrect in implying that all electrophysiological effects required two different
metals as a source of current. Despite their differing interpretations, Volta himself
honored Galvani by coining the term "Galvanism" to refer to the direct current of
electricity produced by chemical action.

A Legacy Forged in Electricity: The Impact on Biology and Electrophysiology

Galvani's work proved to be a watershed moment, fundamentally altering the

course of biological and physical sciences. He is widely regarded as the father of
electrophysiology, the branch of science dedicated to the study of electrical
phenomena in living organisms. His experiments provided the first concrete evidence
that nerve impulses and muscle contractions have an electrical basis. This
understanding marked a significant paradigm shift, moving away from earlier theories
that relied on hydraulic forces or the mysterious "animal spirits" to explain these
fundamental biological processes.

Furthermore, Galvani's investigations directly spurred Alessandro Volta to

develop the voltaic pile, the first practical battery. This invention provided scientists with
an unprecedented tool for studying electricity, leading to a cascade of discoveries and
ultimately ushering in the age of electric power. Volta himself acknowledged the
profound influence of Galvani's work by naming the phenomenon of chemically
produced electricity "Galvanism".

Galvani's pioneering research ignited further scientific inquiry into the electrical
nature of living organisms. His work inspired subsequent experiments that provided
further evidence for bioelectricity, such as those conducted by Carlo Matteucci, who
demonstrated the biological origin of animal electricity. Galvani's initial findings laid the
essential groundwork for the development of modern neuroscience and
electrophysiology, fields that now rely heavily on understanding and measuring
electrical activity in the body for diagnostics and treatment, including techniques like
electrocardiography (ECG), electromyography (EMG), and electroencephalography
(EEG).
 Beyond the direct scientific impact, Galvani's experiments and the concept of
galvanism also permeated popular culture. Most notably, they served as a significant
inspiration for Mary Shelley's iconic novel "Frankenstein," where the reanimation of a
lifeless creature is linked to the principles of galvanism. The notion of electricity
possessing the power to animate inert matter captured the imagination of the era and
continues to resonate in literature and film.

Honoring the Pioneer: Institutions, Awards, and Concepts Named After

Galvani

Luigi Galvani's profound contributions to science have been recognized and

memorialized in various ways, ensuring his legacy endures. In his native Bologna, his
home has been preserved, and the anatomical rooms where he conducted his
groundbreaking research at the University of Bologna are now part of the Museo di
Palazzo Poggi. A prominent statue of Galvani stands in Piazza Luigi Galvani, facing the
Archiginnasio, the ancient seat of the University of Bologna, depicting him observing
one of his famous frog experiments. One of Bologna's esteemed secondary schools, the
Liceo Ginnasio Luigi Galvani, founded in 1860, bears his name, a testament to his
enduring reputation in his hometown.

Several prestigious awards have been established in Galvani's honor. The

Bioelectrochemical Society awards the Luigi Galvani Prize biennially to a scientist who
has made significant contributions to the field of bioelectrochemistry. The Italian
Chemical Society also bestows the Luigi Galvani Medal, which recognizes the work of
foreign scientists in the field of electrochemistry.

Galvani's name has also become ingrained in scientific terminology and even
everyday language. The term "galvanism," as coined by Volta, refers to the generation of
electric current by chemical action and, more broadly, to Galvani's discoveries
concerning electricity in biological organisms. The verb "galvanize" means to stimulate
or revitalize, directly stemming from Galvani's work. Numerous specialized terms in
electrochemistry and related fields also incorporate his name, including Galvani
potential, galvanic anode, galvanic corrosion, and galvanic cell. The galvanometer, an
instrument used to detect small electric currents, was named in his honor by André-
Marie Ampère. Even in astronomy, his contributions are recognized with the naming of
the Galvani crater on the Moon. Furthermore, a bioelectronics research and
development company, Galvani Bioelectronics, carries his name.

Looking Back: Criticisms and Evolving Perspectives on Galvani's Findings

While Luigi Galvani's discoveries were revolutionary, they were not without their
critics, most notably Alessandro Volta. Volta's primary contention was that the
electricity observed in Galvani's experiments originated from the contact between
dissimilar metals, rather than from within the animal tissue itself. He argued that the
frog's leg acted merely as a sensitive detector of external electrical potential.

Over time, scientific understanding has evolved to recognize the validity in

aspects of both Galvani's and Volta's perspectives. While Galvani's notion of a unique
"animal electricity" as a vital force was not entirely accurate, his fundamental insight
that nerve and muscle function are electrical in nature has been thoroughly validated.
Volta's explanation regarding the generation of current through the contact of dissimilar
metals was also crucial and led to the development of the battery. However, Volta's
initial stance did not fully account for all the electrophysiological phenomena observed
by Galvani, such as the nerve-to-muscle contraction without dissimilar metals. Later
experiments, including some conducted by Galvani himself and others by scientists like
Carlo Matteucci, provided further evidence for the existence of bioelectricity originating
within animal tissues. Alexander von Humboldt's work in 1797 played a significant role
in distinguishing between bimetallic electricity and genuine animal electrogenesis. The
discovery of the "demarcation current" in cut nerves in later years also added further
nuance to the understanding of electrical activity in biological tissues.

Historically, Galvani's contributions have sometimes been underestimated, with

emphasis placed more heavily on Volta's invention of the battery. However,
contemporary perspectives in the history of science recognize the foundational
importance of Galvani's work in establishing electrophysiology as a distinct and vital
field. While Volta's battery had immediate and far-reaching practical applications,
Galvani's conceptual breakthrough in identifying the electrical nature of fundamental
life processes was equally revolutionary for the biological sciences. The ongoing
exploration and refinement of our understanding of bioelectricity underscore the
complexity of living systems and the continuous process of scientific discovery.

Conclusion: Summarizing the Enduring Significance

Luigi Galvani's pioneering investigations into the twitching of frog legs led to a
profound and enduring legacy in the world of science. His accidental yet meticulously
studied observations culminated in the revolutionary concept of "animal electricity,"
which, despite initial debate and refinement, fundamentally altered the understanding
of life. The ensuing intellectual clash with Alessandro Volta, sparked by their differing
interpretations of Galvani's experiments, proved to be remarkably productive, ultimately
leading to the invention of the electric battery, a cornerstone of modern technology.

Galvani's most significant contribution lies in his establishment of

electrophysiology, a field that continues to be central to our understanding of the
nervous and muscular systems. His work provided the crucial first evidence that
electricity is not merely a phenomenon of the physical world but also plays a
fundamental role in biological processes. The numerous institutions, awards, and
scientific terms named after Galvani stand as a testament to the lasting impact and
widespread recognition of his groundbreaking discoveries. The story of Luigi Galvani
serves as a compelling illustration of how scientific progress can emerge from
unexpected observations, rigorous experimentation, and the dynamic interplay of
ideas, ultimately revolutionizing our comprehension of the intricate relationship
between electricity and life.

Sources used in the report