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California Water Crisis 1st Edition Paula C. Serrano
Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Paula C. Serrano
ISBN(s): 9781617286223, 1617286222
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 25.98 MB
Year: 2010
Language: english
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
WATER RESOURCE PLANNING, DEVELOPMENT AND MANAGEMENT
No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or
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rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.
WATER RESOURCE PLANNING, DEVELOPMENT
AND MANAGEMENT
PAULA C. SERRANO
EDITOR
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
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Preface vii
Chapter 1 California Drought: Hydrological and Regulatory Water
Supply Issues 1
Betsy A. Cody, Peter Folger and Cynthia Brougher
Chapter 2 California Water Law and Related Legal Authority Affecting the
Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta 29
Cynthia Brougher
Chapter 3 Reality Check: California's Water Crisis 41
United States Department of the Interior
Chapter 4 Written Statement of Mary Glacken, Deputy Under-Secretary for
Oceans and Atmosphere, National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, before the Committee on
Natural Resources, - Oversight Hearing on "The California
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
implications, resulting in job and income losses in northern California. The short-term issue
for Congress is how to evaluate demands for increasing water supplies that may help some
users but may jeopardize the continued existence of several fish species. A longer-term issue
for Congress is how to evaluate management alternatives that will protect species, but also
help water users and economies that depend on reliable water supplies and healthy
ecosystems.
While three years of hydrological drought conditions have created a fundamental
shortage of water supply in California, many water users have questioned the extent to which
regulatory and court-imposed restrictions on water removed from the Sacramento and San
Joaquin Rivers Delta, in order to protect fish habitat, have contributed to water shortages in
2009. Conversely, fishermen and others question to what degree increased Delta pumping in
2004 contributed to fish declines.
Current observations of below-average runoff, reservoir levels, and groundwater levels
are broadly comparable to those observed during previous episodes of drought in California.
At the end of water year 2008-2009 (October through September), statewide precipitation
stood at 76% of average, and water levels in key reservoirs in the state were 69% of average.
Groundwater levels from selected wells in the Central Valley are also broadly similar to
groundwater levels during two previous historic drought periods. The below-average
viii Paula C. Serrano
precipitation, below-average water content of the Sierra snowpack in consecutive winters, and
similarity of groundwater levels compared across different periods of California drought
support the contention that a multiyear hydrological drought underlies the current water crisis
that faces California.
Depending on what baseline is used, total reductions in water exported from the Delta in
2009 are estimated to range from 37% to 42%. Restrictions on water deliveries resulting
directly from federal and state regulations, or imposed by courts‘ interpretation of those rules,
are estimated to range roughly from 20% to 25% of the total export reductions for 2009. The
remaining 75%-80% of 2009 export reductions, according to the Department of the Interior,
are due to ―lack of runoff‖ (i.e., drought) and other factors. The system of state water rights
also has a profound effect on who gets how much water and when, particularly in times of
drought or other shortages. Water shortages due to drought and regulatory export restrictions
have resulted in unequal impacts on Central Valley Project (CVP) and State Water Project
water contractors because of differences in priority of water rights underlying different water
contracts. Although combined Delta exports have increased on average since the 1980s and
early 1990s, even with implementation of several regulatory restrictions, CVP water
allocations for some contractors have been significantly reduced.
This report discusses California‘s current hydrological situation and provides background
on regulatory restrictions affecting California water deliveries, as well as on the long-
established state water rights system, which also results in uneven water deliveries in times of
shortages.
Chapter 2 - The Sacramento-San Joaquin River Delta (the Delta) is formed by the
confluence of the north- flowing San Joaquin River, the south-flowing Sacramento River, and
the San Francisco Bay, to which the delta of the two rivers is linked. The 1,153-square-mile
estuary is the hub of California‘s extensive water supply system. The Delta provides water to
more than 25 million people and habitat for various species, including the threatened delta
smelt and endangered chinook salmon. As such, the Delta has endured decades of competing
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
water demands. During this time, the Delta ecosystem has experienced environmental
degradation, increasing regional water demands, and a decrease in reliable water supplies for
urban, agricultural, and natural areas.
The numerous stakeholders associated with the Delta include agricultural, urban,
industrial, environmental, and recreational interests. In order to provide water to the various
users, two major water projects were created: the federal Central Valley Project and the State
Water Project. Concerns have been raised about the effectiveness of the regulation of these
projects and the Delta waters generally, both to meet the needs of water users and to avoid
environmental impacts to water quality and species. Specifically, in late 2007, a federal judge
ordered a reduction in the amount of water pumped out of the Delta in order to preserve the
habitat of endangered fish in the Delta, meaning less water would be available for areas that
depend on the water projects for their water supply. In 2008, those restrictions were continued
under a newly issued biological opinion, and another judicial decision was issued that
indicates similar restrictions may be required for other species. Furthermore, Governor
Schwarzenegger declared a state of drought for the entire State of California in June 2008 and
declared a state of emergency in California due to drought in February 2009. These events
pose significant impacts on California‘s water supply. As a matter of overseeing the impacts
of water flow and water management in the Delta, the House Natural Resources Committee
Preface ix
held a subcommittee hearing on the effect conditions in the Delta have on the endangered
species there in 2008.
This report provides a summary of California‘s dual system of water rights, which
includes riparian and prior appropriation doctrines, and regulation of those rights by the state.
In particular, the report discusses considerations used in the process of regulating water
usage, including the public trust doctrine, the rule of beneficial use, and the no injury rule.
The report discusses the California water projects, the projects‘ rights, and access to water by
other users. Significant court decisions and relevant statutes that affect the Delta are explained
as well.
Chapter 3 - From California‘s Bay Delta and the farms of the Central Valley to the
fisheries of northern California and cities in the south, a third year of severe drought is
affecting the lives of all Californians. This document aims to provide clear, accurate
responses to questions about the state‘s water crisis so that Californians can make informed
decisions about water use and help build a sustainable water future for themselves and their
communities.
Chapter 4 - This chapter is edited and excerpted written testimony by Mary Glackin
before the Committee on Natural Resources on March 31, 2009.
Chapter 5 - This chapter is edited and excerpted testimony by J. William McDonald
before the Committee on Natural Resources on March 31, 2009.
Chapter 6 - This chapter is edited and excerpted testimony by Candace Thompson before
the Committee on Natural Resources on March 31, 2009.
Chapter 7 - This chapter is edited and excerpted prepared testimony by Mike Chrisman
before the Committee on Natural Resources on March 31, 2009.
Chapter 8 - This chapter is edited and excerpted prepared testimony by Allen Ishida
before the Committee on Natural Resources on March 26, 2009.
Chapter 8 – These remarks were delivered as Statement of Allen Ishida, Tulare County
Supervisor, before the Committee on Natural Resources, U.S. House of Representatives,
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
The groundwater availability studies being conducted for each regional groundwater flow
system emphasize the use of long-term groundwater monitoring data, in conjunction with
groundwater models, to improve understanding of the flow systems and assess the status and
trends in groundwater resources in the context of a changing water budget for the aquifer
system. The results of these individual groundwater availability studies will be used
collectively as building blocks towards a national assessment of groundwater availability. In
addition, these studies will provide the foundational information and modeling tools needed
to help State and local resource managers make water availability decisions based on the
latest comprehensive quantitative assessment given their regional water-management
constraints and goals.
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
In: California Water Crisis ISBN: 978-1-61728-267-6
Editor: Paula C. Serrano © 2011 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
SUMMARY
California experienced severe water supply shortages in 2009, which led to economic
disruption across the state, including concentrated losses in agricultural areas in the western
portion of the Central Valley—areas already experiencing declines in the housing industry
and the economic downturn in general. At the same time, several fish species whose habitat
lie at the heart of California‘s water supply system and throughout its northern rivers are in
decline and some face the possibility of extinction. This situation too has had economic
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
implications, resulting in job and income losses in northern California. The short-term issue
for Congress is how to evaluate demands for increasing water supplies that may help some
users but may jeopardize the continued existence of several fish species. A longer-term issue
for Congress is how to evaluate management alternatives that will protect species, but also
help water users and economies that depend on reliable water supplies and healthy
ecosystems.
While three years of hydrological drought conditions have created a fundamental
shortage of water supply in California, many water users have questioned the extent to which
regulatory and court-imposed restrictions on water removed from the Sacramento and San
Joaquin Rivers Delta, in order to protect fish habitat, have contributed to water shortages in
2009. Conversely, fishermen and others question to what degree increased Delta pumping in
2004 contributed to fish declines.
Current observations of below-average runoff, reservoir levels, and groundwater levels
are broadly comparable to those observed during previous episodes of drought in California.
At the end of water year 2008-2009 (October through September), statewide precipitation
stood at 76% of average, and water levels in key reservoirs in the state were 69% of average.
Groundwater levels from selected wells in the Central Valley are also broadly similar to
groundwater levels during two previous historic drought periods. The below-average
2 Betsy A. Cody, Peter Folger and Cynthia Brougher
precipitation, below-average water content of the Sierra snowpack in consecutive winters, and
similarity of groundwater levels compared across different periods of California drought
support the contention that a multiyear hydrological drought underlies the current water crisis
that faces California.
Depending on what baseline is used, total reductions in water exported from the Delta in
2009 are estimated to range from 37% to 42%. Restrictions on water deliveries resulting
directly from federal and state regulations, or imposed by courts‘ interpretation of those rules,
are estimated to range roughly from 20% to 25% of the total export reductions for 2009. The
remaining 75%-80% of 2009 export reductions, according to the Department of the Interior,
are due to ―lack of runoff‖ (i.e., drought) and other factors. The system of state water rights
also has a profound effect on who gets how much water and when, particularly in times of
drought or other shortages. Water shortages due to drought and regulatory export restrictions
have resulted in unequal impacts on Central Valley Project (CVP) and State Water Project
water contractors because of differences in priority of water rights underlying different water
contracts. Although combined Delta exports have increased on average since the 1980s and
early 1990s, even with implementation of several regulatory restrictions, CVP water
allocations for some contractors have been significantly reduced.
This report discusses California‘s current hydrological situation and provides background
on regulatory restrictions affecting California water deliveries, as well as on the long-
established state water rights system, which also results in uneven water deliveries in times of
shortages.
INTRODUCTION
This report analyzes California‘s current hydrological situation and addresses whether
California is experiencing a hydrological drought and to what extent water delivery
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
reductions are linked to regulatory restrictions. Some observers question the Administration‘s
and the state‘s contention that drought conditions persist and that such conditions are largely
to blame for significantly reduced water deliveries in 2009. It appears that three years of
hydrological drought conditions have created a fundamental shortage of supply, and that
regulatory and court-imposed restrictions, as well as the long established state water rights
system, seem to have exacerbated the impacts of drought on water deliveries. An underlying
question is not necessarily whether the drought is either hydrological or regulatory, but rather
to what extent each affects water deliveries.
The Department of the Interior (hereafter referred to as ―Interior‖) has stated that
California is experiencing a hydrological drought.1 This also was briefly stated by Interior and
other federal agencies in response to Member questions during a March 31, 2009, hearing on
drought before the House Natural Resources Committee. Further, the governor of California
declared a drought emergency in both January 2008 and January 2009. Earlier this year,
USDA had designated two California counties as primary natural disaster areas, and most
recently the U.S. Department of Agriculture on September 22 designated 21 counties in
California as ―primary natural disaster areas‖ because of losses caused by drought in 2009.2
CRS has analyzed a variety of data and information on hydrological and regulatory limits
on California water resources, as well as restrictions due to water rights allocations. This
California Drought: Hydrological and Regulatory Water Supply Issues 3
WHAT IS DROUGHT?
Droughts have affected the United States, particularly the American West, for centuries.
Drought is defined in a number of ways; the simplest may be as a deficiency of precipitation
over an extended period of time, usually a season or more.3 The deficiency is usually
evaluated relative to some long-term average condition, or balance, between precipitation,
evaporation, and transpiration by plants. Drought, which has a beginning and an end, is
distinguished from aridity, which is restricted to low-rainfall regions and is a relatively
permanent feature of climate (e.g., deserts are regions of relatively permanent aridity).4
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
At the national level, drought is monitored and reported in an index known as the U.S.
Drought Monitor, which synthesizes various drought indices and impacts, and represents a
consensus among academic and federal scientists of ongoing drought conditions. The U.S.
4 Betsy A. Cody, Peter Folger and Cynthia Brougher
Drought Monitor uses five key indicators, together with expert opinion, indices to account for
conditions in the West where snowpack is relatively important, and other indices used mainly
during the growing season. (The five key indicators include the Palmer Drought Index, the
Climate Prediction Center soil moisture model, U.S. Geological Survey weekly streamflow
data, the Standardized Precipitation Index, and short- and long-term drought indicator
blends.)5 Drought indices are typically used to assess and classify the intensity and type of
drought. The classification of drought intensity, such as that shown in Figure 1, may depend
on a single indicator or several indicators, often combined with expert opinion from the
academic, public, and private sectors.
The ―A‖ and ―H‖ terms shown in Figure 1 give additional information on the nature of
the drought in the affected region. Agricultural drought (―A‖) can be defined as when there is
insufficient moisture to meet the needs of a particular crop at a particular time.6 Hydrological
drought (―H‖) can be defined as deficiencies in water supplies, as measured by stream flows,
lake or reservoir levels, or elevation of the ground water surface. Hydrological drought
usually lags behind agricultural drought because it takes longer for deficiencies in
precipitation to affect the broader hydrologic system. Lack of rainfall during a critical part of
the growing season may have an immediate impact on farmers—an agricultural drought—but
the deficiency may not affect reservoir or river levels for many months. Because a
hydrological drought affects the broader hydrologic system, such as one or several river
basins, a severe hydrological drought could exacerbate competition among water uses:
irrigation, navigation, recreation, municipal and industrial supply, energy production,
preservation of endangered species, and others.
2009. The map does not take into consideration any decisions on reductions in water delivery
made by the state or federal government. It is strictly a representation of the hydrological
status of California (from factors other than deliveries of water mandated or restricted by
regulation). However, increases in 2009 precipitation levels in many California watershed
basins and near-average and above-average reservoir levels in some areas of the state have
caused some to question the drought determination by state and federal officials. Some parties
have pointed in particular to environmental restrictions on Delta exports as causing a
regulatory or ―man-made‖ drought.7 In response to this debate, the Bureau of Reclamation
has noted that one-third less water—approximately 2.1 million acre-feet (AF)8—is available
for export out of the Delta this year. Of that amount, the agency estimates that nearly 25%
(500,000 AF) of this year‘s export reduction is due to recent Endangered Species Act (ESA)
restrictions for the Delta smelt and the other 75% is due to dry conditions and other long-
standing requirements such as Delta salinity standards. Another less frequently mentioned
factor in water allocations is the state system of water rights, which has a large and direct
effect on how much water the different state and federal water contractors receive north of the
Delta versus south of the Delta, particularly in dry years. Under this system, some federal
water contractors are receiving just 10% to 15% of their contracted supplies, while more
California Drought: Hydrological and Regulatory Water Supply Issues 5
senior contractors are receiving 100%. (For a summary of the different types of contractors,
see ―California Water Rights: Acquisitions and Allocations,‖ below.)
The U.S. Drought Monitor map for September 1, 2009 (upper left map in Figure 1),
includes California within its agricultural and hydrological drought impact classification (the
AH symbol on the map), which means that the dry conditions have been severe enough to
affect crops, pastures, grasslands, rivers, groundwater supplies, and reservoir levels. Figure 1
also illustrates the persistent nature of the drought for 2007 through 2009. The figure shows
that other parts of the country, such as Texas, the Southeast, and portions of the Great Plains
have seen drought conditions come and go since 2006. In contrast, California has faced
abnormally dry to extreme drought conditions continuously from 2007 to the present.
California has experienced years of consecutive drought in the past. Observations of
below-average runoff, reservoir levels, and groundwater levels are broadly comparable to
those observed during previous episodes of drought in California (e.g., 1977-1978 and 1987-
1992).
The California Department of Water Resources (DWR) evaluation (as of August 31,
2009) of the California drought identifies below-average runoff and reservoir storage:
This water year will be the third dry year in a row for California. Runoff and reservoir
storage entering Water Year 2009-2010 will be below average, with key reservoirs
significantly lower than average. Emergency declarations are in place in four counties
currently experiencing economic or supply difficulties. Drought conditions remain severe at
this time, and the developing El Nino over the Pacific Ocean may not improve statewide water
supply next year.9
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
reservoirs (Shasta and Lake Oroville) in the federal and state systems serving California
remained at 63% and 59% of historical levels for September.10 Also, comparing the amount
of water held in storage at each of the 12 reservoirs versus the total amount of storage (i.e.,
the aggregate amount from the 12 reservoirs) historically held at the same time shows that
reservoir levels were at approximately 70% of the historical total, not 79% as indicated by the
California DWR.11 This difference may reflect the way the California DWR calculated the
statewide average value from the levels measured in the 12 reservoirs.12 In addition, of the
five reservoirs which historically average greater than 1 million AF of storage at the end of
September, only Don Pedro reservoir was above its historical average (106%); the other four
reservoirs ranged from 83% (New Melones) to 54% (Trinity). The three largest reservoirs
(Shasta, Oroville, Trinity), which historically contain over 50% of the total storage in
September for the 12 reservoirs shown in Appendix A, were all well below average historical
levels at the end of September 2009, ranging from 54% (Trinity) to 63% (Shasta).
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
Source: California Department of Water Resources, ―California‘s Drought Update,‖ Figure 2 (Nov. 30,
2009), at http://www.water.ca.gov/drought/docs/DroughtUpdate-113009.pdf.
Notes: The seven reservoirs identified as ―key‖ by the California DWR are Trinity, Shasta, Oroville,
Folsom, Don Pedro, New Melones, and San Luis.
Figure 2. Reservoir Storage at the End of the Water Year, as a Percent of Average, for Seven Reservoirs
in California (2009 levels as of September 30, 2009)
California Drought: Hydrological and Regulatory Water Supply Issues 7
Timing
Persistent drought conditions in California since 2007 do not necessarily mean that all
locations throughout California experienced the same degree of drought at all times. Drought
conditions have changed over time and by location, so that despite below-average
precipitation and lower-than-average reservoir levels generally, conditions have differed from
month to month. For example, January is normally the wettest month for California,
averaging 4.35 inches of precipitation in the state.13 In January 2009, however, California
only received 1.25 inches, or 29% of average precipitation for the month. From October
through April, a seven-month period, California receives most of its precipitation, an average
of approximately 20 inches, or more than 90% of the yearly total. For 2008-2009, only
February received above-average precipitation over that seven-month period (Table 1).
Despite a relatively wet February (138% of average), and a wet May and June (169% and
134% of average, respectively), California had received 76% of its average annual
precipitation as of September 30, 2009.14 The state had received 77% at the end of March and
73% at the end of April 200915—critical times for water delivery decisions (see Table 1). The
California DWR reported that reservoir storage was 80% of average at the end of August;
however, much of that storage was located in smaller reservoirs south of the Delta.16
When, where, and how precipitation occurs (e.g., snow versus rain) are critical to water
allocation decisions typically made in the late spring. The timing of precipitation and runoff
critically influences allocation decisions for the State Water Project (SWP) and the Central
8 Betsy A. Cody, Peter Folger and Cynthia Brougher
Valley Project (CVP). For example, both projects rely on precipitation data, including data
indicating the water content of snowpack and projected runoff, to decide how much water to
allocate to water users early in the water year (February-May). Typically, DWR and the Bureau of
Reclamation (hereafter referred to as ―Reclamation‖) announce water allocations for the coming
growing season in mid-February of each year. This announcement is generally followed by
monthly allocation announcements (through May) based on updated precipitation data and runoff
projections. In February 2009, the California DWR (responsible for the SWP) and Reclamation
(responsible for the CVP) announced that water allocations would be significantly restricted for all
contract categories and severely restricted for some (some CVP contractors were to receive no
CVP water). DWR stated that its May allocation for the water year was its last allocation, based on
reservoir levels and other factors up to that date. Although early May rain and snow allowed the
DWR to increase its allocation of the SWP from 30% to 40%, below-normal precipitation and
runoff for six of the preceding seven months kept the allocation low: ―This small increase in SWP
deliveries does not mean California has overcome the effects of three consecutive dry years. In
fact, 2007 to 2009 will likely rank in the top 10 driest three-year periods in the last century.‖17
Similarly, Reclamation was able to increase its CVP allocations in April and May; however,
south-of-Delta CVP water service contractors were still allocated just 10% of their maximum
contract amount, while senior north-of-Delta water rights contractors and south-of-the-Delta water
rights contractors were allocated 100% of their contract amounts.18
Because the Sierra Nevada snowpack is such a critical component of the California water
supply, the amount, timing, and water content of the snowpack influences decisions about water
distribution for the rest of the year. For example, January 2009 was the ninth-driest January on
record for the state, and the Sierra snowpack contained only 60% of its average water content,
prompting the California governor to declare a statewide emergency due to drought on February
27, despite a relatively wet February.19 The Sierra snowpack was also at 60% of its average water
content in January 2008, and the driest spring on record in 2008 also prompted the governor to
declare a statewide drought and a state of emergency for nine counties in June 2008,20 despite
improvements in the snowpack in February 2008.
Copyright © 2010. Nova Science Publishers, Incorporated. All rights reserved.
California receives the bulk of its precipitation in the late fall and winter months, and it is
difficult to predict with any certainty what the precipitation patterns will be for the 2009-2010
water year. Greater than average precipitation fell during October 2009 (2.29 inches received
versus 1.22 inches average);21 however, precipitation in October typically represents only
about 5% of the California total. One month of above-average precipitation in the beginning
of the 2009-2010 water year does not seem to have affected reservoir levels significantly.22
Because the drought in California has lasted for three consecutive years, its effects may
persist even if the state receives more precipitation in the current water year (October through
September) than in the previous three water years, depending on the amount, type (snow
versus rain), and timing of precipitation and runoff, and other factors. Despite uncertainties in
predicting future precipitation, the California DWR announced on December 1, 2009, an
initial allocation of 5% of total contracted water deliveries to SWP contractors for 2010.23 In
its press release, the California DWR noted that its initial allocation is a very conservative
estimate of what it expects to deliver; nevertheless, 5% is the lowest initial allocation by the
SWP since 1967.
Other documents randomly have
different content
bis 100 kg). Die Klemmen sind 50 mm breit. Im Übrigen ist dieser
Prüfer so gebaut wie der oben beschriebene.
Der Antrieb der Apparate erfolgt mit der Hand; zur Erzielung
größerer Gleichmäßigkeit bei der Versuchsausführung können sie
aber auch für Wasserantrieb eingerichtet werden. Erforderlich hierfür
ist ein Wasserleitungsdruck von 3–4 Atm.
Beim Aufstellen der S c h o p p e rschen Prüfer ist darauf zu
achten, daß der Zeiger des unbelasteten Krafthebels auf Null und die
Luftblase der am Gestell angebrachten Wasserwage in der Mitte
einspielt. Die Reibung des Krafthebels in der Nähe des Nullpunktes
ist nur unbedeutend, das Einspielen auf Null daher sehr
befriedigend.
Die Gesamtreibung im Apparat ist sehr gering. In der
Versuchsanstalt ist bereits eine ganze Anzahl geprüft worden, der
Reibungsfehler war selbst im ungünstigsten Falle kleiner als 1% der
Gesamtbelastung. Der Fehler verschwindet aber noch zum größten
Teil, weil sich der Apparat während des Versuches niemals in
absoluter Ruhe befindet, er ist daher für praktische Versuche ohne
wesentliche Bedeutung.
Die Vorteile, die der S c h o p p e rsche Apparat gegenüber
anderen hat, liegen, abgesehen von der soliden und kräftigen
Ausführung, in dem Vermeiden von Spiralfedern, in der besseren
Ablesung von Bruchlast und Bruchdehnung infolge der großen
Maßstäbe und in der senkrechten Anordnung.
Durch das Vermeiden von Spiralfedern ist eine wiederholte
Prüfung des Apparates auf die Zuverlässigkeit seiner Angaben nicht
erforderlich; ist er vor der Benutzung geprüft und dann gut
aufgestellt, so hat man nur darauf zu achten, daß er nicht durch
Stoß oder Schlag beschädigt und daß er stets in sauberem Zustande
gehalten wird.
Diese Umstände machen den Apparat für praktische Bedürfnisse
besonders geeignet.
[9] Eine genaue Beschreibung des Apparates und die Ergebnisse
seiner Prüfung hat D a l é n in den Mitt. a. d. techn. Vers. Anst.
1901, S. 183 veröffentlicht.
[10] Zur Prüfung von Materialien, die noch größere Kräfte
erfordern (starke Gewebe, Leder u. s. w.), werden nach
denselben Grundsätzen noch stärkere Maschinen (bis zu 1000 kg
Kraftleistung) gebaut.
[11]
Wendlers Festigkeitsprüfer.
Unter Hinweis auf Fig. 11–12 sei über den Bau und die
Wirkungsweise des Prüfers folgendes gesagt:
Der A n t r i e b erfolgt durch ein Handrad a, welches bei vielen
Apparaten auf Wunsch durch Schneckenrad und Schraube s ersetzt
worden ist. Der Zapfen dieses Rades dreht sich in dem Lager l,
welches mit dem Bett d aus einem Stück hergestellt ist. In diesem
Zapfen, welcher ausgebohrt ist, wird die Schraube b, welche mit
dem Schlitten c fest verbunden ist und mit deren Hilfe die
Fortbewegung des Schlittens ermöglicht wird, geführt. Am Handrade
befindet sich eine Mutter, bestehend aus der Hülse p und zwei
Gewindebacken, welche durch einen Kurvenschub geöffnet
beziehungsweise geschlossen werden können, je nachdem die
Bewegung des Schlittens direkt mit der Hand oder mit Hilfe des
Handrades bewirkt werden soll.
Bei einer Rechtsdrehung der Hülse wird die Verbindung
geschlossen, d. h. das Gewinde der Backen greift in die Vertiefungen
der Schraube; umgekehrt wird bei einer Linksdrehung die
Verbindung geöffnet.
Die E i n s p a n n v o r r i c h t u n g besteht aus 2 Klemmen k und
k1, von denen die erstere am Wagen w, die letztere am Schlitten c
befestigt ist. Zwischen den Backen dieser Klemmen wird der zu
untersuchende Papierstreifen eingespannt. Die Backen sind
senkrecht zur Zugachse wellenförmig ausgearbeitet, um ein
Rutschen des Streifens in den Klemmen zu verhindern. Die Backen
selbst werden durch Schrauben s1 und s2 zusammengepreßt.[12]
Fig. 11.
Wendlers Festigkeitsprüfer.
❏
GRÖSSERES BILD
Fig. 14.
Schematische Darstellung des Hartig-Reuschschen Prüfers.
Die Tafel (Fig. 14), welche das Papier für die Schaulinien trägt,
läßt sich wagerecht verschieben, so daß es auf diese Weise möglich
ist, mehrere Kurven nebeneinander zu zeichnen.
Zu jedem Apparat gehören 3 verschiedene Federn, je eine von 4,
9 und 18 kg Zugkraft; zu jeder derselben gehört ein Maßstab,
welcher bei jeder Ausdehnung der Feder die hierfür aufzuwendende
Kraft in kg angibt. Man halte bei allen Versuchen den Grundsatz fest,
die schwächste Feder anzuwenden und nicht etwa ein Papier mit der
18 kg Feder zu prüfen, welches schon bei einer Belastung von 7 kg
zerreißt, denn je stärker die Feder ist, um so größer sind die
Ablesungsfehler am Maßstab. Es kann sogar vorkommen, daß man
bei Prüfung e i n e r Papiersorte mit Vorteil zwei verschiedene Federn
anwendet, wenn zum Zerreißen der Querrichtung eine schwächere
Feder genügt als für die Maschinenrichtung.
Nachdem so kurz das Wichtigste über den Bau des Apparates
auseinandergesetzt ist, mag zur Beschreibung der Ausführung des
Versuchs selbst übergegangen werden.
Der Bock A wird so festgelegt, daß die vorhin erwähnte Marke
mit dem Teilstrich 0,18 m der Meterteilung zusammenfällt; der
Wagen B wird durch einen Stift O festgehalten. Der Streifen wird so
zwischen die Klemmen a und b gelegt, daß er keine Durchbiegung
zeigt, und nun werden die Schrauben mit Hilfe des hierfür
gefertigten Schlüssels schwach angezogen. Man löst alsdann den
Bock A wieder, verschiebt ihn ein wenig in der Richtung nach B zu
und zieht die Klemmschrauben fest an; würde man das stärkere
Anziehen bei straff gespanntem Streifen vornehmen, so liefe man
Gefahr, ihn einzureißen.
Man bringt nunmehr den Zeichenstift G aus seiner Ruhelage, so
daß er sich gegen das auf der Schreibtafel aufgespannte Papier legt,
und zieht die Feder an; dadurch wird auf dem Papier die senkrechte
Nulllinie aufgezeichnet, die für die spätere Auszeichnung der
einzelnen Schaulinien von Wichtigkeit ist. Eine wagerechte Nulllinie
zu zeichnen, ist nicht ratsam, da der Stift nicht in allen Stellungen
des Wagens B sich in gleicher Höhe befindet. Aus diesem Grunde
muß man darauf achten, daß sich der Streifen bei Beginn eines
jeden Versuchs nicht in gespanntem Zustand befindet, damit der
Zeichenstift erst eine kurze Strecke horizontal vorgehen kann, ehe er
durch die Spannung der Feder nach unten getrieben wird. So
befindet sich an jedem einzelnen Diagramm die für die Bestimmung
nötige horizontale Nulllinie.
Nachdem man den Bock A nun ungefähr auf eine Entfernung von
0,17 m festgeschraubt hat, so daß der Streifen schlaff zwischen den
Klemmen hängt, entfernt man den Stift O, legt die Sperrhaken ein,
welche beim Bruch des Streifens das Zusammenschnellen der Feder
verhindern, und schließt die Schraubenmutter E, welche mit dem
Handrad D verbunden ist. Durch langsames und gleichmäßiges
Drehen des Rades, bei welchem man jede Unterbrechung und jedes
stoßweise Vorgehen sorgfältig zu vermeiden hat, wird nunmehr der
Apparat in Tätigkeit gesetzt. Je langsamer und gleichmäßiger die
Versuche ausgeführt werden, um so besser werden die einzelnen
Resultate untereinander übereinstimmen.
Ist die Spannung der Feder so groß geworden, daß sie gleich
dem Widerstand ist, welchen der Papierstreifen leistet, so zerreißt
der letztere, und der Versuch ist als beendigt anzusehen; der Stift
wird vom Diagramm abgehoben, die Schraubenmutter E geöffnet,
der Wagen verschoben, bis der Stift O eingesetzt werden kann und
dann die Feder ausgelöst.
Der Streifen wird darauf unmittelbar an den Klemmen abgerissen
und der Apparat kann nun zum Zerreißen des zweiten Streifens
benutzt werden. Erfolgt der Bruch des Streifens nicht mindestens 1
cm von der Einspannvorrichtung entfernt, so ist es geraten, den
Versuch als ungiltig zu betrachten, weil die Vermutung nahe liegt,
daß der Streifen schief eingespannt war.
Fig. 15.
Versuchsschaubild.
Fig. 16.
Leuners Festigkeitsprüfer.
Fig. 17.
R = p 1000 m.
gb
(R = Reißlänge in Metern, p = Bruchlast in Grammen, b = Breite des
zerrissenen Streifens in Millimetern, g = Gewicht eines Quadratmeters
des untersuchten Papiers). Diese Formel zu benützen, wird sich
besonders in Fabriken empfehlen, da hier das Quadratmetergewicht
bekannt ist; man kann dann das Auswiegen der Streifen sparen.
Der weiteren Besprechung über die Berechnung der Reißlänge
mögen die bei Prüfung eines Normalpapiers 3a ermittelten Werte zu
Grunde gelegt werden.
Versuchs-Ergebnisse.
Maschinenrichtung Querrichtung
Streifen Gewicht der Streifen Gewicht der
Bruch- fünf Streifen Bruch- fünf Streifen
aus Bruch- aus Bruch-
be- be-
dem dehnung luft- bei 100° C dem dehnung luft- bei 100° C
lastung lastung
Bogen % trocken getrocknet Bogen % trocken getrocknet
kg kg
Nr. g g Nr. g g
1 7,46 2,4 1 3,85 5,4
2 6,84 2,3 2 3,80 5,3
3 7,38 2,4 3 4,04 4,5
4 6,49 2,4 4 4,20 5,0
5 6,31 2,5 5 3,97 5,1
Summe 34,48 12,0 1,220 1,128 Summe 19,86 25,3 1,233 1,140
Mittel 6,90 2,4 0,226 Mittel 3,97 5,1 0,228
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