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about the cover illustration
The figure on the cover of React Native in Action is captioned
“Insulaire D’Amboine” or “Islander of Amboine.” The
illustration is taken from a nineteenth-century edition of
Sylvain Maréchal’s four-volume compendium of regional dress
customs published in France. Each illustration is finely drawn
and colored by hand. The rich variety of Maréchal’s collection
reminds us vividly of how culturally apart the world’s towns
and regions were just 200 years ago. Isolated from each other,
people spoke different dialects and languages. Whether on city
streets, in small towns, or in the countryside, it was easy to
identify where they lived and what their trade or station in life
was just by their dress.

Dress codes have changed since then and the diversity by

region and class, so rich at the time, has faded away. It is now
hard to tell apart the inhabitants of different continents, let
alone different towns or regions. Perhaps we have traded
cultural diversity for a more varied personal life—certainly for a
more varied and fast-paced technological life.

At a time when it is hard to tell one computer book from

another, Manning celebrates the inventiveness and initiative of
the computer business with book covers based on the rich
diversity of regional life of two centuries ago, brought back to
life by Maréchal’s pictures.
 React Native in Action

Developing iOS and Android apps

with JavaScript
NADER DABIT

Manning

Shelter Island
For online information and ordering of this and other Manning books,
please visit www.manning.com. The publisher offers discounts on this book
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©2018 by Manning Publications Co. All rights reserved.

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or transmitted, in any form or by means electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, or otherwise, without prior written permission of the
publisher.
Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish
their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear
in the book, and Manning Publications was aware of a trademark claim, the
designations have been printed in initial caps or all caps.

Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, it is

Manning’s policy to have the books we publish printed on acid-free paper,
and we exert our best efforts to that end. Recognizing also our responsibility
to conserve the resources of our planet, Manning books are printed on
paper that is at least 15 percent recycled and processed without the use of
elemental chlorine.

Manning Publications Co.

20 Baldwin Road

PO Box 761

Shelter Island, NY 11964

Development editor: Marina Michaels

Project editor: Tiffany Taylor

Copy editor: Tiffany Taylor

Proofreader: Melody Dolab

Typesetter: Happenstance Type-O-Rama

Cover designer: Marija Tudor

ISBN: 9781617294051

Printed in the United States of America

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 – SP – 24 23 22 21 20 19
contents in brief
Part 1: Getting started with React Native
Chapter 1: Getting started with React Native
Chapter 2: Understanding React
Chapter 3: Building your first React Native app
Part 2: Developing applications in React
Native
Chapter 4: Introduction to styling
Chapter 5: Styling in depth
Chapter 6: Navigation
Chapter 7: Animations
Chapter 8: Using the Redux data architecture
library
Part 3: API reference
Chapter 9: Implementing cross-platform APIs
Chapter 10: Implementing iOS-specific
components and APIs
Chapter 11: Implementing Android-specific
components and APIs
Part 4: Bringing it all together
Chapter 12: Building a Star Wars app using
cross-platform components
appendix: Installing and running React Native
contents
Titlepage
Copyright
contents in brief
contents
preface
acknowledgments
about this book
Source code
Book forum

about the author

about the cover illustration
Part 1: Getting started with React Native
Chapter 1: Getting started with React Native
1.1 Introducing React and React Native
1.1.1 A basic React class
1.1.2 React lifecycle
1.2 What you’ll learn
1.3 What you should know
1.4 Understanding how React Native works
1.4.1 JSX
1.4.2 Threading
1.4.3 React
1.4.4 Unidirectional data flow
1.4.5 Diffing
1.4.6 Thinking in components
1.5 Acknowledging React Native’s strengths
1.5.1 Developer availability
1.5.2 Developer productivity
1.5.3 Performance
1.5.4 One-way data flow
1.5.5 Developer experience
1.5.6 Transpilation
1.5.7 Productivity and efficiency
1.5.8 Community
1.5.9 Open source
Immediate updates
Other solutions for building cross-platform
mobile applications
1.6 React Native’s drawbacks
1.7 Creating and using basic components
1.7.1 An overview of components
1.7.2 Native components
1.7.3 Component composition
1.7.4 Exportable components
1.7.5 Combining components
1.8 Creating a starter project
1.8.1 Create React Native App CLI
1.8.2 React Native CLI
Summary
Chapter 2: Understanding React
2.1 Managing component data using state
2.1.1 Correctly manipulating component state
2.2 Managing component data using props
2.3 React component specifications
2.3.1 Using the render method to create a UI
2.3.2 Using property initializers and constructors
2.4 React lifecycle methods
2.4.1 The static getDerivedStateFromProps
method
2.4.2 The componentDidMount lifecycle method
2.4.3 The shouldComponentUpdate lifecycle
method
2.4.4 The componentDidUpdate lifecycle method
2.4.5 The componentWillUnmount lifecycle
method
Summary
Chapter 3: Building your first React Native app
3.1 Laying out the todo app
3.2 Coding the todo app
3.3 Opening the developer menu
3.3.1 Opening the developer menu in the iOS
simulator
3.3.2 Opening the developer menu in the
Android emulator
3.3.3 Using the developer menu
3.4 Continuing building the todo app
Summary
Part 2: Developing applications in React
Native
Chapter 4: Introduction to styling
4.1 Applying and organizing styles in React
Native
4.1.1 Applying styles in applications
4.1.2 Organizing styles
4.1.3 Styles are code
4.2 Styling view components
4.2.1 Setting the background color
4.2.2 Setting border properties
4.2.3 Specifying margins and padding
4.2.4 Using position to place components
4.2.5 Profile Card positioning
4.3 Styling Text components
4.3.1 Text components vs. View components
4.3.2 Font styles
4.3.3 Using decorative text styles
Summary
Chapter 5: Styling in depth
5.1 Platform-specific sizes and styles
5.1.1 Pixels, points, and DPs
5.1.2 Creating drop shadows with
ShadowPropTypesIOS and Elevation
5.1.3 Putting it into practice: drop shadows in
the ProfileCard
5.2 Using transformations to move, rotate, scale,
and skew components
5.2.1 3D effects with perspective
5.2.2 Moving elements along the x- and y-axes
with translateX and translateY
5.2.3 Rotating elements with rotateX, rotateY,
and rotateZ (rotate)
5.2.4 Setting visibility when rotating an element
more than 90°
5.2.5 Scaling objects on the screen with scale,
scaleX, and scaleY
5.2.6 Using the scale transform to create a
thumbnail of the ProfileCard
5.2.7 Skewing elements along the x- and y-axes
with skewX and skewY
5.2.8 Transformation key points
5.3 Using flexbox to lay out components
5.3.1 Altering a component’s dimensions with
flex
5.3.2 Specifying the direction of the flex with
flexDirection
5.3.3 Defining how space is used around a
component with justifyContent
5.3.4 Aligning children in a container with
alignItems
5.3.5 Overriding the parent container’s
alignment with alignSelf
5.3.6 Preventing clipped items with flexWrap
Summary
Chapter 6: Navigation
6.1 React Native navigation vs. web navigation
6.2 Building a navigation-based app
6.3 Persisting data
6.4 Using DrawerNavigator to create drawer-
based navigation
Summary
Chapter 7: Animations
7.1 Introducing the Animated API
7.2 Animating a form input to expand on focus
7.3 Creating a custom loading animation using
interpolation
7.4 Creating multiple parallel animations
7.5 Creating an animated sequence
7.6 Using Animated.stagger to stagger animation
start times
7.7 Other useful tips for using the Animated
library
7.7.1 Resetting an animated value
7.7.2 Invoking a callback
7.7.3 Offloading animations to the native thread
7.7.4 Creating a custom animatable component
using createAnimatedComponent
Summary
Chapter 8: Using the Redux data architecture
library
8.1 What is Redux?
8.2 Using context to create and manage global
state in a React application
8.3 Implementing Redux with a React Native app
8.4 Creating Redux reducers to hold Redux state
8.5 Adding the provider and creating the store
8.6 Accessing data using the connect function
8.7 Adding actions
8.8 Deleting items from a Redux store in a
reducer
Summary
Part 3: API reference
Chapter 9: Implementing cross-platform APIs
9.1 Using the Alert API to create cross-platform
notifications
9.1.1 Use cases for alerts
9.1.2 Example of using alerts
9.2 Using the AppState API to detect the current
application state
9.2.1 Use cases for AppState
9.2.2 Example of using AppState
9.3 Using the AsyncStorage API to persist data
9.3.1 Use cases for AsyncStorage
9.3.2 Example of using AsyncStorage
9.4 Using the Clipboard API to copy text into the
user’s clipboard
9.4.1 Use cases for Clipboard
9.4.2 Example of using Clipboard
9.5 Using the Dimensions API to get the user’s
screen information
9.5.1 Use cases for the Dimensions API
9.5.2 Example of using the Dimensions API
9.6 Using the Geolocation API to get the user’s
current location information
9.6.1 Use cases for the Geolocation API
9.6.2 Example of using Geolocation
9.7 Using the Keyboard API to control the
location and functionality of the native keyboard
9.7.1 Use cases for the Keyboard API
9.7.2 Example of using the Keyboard API
9.8 Using NetInfo to get the user’s current
online/offline status
9.8.1 Use cases for NetInfo
9.8.2 Example of using NetInfo
9.9 Getting information about touch and gesture
events with PanResponder
9.9.1 Use cases for the PanResponder API
9.9.2 Example of using PanResponder
Summary
Chapter 10: Implementing iOS-specific
components and APIs
10.1 Targeting platform-specific code
10.1.1 iOS and Android file extensions
10.1.2 Detecting the platform using the Platform
API
10.2 DatePickerIOS
10.2.1 Example of using DatePickerIOS
10.3 Using PickerIOS to work with lists of values
10.3.1 Example of using PickerIOS
10.4 Using ProgressViewIOS to show loading
indicators
10.4.1 Use cases for ProgressViewIOS
10.4.2 Example of using ProgressViewIOS
10.5 Using SegmentedControlIOS to create
horizontal tab bars
10.5.1 Use cases for SegmentedControlIOS
10.5.2 Example of using SegmentedControlIOS
10.6 Using TabBarIOS to render tabs at the
bottom of the UI
10.6.1 Use cases for TabBarIOS
10.6.2 Example of using TabBarIOS
10.7 Using ActionSheetIOS to show action or
share sheets
10.7.1 Use cases for ActionSheetIOS
10.7.2 Example of using ActionSheetIOS
Summary
Chapter 11: Implementing Android-specific
components and APIs
11.1 Creating a menu using
DrawerLayoutAndroid
11.2 Creating a toolbar with ToolbarAndroid
11.3 Implementing scrollable paging with
ViewPagerAndroid
11.4 Using the DatePickerAndroid API to show a
native date picker
11.5 Creating a time picker with
TimePickerAndroid
11.6 Implementing Android toasts using
ToastAndroid
Summary
Part 4: Bringing it all together
Chapter 12: Building a Star Wars app using
cross-platform components
12.1 Creating the app and installing
dependencies
12.1.1 Importing the People component and
creating the Container component
12.1.2 Creating the navigation component and
registering routes
12.1.3 Creating the main class for the initial view
12.2 Creating the People component using
FlatList, Modal, and Picker
12.2.1 Creating the state and setting up a fetch
call to retrieve data
12.2.2 Adding the remaining class methods
12.2.3 Implementing the render method
12.3 Creating the HomeWorld component
12.3.1 Creating the HomeWorld class and
initializing state
12.3.2 Fetching data from the API using the url
prop
12.3.3 Wrapping up the HomeWorld component
Summary
appendix: Installing and running React Native
Developing for iOS devices
Getting started
Testing the installation on iOS
Developing for Android devices
Mac and Android
Windows and Android
Linux and Android
Creating a new project (Mac/Windows/Linux)
Running a project (Mac/Windows/Linux)

Index
List of Figures
List of Tables
List of Listings
preface
I’ve always been fascinated with the idea of mobile application
development. Building mobile apps was one of the reasons I
wanted to learn how to code. This fascination has lead me
down many paths, from Objective-C to jQuery mobile to
Cordova and now to React Native.

Because my career has centered around writing JavaScript, I’ve

also always been drawn to technologies that increase my
efficiency by using my existing skillset, allowing me to do more
than just web development. Finding ways to be more efficient
has been core to my career when choosing paths to follow and
rabbit holes to dive into.

When React Native first landed, I knew that it was going to be

something significant. There were already thousands of React
and JavaScript developers in the world. React Native gave
these developers a way to extend their existing skillset into the
realm of mobile application development in a way that Cordova
and other options didn’t, and also appealed heavily to React
developers who were at the time the most rapidly growing
segment of all frontend developers. The framework also
delivered a substantial increase in quality of applications that
could be built versus other options available in the same space.
After writing my first application and shipping it to the app
store, I had learned quite a bit and decided to start answering
questions on Stack Overflow. I quickly realized that I had
valuable knowledge I could share, while helping the community
as well my career, so I began hanging out there more and more,
answering questions.

I learned a lot while answering these questions, and eventually

I made a conscious decision to specialize 100% in the React
Native framework. I heard from many successful developers
and consultants that specializing had helped them in their
careers: they were more productive, got more business, and
could demand a higher rate. So, I decided to try being a
specialist for the first time in my career. This decision turned
out to be great for me; I quickly began getting leads for
consulting and, later, training.

I’ve watched the React Native framework grow from its infancy
to what it is today and have seen many developers and
companies rapidly increase their efficiency and productivity by
taking advantage of what the framework has to offer. I think
we’re at an exciting time for React Native: many Fortune 500
companies and enterprises are picking it up, finally solidifying
it as a first-class choice in their developer toolkits and giving
more confidence to people who are considering betting their
companies and applications on the framework. It will be
exciting to watch the framework evolve and to see the new apps
that will be shipped using React Native!
acknowledgments
This is the first time I’ve written a book. It has been a good
learning experience, and also much more work than I
anticipated. While I’ve been writing, my career has changed a
couple of times and my obligations along with it, affecting the
amount of time I could commit to the book. Nickie Buckner
and Marina Michaels are the reason this book is complete. If it
wasn’t for them, it would have been in editing indefinitely; I
was unable to rewrite a couple of chapters in a reasonable
amount of time, and Nickie stepped up in a huge way to finish
the book. Marina also did more than what was called for in
helping the book make it the last 20% of the way as my time
became increasingly constrained.

Thank you to my wife, Lilly, who worked overtime in addition

to her already exceedingly high normal duties as I worked late
nights in the office and sometimes at home to write this book.
Thank you to my kids, Victor and Eli, who are awesome; I love
them very much. And thank you to my parents for putting me
in a position to be able to learn things and get second, third,
and fourth chances at life.

My thanks go to many groups and individuals: to the React

Native community and the React Native team (Jordan Walke,
Christopher Chedeau, Adam Wolff, and everyone at Facebook
over the years whom I didn’t mention); to Monte Thakkar, who
took over React Native Elements’ open source while I was
writing (and to all React Native Training open source
contributors); to Eric Vicenti and Brent Vatne and all the
people who have worked on Navigation and many other
projects I use day to day; to Charlie Cheever, who has, with
Expo, pushed the development of many React Native projects
and, by extension, of Expo, and who has helped many open
source projects; to Parasharum N, who has been committed to
building things around React Native for years, now works on
React Native at Facebook, and has always been a great asset to
the community and ecosystem; to Peter Piekarczyk, Kevin Old,
Lee Johnson, Gant Laborde, and Spencer Carli, who have
consistently helped with the “React Native Radio” podcast; to
Russ Davis and SchoolStatus, for the opportunity to learn
React Native on the job, which is how I got started with it in the
first place; to Orta Therox and the people at Artsy, for their
commitment to the React Native community with their
amazing blog and open source; to Leland Richardson, Devin
Abbott, and the team at Airbnb, who gave React Native a fair
shot and contributed extensively to the ecosystem even though
the framework didn’t work out for Airbnb in the long run; to
the Wix team, who have contributed many amazing projects to
the React Native open source ecosystem; to Mike Grabowski
and Anna Lankauf, of Callstack, for being in charge of releasing
React Native open source, for many contributions to the React
Native open source ecosystem, and for collaborating with me
on things over the years; and to Jason Brown for pushing
amazing blog posts and teaching me about animations early on.
I’m sure I left out many people, and if that person is you, I
apologize and thank you for your contribution, as well.

Finally, I want to thank the people at Manning who made this

book possible: publisher Marjan Bace and everyone behind the
scenes on the editorial and production teams. My thanks also
to the technical peer reviewers led by Aleksandar
Dragosavljevic´: Alessandro Campeis, Andriy Kharchuk,
Francesco Strazzullo, Gonzalo Barba López, Ian Lovell, Jason
Rogers, Jose San Leandro, Joseph Tingsanchali, Markus
Matzker, Matej Strašek, Mattias Lundell, Nickie Buckner,
Olaoluwa Oluro, Owen Morris, Roger Sperberg, Stuart Rivero,
Thomas Overby Hansen, Ubaldo Pescatore, and Zhuo Hong
Wei. On the technical side, my thanks to Michiel Trimpe, who
served as the book’s technical editor; and Jason Rogers, who
served as the book’s technical proofreader.
about this book
React Native in Action was written to get you up and running
with the React Native framework as quickly and seamlessly as
possible. It uses a combination of real-world examples,
discussions around APIs and development techniques, and a
focus on learning things that will translate into real-world
scenarios.

The book begins with an overview of React Native in chapter 1,

following by a look at how React works in chapter 2. From
chapter 3 through the end of the book, you build applications
containing functionality you’ll use to build applications in the
real world. The book dives deep into topics such as data
architecture, navigation, and animations, giving you a well-
rounded understanding of how to build mobile apps using
React Native.

The book is divided into 4 parts and 12 chapters:

Part 1, “Getting Started with React Native”:

Chapter 1 gets you up and running with React Native by going
over what React Native is, how it works, its relationship with
React, and when you might want to use React Native (and
when you might not). This chapter includes an overview of
React Native’s components, which are at the core of React
Native. It concludes with creating a small React Native project.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 54 "the land of charity." with locks and bars, and upper
ceiling, so as to form a seciue repository for the cloths, jewels,
weapons, coins, brass vessels, and other household valuables.
Windows are either wanting, or are exceedingly small, and fitted
with wooden bars or carved work. The interior is often dark, and
ventilation is wholly disregarded. Rarely, except in large towns, are
native houses built in .•street rows, or quite up to the line of the
roadway. Between the public road and the dwelling an open space or
yard is left for various uses. Here rice is beaten in the w^ooden
mortar, or spread out to dry in the sun. In one corner of the yard are
sheds for cattle, and receptacles for rice, straw, cocoa-nuts, &c.
Behind or at the side is a small cookhouse, unless indeed culinary
operations are performed against the outer wall of the house, or
even inside one of the apartments. A well is often dug inside the
courtyard for convenience of access. In front is the door or gateway,
covered with a small roof-like frame, thatched, to protect the
woodwork from the effects of rain and sun. Here, too, in most
houses there is an open shed, in which visitors are received, and
business of all kinds transacted. In these little sheds we have often
engaged in worship with our Christian people. In the more
respectable native houses there are a great many separate buildings
; some of them carefully secluded for the use of the various
members of the family and their wives and children, with store-
rooms, cooking-houses, and often a small domestic temple in one
corner of the open courtyard. Little furniture is required or used. A
bench or two, a small native " cot" or T)ed-frame, on which a mat is
spread, a brass Limp suspended by a chain, a Avooden mortar for
pounding rice, and a few cooking vessels (the whole costing but a
few shillings), Ibrm the furniture of a small native hut.
 THE PEOPLE THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 55
European furniture, however, is coming into use in the houses of
wealthy natives. The ordinary costume of the people of Travancore is
remarkably simple and j^rimitive. While hard at work, many men,
such as fishers, tree climbers, and others, wear but the scantiest
shred of clothing demanded by common decency. A miserable
covering of green leaves serves to hide the nakedness of some of
the wildest of the mountaineers. Even the better classes ordinarily
wear very light clothing. " This, you know, is our uniform," said a
noble of high rank whom I visited once, and who received me
dressed in a single piece of cotton cloth fastened round the loins. A
Tamil man from the East is recognised in Travancore by the
comparative abundance of cloths in which he is enveloped. On
important occasions and in public, wealthy natives don a long coat
or jacket of wdiite or printed calico, with trousers somewhat in the
European style. This is the usual dress of the Mohammedans and
Christian teachers, and of the native police and Goverament
messengers, or "peons." The latter wear also an embroidered belt
with a brass or silver badge, having inscribed on it the department of
state in which they are employed. The materials ordinarily used are
common calico, or checked and striped coloured cloths,
manufactured in the country. The better classes occasionally use fine
silks, dyed or printed with brilliant colours. A turban of white or
coloured muslin, tightly and neatly folded in a great variety of
fashions, is the usual head-dress of the Travancorean. This is very
often simplified into a jjlain piece of white cloth, which may either be
thrown over the shoulders or twisted round the head. The turban
forms an admirable protection for the head from the burning heat of
the sun. Another head-dress is a light cap of cloth fitting closely to
the head, but somewhat conical at the top, and comin" down low
over the ears and back of the head.
 56 "the land of charity." Slaves and other poor people wear
rude caps, composed of the thick, leather-like leaf- sheath of the
areca palm tree. Men of all castes are accustomed at regular
intervals to shave the hair from the head as well as the face, for
coolness and cleanliness. After a " clean shave " of this kind I have
sometimes been at a loss to recognise my most intimate friends. A
small portion of the hair is always left uncut by heathen natives. This
is called the " Jiudmni," and is only cut off with certain ceremonies
on the occasion of the death of a father.* Most missionaries regard
this lock of hair as essentially a mark of heathenism, and require
Christian converts to abandon the custom. The "kudumi" is usually
worn at the hack of the head, but the JS'amburi Brahmans have it at
the front of the head, over the forehead, Avhere it is tied up in a
loose knot. The tradition is, that in former times Parasu Ramen
introduced these Brahmans into Travancore from the other side of
the mountains, lifting them up by the hair of the head, and hurling
them over the mountains. Thus the " kudumi " was dragged from
the back to the front of the head, where it has been worn by
members of this caste ever since. On the forehead of the Hindu a
little dot, or horizontal or upright lines are drawn with sacred ashes,
and renewed every morning. These are the sectarial marks denoting
the particular deity worshipped. The upright lines are the marks of
Vishnu, the horizontal lines of Siva, and so on. These signs are
repeated on the shoulders and breasts, while a few who make
pretences to special jmrity, rub the sacred ashes over the whole of
the u])per part of the body. Small golden earrings are often worn by
men. A few have the privilege of wearing large rings of gold in tlieir
ears. Kings are also worn by men upon the fingers. Around the
necks of Brahmans and others specially devoted to religion *
Compare Duut. xiv. I.
 THE PEOPLE THEIR MAXNERS AND CUSTOMS. 57 hangs a
necklace, or rosary, made of the hard round nuts of certain trees
strung together. These are used for reckoning the repetitions of the
appointed prayers. The heathen use vain repetitions, " for they think
that they shall be heard for their much speaking " (Matt. vi. 7). In
passing a native house I have often heard the voice of prayer, if the
mere repetition of " Narayana — Xarayanii — Xarayana ! " or of the
name of some other god several hundred times, can he regarded as
prayer in any true sense of the word. One is reminded by these
heathen customs of the singular resemblance which they bear to
some of the rites of the Eoman Catholic Church. The Eomanists, like
the Hindus, rub the sacred ashes on the forehead, but only once a
year — on Ash Wednesday. They use rosaries, exactly as the Hindus
do. They have images in their Avorship, but repudiate the idea of
worshipping the images themselves — so do the Hindus. Romish
priests and monks shave the crown of the head, leaving a ring of
hair on the outside. The Hindus have the long hair in the centre.
IMoreover, in the approval of celibacy and monachism, penances and
pilgrimages — in the use of sacred lamps, and candles, and
processions in worship— in regard to holy water, and sacred wells,
and prayer in an unknown tongue (Latin in the case of the
Romanists, Sanscrit amongst the Brahmans), and in the flicts that
the recognised Scriptures are forbidden to the laity, and all true
progress prohibited, we see points of startling resemblance or
identity between the superstitions of the East and those of the West.
Human nature is the same in every land. The mark of Brahmanical
dignity is a cord composed of three treble threads of cotton, worn
across the breast, running over the left shoulder and under the right
arm. This cord, however, or '^pumiJ," is worn also by goldsmiths
and several other castes, and by the males of the Eoyal Family. It is
renewed from time to time as it wears out. The upper part
 58 " THE LAND OF CHARITY." of the body and the lower
part of the legs are usually bare. Over one shoulder, or around the
neck, a light scarf-like cloth is often thrown. The principal garment
worn by men is the cloth fastened around the waist and covering the
lower part of the body and the loins. This is a single piece of cotton
cloth, not sewed or pinned, but merely fastened by having the
extremity tucked in at one side. Wooden or leather sandals and
shoes, or rather slippers, of various patterns, form the protection for
the feet. The shoes are peaked and turned backwards at the toes
and " down at the heel," so as to be easily laid aside when entering
a house, and resumed after the visit is over. Natives, up to the
highest in rank, put off the shoes before receiving visitors or
entering a house, just as Europeans uncover the head; while on the
other hand they retain the turban, or head-dress, which is always
worn according to the rules of Hindu etiquette on such occasions.
Stockings are never used. Eespectable natives carry an umbrella of
palm leaf, or cloth, but these are forbidden, by ancient custom, to
the lowest castes. They are permitted, however, to wear a kind of
broad umbrella cap of palm leaves. Persons of official rank enjoy the
privilege of having an umbrella of large size carried by an attendant,
and in the case of the Royal Family and the Prime Minister this is
formed of crimson silk. Fe dale dress in Travancore does not vary like
the everchanging fashions of European countries. For perhaps two
or three thousand years it has remained unaltered. The Hindu
woman has long, black, luxuriant hair, which she ties up in a knot at
the back, or, in the case of some castes, at the right side of the
head. AVhen fully dressed, rich golden ornaments and a few
handsome flowers are used to decorate the hair. Might it not be
worthy the consideration of fixshionable ladies at home Avhether it
would not be a hitherto unthought-of novelty, amidst the
innumerable
 THE TEOPLE — THEIR MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 53
fashions of " cliignons " at present, to try the effect of wearing them,
not at the back, or npper part of the head, but at the side, in.
imitation of this ancient, yet novel, Malabar fashion? Strange that
none of the leaders of fashion in Europe have thought of this ! Ear
ornaments, worn in a considerable variety of forms, are
indispensable to the completeness of the costume of a Travancore
lady. The views of the ]]rahman women as to the size of these
ornaments are much more moderate than those of the Sudra and
Shanar females. In the case of the latter the ear of the child is
pierced in the usual place, and a heavy leaden ring, or weight, is
then inserted, so as to draw down and extend the fleshy lobe and
greatly to enlarge the opening. After some time another weight is
added, then WOODEN BAE-CTLINDEB. another, and another, until, in
the course of a year or two, the ear is drawn down almost to the
shoulder ; without this the apj)earance of the maiden is supposed to
be very incomplete. The hole is enlarged and kept open by a piece
of
 CO "the land of charity." palm leaf rolled up so as to form a
light spring, or by a heavy wooden cylinder, represented of the
ordinary size in the illustration on the preceding page. Occasionally
the ring of flesh breaks under the operation, or is accidentally torn,
and the ends have to be cut afresh and re-attached, bandaged with
a small piece of the wing of a bat, anointed with oil, and carefully
tended till they reunite. In the opening of the ear thus unnaturally
enlarged, a circular ornament of gold or other material, of monstrous
size, is worn on marriage and other festive and full dress occasions.
^'^ose jewels, too, are required by the demands of female fashion
in Travancore. These are sometimes mere studs, worn on one side
of the nose, and fastened Avith a little pin inside. Or a large gold
ring, two inches in diameter, is passed through the nasal cartilage,
and hangs over a considerable portion of the mouth. This must be
held up by one hand, or removed, while partaking of food. These
golden ornaments are considered by the natives to form an
admirable contrast with the dark complexion, and to add greatly to
the beauty and bright expression of the countenance. Necklaces of
gold, silver, brass, or beads are worn by all except widows, who are
compelled to lay aside all ornaments and all coloured articles of
dress. In the case of the poor slave women, the necklaces of beads,
&c., hanging across the breast are so numerous as almost to amount
to an additional article of clothing. The " tdli " — marriage badge, or
neck ornament — corresponds, to all intents and purposes, to the
wedding ring amongst Euro]ieans. It is composed of one or more
small gold jewels and beads strung on a twisted thread. The " tali "
is tied on the bride's neck by the bridegroom at the time of the
wedding, and is worn as an auspicious ornament. It is preserved
with great care, and never removed except in case
 THE PEOPLE — THEIR MANXERS AND CUSTOMS. 61 of
widowhood, wlien it is torn off and not again resumed. In the
Christian form of marriage the national custom of " tying the tali " is
allowed and generally followed, though a few prefer to use the
European marriage ring. As already stated, low caste females in
Travancore were forbidden to wear any clothing whatever above, the
waist. This restriction has recently been removed by law, but a
lengthened period must yet elajise before the poorer classes
excepting those who enjoy the protection and support of the
Christian community, dare to avail themselves largely of this
privilege, on account of the jealousy of the higher castes. ^or,
indeed, do all the low castes, as individuals, care greatly for the use
of the privilege, except on special occasions, as it involves some
trifling additional expense and trouble. Howover, it is now left by the
Native Government, as it ought to be, to the free choice and right
feeling of the parties themselves. On his first arrival in the country a
European must be greatly shocked by seeing so large a proportion of
the people going about in a state thus nearly approaching to nudity,
and it requires a long time to become familiar with such a state of
things. The dark complexion of the natives, perhaps, makes this
custom seem less unnatural than it would be amongst Europeans.
Christian and Mohammedan women wear a neat jacket of white or
coloured cotton. The Siidra and other middle class females j^lace a
light cotton cloth loosely across the breast and over one shoulder.
This is called the "upper cloth." But in the presence of the Royal
Family or persons of high rank, or when saluting such persons
passing by, ancient usage actually required tlie removal of this cloth.
Since 1865, however, by the good feeling and enlightened action of
the Maharajah and his Minister, this degrading custom was
discountenanced and completely abolished by a Proclamation of
which the following is a translation : —
 C2 "the land of charity." " "Whereas Siidra women, when in
the presence of persons in high office, and when serving in the
Temple or Palace, lower their upper garment as a mark of respect,
this appears to His Highness (the sacred mind) exceedingly
immodest. We have informed the aforesaid persons that this
offensive custom is henceforth unnecessary. It is our will that all the
native people wear garments in accordance with propriety, and this
we now make known, when women in temples, in tlie Palace, and
other places, shall cover the upper parts with the cloth, in
accordance with this circular, we hereby order that the officials do
not ojipose their doing so." The Brahman women are, as might be
expected, much superior to others in regard to the proprieties of
dress. AVliile imposing barbarous and often inhuman restrictions
upon others, the Brahmans have taken good care that they
themselves shall not suffer any diminution of comfort or honour. The
upper part of the dress of a Brahman lady consists of a smart
coloured jacket, fastening in front, and covering the bosom, and
over this in addition the upper cloth is also worn. The principal
gai'ment of all classes of females is a piece of cloth several yards in
length, usually of white calico — sometimes coloured or checked —
occasionally of silken materials. This is tightly wound around the
waist and turned in at one end in a variety of forms, with neat folds,
making a kind of petticoat. The other extremity is used as an "upper
cloth," or shawl, by being thrown over the shoulder so as to cover
the shoulders and bosom. Considerable ingenuity and taste are
displayed in the mode of enveloping the person in this cloth, and the
whole forms a very graceful and appropriate female dress. Sundry
ornaments and jewellery, with the names and uses of which a
European gentleman can hardly be expected to be familiar, are worn
by Hindu females in various ranks and conditions of life. Besides
ornaments for tlie hair, nose 
 THE PEOPLE — THEIR MA.N.VERS AND CUSTOMS. 63
rings, earrings, and necklaces, there are armlets and bracelets of
various patterns and materials, numerous rings of shell or metal on
the fingers, large hollow rings on the ankles (never of gold), and
rings on the second toe of thp foot. In fact, when a native girl or
woman goes out to walk in full dress, the " tinkle, tinkle, tinkle,"
which attends her movements are a notice that all may see she is
dressed " in the tip-top of tlie fashion." One is reminded of the list of
Jewish female ornaments in the third chapter of Isaiah, the names
and uses of Avhich seem to have perplexed commentators quite as
much as those of the Hindu ladies puzzle present writers on India.
On no subject are Hindus more vigilant and prejudiced than on that
of food ; this being one of the great tests of orthodoxy. Caste rules,
as we have seen, forbid their partaking of food in company with
persons of lower caste, or which has been prepared by such. The
profession of a cook, as well as that of a teacher, is highly
honourable in India. Hence the exercise of extreme caution as to the
individuals with whom they eat, and as to the preparation of food.
After coming into personal contact with a low caste man or a
European, a caste Hindu must bathe and perform other ceremonies
before he dare again eat or drink. Their difficulties in this matter,
while on a journey and under other circumstances, are incessant and
annoying ; yet the law of caste is unyielding, even in the most
extreme cases. A European physician was invited to visit and
prescribe for a Hindu Prince, who was suffering under a severe
attack of illness. The medical gentleman was duly Avarned not to
touch or a})proach the noble patient ; but in his anxiety about the
case he forgot the prohibition, and in the course of conversation
drew his chair nearer and nearer. At last, rising for a moment, and
laying his hand upon the post of the bed, he requested the patient
to show his tongue. A
 64 "the land of charity." groan of sympathetic horror and
distress was uttered by the native attendants, for now their master
had become polluted, and it would be necessary, notwithstanding
the suffering and danger of using cold water, to bathe ere he could
again partake of nourishment of any kind. Long voyages are
impracticable, because, in accordance with the laws of caste, food
cannot be cooked or eaten on shipboard, and it is, of course,
impossible to land for the preparation of every meal. I have
sometimes seen native dignitaries at the table of Europeans, by
whom they were invited as an act of courtesy, or giving a dinner at
their own houses to European guests. On these occasions they sit
and converse with their European friends, but dare not partake of a
single particle of food with them, or in their presence. The Brahmans
profess to reject animal food of every kind, including eggs, but they
indemnify themselves, to some extent, for this self-denial by the use
of quantities of milk, curd, and butter. Siidras partake freely of
miitton and poultry, and even pork, but to all, excejot the most
degraded Hindus, the flesh of the cow is the object of unmitigated
abhorrence. This, no doubt, arose originally from the peculiar utility
of these humble and patient creatures for agricultural jjurposes, and
the consequent idea of sacredness which became attached to them.
Hence it is that European " beefeaters " cannot but be viewed, from
a caste point of view, with the greatest abhorrence. " Ourry and rice
" is one of the ftivourite and characteristic dishes of the natives of
India, and a capital article of food it is when properly prepared. The
rice is well boiled in water. Curry is a compound of spices — such as
mustard, pepper, turmeric, ginger, coriander seed, tamarinds,
onions, cocoanut juice, &c., in varying proportions, according to the
flavour required. The ingredients being ground with a stone roller, on
a flat smooth stone, are boiled and added to the meat,
 THE PEOPLE — THEIR MAXXERS AXD CUSTOMS. G5 fish,
or vegetable which, is to he "curried." When eating, the natives sit
cross-legged upon the ground. The rice is ladled out upon a large
plantain leaf, and a small quantity of the savoury curry soup is
added. Plates, spoons, and forks are not used. A small quantity of
the rice is taken up in the right hand, mixed with the curry, made
into a little ball, and deftly thrown into the mouth. For liquids, the
firm hard leaves of the jack tree are puckered up at one side and
fastened with a thorn, so as to form a rude kind of spoon. These
leaves are thrown away after being once used. Wealthy natives have
many different kinds of curries set before them at each meal.
Vegetables and fruits of all kinds, milk and curds, rice and flour
cakes, are largely used by the natives as food ; of late coffee also is
coming into use. A considerable variety of sweetmeats are sold in
the bazaars. A light meal of " conjee," that is, rice with the water in
which it is boded, is taken early in the morning ; curry and rice are
ready by noon ; and at sunset, or later, supper is made of the same
dishes with the usual accompaniments. In India, men and women
never eat together. After the males of the family have finished their
repast, the women, who have meanwhile been attending upon
them, retire apart to their own quiet meals.
 66 CHAPTEE V. THE NATIVE GOVERNMENT. Eelation to the
British Government — Legislation — The Maharajah — His Titles —
Court and Levees — The DewSn — Revenue and Expenditure — Law
Courts — Crime and Criminals. Travancore, though nominally an
independent state, under the rule of its own native sovereign, is in
reality, as we have shown, tributary to the British Government, and
under its control and protection. All important measures of
legislation and finance, the appointment of the higher officials, and
even the succession to the musnud, or throne, must be submitted to
tlie British Eesident for his opinion and sanction before being carried
into operation. Sentences of capital punishment, too, must have the
concurrence of the Eesident before being executed. Without some
such external restraint and stimulus, the country, with its rigid Hindu
conservatism and barbarous caste laws, could never have improved
as it has done for the last ten or twelve years, so as to be now,
except in the matter of the low -caste population, who are treated as
quite out of the pale of human society and laws, confessedly one of
the best governed native states in India. In many instances it has
been only after considerable moral pressure, both from public
opinion and from the British representatives, that the native
Government have yielded to accept the reforms urged uj)on tliem.
Notwithstanding all that has been accomplished, however, \^cry
much yet remains to be effected in the improvement of
 THE NATIVE GOVERNMENT. 67 legislation, and the
extension of freedom to all classes of the population. Large and
liberal measures are still imperatively required for the henefit of the
oppressed and down-trodden low castes. These are not, it should be
remembered, in every instance, necessarily poor or destitute of
capacity and moral character, in proportion to their position in the
arbitrary scale of caste. The masses of the low-caste population
have been as yet but slightly touched by the partial reforms of the
Travancore Government. They ought, for instance, to have a fair
share in the scheme of Government education, from which they are
at present excluded solely on account of caste. Children of low caste
are refused admittance into nearly all the Government English and
vernacular schools ; yet these contribute their fair quota to the
public funds, which are wasted on Brahmanical rites, or expended
almost exclusively on the education of the higher castes. Although
permission to cover the upper part of the person has been given to
the lower castes, they are still by law restricted to the use of coarse
cloths, to the manifest detriment of the national commerce and
manufactures. Any advance, too, in the use of richer ornaments,
palankeens, and other luuxuries, on the part of wealthy members of
these castes, is strictly prohibited. The public roads, also, ought to
be opened freely to all classes, and admission to all the courts
conceded to even the lowest and most despised of the population.*
Moreover, the flourishing, peaceful, and loyal native Protestant
Christian community claims recognition by the Government as a
body with a status of its own, like the Mohammedans, Syrian
Christians, and Jews. IN^ative Protestant Christians should be
specified in the census, and admitted to the police, the civil service,
and any other employments and offices in the state for which they
may * See Note on p. 46.
 68 " THE LAND OF CHARITY." prove themselves to possess
the requisite qualifications. In short, the half a million low-caste
people, constituting no less than one-third of the whole population,
should be educated, enfranchised, invested with the rights of
citizenship, and admitted to the enjoyment of the natural and
indefeasible rights and liberties which belong to every member of tlie
great human family. The official titles of the MahaRxUah of
Travancore are sufficiently numerous and imposing. The title in full is
as follows : — " His Higlmess Sree Patmanabha Dausa Vunchee
Eaula Eama Vurmah Koolasekhara Kireetapati Munnay Sultan
Mahiiraj Riljah Eamarajah Bahadur Shamsheer Jung, Knight Grand
Commander of the Most Exalted Order of the Star of India,
Maharajah of Travancore." "Maha" is the Sanscrit term for "great" or
"mighty," as " rajah " means " king." The title " Maharajah" had long
been used by native subjects, but it was only in 1866 that the British
Government resolved that in recognition of the liajah's excellent
administration of the state he should in future be addressed in all
communications as " Maharajah." In the same year the order of the
Star of India was conferred on his Highness as a mark of her
Majesty's royal favour. The letter announcing the nomination as
Knight Grand Commander was formally received at a grg,nd
"durbar," or levee, in Trevandrum, and the insignia were presented
to his Highness by Lord Napier, Governor of Madras, in that city. The
personal name of the j)resent [Maharajah is " Eama Vurmah," the
names of two Hindu deities. " Shamsheer Jung" means "Chief in
War." The remaining titles mostly refer to the names of Hindu gods,
or are indicative of regal authority and dignity. Durbars or levees are
held by the INIaharajah on state occasions, — such as the
installation of the sovereign, mar 
 THE NATIVE GOVERXMEXT. G9 riages in the royal family,
visits of the Governor of INIadras, or the reception of state letters
and documents. A brief description of the first durbar vi'hich the
writer attended may interest our readers. This took place on the 2nd
of May, 1860. The occasion was the reception of an autograph letter
and handsome present from her Majesty the Queen to the late
Eajah. Invitations had been issued by the Eesident, on behalf of the
liajah, to most of the Europeans resident m the country, so that the
unusually large number of thirty or forty Avere present at the durbar.
The native houses in the town were decorated with bright-coloured
flowers and plantain trees in fruit, and festoons of flowers and the
green leaves of the palm tree cut and plaited into a variety of
ornamental shapes, were strung across from house to house. At
three o'clock we drove to the palace, and entered a magnificent
pavilion which had been erected for the occasion. This was prettily
adorned with garlands, hangings, mirrors and ornamental work, and
supplied with showy European furniture. At the head of the room
stood an ivory throne, with a shield and bow at the sides ; above it
was a glittering canopy supported by four silver pillars. In this hall
the guests were already assembling, and a crowd of native officials
stood around. The Dewan, a pleasant-looking man, short in stature,
Avith a very intelligent countenance, fair complexion, and bright
expressive eyes, dressed in white robes with gold spangles, and a
Avhite turban, engaged in polite conversation with the visitors.
Shortly afterwards, the Eajah, a rather stout and finelooking man,
entered the room, accompanied by the Princes, his nephews. He
Avore a robe of green satin, and a white turban, garnished Avith
emeralds and a drooping plume of feathers, with two large pendent
pearls. After bowing to the company, his Highness passed on to
Adew his little army draAvn up Avith military dis].)lay in front of the
palace,
 70 "the land of oiiaritt." where also were the gigantic state
elephants gorgeously caparisoned Avith howdahs and trappings of
silver, ivory, and velvet, and an immense crowd of native spectators.
On his appearance the troops presented arms, and the "band struck
uj) the national anthem. At half-past three the British Resident
arrived in procession, with his escort of British sepoys, and was
saluted by the native troops. He was met and received at the door of
the Durbar Hall by the First Prince, and a little farther on by the
Eajah himself. Here he presented the Queen's letter to his Highness,
who received and opened it, and taking the Resident's arm,
proceeded wp the hall to the throne. The Europeans, at the same
time, took their seats in their order of precedence, on chairs ranged
on either side of the room. There were present, besides the British
Resident and Mrs. Maltby, Colonel Stevenson, who was charged with
the safe delivery of the Royal letter, the commanding officers of the
Nair Brigade and the residency escort, other military officers, judges,
medical gentlemen, engineers, merchants, and missionaries, with
their respective wives. The native officials stood behind as
spectators. The letter from the Queen acknowledged the present of
an ivory throne, beautifully carved, which had been forwarded to the
Great Exhibition of 1851, and was afterwards given by the Rajah to
her Majesty. (It is now in one of the apartments of "Windsor Castle.)
The Queen sent, in return, a handsome ornamental belt, with rich
gold embroidery and buckle, set with precious stones and containing
a watch with the initials of the Queen and the Rajah, set with
diamonds in blue enamel, on the opposite sides. The Resident then
presented the case containing the belt to his Highness, who placed it
for a moment on his head as a mark of great respect. Tli belt was
put on the Rajali l)y the Resident, and his lliglmess in a short speech
expressed liis great gratification
 THE NATIVE GOVERXMEXT. 71 ■witli the present, declaring
that he regarded himself as the most fortunate prince in India, on
account of it. Three cheers for the Queen were then given, amid the
deafening roar of a royal salute from the artillery and volleys of
musketry. After a short time spent in formal conversation— the
Eajah, addressing the Dewan, who repeated his remarks to the
Resident, and carried back his answers in return — the durhar
closed. Before leaving, garlands of jessamine, fragrant leaves and
tinsel ornaments were placed, according to Hindu custom, by the
Eajah round the neck and on the wrists of the Resident and his lady.
The Princes did the same for the remainder of the guests, each
saldmmg and shaking hands with their Highnesses at the door of the
palace. The Dewan, or Prime Minister, is at the head of the Avhole
administration of the State, and responsible only to the Maharajah,
and indirectly to the British Government. The present Dewan, Sir
Madava Row, Knight Commander of the Order of the Star of India, is
a jNIahratta Brahman of great talents and probity. Having enjoyed
the benefit of a liberal education at the Madras University, he
became English tutor to the present Maharajah and his brother. He
afterwards received the appointment of Peishcar, and in 1858
became Dewan. It seems providential that his eminent talents,
firmness, and political sagacity have for so long a time been devoted
to the interests of Travancore. He has had a large share in the
improvements which have taken place — in the removal of several
long-established evils, the amendment of the laws and
administration of justice, and in the establishment of valuable
educational and benevolent institutions. His own example and
personal influence in favour of popular education have also produced
most beneficial results. The country is divided, for purposes of
government, into
 72 " THE LAND OF CHARITY." four " divisions," or
provinces, each in charge of a " Dewan Peishcar," or provincial
governor, and these are suhdivided into thirty-two " districts," or
counties, with a " Tahsildar," or magistrate, at the head of each.
There are also numerous minor subdivisions under the charge of
inferior officers. The annual revenue of the Travancore State
amounts on an average to about forty-five lacs of rupees, or
£450,000 sterling. For the last two years it has exceeded 50 lacs. Of
this sum, above one-third, £165,000, or more, is raised by taxes on
land, rice-fields, gardens, and productive trees — such as palms,
jack trees, and coffee. Customs duties on imports and exports, by
land and sea — especially the exports of cocoa-nut produce,
tamarinds, and cofi"ee, yield say £35,000. The import duty on
tobacco brings about £80,000, and that on salt £85,000, besides
which there are taxes on arrack and opium, pepper, cardamoms,
timber, &c. The usual annual expenditure includes about £56,000
(somewhat less during the past two years) for the maintenance of
Hindu temples ; £30,000, or more, for the Free Inns for Brahmans ;
and occasionally large sums in addition for extraordinary religious
ceremonies, such as the sexennial Murajabam, which costs £16,000,
the " Tulabharam " ceremony £16,000, and others of a similar
character. The Maharajah's personal expenditure is within £50,000
per annum. Pubhc works, to the extent of between £50,000 and
£60,000, are annually undertaken. The Nair troops, about 1,400 in
number, with European officers, maintained for purposes of State
and the preservation of internal peace, cost £15,000 a year. The
annual subsidy paid to the British Government is fixed at about
£81,000. The remainder of the income is expended on the civil,
judicial, and police establishments, with some £30,000, or more,
paid for various goods, as salt, tobacco, timljer, &c., of whicli the
Government retains the monopoly, or which it purchases and sells at
considerable profit.
 THE NATIVE GOVERXMEXT. 73 It will he seen that the taxes
in Travancore amount to about three rupees, or six shillings, per
head, a sum somewhat higher than the average taxation in British
India. The High Court, in which there are four judges, sits at
Trevandrum, and receives appeals in both civil and cruninal cases.
One of the judges is always a Christian, as so large a proportion of
the people are Christians of various sects. Subordinate to this court
are the District Civil and Criminal Courts, each held at some central
town in one of the principal divisions. Each coui't has two judges, of
whom one is a Christian. There are in addition small cause courts,
besides the various police courts at the head-quarters of each
Tahsildar. Appeals may be made ultimately from all these tribunals to
the royal justice and supremacy of his Higimess the Maharajah.
Litigation is common amongst all classes. This arises from many
causes, such as the minute subdivision of lands and the intricate
tenures on which they are held, the peculiar laws of succession and
inheritance, family partnerships and 2)articipation in common
property, caste regulations, jealousies and oppressions, religious
disputes, the injustice and partiality of inferior Government officials,
assaults, forgeries and fraud, larcenies, and so forth. There are few
natives who have not had, at some time or other, dealings with the
law, and I have often marvelled at the pertinacity and dogged
determination evinced by them in disputes which involved apparently
very insignificant interests. Crime is not at present particularly rife in
Travancore. There is no organized crime, nor are there professional
criminals. The commonest offences are those against the person and
against property, and disputes regarding the possession of land, with
cases of smuggling, forgery, perjury, &c. In 18G9, 512 persons, of
whom a few were females, were charged with the graver offences.
Yet this is not an unfa 
 74 "the land of charity." vourable average in a population of
a million and a half. 'I'here were 24 charges tried of culpable
homicide, involving 62 persons, which (with the average of previous
years) is a much larger proportion than in .England. Of these, 3 were
sentenced to capital punishment. The attempts at suicide were 16 ;
and the actual deaths by suicide, so far as ascertained, were 52. The
number of accidental deaths was 200. The favourite mode of
committing suicide is by hanging from a tree or drowning in a well.
Natives frequently threaten this if thwarted or denied their requests,
and the mere threat is often effectual for their purpose. It is
sometimes actually carried out in revenge for some injury, real or
imagined. The offended party kills himself on the premises of his
adversary, under the erroneous imjiression that he will be held
resjDonsible for the occurrence. Indeed, in old times it generally did
require the expenditure of large sums of money in bribing the police,
who were ever ready to take advantage of the terror and misgivings
of the party implicated, and of the uncertainty often necessarily
arising as to whether the case was one of suicide or of murder.
There are generally 500 or 600 convicts in the several prisons, of
whom above 400 are in the principal gaol at Trevandrum. Of the
whole number, about 60 are under confinement for life. Most of the
convicts are sentenced to hard labour, and go out daily under the
charge of guards to work in gangs on the roads. Bound the ankles of
the male prisoners heavy iron rings are fastened, and these are
united by cross bars which admit of their walking, but not with ease.
Very rarely is solitary confinement resorted to. 1'he prison at
Trevandrum consists of a long, two-storied building, running round
the sides of a square yard or open space with a noble banyan tree in
the centre, under the shade of which stands a small temple for the
use of the heathen prisoners. The ground-floor is supported by
pillars, and is
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