LEARNING

Do you remember getting an injection as a kid? As soon as you or any other kid starts crying
while getting an injection, most of the kids witnessing this event will also start crying. But why
other kids start crying even before actually getting an injection? Because kids have observed and
learned from others experience that ‘injection hurts’. The phenomenon of acquiring a
behavioural pattern (such as crying after seeing an injection) due to some previous experience
has been termed by psychologists as learning. Present unit has been divided into two sections. In
the first section, we will examine different theories of learning, the strategies we use in learning.
We will also discuss how learning takes place in the digital world. Then we will move to the
second section: memory. We will learn about different types and models of memory, then the
concept of forgetting and lastly we will discuss different methods of improving our memory.

The concept of learning is very important for organisational behaviour.

It has assumed tremendous significance because everything that we do in an organisation, some

learning is definitely involved. The concept of learning can be used in many contexts. It refers to
the process of acquiring the response adequately to a situation which may or may not have
previously encountered. A widely accepted simple definition of ‘learning’ is any relatively
permanentnchange in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience. As per this definition, one
cannot see the process of learning but if there is a noticeable change in behaviour then it can be
said that learning has taken place. This means we are actually seeing the changed behaviour in
individuals as a result of learning. Thus, learning as a concept seems to be an abstract and a
theoretical one and is not observable directly. It is also said that learning is a relatively
permanent change in the frequency of occurrence of a specific individual behaviour. In an
organisational setting, it is the work-set and organisational norms, which will act as objective
bases for determining whether an employee’s behaviour is desirable or undesirable and whether
he or she needs to learn and practise productive work behaviour. Thus, it is the process by which
skills, knowledge, attitudes and behaviour are formed and developed as a result of education,
training, socialisation and experience. Learning also occurs as a result of conditioning and
restriction. A person is persuaded to adopt guidance or regulation or conformity and compliance
based on each situational requirement. Moreover, people learn at different rates, times and stages
during their life time. Of course, ultimately it is the individual’s own needs and drives, and
rewards that enhance one’s potential and expertise, marketability along with increased esteem,
and respect and status that will act as the motivational drive(s) in inducing the person to learn.

There are six important components of learning:

1) Learning involves change, although the change may be for good or bad from an organisation’s
point of view.
2) Not all changes reflect learning. To constitute learning, change should be relatively
permanent.
3) Learning is reflected in behaviour. A change in an individual’s thought process or attitudes,
not accompanied by behaviour, is no learning.
4) The change in behaviour should occur as a result of experience, practice, or training.
5) The practice or experience must be reinforced in order for learning to occur. If reinforcement
does not accompany the practice or experience, the behaviour will eventually disappear.
6) Learning occurs throughout one’s life.
In order to understand the concept of learning, let us begin with few definitions of
learning which many psychologists and educationists have proposed. Generally, learning is
defined as a process of behaviour modification through experiences, exercise and efforts. Before
discussing further, let us have a look at the definitions of learning given by various
psychologists/educationists:
Hurlock (1942) : Learning is development that comes from exercise and effort. Through
learning, children acquire competence in using their hereditary resources.
Hilgard, Atkinson and Atkinson (1979): Learning may be defined as a relatively permanent
change in behaviour that occurs as the result of prior experience.
Murphy (1968) : The term learning covers every modification in behaviour to meet
environmental requirements.
Woodworth (1945) : Any activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual (in
any respect, good or bad) and makes him alter behaviour and experiences different from what
they would otherwise have been.
If you examine these definitions carefully, particularly focusing on the underlined portion
of the definitions, you may conclude that: Every creature, including human beings, is born with
certain capabilities. e.g.: a human baby can suck milk from its mother’s breast as soon as it is
born. These
capabilities are known as instinctive behaviour. As an individual grows s/he has to make certain
adjustments in various situations of life. Therefore, s/he has all these things is called ‘learning’. It
means that:
• Learning is not acquired by birth, but it is the process of acquiring competence
by using hereditary resources.
• Temporary change in behaviour is not learning.
Not only the modification of behaviour by acquiring good things as per the social norms
is learning but even behaviour modification by acquiring bad things comes under‘learning’. In
other words, learning leads to change in behaviour but this does not necessarily mean that these
changes always bring
about improvement or positive development.
NATURE OF LEARNING
all these things is called ‘learning’. It means that: • Learning is not acquired by birth, but it is the
process of acquiring competence by using hereditary resources. • Temporary change in
behaviour is not learning.
• Not only the modification of behaviour by acquiring good things as per the social norms is
learning but even behaviour modification by acquiring bad things comes under‘learning’. In
other words, learning leads to change in behaviour but this does not necessarily mean that these
changes always bring
about improvement or positive development. According to Smith (1962),‘learning is the
acquisition of new behaviour or the strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of
experience’.
It means, instead of change in existing behaviour or acquisition of new behaviour, learning may
also result in discontinuance or abandonment of existing behaviour. This ‘unlearning’ is also
learning in itself. This discussion and the definitions given in the first section‘What is learning?’
Understanding Learning
of this unit, reveals the nature of learning as follows:
• Learning is a process and not a product: Learning is a fundamental and life-long
process. Attitudes, fears, gestures, motor skills, language skills,etc. are the products of
learning. They are not learning themselves. In a classroom, when learning is viewed as a
product then it is viewed as
something external. Something like shopping– people go out and buy knowledge and
then it becomes their possession. Paulo Freire in his book ‘Pedagogy of the Oppressed’
criticizes this and says that education thus becomes an act of depositing, in which the
students are the depositories and the teacher is the depositor. In this ‘banking’concept of
education, the teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere
objects. Whereas, when learning is viewed as a process, it is viewed as something
internal or personal. It is something that a child does in order to understand the real world
and uses it as a tool for survival.
• Learning is purposive or goal directed: Learning is not an aimless activity. All true
learning is based on purpose. We do not learn anything and everything that comes in our
way in a haphazard manner. However, some experts argue that sometimes learning is
unintended.
• Learning generally involves some degree of permanence:Activities bringing
temporary change in behaviour and not lasting do not come under learning. For example,
cramming the content matter by a learner for examination and forgetting it after
sometime does not bring any change (to
some extent to permanence) in the total behaviour pattern of the learner and thus this type
of learning cannot be said as true learning.
 • Learning is universal and continuous: Every creature till it lives, learns. In human
beings it is not restricted to any particular age, sex, race or culture. It is a continuous
never-ending process which starts from birth and continues till death.
• Learning prepares for adjustment: Learning helps the individual to adjust
herself/himself adequately and adapt to the changes that may be necessary to the new
situations. We meet with new situations which demand solutions. Repeated efforts are
required react to them effectively. These experiences leave behind some effects in the
mental structure and modify our behaviour.
• Learning is organizing experience:Learning involves all those experience and training
of an individual (right from birth) which help her/him to produce changes in behaviour. It
is not mere addition to knowledge or mere acquisition of facts. It is the reorganization of
experience which may also include unlearning.
• Instincts and reflexes are not learning: Changes in behaviour on the basis of native
response tendencies like instincts and reflexes (e.g. infant’s sucking behaviour, blinking
at bright lights)cannot be attributed to learning.
• Learning does not include changes in behaviour on account of maturation, fatigue,
illness, or drug etc.

TYPES OF LEARNING
Learning involves either physical or mental activities. The physical activity involves
activities of muscles, bones, etc. and mental activities involves from simple to
complex or higher mental activities. There are different types of learning which could
be classified such as a) Depending on the way of acquiring knowledge, b) Depending
on the number of individuals, and c) Depending on the types of activity involved.
a) Depending on the way of acquiring knowledge: Depending on the way of
acquiring knowledge, learning could be classified further as Formal Learning,
Informal Learning and Non-formal Learning.

Formal Learning: Formal learning states learning objectives in an organised and

structured form and hence it is always intentional. The objective emphasises to
gain knowledge, skills and/or competencies. Ex: Learning in a formal setting
school or workplace.

Informal Learning: As the name itself mean this type of learning happens
through experiences like talking, observing, training etc. It is a natural way to
learn. This learning through experiences may happen at any place at any time and
hence incidental. Ex: Learning one's mother tongue or culture or religion etc.
 Non-formal Learning: This type of learning is intentional which states the
objectives and could be in an organised form. Non- formal learning is flexible and
includes intermediate concepts of formal and informal learning. Ex: Vocational
education.

b) Depending on the number of individuals: The number of individuals involved in

the learning process distinguishes learning as i) Individual Learning and ii) 2.
Group Learning

Individual Learning: Individual learning or self-learning involves individualised

training and instruction. The learner plays the active role to cater the needs of
his/her own learning. Ex: Distance Learning, Computer Learning etc.
Group Learning: Group learning or Co-operative learning involves group of
people either with similar or different age, intellectual ability or competencies
form together to achieve the objectives of learning. It requires trainer to facilitate
learning in a way to make progress in learning. Ex: Classroom Learning.

c) Depending on the types of activity involved: The third classification of learning

is based on the type of activities like Motor learning, Discrimination learning,
Verbal learning, Cognition learning, and Sensory learning.
Motor learning: Most of our activities involve with motor skills, in our day-to-
day life which an individual has to learn them in order to maintain his regular life.
This learning enables in acquiring skills to perform all our activities related to
muscular co –ordination in an efficient way. Ex: walking, running etc.
Verbal learning: This type of learning involves the use of words, language we
speak and write and the communication devices we use. Learning the verbal
behaviour through rote memorization and retention of acquired list of words
enables linguistics intelligence in an individual. Ex: Signs, pictures, symbols,
words, figures, sounds, etc.
Discrimination learning: Learning which involves the act to differentiate
between stimuli and showing an appropriate response to these stimuli is called
discrimination learning. Ex: Ability to discriminate living and non-living beings
etc.
Cognition learning: Higher order mental processes like thinking, reasoning,
intelligence, generalization etc. are involved in this type of learning. It includes
learning of concepts, principles, problem solving etc. This cognition learning
initiates the processes called abstraction and generalisation which enhances the
ability of recognising and identifying things. Ex: A child is able to identify a thing
or picture with four legs as an animal.
 Sensory learning: Sensory learning is concerned with perception of things to be
learned by primary sensory organs. Visual learning (through images, symbols,
graphs etc.), auditory learning (through listening), and kinetics learning (through
physical activities) together constitute sensory learning. Learners differ in learning
through sensory organs to receive and learn information and experiences. It
depends upon the learner to choose any one or the combination of sensory
learning styles to learn concepts, data, information etc
Factors Influencing Learning
We have seen that ‘learning' is one of the most important functions of our cognitive
system which brings about relatively permanent changes in the behaviour of the
learner. There are some factors which influences the acquisition of knowledge by
perceived information through learning. These factors determine the achievement of
desired goals aimed in the learning process. The factors are:
a) Psychological individual differences of learners
b) Teachers' enthusiasm in classroom learning
c) Environment and other factors
a) Psychological individual differences of learners:
The individual differences in the psychological, physical, social and cultural factors
influence the quality and quantity of learning. The individual differences in
psychological aspects make learners to differ from one another in the learning
process.

The psychology of individual differences of learners' deals with the

intelligence and abilities associated with personality of learner, learning styles and
needs and interests of learner. The personality of learner includes their aptitude,
attitude, motivation, mental health and aspiration to achieve their goals of life.

Learning is most effective when differences in learner's language, cultural, and

social behaviour are taken into account. Although basic principles of learning,
stimulus and effective instructions may apply to all learners, it is necessary to pay
attention to language, intelligence, ethnic group, race, belief and socioeconomic
status of the learners which can influence learning. When learners see that their
individual differences in abilities, background, and cultures are valued and respected,
then the motivation for learning enhances.

b) Teachers’ enthusiasm in classroom learning:

The modifications in behaviour of the learner depend on the nature and method of
learning experiences gained by the learner. Teachers play an important role in the
teaching – learning process as a facilitator of learning. By adopting dynamic and
 efficient teaching techniques and strategies, a teacher could explore the talents of the
learner and could progress quality of teaching –learning process.
Learning of different subjects and area of experiences could be enhanced by
adopting pertinent teaching techniques and strategies. The teachers should employ
applicable methods such as teacher- centred or learner- centred and a number of good
techniques such as memorising, understanding, reflective, interaction, mentoring etc.
to enable the learners to learn their subject and content matter.

A teacher should be able to identify and meet the educational needs of the
learners. The awareness in educational psychology could enable a teacher to know
the motivational level, abilities, attitude, emotional conditions, interests and
intelligence of the learners ‘and should be aware of the advances educational
psychology.

A teacher should also be sensitive to individual differences, keep in mind the

level of intelligence and abilities of the learners and their different cultural attitudes.
A teacher should respond in a sensitive way and view learners positively regardless
of their cultural backgrounds.

The developmental needs of the learners could be motivated by a teacher if he

or she finds himself or herself passionate towards their profession. In the process of
teaching the teachers could counsel the learners by using psychometric instruments
such as tests, rating scales, checklists, observation and interview. It helps the learners
to overcome their psychological obstacles in their way to attain their aims of learning.
c) Environment and other factors:
The external environmental factors such as surroundings, cultural and social demands
such as relationship with parents, teachers and peer, information factors such as
media influence the learner. Surroundings include factors associated with one's
location, weather, and people in the surrounding area, schedules and events. Cultural
settings of the learner such as culture of their origin, religion and place influence the
learning process. The learner's social relationship with their parents, teachers and
peer group and mass media greatly influence the type of learning, intense of learning
and time required to learn a need of the learner.
The modifications in behaviour of the learner depend on the nature and method of
learning experiences gained by the learner. Teachers play an important role in the teaching –
learning process as a facilitator of learning. By adopting dynamic and efficient teaching
techniques and strategies, a teacher could explore the talents of the learner and could
progress quality of teaching –learning process. Learning of different subjects and area of
experiences could be enhanced by adopting pertinent teaching techniques and strategies. The
teachers should employ applicable methods such as teacher- centred or learner- centred and a
number of good techniques such as memorising, understanding, reflective, interaction,
mentoring etc. to enable the learners to learn their subject and content matter.
A teacher should be able to identify and meet the educational needs of the learners. The
awareness in educational psychology could enable a teacher to know the motivational level,
abilities, attitude, emotional conditions, interests and intelligence of the learners ‘and should
be aware of the advances educational psychology.
A teacher should also be sensitive to individual differences, keep in mind the level of
intelligence and abilities of the learners and their different cultural attitudes. A teacher should
respond in a sensitive way and view learners positively regardless of their cultural
backgrounds.
The developmental needs of the learners could be motivated by a teacher if he or she finds
himself or herself passionate towards their profession. In the process of teaching the teachers
could counsel the learners by using psychometric instruments such as tests, rating scales,
checklists, observation and interview. It helps the learners to overcome their psychological
obstacles in their way to attain their aims of learning.
Other types of learning are
1. Cognitive Learning: It is a method of acquiring knowledge, understanding, and the
capacity to employ mental processes including retention, perception, thinking, and judgment
to solve issues. Learners practice pattern recognition, data extraction and retention,
reasoning, and making rational decisions. People can actively construct their own worldview
and apply it in a range of educational circumstances by using these techniques.
2. Behavioral Learning: The aim of behavioral psychology involves acquiring novel actions
or response by the application of techniques such as operant conditioning, classical
conditioning, and learning through observation. Traditional conditioning involves associating
an unrelated event with a meaningful one in order to elicit a learned response. Operant
conditioning uses incentives and repercussions to change behavior. Contextual learning is the
process of picking up novel traits by observing and imitating others. These systems impact
behavior and are critical to understanding how individuals take in environmental information.
3. Social Learning: The method of acquiring expertise, skills, and conduct through social
contact, replication, and monitoring of others in contexts is known as social learning. People
pick up knowledge by seeing the actions and results of their peers, social groupings, or role
models. This process is shaped by social relationships, cultural norms, and societal values
and involves imitation, interaction, modeling, and vicarious learning.
4. Experiential Learning: In experiential learning, trial and error, contemplation, and
practical knowledge are prioritized. In order to gain practical skills and a deeper
comprehension, students experiment in different ways, participate in everyday events, and
think back on what they have learned. Through the promotion of logical thinking, ability to
resolve issues, and the application of knowledge to real-world situations, this active learning
approach prepares students for success in a range of situations.
5. Constructivist Learning: According to the the concept of constructivism, learners
actively create understanding instead of merely absorbing it. People create their own versions
of the external environment and integrate newly acquired data with what they already know
when they observe it. Constructivist learning often encourages participation, in-depth
comprehension, and the application of information to relevant contexts.
6. Situational Learning: The primary goal of situational learning is to acquire context-
specific knowledge and skills to address present issues or targets in particular situations. It
promotes adaptability, resolving issues and real-world application of knowledge. Contextual
variables like social interactions and cultural standards help learners become more adaptive
and make effective use of their abilities as well as their expertise. This approach fosters
practical understanding while enhancing relevance and flexibility in many contexts.
7. Self-directed Learning: Learners that engage in this type of instructional activity take
charge of what they learn by establishing objectives, finding resources, and handling their
particular assignments. Self-directed learning places a high value on developing self-reliance,
discipline, and lifelong capacity for learning.
Principles of Learning
1. Active Learning: The idea of active learning emphasizes the active role that students have
in carefully processing new information. They use mental processes including understanding
reflection, finding patterns, and integrating past information. This idea, which emphasizes the
dynamic and meaning-centered aspect of learning, is consistent with constructivist learning
theories.
2. Meaningful Learning: The concept of "Building on Prior Knowledge" highlights how
students create meaningful learning by relating new material to what they already know and
have experienced. This principle emphasizes customized experiences for learning, full
participation, and the integration of old and new knowledge.
3. Social Learning: The goal of social learning is to learn through collaboration and
interactions with others. Engaging with peers, teachers, and mentors fosters the development
of constructive viewpoints and conduct. Observation and comments from others help with
development of skills and learning. Collaborative problem-solving exercises enhance
analytical skills.
4. Holistic Learning: Holistic learning promotes the integration of many viewpoints and
emphasizes how knowledge is interrelated. Students get an understanding of topics in wider
contexts, which develops their practical as well as analytical abilities. Learning becomes
more meaningful and relevant when it is contextualized.
5. Empowering Learners: The learning principle of "Empowering Learners" is centered on
developing learners' self-assurance, independence, and belief in competence. It entails
 fostering a growth mentality, elevating confidence in oneself, and offering chances for
independence and decision-making.
6. Diverse Paths to Understanding: "Diverse Paths to Understanding" recognizes the
various methods in which students pick up and convey information. It includes appreciating
cultural variety, diverse intelligences, and personal learning methods. Diverse learner
requirements are taken into account by educators through customized instruction, Universal
Design for Learning (UDL), and customized instruction techniques.
LEARNING AND RELATED CONCEPTS
1. Learning and Maturation
According to Hurlock (1942), maturation is the unfolding of characteristics potentially
present in the individual that come from the individual’s genetic endowment, while, learning
is development that comes from exercise and effort. Biggie and Hunt (1968) defined
maturation as a developmental process within which a person, from time to time, manifests
different traits, the ‘blue-prints’ of which have been carried in his cells from the time of his
conception. Thus, maturation is a natural process and it involves changes that are associated
with normal growth. These changes are independent of activity, practice or experience. The
resultant behaviour, thus, or account of the process of maturation does not fall in the category
of acquired or learned behaviour. However, maturation is closely linked with results of
learning and with the process of development. Before certain kinds of learning may take
place, one has to have achieved a certain level of maturation. Infact, learning and maturation
are so closely interrelated that sometimes it becomes difficult to say definitely, particularly in
human beings, as to which of the behavioural changes the results of learning are and which
the consequences of maturation are. Aggarwal (2008) has discussed it as follows,
“The swimming of tadpoles and the flying of birds can be attributed primarily to
maturation. But in the case of human beings it is not easy to decide whether the activities
result from maturation or learning. The simplest example is that of a child. The child
learns to talk only when he reaches a certain stage or age of maturation. It is also equally
true that he does not learn the language just because he attains that age. The language is
taught to him. The language which he learns is that which he hears. It is very clear that
the two processes- maturation and Understanding Learning
learning – are closely related to each other. Maturation assists in the process of learning.
Learning takes place only if the stage for that type of learning has been achieved through
a process of maturation. A teacher would be effective if he understands the complexity of
the changes that take place as a result of both processes and the interaction between the
two. The reverse would be harmful. For instance, the normal development of speech in
the child would be disrupted
 if a child is forced to learn certain speech patterns before a certain maturation has
occurred. On the other hand, failure to provide specific training in speech at the
appropriate time may be a great educational error.”
2. Learning and Teaching
Teaching is a system of actions which induce learning through interpersonal
relationships. It is a purposeful social and professional activity. The ultimate goal of
teaching is to bring about development of a child. Teaching is a complex phenomenon as
its nature is scientific as well as artistic. Gage (1979) has discussed teaching as a science
to describe ‘the elements of predictability’ in teaching and as an art to describe ‘what
constitutes good teaching’. When we consider teaching as an art, we consider it loaded
with emotions, feelings, values, beliefs and excitement and difficult to derive rules,
principles or generalizations. When we consider teaching as science, then pedagogy is
predictable to the extent that it can be observed and measured with
some accuracy and research can be applied to the practice of teaching. The total task of
teaching is to provide a conducive environment to child for learning and helping him in
exploring his potential. That is why, Joyce, Weil and Calhoun (2009) say that models of
teaching are really models of learning. As we help learners in acquiring information,
ideas, skills values, ways of thinking, and means of expressing themselves, we are also
teaching them how to learn. In
fact, the most important long term outcome of teaching may be the learners’ increased
capabilities to learn more easily and effectively in the future. ‘Any valid conception of
teaching must be integrally related to a conception of learning. How human beings learn
should provide much of the basis for our derivations of how teachers should teach’
(Gage, 1967).
3. Learning and Imprinting
‘Imprinting’ as a term was first used in 1930s by the Austrian Ethologist Konrad Lorenz
for describing the attachment behaviour of new born-birds to the first large moving objects
in their environment. He conducted a series of experiments for studying such attachment
behaviour. Like, in his initial experiments he demonstrated that ducklings and goslings
follow the mother soon after hatching. Afterwards, Lorenz replaced the mother by a big
object like football and found the new-borns following the new object. In one of his later
experiments he himself worked as a substitute for the object and the mother. He first
hatched a group of goslings in an incubator and then presented himself as the first moving
object they saw. He found that the newborn birds began to follow him wherever he went.
Thus he concluded that imprinting represents an inborn perceptual process independent of
any training or experience. It is a sense of strong connection or attachment that is made
between the new-born organism and the first object it may have initially responded to.
 This attachment behavior is a species-specific behaviour and is not exhibited by all
species. Imprinting is quite dissimilar and distinct from the actual process of learning. It
depends on an instinctive and inborn species-specific behaviour mechanism rather than the
experience and training carried out during specific critical periods of the species life time
soon after birth.
DIMENSIONS OF LEARNING
According to Marzanoet al. (2006) dimensions of learning is a comprehensive model that uses
what researchers and theorists know about learning to define the learning process. Their premise
is that five types of thinking – i.e. five dimensions of learning- are essential to successful
learning. These five dimensions of learning are:
a) Attitudes and Perceptions
b) Acquire and Integrate Knowledge
c) Extend and Refine Knowledge
d) Use Knowledge Meaningfully
e) Habits of Mind

a) Attitudes and Perceptions: A key element of effective teaching is helping learners to

establish positive attitudes and perceptions about the classroom and about learning because these
affect learners’ abilities to learn If learners find the classroom as an unsafe and disorderly place,
their learning will be negatively affected. Also, learners’ positive attitude about classroom tasks
helps in learning.
b) Acquire and Integrate Knowledge: Providing new knowledge by integrating the previous
knowledge helps in learning. When learners are learning new information, they must be guided
in relating the new knowledge to what they already know, organizing that information, and then
making it part of their long-term memory.
c) Extend and Refine Knowledge : Learning does not stop with acquiring and integrating
knowledge. Learners develop an in-depth understanding through the process of extending and
refining their knowledge (e.g. by making new distinctions, clearing up misconceptions, and
reaching conclusions). Various reasoning processes, like: comparing, classifying, abstracting,
inductive reasoning, deductive reasoning, constructing support, analyzing errors, analyzing
perspectives, etc. are used by learners to analyze for extending and refining their knowledge.
d) Use Knowledge Meaningfully : The most effective learning occurs when we use knowledge
to perform meaningful tasks. So, making sure that learners have the opportunity to use
knowledge meaningfully is one of the most important parts of planning a teaching activity. For
this, reasoning processes, like: decision making, problem solving, invention, experimental
inquiry, investigation, systems analysis, etc. may be used.
e) Habits of Mind: A learner becomes an effective learner by developing powerful habits of
mind that enable her/him to think critically, do thing creatively, and regulate her/his behaviour.
The mental habits for critical thinking are being accurate and seeking accuracy, being clear and
seeking clarity, maintaining an open mind, restraining impulsivity, taking a position when the
situation warrantsit and responding appropriately to others feeling and level of knowledge.
Habit of preserving, pushing the limits of own knowledge and abilities, generating, trusting and
maintaining own standards of evaluation enable in thinking creatively. Self-regulated thinking is
enabled by the habits of monitoring own thinking, planning appropriately, identifying and using
necessary resources, responding appropriately to feedback and evaluating the effectiveness of
own actions.
These five dimensions of learning do not operate in isolation but work together. All
learning takes place against the back drop of learners’ attitudes and perceptions and their use of
productive habits of minds. Having positive attitudes and perceptions and using productive
habits of mind makes learning easier and helps in learning more. When positive attitudes and
perceptions are in place and productive habits of mind are being used, learners can more
effectively do the thinking required in the other three dimensions- that is, acquiring and
integrating knowledge, extending and refining knowledge, and using knowledge meaningfully.
LEARNING STYLES
The term ‘learning styles’corresponds to the understanding that every individual learns
differently. Learning styles define the way how people learn and how they approach information.
It is a pattern of behaviour that human beings use for new learning. You may recall that
sometimes you feel like you cannot learn something important even if you use the same method
which has been suggested by your parents, colleagues or teachers. But, then you tried to learn
that in your own way and succeeded. It indicates that you may have different learning style. An
individual’s learning style refers to the preferential way in which the learner absorbs processes,
comprehends and retains information. Different learners learn in a variety of ways, by seeing and
hearing, working alone and in groups, reasoning logically and intuitively and sometimes by
memorizing or visualizing. Thus, since, everyone is different, it is important for teachers to
understand the differences in learners’ learning styles, so that they can implement best practice
strategies into their daily activities, curriculum and assessments.
Fleming’s VARK model of learning is a very commonly accepted model.
VARK is an acronym that refers to the four types of learning styles: Visual, Auditory,
eading/Writing Preference, and Kinesthetic.
• Visual learners prefer the use of images, maps and graphic organizers to access and understand
new information.
• Auditory learners best understand new content through listening and speaking in situations such
as lectures and group discussions.
• Learners with a strong reading/writing preference learn best through words. These learners are
able to translate abstract concepts into words and essays.
• Kinesthetic learners best understand information through tactile representation of information.
They learn best through figuring things out by hand
MODES OF LEARNING
Right from birth itself we learn many skills, like reaching for and grasping toys, standing up and
stepping forward unfaltering and unaided, speaking, etc. Later, we learn more complex skills and
acquire the ability of solving various types of problems. Thus, there is a gradual change from the
simpler form of learning to the complex ones, like problem solving. There is no single way of
acquiring all types of learning. However, here we shall discuss three important modes of
learning. By understanding how each mode operates, you should be able to design your
classroom teaching more effectively.
1. Learning by Observation
Observation is a basic requisite for all kinds of learning. By observation, here, we do not mean
simply ‘seeing’ a thing, rather it refers to the act of perceiving or observing the stimulus. Thus in
the process of observation we not only take the help of our eyes alone (as for ‘seeing’) but we
also use all sense organs. The presence of a stimulus can be recorded with the help of our
capability of perceiving, seeing, listening, smelling, tasting and touching. It may amuse or take
you by surprise if it is said that “we have eyes yet we are blind”. Such a statement may confuse
you unless it is clarified. The point of emphasis here is that there are so many objects around us,
but we take notice of only a few of them. Just ponder upon this explanation and you will realize
the underlying truth. In fact, we pay attention to the things of our interest only. But we can never
be certain whether interest proceeds attention on it is attention which gives rise to interest. It is
because the two are inseparable. Interest is the feeling side of attention. By nature, all living
beings are interested in something or the other. This interest is amused as a result of impulse
evoked by instincts. The greater the impulse, the more is the amount of interest attached to it.
And the greater the interest, the more the attention paid to the object. Therefore, it is said that
interest is latent attention and attention is interest in action. However, the necessary conditions
of both interest in and attention to any object is that the mind is so organized, either innate or
through experience that it can think about the object and maintain a desire to know more and
more about it. This type of mental or psychomotor activity leads us to learning about the object.
We often use ‘attention’ in order to achieve faster learning in our learners. We evoke interest in
children by presenting concrete objects, illustration, pictures, modules etc. in class and relating
the topic to them.
Learning By Imitation
Living beings can learn a great deal by observing but they should also try to emulate others for
perfecting their performance and learning. Like observation, imitation is also an innate tendency
of the child. Imitation is tendency to repeat the observed actions of others. In the beginning, the
child learns his movements, action and gesture by imitation. The capacity of imitating is very
much prominent in children and you must observe that they take delight in imitating. As they
grow, they learn many athletic, industrial and professional skills by imitating moving picture
demonstration of skilled performance. Modeling also has a great value in learning. Modeling
includes imitation of special personalities such as a learner imitates the actions immediately of
the well-known cricketer Sachin Tendulkar. Imitation also means the invention of new things or
actions. Teachers should give opportunity to the learners for self-development. Their creative
tendency should be exploited or highlighted. Trevor has reduced all kinds of imitation into two
broad categories: (a) unconscious and (b) deliberate. Under the first category, the individual
imitates what he sees, quite unwillingly. In deliberate imitation, the individual copies anact with
a definite deliberateness to imitate, because of his interest in the act itself, or due to result he
expects to secure an account of imitation.
Learning By Trial And Error
In many situations we learn by trial and error. Here we make a number of attempts for a
particular task or problem and find more attempts rewarding. The satisfying feeling of rewards
strengthens particular stimulus - response connections while the unsuccessful attempts are
stamped out through practice. This type of learning is based on Thorndike’s theory of
connectionism. It implies that through conditioning, specific responses are linked with specific
stimuli. The connections between stimuli and responses are formed through random trial and
error. The law of trial and error was formulated after experiments on a hungry cat imprisoned
in a cage. When the cat could press the lever of the cage through several trials, it would get food
as the reward. The number of unsuccessful attempts reduced through practice and successful
attempts got strengthened. The law has significant implications in classroom learning. When
used appropriately by the teacher, they can help in developing the skills vocabulary and
memorizing abilities of children. Thorndike conducted an experiment in which exercise was
made the indecent variable while other factors were held constant. He experimented upon a
college student who was asked to draw a 3-inch line while blind-folded. More repetition did not
bring any change or improvement. Such subjects were given more than thousand trials. On an
average, there was no improvement from the first to the final trial. Practice without knowledge of
results failed to produce any result. Some of the laws underlying trial and error learning are: law
of readiness, law of effect, law of exercise. As regards the law of exercise, Thorndike began to
think that reward and punishment were not equal and opposite in effect. Reward strengthens the
connection considerably whereas punishment does not weaken the connection to the same
degree. The intensity and speed of reward in influencing learning are greater than that of
punishment. Reward also brings healthy and desirable improvement in the personality of the
child. In this way, Thorndike began to give more importance to reward and praise in place of
punishment and blame.
Learning By Insight
Most of the learning in human beings takes place not only through observation or imitation, but
also by solving problem which they come across in their dayto- day life. While solving a
problem if an individual reaches the solution all of a sudden, we say that he has learned by
insight. In fact, the person reaches the solution by understanding the relation between different
aspects of the problematic situation. In our daily life, we describe the mode of learning by using
phrases like seeing the point, or getting the idea. Learning by insight was introduced by Gestalt
psychologists. Gestalt means shape, form or configuration. To understand the process of insight
the learning, we describe here Kohler’s famous experiment of chimpanzee and bananas. A
chimpanzee was placed in a cage. Outside the cage, on one side were put some bananas. The
chimpanzee was hungry, it long arms could not reach the bunch of bananas. Some sticks were
placed near the door inside the cage. The chimpanzee first tried to reach bananas with its hands.
It did not get success. After several attempts and failures, it sat in a corner, seemingly brooding
on the problem. Suddenly, it jumped, seized a stick and pulled the bananas toward itself. Kohler
repeated the experiment by bringing some variations in the design. On the basis of his
experiments, he described the process of learning in insight as follows:
• The learning perceives the situation in its totality.
• He analyses the various aspects of the situation and tries to establish a
meaningful relationship among them. On the basis of this new perception he
redefines the situation.
• The process goes on till he solves the problematic situation all of a sudden.
That is what we mean when we say that a learner suddenly gets an insight into the solution.

THEORIES OF LEARNING
In this section, we will discuss various theories explaining the psychological processes involved
in learning. Broadly, theories of learning can be categorized based on the following:
1) Learning by association: Known as classical conditioning
2) Learning by consequence: Known as operant or instrumental conditioning
3) Learning by watching others: Known as observational learning
4) Learning by higher mental processes: Known as cognitive learning.
Classical Conditioning: Learning by Association
Theory of classical conditioning was proposed by Ivan Pavlov. According to classical
conditioning, we learn by making associations and relationships among various stimuli. Baron
(2001), have described classical conditioning as “A basic form of learning in which one stimulus
comes to serve as a signal for the occurrence of a second stimulus. During classical conditioning,
organisms acquire information about the relations between various stimuli, not simple
associations between them.” The subjects of learning in this theory are always some kind of
automatic, involuntary or reflexive responses such as heart rate, salivation, vomiting, pupil
dilatation etc.
Before moving further first we should know the famous experiment done by Ivan Pavlov. His
experiment on dog laid the foundation of Classical conditioning. Pavlov, a physiologist by
profession, was working on the process of digestion on dogs around 1889. While measuring the
salivation rate of dogs, he observed that his dogs often began to salivate when they smell the
food or even at the sight of their empty food pan. That is, they start salivating before they
actually tasted the food. To understand this interesting observation he conducted a study. He
conducted his study in two trials. He called his first trail as conditioning trial. During this trial,
he presented a neutral stimulus-a bell-that had no effect on dog’s salivation. The ringing of a bell
was immediately followed by an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)-food-that can produce dog’s
salivation. The response that the dog gave after getting food (unconditional stimulus) in the form
of salivation was termed as an unconditioned response (UCR), because it did not depend on
previous learning. This pairing of the ringing of a bell followed by food was done for a number
of times. After this repetitive pairing, neutral stimulus i.e., bell acquired the characteristics of
UCS i.e., food. Finally, Pavlov’s dog started giving a conditioned response (CR), i.e., it started
salivating in the response to the sound of the bell only. The neutral stimulus used by Pavlov in
his experiment, i.e., the bell was termed by him as a conditioned stimulus (CS), because
initially, the bell had no characteristics of producing salivation in the dog but later under certain
condition it acquired the ability to produce salivation in the dog.

Experiment of classical conditioning

Now let us have a quick review of important terms:
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that can produce response unconditionally and
naturally, whenever it is presented. For example, cutting up an onion can make you cry or pollen
from flower can make you sneeze. Here, onion and pollen are two examples of UCS.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A stimulus that was initially neutral in nature i.e., was not capable
of producing any response. Later, with repeated pairing with UCS, it becomes able of predicting
a UCS and thus could elicit the response originally meant for UCS only. Unconditioned esponse
(UCR): Response for which we do not need any previous learning i.e., which occurs
automatically without any condition. As discussed already, ‘crying’ while cutting an onion and
‘sneezing’ are the examples of UCR. Conditioned Response (CR): The response we give to a
conditioned stimulus because of some experience is known as CR.
The Little Albert Experiment
Can we apply the principle of Classical Conditioning to human learning also? To answer this,
John B. Watson conducted an experiment on a nine-month child named “Albert B”, also
famously known as Little Albert. Watson hypothesized that a children’s fearful response to loud
noise is an unconditioned response. He further proposed that using the principles of classical
conditioning a child can be made fearful to any neutral stimulus. During the baseline condition of
the experiment, Watson and his assistants exposed little Albert to a number of stimuli such as a
white rat, a rabbit, mask etc. As expected, the little Albert did not show any fearful response to
these objects. In the control condition, when Albert was exposed to the rat, Albert made a loud
noise. This made Albert fearful and he started crying. After a repeated presentation of a white rat
with a loud noise, he began to cry just after seeing the rat. Later, it was observed that Albert has
started to generalize his fear of similar looking white and furry objects. Here,
Neutral Stimulus: White rat
Unconditioned Stimulus: Loud noise
Unconditioned Response: Crying and fearful emotional response
Conditioned Stimulus: White rat
Conditioned Response: Crying and fearful emotional response

Rat or rabbit, I don’t like it

Learned Helplessness
The phenomenon of learned helplessness was given by Martin Seligman in the late 1960s while
working on classical conditioning with dogs. He noticed that those dogs who received an
unavoidable electric shock for a number of times did not act to rescue themselves when they had
an opportunity for it in the subsequentsituations. Whereas, those dogs who received no
inescapable shock, took action to save themselves from the electric shock. He termed the
behaviour of the first group as learned helplessness-one’s learned response to not to take any
appropriate action to avoid aversive stimuli. In other words, one’s tendency to avoid taking
any action for a successful escape from an aversive or painful situation due to the history of
failed attempts. The theory of learned helplessness has also been successfully applied to
understand the problem of depression in human beings.
Operant Conditioning: Consequence Based Learning
Suppose you want to use principles of classical conditioning to teach a child to write. For this,
first, you need to identify an unconditional stimulus that will make the child write. But since,
writing is not a reflex or any emotional behaviour; therefore we cannot use classical conditioning
to make someone learn writing. In this situation, we should explore another form of conditioning
called operant conditioning. In operant conditioning, the end result or consequence of behaviour
determine if it will be repeated in the future or not. Operant conditioning can be defined as a
principle of learning in which behaviour is maintained or changed through its positive or
negative consequences. According to the principles of operant conditioning, positive
consequences lead to the repetition of behaviour, whereas, negative consequences will lead to
avoidance of behaviour. Factors that increase the probability of repetition of behaviour have been
termed as reinforcement. Whereas, factors that weaken or suppresses the targeted behavior has
been termed as punishment. B.F. Skinner was the main proponent of operant conditioning. He
studied the learning mechanism involved in voluntary behaviour. Since voluntary behavior
ccurred when an organism ‘operates on the environment’, he termed such voluntary behaviour as
operant. Thus, conditioning of operant behaviour is known as operant conditioning. Skinner’s
work was inspired by Thorndike’s principle of the law of effect, which states that behaviour
followed by pleasant outcomes are likely to be repeated, and behaviour followed by unpleasant
are outcomes likely to be stopped. Now let’s talk about the experiment done by Skinner. In his
experiment, Skinner kept a hungry rat inside a closed chamber. The chamber has a lever, which
was connected to a food container kept outside. During exploratory behaviour, initially, rat
pressed the lever accidentally, leading to dropping off a food pellet. After a number of such
accidental trials, rat learned the behaviour of pressing the lever for a food pellet. Conditioning
was complete, when the rat presses the lever immediately after it food was placed in the
chamber. Here, lever pressing is an operant behaviour and getting food is its consequence. Since
in this experiment, the behaviour of pressing the lever was a medium or instrument of obtaining
food, this type of learning is also known as instrumental learning.
An Overview of Reinforcement and Punishment

Schedules of Reinforcement
In real life, it is not necessary that you will be reinforced every time. Sometimes, your teacher
praises you, sometimes she just acknowledges you, while on the other occasions she prefers to
ignore your hard work. This suggests that there is no fixed rule of giving reinforcement.
Psychologists have also suggested that there can be many ways of giving reinforcement and how
reinforcement has been received also affects behaviour. Here, we will talk about the schedule of
reinforcement-”rules determining when and how reinforcement will be delivered” (Baron
2001).
Schedule of Reinforcement
The Principle of Shaping and Chaining
Have you seen a circus? Or have you watched animal performing some tricks or stunts in a
movie? How can they perform such a complicated behaviour?

dog doing a trick

The answer to this question lies in two principles of operant conditioning called as shaping and
chaining. Shaping is a process of learning a new behaviour in which successively closer
approximation of the desired behaviour is reinforced, that is the organism will be rewarded for
each small step towards targeted behaviour. Any complex behaviour or skill is the chain of many
steps. The process of chaining involves breaking a task into small steps and then teaching these
steps in sequence or chain. In chaining, only the targeted behaviour is rewarded, i.e., once the
trainee accomplishes the last step he will be rewarded. For example, if you want to teach a child
to use the spoon to feed himself then the chaining principle can be used.
Premack Principle
Given by David Premack, according to this principle, a more preferred behavior can be used as
reinforcement for a less preferred behaviour. One of the example of the usage of Premack
principle can be best explained in a circumstance where, in order to develop a habit of reading in
the child, the mother promises her child to allow him/her to play outside provided the child reads
for a time period of 20 minutes.
Observational Learning: Learning by Observation
The main proponent of observational learning was Albert Bandura. Unlike classical conditioning
and operant conditioning, according to observational learning the cognitive processes plays
important role in learning behaviour. Based on his work with phobic patients and the famous
Bobo doll experiment (1963), Bandura propounded ‘Social Learning Theory’. According to
social learning theory, learning occurs in a social setting by observing others behaviour and its
outcome. This observational learning can occur in two ways: (i) direct observation, and (ii)
indirect observation. In direct observation, you learn behaviour by observing others (called as a
model), directly, while in indirect observation you learn by observing or hearing others
experiences. This kind of indirect learning is known as vicarious learning. Suppose you wanted
to go on a trip to the Northeastern states of India. One of your friends who recently came back
from his trip of north-east suggests you to carry an umbrella or raincoat, as it can rain anytime.
What will you do? There are very high chances that you will listen to his experience and carry an
umbrella. This kind of learning is an example of vicarious learning.

Children imitating the aggressive behaviour of the actor in the film

Now, we will discuss the famous bobo-doll experiment to have an in-depth understanding of
observational learning. Bandura and his colleagues conducted an experiment on children to
investigate the role of observational and imitation in learning social behaviour, such as
aggression. They selected 72 children between the age group of three to six years. Children were
randomly assigned to three groups: one control and two experimental conditions. In one group of
experiment condition, children were shown a movie with an aggressive model, beating, hitting
and abusing a bobo doll. In another experimental condition, a non-aggressive model was shown
playing peacefully and in a friendly way with a Bobo doll. Whereas, in control condition
children were not shown any movie. Later, all groups of children were placed in a room full of
varieties of toys. It was observed that children who were exposed to the aggressive model
imitated the model’s behaviour. They also punched, hit, and used abusive words for Bobo dolls.
In contrast, the children of the second experimental group, who were exposed to non-aggressive
model, did not demonstrate any aggression with bobo doll. This was one of the landmark studies
in psychology. It suggested that observation and imitation play a crucial role in learning.
Process Involved in Observational Learning
Attention: In order to learn, one needs to focus his or her attention on a model. This process is
influenced by the characteristics of the model as well as characteristics of the observer.
Retention: It is important to remember the observed behaviour for future reproduction. This
process depends on one’s ability to rehearse and mentally represent the observed behaviour.
Production: In the third step, learned behaviour is produced by the observer.
However, production of a retained behaviour depends on the capability to perform it, i.e.,
whether the observer possesses the required skills or not.
Motivation: An observed behaviour will be performed only when there is an appropriate
motivation or reason to do so.
Cognitive Learning
Many psychologists proposed that explanation of learning behaviour based on simple stimulus-
response association is not appropriate. Since both humans and animals possess brain, therefore
learning without higher mental processes is not possible. Learning based on cognitive processes
is known as cognitive learning. In this section, we will discuss two prominent forms of cognitive
learning: latent learning and insight learning.
Latent Learning
Tolman was the main proponent of latent learning. Even though he was a behaviorist, but unlike
others, he accepted the role of cognition in learning. Tolman and his colleagues (Tolman &
Honzik, 1930; Tolman, Ritchie, & Kalish, 1946) in a series of an experiment on rats
demonstrated that learning can take place without immediate reinforcement. In a study by
Tolman and Honzik (1930), hungry rats were trained to run in a maze. They took three groups of
rats; reward group, no-reward group and, noreward/ reward group. For the first group, they
placed hungry rats in a complicated maze with food at the end, while the second group never
received any food after coming out of the maze successfully. Rats of the third group received no
food for the first ten sessions but for their eleventh session, they received food as reinforcement.
Results suggest that rats of the first group took lesser time for every next trial to reach their goal
while the rats of the second group showed very slight improvement in their time and errors.
Interestingly, rats of the third group initially also showed very slight improvement in their error
but once they became aware of the presence of food by its smell, their performance improved
dramatically and in fact it was on par with the performance of rats of the first group. This change
in behaviour was attributed to latent learning: learning that takes place but does not express until
the situation for it is conducive.
 Tolman’s maze
Insight Learning
Given by one of the founders of Gestalt psychology, Wolfgang Kohler, insight learning refers to
the sudden realization of a problem’s solution. Kohler proposed that not all kind of learning
depend on trial-error or conditioning, we use our cognitive processes also to learn. Using
cognitive processes we visualize the problem and solution for it internally only. Even though this
learning takes place implicitly but the change in the behaviour is long lasting To prove his point,
he conducted a series of an experiment on chimpanzees, with which we human share 99 per cent
of DNA. In one such experiment, Kohler placed a Chimpanzee in a cage and placed a banana
above its reach. Initially, after a few failed attempts to get that banana, chimpanzee started
spending its time unproductively by playing and sitting. Suddenly, after some time chimpanzee
started piling up the kept wooden boxes on top of each other and climbed, and grabbed the
banana. Kohler argued that the internal process that leads the chimpanzee to use boxes in this
way is an example of insight learning.

Chimpanzee trying to reach banana placed above his reach

The famous story behind Archimedes “Eureka” moment and sudden realization of gravitational
force after seeing a falling apple by Isaac Newton are some of the most famous examples of
sight learning.
Challenges of Learning
1. Lack of Motivation: Motivational issues might impede learners' involvement and dedication
to their studies. A lack of motivation can be caused by a variety of things, including a lack of
confidence, being indifferent in the subject matter, and outside disturbances.
Learning Disabilities: Effective processing of information as well as understanding are
hampered by learning difficulties, especially when it comes to reading (dyslexia), writing
(dysgraphia), and math (dyscalculia). These challenges may impair one's emotional and social
health in addition to impeding progress in school. To help people with disorders of learning
surmount challenges to learning and succeed, specific strategies, modifications, and support
services are needed.
3. Cultural and Linguistic Barriers: Students from diverse linguistic or ethnic origins may find
it challenging to understand the instructional resources, contribute to the discussion, or express
themselves effectively. Language barriers, ethnic differences, and a lack of resources can all
significantly impede learning.
4. Cognitive Load: The mental effort needed to digest facts and finish assignments is referred to
as cognitive load. When faced with complicated or exhausting content, learners may experience
cognitive overload, which can cause issues with understanding, remembering, and resolving
queries.
5. Limited Resources: Insufficient availability of instructional materials, including
technological advances, textbooks, and certified instructors, might impede educational prospects
and restrict students' capacity to realize their maximum abilities. Physical obstacles, financial
constraints, and differences in income could make this problem worse.
6. Social and Emotional Factors: Bullying and intimidation, stress, anxiety, and various other
emotional and social problems can impact students' academic performance and general well-
being. Unfriendly social conditions or psychological distress might cause learners to lose
concentration and become sidetracked from their educational objectives.
LEARNING ORGANISATION
A learning organisation:
• Is an active philosophy; not merely an organisational system.
• Believes that its only competitive advantage is learning.
• Encourages people to learn to produce the results they desire.
• Nurtures creative and innovative patterns of collective learning.
• Develops fresh organisational capabilities all the time.
New ideas are essential if learning is to take place. Whatever their source, these ideas
trigger organisational improvement. However, creating or acquiring new knowledge is not
enough; what is more important is the successful application of knowledge in one’s own
activities. Learning organisations are skilled at five main activities:
1) Systematic Problem-Solving: – Relying on the scientific method rather than guesswork for
diagnosing problems. – Insisting on data rather than assumptions, as background for
decisionmaking. – Depending on simple statistical tools to organise data and draw inferences
2) Experimentation: – Systematic searching for and testing of new knowledge. Continuous
improvement in new methods and technologies. – Successful ongoing programmes to ensure a
steady flow of new ideas, even if imported from outside the organisation. – Demonstration of
organisational capabilities by introducing selfmanaging teams and high level of worker
autonomy.
3) Learning from Past Experience: – Companies must review their success and failures, assess
them systematically and record lessons in a form that employees find open and accessible.
Intrapersonal Processes
4) Learning from Others: – Sometimes, the most powerful insights come from one’s immediate
outside environment. – Even companies in completely different businesses can be fertile sources
of ideas and catalysts for creative thinking. – Best industry practices are to be uncovered,
analysed, adopted and implemented. – The greatest benefits come from studying practices; the
way work gets done rather than results.
5) Transferring Knowledge: – Knowledge must spread quickly and efficiently throughout the
organisation. – Make use of mechanisms such as written and oral communications, site visits and
tours, personnel rotation programmes, education and training programmes for transferring
knowledge. – Transfer may be from division to division, department to department, or facility to
facility; they may involve senior, middle, or first level managers.
Characteristics of Learning Organisation
Some of the common operational practices of learning organisations dealing with people are
openness, systematic thinking, creativity, awareness of personal and organisational values,
empathy and sensitivity. Senge, who popularised the term learning organisation states that such
organisations have the following five principles:
1) Personal Mastery: Creating an organisational environment, which encourages all its
members to develop themselves toward goals and purposes they choose.
2) Mental Models: Reflecting upon, continually clarifying, and improving internal pictures of
the world, and seeing how they shape our actions and decisions.
3) Shared Vision: Building a sense of commitment in a group, by developing shared images of
the future and guiding principles and practices.
4) Team Learning: Transforming conversational and collective thinking skills, so that groups of
people can reliably develop intelligence and ability greater than the sum of individual members’
talents.
5) Systems Thinking: Thinking about, and a language for describing and understanding forces
and interrelationships that shapes the behaviour of systems.
These principles translate into the following three key practices that enable an organisation to
promote and support continuous learning:
1) The ability to learn from each other
2) The ability to learn from personal experience
3) The ability to learn from the system (that is, organisation successes and failures) A learning
organisation is characterised by:
Openness: The learning organisation has to be open to enquiry and tolerant of criticism and
debate.
Innovation: The learning organisation has an organic structure and culture which permits it to
evolve rapidly. It has a deep skill base and capacity to deal internally with complexity and
uncertainty. Strategic Orientation: The learning organisation cares both for its customer and its
employees.
Strategic Orientation: The learning organisation cares both for its customer and its employees.
Application of Learning in Organisations
Three systematic approaches to incorporating learning in organisations involve training,
organisational behaviour management and discipline. Training: Training is the process through
which people systematically acquire and improve the skills and knowledge needed to better job
performance. Many executive training programmes systematically attempt to develop the skills
of their top managers. This is accomplished either by bringing in outside experts to train
personnel in-house, or by sending them to specialised programmes conducted by outside
agencies. The principles that help in the effectiveness of training are:
1) Participation: People not only learn more quickly, but also retain the skills longer when they
have actively participated in the learning process.
2) Repetition: The benefits of repetition for learning new skills or performing a task need not be
emphasised.
3) Transfer of Training: What is learned during training sessions must be applied on the job.
4) Feedback: It is extremely difficult for learning to occur in the absence of feedback - that is,
knowledge of the results of one’s actions. Feedback provides information about the effectiveness
of one’s training
Organisational Behaviour Management:
It implies systematic application of positive reinforcement principles in organisational settings
for the purpose of raising the incidence of desirable organisational behaviours. To be effective in
using organisational behaviour management programmes, managers should:
1) Pinpoint the desired behaviour.
2) Determine exactly how will people perform the behaviour they wish to change.
3) Determine exactly what performance goal is being sought.
4) Decide exactly how the desired behaviour will be rewarded.
5) Facilitate learning by rewarding behaviours that come closer to the criterion.
6) Revaluate the programme periodically.
Discipline: Just as organisations systematically use rewards to encourage desirable behaviour,
they also use punishment to discourage undesirable behaviour. There are innumerable problems
in an organisation such as absenteeism, late coming, theft, alcoholism, substance abuse, which
cost companies vast sums of money. The companies manage such situations by timely
administration of punishment.
Learning Disabilities Senge is his book has identified a number of learning disabilities. Some of
them are listed below: a) The myth of teamwork (i.e., most teams operate below the level of
lowest IQ in the group). b) The delusion of learning from experience (i.e., attempting to
understand the future by relying on the past, which means we solve the same problem over and
over again, hence we make the problem worse). c) To offset the learning disabilities, he has
enunciated Laws of the Fifth Discipline: 1) Today’s problems come from yesterday’s
“solutions”. 2) The harder you push, the harder the system pushes back. 3) Behaviour grows
better before it grows worse. 4) The easy way out usually leads back in. 5) The cure can be
worse than the disease. 6) Faster is slower. 7) Cause and effect are not closely related in time and
space. 8) Small changes can produce big results — but the areas of highest leverage are often the
least obvious. 9) You can have your cake and eat it too — but not at once Developing the
Learning Organisation There are three primary tasks toward developing the learning
organisation. 1) First, leaders and managers must create opportunities for learning. 2) Second,
they must foster desirable norms and behaviours. 3) Third, they must personally lead the process
of discussion, raise questions, listen attentively and provide feedback. Organisations learn only
through individuals who learn. Individual learning does not guarantee organisational learning;
but without it no organisational learning occurs. The approach that needs to be taken is that
learning must be continuous and integrated so that employees understand and accept the need for
change which finally results in improved work culture. Learning organisations are not built
overnight. It is a slow and steady process of cultivated attitudes, commitments and management
processes. Any company that wishes to become a learning organisation can begin by taking a
few simple steps. The first step is to foster an environment that is conducive to learning. The
second step is to open up boundaries and stimulate the exchange of ideas. The third step is to
eliminate barriers that impede learning and assign learning a higher position in the organisational
agenda.
Based on a large number of case studies, Ramanarayan and Bhatnagar (1993), laid out the
following factors that facilitate organisational learning: 1) Commitment to well-defined
organisational priorities. 2) Effective HRD systems. 3) Mechanisms of collective thinking. 4)
Flexible and participative leadership styles. 5) Collaboration and teamwork. They also found the
following factors that hinder organisational learning: 1) Culture of complacency arising from
past successes. 2) Excessive bureaucratic and centralised methods of working leading to delays.
3) Narrow definition of roles of organisational members in hierarchical organisation leading to
loss of creativity among employees. 4) Due to preoccupation with day-to-day firefighting
functions, less attention is usually given to important issues of change and innovation.
BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
Behaviour Modification is mainly based on learning theories and there are five main principles
underlying this technique (Rao, 2003): 1) As human behaviour is mainly learned (except in case
of maturation process), it is possible to modify it. 2) Behaviour can be changed based on the
changes in the environment. 3) The principles of social learning can be effectively used to
change or modify behaviour, for example, modelling can be used effectively to change behaviour
(as is done in various advertisements). 4) The behaviour change can be an indicator of
effectiveness of counselling or the behavioural modification process. 5) The counselling or the
behaviour modification technique used needs to be based on the needs of the individual whose
behaviour is to be modified. Behaviour modification involves encouragement of desirable
behaviour and removal or minimisation of behaviour that is undesirable. This can also be done
with the help of reinforcement, which can be positive or negative. Behaviour modification thus
involves techniques that are scientifically tested and can be used to reduce certain behaviours
that are maladaptive in nature and increase behaviours that are healthy or adaptive. The first
reference to behaviour modification can be traced to an article written by Thorndike in 1911
titled “Provisional Laws of Acquired Behaviour or Learning in which he referred to ‘modifying
behaviour’. Various learning theories 102 Intrapersonal Processes like Classical conditioning by
Pavlov, Operant Conditioning by Skinner and social learning theory by Bandura further
contributed to the development of this field. Various experiments were carried out by Skinner
that indicated that behaviour could be modified with the help of reinforcements (both positive
and negative).
Concepts in Behaviour Modification
Let us understand the significant concepts in this regard
• Law of effect: One of the main principles of behaviour modification is that the behaviour
mainly depends of its outcome. Thus if the outcome is controlled or manipulated the behaviour
can also be managed. For example, if the out come of tantrums by a child is gaining of the toy
he/she wanted then the likelihood of this behaviour (of throwing tantrums) being repeated is
high. But if the outcome is manipulated then this behaviour can be changed. Thus the law of
effect has significantly contributed to behaviour modification. Law of effect states that “a person
tends to repeat behaviour that is accompanied by favourable consequences and tends to not
repeat behaviour that is accompanied by unfavourable consequences (Newstrom and Davis,
1997, pg 132). Thus this also requires the counsellor or the immediate superior or manager of the
employee to identify the possible consequences that need to be modified or manipulated. In this
regard either positive or negative reinforcement can be suitably used
• Positive reinforcement and shaping: Using positive reinforcement increases the likelihood that
the behaviour that is reinforced will be repeated. “A positive reinforcement is a stimulus or event
which, when it follows a response, increases the likelihood that the response will be made again
(Morgan et al, 1996, pg 149). For example, if an employees is punctual then this behaviour can
be reinforced by his/ her manager/ supervisor by recognising it and even verbally complementing
the employee. Yet another concept in this context is that of shaping. This mainly involves
application of positive reinforcement in a more systematic and gradual manner. This can help
shape the behaviour of the employee. For example, when a new recruit joins, the manager can
systematically and gradually shape his/her behaviour towards becoming more productive by
giving positive reinforcement as and when the right behaviour is displayed by him/her. Rewards
can also be effectively used to promote right behaviours.
• Negative reinforcement and punishment : Using negative reinforcement increases the
likelihood that the behaviour that is reinforced will not be repeated. “A negative reinforcer is a
stimulus or event which, when its cessation or termination is contingent on a response, increases
the likelihood that the response will occur again” (Morgan et al, 1996, pg 149) This mainly
involves removal of an outcome that is not favourable. For example in order to avoid the smell of
chemicals the employee is encouraged to use a mask. In this case the use of a safety device that
is mask is reinforced due to the negative reinforcement that is created by the smell of the
chemicals.
Punishment is not same as negative reinforcement and in punishment, the behaviour is followed
by outcome that is not favourable. “ A punisher is a 103 Learning and Behavioural Modification
stimulus or event which, when its onset is contingent on a response, decreases the likelihood that
the response will occur again” (Morgan et al, 1996, pg 150). For example, if an employee has not
been following the safety norms then he/ she has to pay a fine. Punishment have its own
advantages and disadvantages. Whee on one hand it conveys strong message, on the other, the
punisher may not be liked by others or the employee or subordinates.
• Extinction: It is also to be noted that if a particular reinforced behaviour is not reinforced,
extinction of that behaviour could take place due to lack of reinforcement. For example, an
employee who was earlier awarded for his/ her innovative ideas, was not reinforced recently
when he/ she came up with a creative solution to an impending problem, then this behaviour is
likely to become extinct. Thus the managers also need to be cautious in this regard so as to avoid
certain favourable behaviours of the employees from going extinct.
BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION PROCESS
The behaviour modification process is discussed as follows: 1) Setting of the goal: The main
goal of behaviour modifications is bringing about a change in behaviour, as discussed before,
this change can be in terms of a behaviour that is newly developed like learning a new skill or
further strengthening of a behaviour, for example, a person may have leadership skills but they
can be further enhanced. It can also include maintenance of a particular behaviour like safety
related behaviour and practices or hygienic behaviour and last but not the least, decreasing or
eliminating the unwanted behaviour, aggressive behaviour, for example, can be completely
eliminated.
2) Behavioural Assessment: As discussed above, before the behaviour modification process is
started, the goal has to be whether behaviour is to be strengthened or reduce or a new behaviour
is to be developed or a particular behaviour is to be maintained is to be decided. This can be
decided based on the behavioural assessment. A behavioural assessment will help understand the
problem in a better manner. This assessment includes the following:
– Frequency: How frequent is the behaviour. For example, if a person has been aggressive just
once, we can say that it was due to the situation and the person may not be as such aggressive by
nature. But if the person has been aggressive a number of times then this is a matter of concern.
– Duration: For how long the behaviour has been persistent is also important to be noted. For
example, the duration that the employee has been aloof or upset or displaying lack of interest in
job related activities.
– Intensity: This has to do with the severity of the behaviour. For example, how extreme was the
aggressiveness displayed by the employee.
The behaviour is further analysed with the help of functional analysis, that can be done using
ABC, A, that stands for Antecedent, that is, what happened before the behaviour B, stands for
Behaviour, the behaviour of the employee C, stands for consequences. What happened after the
behaviour.
3) The intervention or techniques that could be used are specified: To suggest or specify a
particular intervention or technique it is necessary that – the antecedent factors are mentioned
and described, – the consequences are also noted down, – the goals of behaviour modification
are specified and, – target response that requires to be changed is noted Once this is done then
suitable technique for behaviour modification can be used.
4) Evaluation and followup: Evaluation and follow up are carried out to see if any change in the
behaviour has taken place or not. If there are no changes in the behaviour after use of a particular
intervention or technique, the same can be changed or modified.
ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR MODIFICATION
OBM can be defied as “a programme in which manager identifies a work related behaviour and
encourages the same by suitable intervention strategy having positive motivation till the
undesirable behaviour is weakened and desirable behaviour is strengthened” (Singh, 2003 pg
330).
Organisational Behaviour Modification (OBM) can be described as a form of operant
conditioning that mainly used by Lutherans and Kreitner in order to shape the behaviours of the
employees (Quick, Nelson and Khandelwal, 2013). Stajkovic and Lutherans (1997) carried out a
meta analysis of the effect of OBM on task performance. The review indicated that OBM had a
positive and significant effect on the task performance of employees in both service and
manufacturing organisations. OBM can be effectively applied in an organisational set up in order
to: • Improve employee productivity
• Promote discipline amongst the employees
• Ensure and enhance the safety related behaviour of the employees. • Development of
training programs
• Employee self management OBM also helps the immediate supervisors or managers to carry
out an analysis of the employees’ behaviour, the reasons for its occurrence and consequences so
that it can be changed. Thus the manager/ supervisor can become more observant and learn to
carefully monitor employee behaviour. In this context some of the general principles to be
followed by the manager/ supervisor (Newstrom and Davis, 1997) are highlighted as follows:
1) The behaviour that needs modification has to be identified: The manager/ supervisor has to
first identify the behaviour that requires modification. For example, if the employee has been
frequently smoking in the workshop area, thus violating the norm of not smoking, this is the
behaviour that needs modification.
2) Using positive reinforcement whenever possible and sparingly using punishment: Positive
reinforcements should be used more often and punishments should be avoided and to be used
only when absolutely necessary.
3) Certain minor behaviours that are undesirable could be ignored: Certain behaviours that do not
have major repercussions or negative consequences could be ignored. This again will depend on
the judgement of the manager/ supervisor.
4) Shaping can be adequately used: Systematic and gradual positive reinforcement can be used
effectively to reinforce desirable behaviour.
5) The time between the correct response or behaviour and the reinforcement should be minimal:
This is especially important as the employee will then associate the reinforcement with the
behaviour and only then the likelihood of desirable behaviour being repeated and undesirable
behaviour being avoided will increase. For example, if an employee achieved a target given to
him in given time, then he/ she should be immediately rewarded.
6) Reinforcement should be frequently provided: This is also to be done to avoid extinction of
behaviours besides to encourage desirable behaviours and discourage undesirable behaviours.
Role of Manager in application of OBM The role of the manager and is extremely important in
this context and besides above there certain other guidelines are to be followed by them
(Furnham, 2005), these are discussed as follows:
1) All the employees should not be reinforced or rewarded in the same manner. In this regard
there is no doubt that the manager has to be fair and just. However, the reinforcement or the
reward should be linked to the individual performance or based on some criteria also needs to be
informed to the employees before hand. Further, the reinforcement provided should also match
the behaviour or the performance output.
2) The employees need to know what is expected of them, only then they will be motivated to
work in that direction. They should have a fair idea about whether quality, quantity or both is
expected and how exactly they perform will be measured. There should be great transparency in
this and further no discrimination should exist to ensure successful behavioural modification.
3) Besides informing the employees about what they are doing in a right manner, they also need
to be informed of what they are doing wrong. For example, if an employee is not using safety
devices, he/ she needs to be informed that it is wrong. Such feedback will help in bringing about
behavioural change.
4) As it is said, praise in public but criticise in a closed room. In same lines any unwarranted
behaviour preferably should be criticised or punished in absence of others as otherwise there
could be detrimental effects as the employee may feel insulted and the necessary change will not
be in the direction that it was expected. The managers/ supervisors need to be adequately trained
to use the principles and techniques of OBM in order for it to be effective. Besides the managers/
supervisor as well as the employees and the management should have positive attitude towards
OBM and its application.
Criticisms of Organisational Behaviour Modification Though to a greater extent organisational
behaviour modification can be effectively used to modify behaviour, it has also been criticised.
Most often the principles of behaviour modifications can be applied to very controlled situation,
however, when it comes to situations involving subtle interactions and performances that are
necessarily interdependent, it may not be possible to apply behaviour modification. This can be
effectively used with workers or employees at lower levels, but not mush evidence is available
with regard to how it can be used successfully with higher level employees (Mckenna, 2012).
OBM has also been criticised due to ethical issues, as it mainly involves manipulation of
behaviour or even punishment and in this context what is right or wrong depends on the manager
or superior. This can also be misused by the managers and they may abuse this power to control
the behaviours of their subordinates. It is thus necessary that the manipulation of the behaviour is
done in a constructive and positive manner.