Modern Philosophies

Within the epistemological frame that focuses on the nature of knowledge and how we come to
know, there are four major educational philosophies, each related to one or more of the general
or world philosophies just discussed. These educational philosophical approaches are currently
used in classrooms the world over. They are Perennialism, Essentialism, Progressivism, and
Reconstructionism. These educational philosophies focus heavily on WHAT we should teach,
the curriculum aspect.
Perennialism
For Perennialists, the aim of education is to ensure that students acquire understandings about
the great ideas of Western civilization. These ideas have the potential for solving problems in
any era. The focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, to seek enduring truths which are
constant, not changing, as the natural and human worlds at their most essential level, do not
change. Teaching these unchanging principles is critical. Humans are rational beings, and their
minds need to be developed. Thus, cultivation of the intellect is the highest priority in a
worthwhile education. The demanding curriculum focuses on attaining cultural literacy, stressing
students' growth in enduring disciplines. The loftiest accomplishments of humankind are
emphasized– the great works of literature and art, the laws or principles of science. Advocates
of this educational philosophy are Robert Maynard Hutchins who developed a Great Books
program in 1963 and Mortimer Adler, who further developed this curriculum based on 100 great
books of western civilization.
Essentialism
Essentialists believe that there is a common core of knowledge that needs to be transmitted to
students in a systematic, disciplined way. The emphasis in this conservative perspective is on
intellectual and moral standards that schools should teach. The core of the curriculum is
essential knowledge and skills and academic rigor. Although this educational philosophy is
similar in some ways to Perennialism, Essentialists accept the idea that this core curriculum
may change. Schooling should be practical, preparing students to become valuable members of
society. It should focus on facts-the objective reality out there--and "the basics," training
students to read, write, speak, and compute clearly and logically. Schools should not try to set
or influence policies. Students should be taught hard work, respect for authority, and discipline.
Teachers are to help students keep their non-productive instincts in check, such as aggression
or mindlessness. This approach was in reaction to progressivist approaches prevalent in the
1920s and 30s. William Bagley, took progressivist approaches to task in the journal he formed
in 1934. Other proponents of Essentialism are: James D. Koerner (1959), H. G. Rickover
(1959), Paul Copperman (1978), and Theodore Sizer (1985).
Progressivism
Progressivists believe that education should focus on the whole child, rather than on the content
or the teacher. This educational philosophy stresses that students should test ideas by active
experimentation. Learning is rooted in the questions of learners that arise through experiencing
the world. It is active, not passive. The learner is a problem solver and thinker who makes
meaning through his or her individual experience in the physical and cultural context. Effective
teachers provide experiences so that students can learn by doing. Curriculum content is derived
from student interests and questions. The scientific method is used by progressivist educators
so that students can study matter and events systematically and first hand. The emphasis is on
process-how one comes to know. The Progressive education philosophy was established in
America from the mid-1920s through the mid-1950s. John Dewey was its foremost proponent.
One of his tenets was that the school should improve the way of life of our citizens through
experiencing freedom and democracy in schools. Shared decision making, planning of teachers
with students, student-selected topics are all aspects. Books are tools, rather than authority.
Humanism
The roots of humanism are found in the thinking of Erasmus (1466-1536), who attacked the
religious teaching and thought prevalent in his time to focus on free inquiry and rediscovery of
the classical roots from Greece and Rome. Erasmus believed in the essential goodness of
children, that humans have free will, moral conscience, the ability to reason, aesthetic
sensibility, and religious instinct. He advocated that the young should be treated kindly and that
learning should not be forced or rushed, as it proceeds in stages. Humanism was developed as
an educational philosophy by Rousseau (1712-1778) and Pestalozzi, who emphasized nature
and the basic goodness of humans, understanding through the senses, and education as a
gradual and unhurried process in which the development of human character follows the
unfolding of nature. Humanists believe that the learner should be in control of his or her own
destiny. Since the learner should become a fully autonomous person, personal freedom, choice,
and responsibility are the focus. The learner is self-motivated to achieve towards the highest
level possible. Motivation to learn is intrinsic in humanism.
Recent applications of humanist philosophy focus on the social and emotional well-being of the
child, as well as the cognitive. Development of a healthy self-concept, awareness of the
psychological needs, helping students to strive to be all that they can are important concepts,
espoused in theories of Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Alfred Adler that are found in
classrooms today. Teachers emphasize freedom from threat, emotional well-being, learning
processes, and self-fulfillment.
Reconstructionism/Critical Theory
Social reconstructionism is a philosophy that emphasizes the addressing of social questions
and a quest to create a better society and worldwide democracy. Reconstructionist educators
focus on a curriculum that highlights social reform as the aim of education. Theodore Brameld
(1904-1987) was the founder of social reconstructionism, in reaction against the realities of
World War II. He recognized the potential for either human annihilation through technology and
human cruelty or the capacity to create a beneficent society using technology and human
compassion. George Counts (1889-1974) recognized that education was the means of
preparing people for creating this new social order.
Critical theorists, like social reconstructionists, believe that systems must be changed to
overcome oppression and improve human conditions. Paulo Freire (1921-1997) was a Brazilian
whose experiences living in poverty led him to champion education and literacy as the vehicle
for social change. In his view, humans must learn to resist oppression and not become its
victims, nor oppress others. To do so requires dialog and critical consciousness, the
development of awareness to overcome domination and oppression. Rather than "teaching as
banking," in which the educator deposits information into students' heads, Freire saw teaching
and learning as a process of inquiry in which the child must invent and reinvent the world.
For social reconstructionists and critical theorists, curriculum focuses on student experience and
taking social action on real problems, such as violence, hunger, international terrorism, inflation,
and inequality. Strategies for dealing with controversial issues (particularly in social studies and
literature), inquiry, dialogue, and multiple perspectives are the focus. Community-based learning
and bringing the world into the classroom are also strategies.

Post Modern Philosophies

Postmodernism describes the school of thought arising mainly from oppositional and radical
movements in contemporary society. The advent of the Industrial Revolution brought about
major societal changes, as well as several social inequalities that were previously unheard of.
Although the advances in science and technology continue to shape the world as we know it,
the accompanying social changes in power and class structure tend to persist in similar forms
as well. It is in opposition to these now established societal structures that postmodernist
thought arose in very different areas of the world.

Philosophers who contributed to postmodernism include Friedrich Nietzsche, Martin Heidegger,

Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Karl Marx. Friedrich Nietzsche (1844–1900) was a
German philosopher who contributed the notion of life-affirmation to postmodernism and
questioned even the most socially acceptable doctrines, such as religion and morality.
Nietzsche focused on the world around us rather than the afterlife.

Martin Heidegger (1899–1976), another German philosopher, is known for creating the concept
of existentialist phenomenology. Existentialist phenomenology concludes that we construct our
own truths from within, as opposed to theories that advocate one universal truth. Furthermore,
Heidegger inferred that we are not born into an existing reality but construct our own reality
based on our involvement in the world and on our innate intuitions.

Jacques Derrida (1930–2004), a French philosopher, was well known for his controversial
approach to understanding the world, the deconstruction method, and was a major contributor
to postmodernism. The deconstruction method is a process of criticizing literary texts,
philosophical texts, and political theories. It entails a breakdown of the rational purposes, or
logos, of earlier Western philosophy that was believed to govern the universe. Additionally,
Derrida believed that universal rationality was not found in objective reality, but in the text.
Simply stated, deconstruction is simply a method of exploring the text to find additional shades
of meaning.

Michel Foucault (1926–1984) was a French philosopher who examined the theories of, and
relationship between, truth and power. Foucault established the presence of episteme in
philosophy. Epistemes are the knowledge or understanding that contribute to a society at a
particular time in history. He claimed that there is not one universal truth, but several truths,
unique to each individual. These multiple truths result in a constant shift in the relationship of
truth and power. As a result, power is not something that can be possessed, but something that
can be implemented.

Postmodernist educators believe that there is no absolute or universal truth, arguing that truth
changes with the advent of new events and discoveries. This means that scientific events that
took place historically on one side of the world have influenced political and social events that
are now taking place on another.

Postmodernist educators embrace and encourage individual expression, going further to

encourage cross-cultural dialogue and debates as a necessary factor in the education process.
An important point raised by postmodernists is that political factors and themes such as power
and social inequality must be addressed if a teacher is to provide a holistic education. These
themes are as relevant to science and mathematics as they are to social sciences, with the
postmodernist view rejecting the idea that subjects should be rigidly compartmentalized.

Based on this overview of postmodernism, what is your philosophy and does it align with your
school’s education system? It is necessary to know the philosophy behind your school because
as a teacher you are viewed as one who is upholding these values and beliefs.

B. Sociological Perspectives
1. Social Dimensions of Education

Theoretical
Major assumptions
perspective

Education serves several functions for society. These include (a)

socialization, (b) social integration, (c) social placement, and (d) social and
Functionalism cultural innovation. Latent functions include child care, the establishment of
peer relationships, and lowering unemployment by keeping high school
students out of the full-time labor force.

Education promotes social inequality through the use of tracking and

standardized testing and the impact of its “hidden curriculum.” Schools
Conflict theory
differ widely in their funding and learning conditions, and this type of
inequality leads to learning disparities that reinforce social inequality.

Symbolic This perspective focuses on social interaction in the classroom, on the

interactionism playground, and in other school venues. Specific research finds that social
interaction in schools affects the development of gender roles and that
teachers’ expectations of pupils’ intellectual abilities affect how much pupils
learn.