OPEN UNIVERSITY ISCED

Faculty of Education Sciences

Bachelor's Degree in History

Formation of the State of Mwenemutapa

Teresa Moisés cássimo: 96210045

Lichinga, May 2022

OPEN UNIVERSITY ISCED
Faculty of Education Sciences
Bachelor's Degree in History

Formation of the Mwenemutapa State

Work of character
evaluation to be submitted in
History discipline of
Southern Africa
Guided by:

Tutor

Teresa Moisés Cássimo: 96210045

LICHINGA, May 2022

Index
1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................4

1.1 Objectives...........................................................................................................................4
1.1.1 Geral................................................................................................................................4
1.1.2 Specifics.......................................................................................................................4
1.2 Methodological......................................................................................................................4
2 Formation of the Mwenemutapa State.......................................................................................5
3 Political and Administrative Organization.....................................................................................5
4 Economic Activitiess .........................................................................................................6
4.1 The trade.........................................................................................................................6
4.2 The village communityã............................................................................................................6

4.2 Obligations of the mushas.......................................................................................................7

5 The political-administrative structure.........................................................................................7

5.1 The dominant aristocracy....................................................................................................7
5.2 Obligations of the ruling class.........................................................................................8
5.3 Aristocracy/community8
6 The exploration

7 The ideological apparatus,.............................................................................................................9

Decline of the Mwenemutapa Statea ...................................................................................10

8.1 Causes
9 Chronology of the Mwenemutapa Empire.............................................................................11
10 Final Considerations...........................................................................................................12
11 Bibliographic References..................................................................................................13
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1 Introduction

The Mwenemutapa Empire (which was the title of its chief) was an empire that
bloomed between the 15th and 18th centuries in the southern region of the Zambezi River, between the plateau of

Zimbabwe and the Indian Ocean, with extensions probably as far as the Limpopo River.

The territory of this Empire corresponds to a large part of the current territory of
Mozambique and Zimbabwe. This African state was extremely powerful, as once
that controlled a large chain of mines and metallurgy of iron and gold, whose
Products were highly sought after by merchants from other regions of the world.

The political situation of this people was verified through explorers and
explored just as happened with many other states that flourished in
Mozambique, where the exploited worked about 7 days for the Mwene.

1.1 Objectives

1.1.1 General

Describe the trajectory of the Mwenemutapa empire from its creation to its end.
decadence

1.1.2 Specific

Present the chronology and ideologies of the Mwenemutapa empire;

Point out the political-economic structure during this period;

1.2 Methodological

A literature review was conducted on the qualitative analysis method.

For Gil (1994, p. 71) ''The main advantage of bibliographical research or

qualitative analysis lies in the fact that it allows the researcher to cover a range
of phenomena much broader than those that could be researched directly
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Formation of the Mwenemutapa State

According to (Sengulane, 2013) Around 1450, the Great Zimbabwe was

abandoned by most of its inhabitants and the reasons for it are not very clear
abandonment despite the previously mentioned reasons. Among the
Vassal states were located in Sedanda, Quissanga, Quiteve, Manica, Báruè.
Maungwé, in addition to others in the interior. Its chiefs paid tribute to
The Mwenemutapa reign was confirmed when they came to power. The
Mwenemutapas dominated the south of the Zambezi until the end of the 17th century and

they survived in the Zambezi valley and in the Southwest of Tete until the beginning of the 20th century.

3 Political and Administrative Organization

The State of Mwenemutapa was very well organized. The populations

We lived in villages under the leadership of a chief. A group of villages formed a
leadership directed by a chief named Fumo. (Polonah, 1967)

In the Karanga-Shona community, a set of chiefdoms formed a region,

governed by a mambo or Nkozi. The Mwenemutapa, the supreme chief, had powers
absolutes; that is, everything belonged to him. In the direction of the state, he was assisted by 9 high

employees, the advisors. Among these advisors. Among these advisors there were
a religious leader, a chief justice, and a chief of the army. (Sengulane, 2013)

The Mwenemutapa still had other employees who were the Mutumes and the
Enfices. The Mutumes were messengers of the Mwenemutapas, and the Enfices applied to
justice. All these employees and bosses belonged to the exploiting class, they should
obedience to the orders of Mwenemutapa and they were changed whenever he wanted.

(Oliveira, 1972)

The workers, who formed the exploiting class, dedicated themselves to

agriculture, livestock farming and mining.
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4 Economic Activities

4.1 The trade

According to (Polonah, 1967) The trade in the State of Mwenemutapa was

one of the driving forces in the development of the economy of the State of Mwenemutapa
then the king fixed his gaze on the exchange of goods carried out there with the Arabs and
later the Portuguese at the port of Sofala. (The emphasis is ours).

The main products traded were gold (which had no value for the
populations of Mwenemutapa), iron, copper, ivory, as well as slaves. In exchange, the
Arabs brought beads, fabrics, porcelain, and other luxury items.
History Department Uem, 2000), Gold was the main item of
Commerce, in fact, already many before the arrival of the gold deposits are located,
essentially, in the plateau lands: thus the Mwenemutapa or rather (Chidima and
Dande), Bútua and Manica. In some regions, mining work occupied only,
a small part of the year. Portuguese Swahili-Arabs controlled the gold coming from
Mwenemutapa Empire.

This trade with the outside world, called long-distance trade was
monopoly of Mwenemutapa. Most of the products received were goods
disrepute, which had no usefulness for the development of society.
(Oliveira, 1972)

4.2 The village community

According to the (Department of History Uem, 2000) The productive activity

the essence of the Shona village communities was based on agriculture. The main cereals
cultivated were mapira, mexoeira, nexemim, and corn. In the coastal areas with
only alluvial lands were cultivated with rice usually for sale. However, the level of forces
productivity was still low. In agricultural work, the main tool was
it was the small hoe with a short handle and agriculture was practiced through slash-and-burn.
livestock farming, fishing and hunting as well as artisanal activities emerged as appendices
complementary to agriculture, submitting to the imperatives of the agricultural cycle.
 7

Work in the mines appeared as an imposition from the outside of the aristocracy.
dominant or of foreign merchants. The Mushas lived under a regime of self-
subsistence and were fundamentally oriented towards the production of use values.
All relationships generally integrated a family in the broad sense or a group of
families with the same background, the Muri among the members of the Shona society, to
the level of the Mushas was founded on kinship. (Oliveira, 1972)

4.2 Obligations of the mushas

The obligations of the mushas were as follows:

Provide 7 days of work monthly in Mambo's fields;
Construction of houses for the members of the ruling class (ZUNDE);
Gold mining to feed the long-distance trade that ensured the
importation of products for Shona society, which ascended to the category
prestigious goods (beads, fabrics, china, porcelain, glass, etc);
Payment of taxes on first fruits of the harvests (symbolic tribute) and a
part of agricultural production (regular);
Delivery of ivory, animal skins, and feathers from some birds;
Delivery of construction materials for residences of the ruling class, such as
stones, stake, straw, etc.

5 The political-administrative structure

5.1 The dominant aristocracy

In Shona society, the State was personified by the person of the sovereign, the
Mambo, who should detach himself from his earthly origin to confer the 'royalty'. A
sacred character. He thus became the supreme representative of all communities,
the symbol of the unity of interest of these communities. For this purpose, they resorted to the

mambo is the practice that brought them closer to supernatural beings. The mambo had
some subordinate employees: the Mutumes (messengers) and the Ínfices (personal guards)
of the sovereign). (Polonah, 1967)
 8

The population was administratively divided into various

communities (musha) at the front of each of which was a Mukuro
My ancestor (the oldest elder) was part of a larger group.
(province), led by a Fumo or Encosse, dependent on a Mambo.
(Oliveira, 1972)

According to the (Department of History of Uem, 1982), it is important to note

that according to a source from the seventeenth century, was elected as smoke whoever had the greatest

material wealth.

5.2 Obligations of the ruling class

Guide the ceremonies for invoking the Rain;

Ask the real Muzimos (spirits of the royal ancestors) for the fertility of the soil,
the success of the harvests;
Guarantee the safety of people and their property;
Ensure political and military stability in the territory;
Serve as a faithful intermediary between the living and the dead;

Guide the magic-religious ceremonies against floods, epidemics, and others.

calamities.

5.3 Aristocracy/community

According to MIRANDA, 1766 apud (Department of History of Uem, 1982),

when a Mwenemutapa died and until the election of the new mambo, power was exercised
for a character who used the name Nevinga, without being the bearer of any
the royal attribute was killed soon after the election of the rightful mambo.
In an orderly manner, the political-administrative structure of the empire of

Mwenemutapa can be represented as follows:

I. Mambo: supreme chief;
Chief of the lands Mazarira, Inhahanca, and Nambuiza: three main wives of the
sovereign with important functions in the administration;
II. New senior officials: responsible for defense, trade, ceremonies
magical-religious, foreign relations, festivals, etc;
III. Fumos or Encosses: provincial chiefs;
 9

IV. Mukuru or Mwenemusha: chiefs of the village communities or of the Mushas;

V. As Mushas.

6 The exploration

For the Ideological Department of Frelimo (1978: 53), the territory of the state of
The Mwenemutapa era was very large. How then did its supreme chief manage to control it?
The fire was very important for the populations (...) the villages paid the tribute.
Thus the populations demonstrated their recognition of the power of the dominant class. They

they believed that Mwenemutapa had supernatural powers. It was in this way that the
the supreme chief controlled his great State.

The members of the tribes had to give to the Mwenemutapa, every month,
some working days, usually 7 days for each month. The populations should
to work on their lands, to harvest, to build their homes, among others. The
this form of exploitation was called Zumdi. (Nhapulo, 2011:).

The ideological apparatus,

Magic-religious beliefs have always played a very important role in the

maintenance of power and social cohesion. They practiced rituals dedicated to the spirits of
ancestors. There were some terms used to designate God: Mulungu,
used in the maritime lands, along the Zambezi valley and northeast of the plateau
the Zimbabwean and God on the plateau. (Oidtman, 1968)

According to (Oliveira, 1972) among the most feared Muzimu were those of the kings. This

regular practice of the dominant classes of the state of the Mwenemutapas and the states
satellites will contact their Muzimu regularly through specialists
mediators designated by Pondoros or Mondoros (lions). The Mwenemutapa Matope, the
the second of the dynasty declared that his spirit was immortal, it metamorphosed into a
Lion, for what killing a Lion was considered an unforgivable crime.
 10

The mediums (Swikiros) were closely associated with political power and
especially to successions. The Swikiros constituted the supports of the dominant classes
and they are the executors of the orders of the ancestors, dead in life and alive in death.
All this ideological apparatus contributed to ensure the social reproduction of Chona and of the
existing social inequalities. (Sengulane, 2013)

8 Decline of the State of Mwenemutapa

8.1 Causes

According to MIRANDA, 1766 apud (Department of History of Uem, 1982),

The settlement of Portuguese traders on the coast - the Portuguese settlement initially took place
on the coast, with the founding of the trading post of Sofala in 1505 and on the island of Mozambique in

1507. They hoped to control the routes for the flow of gold and the through Sofala.
ivory on a small scale from the interior.

Starting in 1530, the Portuguese penetrated the Zambezi valley founding the
factories of Sena and Tete in 1530 and that of Quelimane in 1544. It is now a matter of not

control the channels of gold outflow, but rather the access to the producing areas
of gold, contradicting the Swahili Arabs; (Nhapulo, 2011).

Struggles for succession - The ruling class was involved in profound

contradictions and intra- and inter-dynastic struggles. Gatsi-Lucere, the emperor feeling
militarily powerless to quell the revolt led by Mathuzianye, found itself
thank you for requesting Portuguese military support. As a reward, the Mwenemutapa
The reigning promised in 1607 the grant to the Portuguese of all mines in the state;
(Sengulane, 2013)

Lack of a permanent army - With the death of Lucere in 1627, the

Emperor Capranzina who represented a faction opposed to mercantile interests
Portuguese was deposed and replaced by his Uncle Mavura. The Portuguese baptized
Mavura by the name of Filipe; (Oidtman, 1968)
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According to (Nhapulo, 2011) The interference of foreigners, especially from

Portuguese in the internal affairs of the state - The process of compromising the new
the emperor culminated with the signing in the same year (1629) of the treaty, designated by

Mavura treaty that transformed the empire into a vassal state of Portugal. By this
treaty, the aristocracy of Mwenemutapa remained
thank you to:
allow the free movement of people and goods exempt from any tax;
the obligation for the Mwenemutapa to consult the Portuguese captain before
make any important decision;
not to require Portuguese employees and merchants to observe the rules
protocols when received by authorities and high dignitaries of the court
(take off shoes, remove the hat, clap, kneel, etc);
not to force the Portuguese merchants to pay taxes related to their
activity
to accept a force composed of 50 Portuguese soldiers at the court;
expel the Asian merchants from the empire; allow the construction of churches in
territory.
The first European to come into contact with the city of Great Zimbabwe, capital of
Mwenemutapa would have been the navigator and explorer
Sancho de Tovar
Invasion of the Ngunis;
Alliances of the successors of the reigning Mwenemutapa with the Portuguese.

9 Chronology of the Mwenemutapa Empire

I. 1450-1550: Mutota founded the State of Mwenemutapa between the Mazoe rivers and

Luia;
II. 1590: Rise of Mutapa Gatsi Rusere, who allied with the Portuguese;
III. 1631: Kapararidze heads a rebellion against the Mutapa Mavura, an ally of the
Portuguese
IV. 1693: Changamire Dombo controls the power of the Mwenemutapas and expels the
Portuguese from the lands of the empire. (NHAPULO, 2011: 12).
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10 Final Considerations

After the approaches regarding the work, the following conclusions are reached
conclusions:
The origins of the ruling dynasty within the Mwenemutapas date back to
first half of the 15th century. According to oral tradition, the first "mwene" was
warrior prince of a southern Shona kingdom, called Nyatsimba Mutota, sent to
find new sources of salt, to the north.
Prince Mutota found salt among the Tavara, a subdivision of the Shonas.
they were notorious elephant hunters.

The main products traded were gold (which had no value for the
populations of Mwenemutapa), iron, copper, ivory, as well as slaves. In exchange, the
Arabs brought beads, fabrics, porcelain, and other luxury items.
Department of History Uem, 2000), Gold was the main article of
Commerce, in fact, many years before the arrival of the gold mines are situated,
essentially, in the plateau lands: thus the Mwenemutapa or that is (Chidima and
Dande, Bútua, and Manica.

In some regions, mining work occupied only a small

part of the year. Portuguese the Swahili-Arabs controlled the gold coming from the Empire of
Mwenemutapa.
 13

11 Bibliographic References

IDEOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT OF FRELIMO. History of Africa. Maputo, SLE,

1978.
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY, UEM. History of Mozambique: beginnings
sedentary societies and the impact of merchants (200/300-1886). Vol. I, Maputo, 1982.
Sengulane, H. (2013). History of the institutions of political power in Mozambique.
Maputo, Diname.
Oidtman, C. (1968) - the port of Sofaia and the problem of Zimbabwe. BOI. SOC. Est.
Mozambique.
Oliveira, C. (1972) - An essay on the Tauaros of the Zambezi valley. Lisbon:
Geographica.
Possession and Exorcism in Mozambique
from Mozambique.
The Empire of Monomotapa