Name : Amna Hafeez Semester: Spring, 2025 ID: 20PRI04711

Course: Morphology Ex #1 Course code: 9077 Level : BS English

Q#1: Define morphology and explain its significance with in linguistics, How does morphology differ
from other sub-fields of linguistics, such as phonology, syntax, and semantics? Discuss with examples.
 Definition of Morphology:
Morphology is the branch of linguistics that studies the structure and formation of words. It deals with
morphemes, which are the smallest meaningful units of language. Morphology examines how these
morphemes combine to form words, and how words are modified to express different meanings, grammatical
functions, or syntactic roles.
 Types of Morphemes:
1. Free Morphemes – can stand alone as words (e.g., book, run, happy).
2. Bound Morphemes – cannot stand alone; they must attach to other morphemes (e.g., -s, -ed, un-).
 Significance of Morphology in Linguistics:
 Morphology is crucial for understanding
i. Word formation processes, such as derivation (happy → happiness) and inflection (run → running).
ii. Grammatical structure, like tense, number, case, and agreement.
iii. Language learning and development, especially in identifying and using word parts correctly.
iv. Cross-linguistic comparisons, helping identify how different languages encode grammatical
meanings.
 For example, in English:
The word "unbelievable" consists of three morphemes: un- (prefix), believe (root), and -able (suffix).
How Morphology Differs from Other Linguistic Subfields
While morphology focuses on word structure, other subfields of linguistics study different aspects of
language:
1. Morphology vs. Phonology:
Phonology studies the sound system of a language—how sounds (phonemes) function and interact.
Morphology studies word formation, regardless of sound.
 Example:
Phonology examines why the plural -s in cats is pronounced /s/, but in dogs it's /z/.
Morphology identifies -s as the plural morpheme, even though it has different phonological forms
(allomorphs).
2. Morphology vs. Syntax:
Syntax deals with how words combine into phrases and sentences.
Morphology focuses on how words themselves are built.
 Example:
In the sentence: The dogs bark loudly.
Syntax explains the sentence structure (Subject–Verb–Adverb).
Morphology explains how dogs is the plural of dog, and bark is a base verb form.
3. Morphology vs. Semantics:
Semantics is the study of meaning—how words and sentences convey meaning.
Morphology studies form (how meaning is encoded through word parts).
 Example:
i. Semantics looks at the meaning of happiness (a state of being happy)
ii. Morphology shows that happiness = happy (root) + -ness (noun-forming suffix).
 Conclusion:
Morphology is a fundamental component of linguistic analysis, providing insight into how words are formed
and function. While it intersects with phonology, syntax, and semantics, it remains distinct in its focus on the
internal structure of words. Understanding morphology is essential for grasping how languages encode
complex meanings through small, systematic units, and how these units interact within broader
linguistic systems.
Q#2: Discuss the concept of the word in morphology. How can words be analyzed as types , tokens and
lexical items? Provide examples to illustrate each of these categories.
  The Concept of the Word in Morphology
In morphology, the word is a central concept. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and how
they are formed from smaller units called morphemes. However, the term "word" itself can have different
meanings depending on how we analyze it. Linguists often distinguish between words as types, tokens, and
lexical items to better understand their form, function, and usage.
1. Word as a Type:
A word type refers to the unique form of a word, regardless of how many times it appears. It is concerned
with the distinct vocabulary items in a language.
 Example:
In the sentence: "The cat sat on the mat."
Word types: "The", "cat", "sat", "on", "mat" → There are 5 word types here.
If the word "the" appears three times in a text, it is still one word type.
 Summary:
i. Focus: Vocabulary item.
 Example: "Cat" and "cat" are the same word type.
2. Word as a Token:
A word token refers to each individual occurrence of a word in a text or speech. It counts every appearance,
regardless of whether the word is repeated.
 Example:
i. In the sentence: "The cat sat on the mat."
ii. Word tokens: "The", "cat", "sat", "on", "the", "mat" → There are 6 word tokens here.
The word "the" appears twice, so both are counted as separate tokens.
 Summary:
i. Focus: Word occurrence (frequency in context).
 Example:
In "The dog chased the cat," there are two tokens of the word "the."
3. Word as a Lexical Item:
A lexical item is a word or multi-word expression that carries meaning and exists in the mental lexicon (the
"dictionary" in our minds). It can include:
 Simple words: "cat"
 Compound words: "blackboard"
 Fixed expressions: "give up" (phrasal verb)
 Example:
The word "run" as a lexical item can have different meanings:
i. Run (to move fast)
ii. Run (to manage something, like a business)
Each meaning is considered a separate lexical item.
 Summary:
i. Focus: Meaning and entry in the mental dictionary.
 Example:
"Run" (move fast) and "run" (manage) are different lexical items even though they look the same.
Q#3: what is the difference between the root, stem, and base form in the structure of words? Explain
the various types of morphemes with relevant examples from English and another
language of your choice.
 The Difference Between Root, Stem, and Base Form in Word Structure:
In morphology, the terms root, stem, and base describe different levels of word structure. They help us
understand how complex words are formed.
1. Root:
The root is the most basic, core part of a word. It cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful units.
 It carries the essential meaning of the word.
 It does not include prefixes or suffixes.
  Example in English:
i. Unhappiness → The root is "happy".
ii. Rewrite → The root is "write".
 Example in Arabic:
‫( ك تب‬kataba - "he wrote") → Root: ‫ك‬-‫ت‬-‫( ب‬k-t-b), which gives the basic meaning of "writing" in many
related words.
2. Stem:
The stem is the form of the word to which inflectional affixes (like plural -s, past tense -ed) can be added.
The stem may already have derivational affixes.
 Example in English:
i. Cats → Stem: "cat" (plural -s is added to this stem)
ii. Unhappiness → Stem: "unhappy" (it is formed from "happy" + "un-", and the suffix "-ness" is added
to form the noun)
 Example in Arabic:
‫( م ك توب‬maktūb - "written") → Stem: maktūb, formed from the root ‫ك‬-‫ت‬-‫( ب‬k-t-b) with patterns and affixes.
3. Base:
i. The base is the form to which any affix (inflectional or derivational) can be added.
ii. It is a more general term and can be the same as the root or stem, depending on the word.
 Example in English:
In rewrite, "write" is the base (you add "re-" to it).
In unhappiness, the base is "happy" when you add "un-", and then the new base "unhappy" is used to add "-
ness".
 Example in Arabic:
The base of ‫( م ك توب‬maktūb) is ‫( ك تب‬katab) before it is combined with patterns.
 Summary Table:
Term Definition Example (English)
Root Core meaning, no affixes "happy" ‫ك‬-‫ت‬-‫( ب‬k-t-b)
Stem Root + derivational affixes, no unhappy ‫ م ك توب‬maktūb
inflection
Base The form affixes attach to "write" in rewrite‫( ك تب‬katab)
(general)

 Types of Morphemes:
Morphemes are the smallest units of meaning in a language. They can be categorized in several ways:
1. Free Morphemes:
Can stand alone as a word.
 Example (English):
Book, cat, run.
 Example (Swahili):
mtu (person).
2. Bound Morphemes:
Cannot stand alone; they must attach to other morphemes.
 Example (English):
i. Prefix: un- in unhappy.
ii. Suffix: -s in cats.
 Example (Swahili):
wa- in wanakula (they are eating), wa- indicates plural subject.
3. Derivational Morphemes:
Change the meaning or word class.
 Example (English):
happy → unhappy (changes meaning), teach → teacher (verb to noun).
 Example (Swahili):
-aji in mchezaji (player), from cheza (to play).
4. Inflectional Morphemes:
Change grammatical aspects like tense, number, or possession without changing the word class.
 Example (English):
cat → cats (plural), play → played (past tense).
 Example (Swahili):
anakula (he/she is eating) → walikula (they ate), where prefixes and tense markers change the
grammatical information.
Q#4: Describe the morphological rules that create various types of morphemes and allomorphs. How
do these rules contribute to the structure of words? Provide examples of allomorphs from English and
another language.
 Morphological Rules, Morphemes, and Allomorphs:
 Introduction:
In morphology, words are formed through the combination of morphemes — the smallest units of meaning.
The process of combining morphemes follows morphological rules that determine how words can be created,
modified, or inflected. These rules also explain the existence of allomorphs, which are variations of a
morpheme that occur due to phonological, grammatical, or contextual factors.
 Morphological Rules and Morphemes:
 Morphological Rules:
Morphological rules govern how morphemes combine to form new words or alter existing ones. These rules
can explain:
i. Word formation (derivation)
ii. Word inflection (grammatical changes)
iii. Morpheme position (prefix, suffix, infix, etc.)
iv. Phonological changes leading to allomorphs
 Types of Morphemes Created by Morphological Rules:
1. Free Morphemes:
Can stand alone as independent words.
 Example:
Book, cat, run (English)
2. Bound Morphemes:
Cannot stand alone and must attach to other morphemes.
 Example:
Prefix un- (unhappy), suffix -ed (played)
3. Derivational Morphemes:
Create new words or change word class.
 Example:
teach (verb) → teacher (noun)
4. Inflectional Morphemes:
Change grammatical features like tense, number, or degree without changing the word class.
Example:
cat → cats (plural), play → played (past tense)
What are Allomorphs?
 Definition:
An allomorph is a variant form of a morpheme that appears in different environments but carries the same
basic meaning.
 Characteristics:
i. Allomorphs are context-dependent.
ii. They result from phonological rules, morphological rules, or historical changes.
iii. Even though they differ in pronunciation or form, they represent the same morpheme.
 Types of Allomorphs:
1. Phonologically Conditioned Allomorphs:
These allomorphs appear in different forms depending on the sound that comes before them.
  Example from English:
The plural morpheme
i. Cats → /s/ sound
ii. Dogs → /z/ sound
iii. Horses → /ɪz/ sound
 Rule:
i. After voiceless sounds → /s/ (cats)
ii. After voiced sounds → /z/ (dogs)
iii. After sibilant sounds → /ɪz/ (horses)
2. Morphologically or Lexically Conditioned Allomorphs:
The selection of the allomorph depends on specific words rather than phonological environment.
 Example from English:
Past tense
i. Walked → /t/
ii. Played → /d/
iii. Wanted → /ɪd/
3. Suppletive Allomorphs:
When allomorphs are completely different in form, often due to historical reasons.
 Example from English:
Go → Went (past tense)
These are considered irregular but are part of the same morpheme (verb tense).
Allomorphs in Another Language: Spanish Example
 Spanish Plural Morpheme:
Libro → Libros (book → books)
Clase → Clases (class → classes)
 Spanish uses:
/-s/ after vowels: libros
/-es/ after consonants: papeles (papers)
 Rule:
 Vowel-final words: add -s
 Consonant-final words: add -es
i. This is similar to English plural allomorphs.
ii. How Morphological Rules Contribute to Word Structure
iii. They ensure consistency and predictability in word formation.
iv. They define possible word patterns (for example, plural -s attaches to nouns, not to verbs).
v. They manage variations in pronunciation (allomorphs) while maintaining meaning.
vi. They help build the mental lexicon, guiding speakers in producing and understanding new word
forms correctly.
vii. They handle grammatical agreement, such as tense, number, and gender in languages like Spanish,
Arabic, or French.
 Summary Table:
Feature English Example Spanish Example
Free Morpheme cat, book libro (book)
Bound Morpheme -s (plural), un- (prefix) -s, -es (plural suffixes)
Allomorph (Plural) cats /s/, dogs /z/, horses /ɪz/ libros (books), papeles (papers)
Suppletive Allomorph go → went ir (to go) → fui (I went)

Q#5: Explain the structure of words by discussing their key components, such as base forms, affixes,
and morphemes. Define the term’Morphem’ and differentiate between bound and free morphemes.
Additionally, clarify the concepts of roots and stems, and discuss the role of affixes wit examples from
English language.
The Structure of Words: Components and Key Concepts in Morphology
1. The Structure of Words:
The structure of words in morphology refers to how words are built from smaller units. Words can be simple
(single morpheme) or complex (made of multiple morphemes). To understand word structure, we must
analyze their key components:
 Base Forms
 Affixes
 Morphemes
 Roots
 Stems
2. Morphemes:
 Definition and Types
What is a Morpheme?
A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language.
Example:
In the word unhappiness, there are three morphemes: un- (prefix), happy (base/root), and -ness (suffix).
 Types of Morphemes:
a) Free Morphemes:
Can stand alone as independent words.
 Example:
Book, cat, happy, run
b) Bound Morphemes:
Cannot stand alone and must attach to other morphemes.
 Example:
Prefixes (un-, re-) and suffixes (-s, -ed, -ness).
3. Base Forms:
The base form is the part of the word to which affixes (prefixes, suffixes) are added. It can be:
 The root or
 The stem
 Example:
i. In unhappiness, the base form is happy.
ii. The base form is the starting point for word-building processes.
4. Roots and Stems:
 Root:
i. The root is the core part of a word that carries the most basic meaning.
ii. It cannot be broken down further into smaller meaningful units.
iii. A root can stand alone (if it is a free morpheme) or may not stand alone (if it is a bound root).
 Examples:
i. Happy is the root of unhappy.
ii. Write is the root of rewritten.
 Stem:
i. The stem is the part of a word to which inflectional affixes are added.
ii. The stem may already have derivational affixes.
 Examples:
i. In cats, the stem is cat (plural -s is added).
ii. In rewritten, the stem is rewrite (past participle -en is added).
5. Affixes:
Definition and Types:
 What is an Affix?
An affix is a bound morpheme that attaches to a base form to create new words or grammatical forms.
 Types of Affixes:
a) Prefixes:
Added to the beginning of a word.
  Example:
un- in unhappy, re- in rewrite
b) Suffixes:
Added to the end of a word.
 Example:
-s in cats, -ed in walked, -ness in happiness
c) Infixes (rare in English):
Inserted inside a word (common in some languages but rare in English).
 Example (informal):
also-bloody-lutely (infix -bloody- for emphasis)
d) Circumfuses (not present in English but found in languages like German)
Surround the base word (prefix + suffix combined).
6. Summary Table of Key Terms:
Term Definition Example
Morpheme Smallest unit of meaning un-, happy, -ness
Free Morpheme Can stand alone book run
Bound Morpheme Must attach to another Un- , -s, -ed
morpheme
Root Core meaning unit Write , happy
Stem Root + derivational affixes Rewrite in rewritten
Base Form The form to which affixes Write
attach happy.
Pref Prefix Affix before base Un-in happy Write
Suffix Affix after base -s in ca.