UNIT -7

LANGUAGE
• INTRODUCTION
• DEFINITON
• NATURE OF LANGUAGE (BASIC CONSTITUTION)
• CHARACTERSTICS OF LANGUAGE (FEATURE THAT HELP
TO IDENTIFY)
• ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE
• CONCLUSION
 INTRODUCTION
• Language is means of communication, used by HUMANS. It is,
today, an inseparable part of human society. Human civilization has
been possible only through language. It is through language only that
humanity has come out of the stone age and has developed science,
art and technology in a big way. Animals also communicate with the
help of sound, odor and body movement.
• Sound-a bird may communicate by a call that a territory is his and
should not be encroached upon.
• Odour-an ant releases a chemical when it dies, and other ants then
carry it away to the compost heap.
• Body movement-used by honeybees to convey the location of food
sources
 DEFINITION
LANGUAGE-
“Language, in its widest sense means the sum total of such signs
of our thought and feelings as are capable of external perception
and as could be produced and repeated at will.” A.H GARDINER

“Language is primarily human and non instinctive method of

communicating ideas, emotions and desires my means of a
system of voluntarily produced symbols.” EDWARD SAPIR
 NATURE OF LANGUAGE
1. Language is learnt: Learning of language is not an
automatic process. Of course, it is a behavior but it is not type of
behavior like walking and crawling that comes to child in natural
way. Language by imitation and practice. Language is not
possible without effort.
2. Language is related to the culture of society: Every
language is related to culture of society to which it belongs. The
culture of the people naturally influences the language. Every
language is the product of society. We cannot separate language
from the culture in which that language exists. It has meaning
only in relation to that society and culture.
3. Words have meaning: Meaning is in words and people
too. Words have their own interpretation and also what
communicator wants to communicate.
4. Language is a system: Each language is a unique system.
The system of language consists of sounds, structures and
vocabulary. A person who wants to learn a new language will have
to learn new sounds, new structures and new vocabulary. The
sound system of language differs from language to language
depending upon the culture to which a language belongs. Each
language has its own system of vocabulary. Thus each language is
systematic.
5. Language is a system of systems: Each language is a
system of systems. There are phonological and grammatical
systems in all languages. There are several sub systems with in a
language. The phonology of a language forms its own system as
the various sounds function in a systematic way.
6. Language is a system of symbols: Each language works
through symbols. Different words used in a language are the
symbols. They stand for certain things. The language will function
well if its symbols are known both to the speaker and the person
for whom they are being used.
7. Symbols of language are vocal: Different symbols are
used in a single language. These symbols are vocal. A language
system does not exist in a vacuum. It is primary used in speech.
Only speech provides all essential signals of a language.
8. Language is a combination of sounds-

9. Governed by a particular set of rules: Each language is

governed by a particular set or rules. For example English is
S.V.O. language. In forming sentence, we put subject, then verb
and after verb we put object. For example
He killed a snake.
Subject Verb Object
10. Symbols of language are Arbitrary: Here by arbitrary
symbols we meant that there is no visual relationship between the
language item and the object for which it stands. A man is called
man traditionally. There is no visual similarity between the
symbol ‘man’ and the actual man.

11. Language is unique: Each language is unique because it

has its own style of functioning. The sounds, vocabulary and
structures of every language have their own specialty.
 CHARACTERSTICS OF LANGUAGE
1. Language is Arbitrary
Language is undoubtedly arbitrary as there is no inherent
connection between the nature of things or concepts the language
deals with, however by which those things and concepts are
expressed. There is no reason why a ‘single term’ pronounced
differently by different communities.
2. Language is a Social Phenomenon
In a sense, language should be considered a social phenomenon.
Language is social that exists in our human society; it is a means
of nourishing and developing culture and establishing human
relations.
4. Language is Vocal, Verbal and Sound
Language is a system of vocal and verbal symbolism. It is
essentially comprised of vocal sounds just created by physiological
articulatory component in the human body. Language takes verbal
elements such as sounds, words and phrases which are fixed up in
certain ways to make several sentences.

5. Language is Non-Instinctive, Conventional

No language was made in multi-day out of a commonly settled
upon the recipe by a gathering of people. Language is the result of
advancement and tradition. Every age transmits this tradition onto
the following.
6. Language is Productive and Creative
Language has its own efficiency and innovativeness. The auxiliary
components of human language joined to create new expressions,
which neither the speaker nor his/her listeners may ever have made
or heard previously.
7. Language is a System of Communication
Language is strong, convenient and the best form of communication
for no doubt. It is the best way to express everything. It is through
language that we human beings express our thoughts, desires,
emotions and feelings
8. Language is unique to Human
Human language is open-minded, extendable and modifiable in
contrary to animal language. Language should be modifiable from
time to time. No species other than human beings have been
endowed with language.
10. Language is Unique, Complex and Modifiable
Language is indeed a unique phenomenon in the world. Every
language has its own characteristics and distinctive features.
Furthermore, each language has its own creativity and
productivity to deliver the best ways to communicate with each
other.
 ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE
1. Humanistic theory-The humanistic tradition considers language
as a human invention. Renaissance philosopher Antonie Arnauld gave a
detailed description of his idea of the origin of language. According to
Arnauld, people are social and rational by nature, and this urged them
to create language as a means to communicate their ideas to others.
Language construction would have occurred through a slow and gradual
process. In later theory, especially in functional linguistics, the primacy
of communication is emphasized over psychological needs
2. CHOMSKY'S SINGLE STEP THEORY- According to Naom Chomsky
,language appeared rather suddenly within the history of human evolution through
single mutation. A formal analysis of the probability of such a mutation taking place
and going to fixation in the species has concluded that such a scenario is unlikely,
with multiple mutations with more moderate fitness effects being more probable.

3. GESTURAL THEORY-THE gestural theory states that human language

developed from gestures that were used for simple communication.
• Two types of evidence support this theory.
1.Gestural language and vocal language depend on similar neural systems. The
regions on the cortex that are responsible for mouth and hand movements border
each other.
2.Nonhuman primates can use gestures or symbols for at least primitive
communication, and some of their gestures resemble those of humans, such as the
"begging posture", with the hands stretched out, which humans share with
chimpanzees.
Critics of gestural theory note that it is difficult to name serious reasons why the
initial pitch-based vocal communication (which is present in primates) would be
abandoned in favor of the much less effective non-vocal, gestural communication.
4. GRAMMATICALISATION THEORY- 'Grammaticalization' is a
continuous historical process in which free-standing words develop into
grammatical appendages, while these in turn become ever more
specialized and grammatical.
A criticism of all this is that while grammaticalization theory might explain
language change today, it does not satisfactorily address the really difficult
challenge—explaining the initial transition from primate-style
communication to language as it is known as of 2021

5. IMITATION HYPOTHESIS THEORIES- Max Müller, a philologist

and linguist, published a list of these theories in the mid-19th century
a. The Bow-Wow Theory
According to this theory, language began when our ancestors started
imitating the natural sounds around them. The first speech
was onomatopoeic—marked by echoic words such as moo, meow,
splash, cuckoo, and bang.
Relatively few words are onomatopoeic, and these words vary from
one language to another. For instance, a dog's bark is heard as au
au in Brazil, ham ham in Albania, and wang, wang in China. In
addition, many onomatopoeic words are of recent origin, and not all
are derived from natural sounds.
b.The Ding-Dong Theory
This theory, favored by Plato and Pythagoras, maintains that
speech arose in response to the essential qualities of objects in the
environment. The original sounds people made were supposedly
in harmony with the world around them. Examples include words
such as “boom,” “crash,” and “oink.”

Apart from some rare instances of sound symbolism, there is no

persuasive evidence, in any language, of an innate connection
between sound and meaning.
c. The ta-ta Theory
The idea of the origin of language is the use of tongue and mouth
gestures to mimic manual gestures. For example, saying ta-ta is
like waving goodbye with your tongue. Sir Richard Paget,
influenced by Darwin, believed that body movement preceded
language. Language began as an unconscious vocal imitation of
these movements -- like the way a child's mouth will move when
they use scissors, or tongue sticks out when I try to play the
guitar. But most of the things we talk about do not have
characteristic gestures associated with them, much less gestures
you can imitate with the tongue and mouth.
d. The Pooh-Pooh Theory
This theory holds that speech began with interjections—
spontaneous cries of pain ("Ouch!"), surprise ("Oh!"), and other
emotions ("Yabba dabba do!").
No language contains very many interjections, and, Crystal points
out, "the clicks, intakes of breath, and other noises which are used
in this way bear little relationship to
the vowels and consonants found in phonology."
6. CREOLE AND PIDGINS-
A pidgin is a simplified, makeshift language that develops to fulfill the
communication needs of people who have no language in common but
who need to occasionally interact for commercial and other reasons.
Pidgins combine a limited amount of the vocabulary and grammar of the
different languages. People who use pidgin languages also speak their own
native language. Over the last several centuries, dozens of pidgin
languages developed as Europeans expanded out into the rest of the world
for colonization and trade. The most well known ones are Pidgin English
in New Guinea, Cameroon and Nigeria. However, several forms of Pidgin
English and Pidgin French also developed in West Africa and the
Caribbean. There have been pidgins developed by non-European cultures
as well, including the Zulus in South Africa, the Malays in Southeast Asia,
the Arabs in North Africa, and several American Indian societies. The
most well known pidgin developed by American Indians is Chinook,
which was used on the Northwest Coast of North America.
At times, a pidgin language becomes the mother tongue of a
population. When that happens, it is called a Creole language. As
pidgins change into creoles over several generations, their
vocabularies enlarge. In the small island nation of Haiti, a
French-African pidgin became the creole language. It is still
spoken there by the majority of the population as their principle or
only language. Similarly, on the outer banks of Georgia and
South Carolina in the United States, isolated former African
slaves made another version of Pidgin English into a creole
known as Gullah or Geechee .
 CONCLUSION
As William James remarked, "Language is the most imperfect
and expensive means yet discovered for communicating thought."
VERBAL AND NON VERBAL
COMMUNICATION
VERBAL COMMUNICATION
• INTRODUCTION
• CHARACTERSTICS
• TYPES
• ELEMENTS
• ADAVANTAGES
 VERBAL COMMUNICATION
Verbal communication is an agreed-upon and rule-governed
system of symbols used to share meaning.It is the use of words to
convey a message. It may be written or oral.
Letter, writing and texting are examples of written communication.
Face-to-face conversations, Speech and Radio are examples of
oral communication.
 CHARACTERSTICS
• The message being communicated is directly or indirectly
related to an object
• We use concepts to communicate messages
• The content should be understood by both the sender and
receiver
• Cultural factors influence the content of messages
• While communicating emotions and feelings, a sender’s state of
mind influences the content of messages
 TYPES
1.INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
It is private verbal communication channel. You talk to yourself and
articulate your thoughts. Communicating with yourself will give you
more confidence and clarity in your thoughts.
2.INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION
You can also call this one-to-one verbal communication. This type of
communication happens between two individuals.
3.SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION
The number of people increases in small group communication. You
move from communicating with a single participant to a few more.
4.PUBLIC COMMUNICATION
You may also know this type as ‘public speaking’. Here, an
individual addresses a large number of people at once.
 ELEMENTS
1.TONE
When you express yourself your tone determines the message to be
interpreted. For example, you can be saying something nice but if your
tone is a sarcastic tone, the message will be conveyed differently.
2.SPEED
• The pace at which you speak is important as it determines the
reaction of your audience.
3.VOLUME
• Volume ranges from a whisper to a scream. The volume at which
you talk can convey various meanings
 ADVANTAGES
• It provides complete understanding and there’s room to clarify any
messages that may have been misunderstood
• It’s one of the fastest modes of communication and is time-efficient
• There is space for providing feedback, which allows two or more
people to engage in a conversation at the same time
• It allows speakers to exercise influence and persuade listeners to
agree with ideas, thoughts and opinions
• It’s flexible, that is, you can change your language and tone
depending on the situation you’re in or the relationship you share
with an individual
 NON VERBAL COMMUNICATION
• INTRODUCTION
• TYPES
• WHY WE STUDY IT IN ANTHROPOLOGY
• CHARACTERSTICS
• WHAT CAN AFFECT OUR NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION
• The term nonverbal communication refers to communication
without the use of sounds or vocalization
• Nonverbal communication is often just as powerful as vocal
communication as they often express subconscious feelings or
thoughts.
• At least 90 % of communication is nonverbal
 TYPES
Heider (2007) says it include –
1. Gestures, Expressions and Body language- Kinesics
2. Space- Proxemics
1. Kinesics-

• It is the interpretation of body motion communication such

as facial expressions and gestures, nonverbal behavior related
to movement of any part of the body or the body as a whole.
• Given by Ray Birdwhistell.
• Kinesic behaviors are an important part of communication. Body
movements convey information, but interpretations vary by
culture. As many movements are carried out at a subconscious
or at least a low-awareness level, kinesic movements carry a
significant risk of being misinterpreted in an intercultural
communication situation. Ex- Okay signal
• Oculesics, a subcategory of kinesics, is the study of eye
movement, eye behavior, gaze, and eye-related nonverbal
communication.
2. Space-
Proxemics is the study of cultural aspects of the use of space.
First developed by Edward T Hall – The Silent Language. This
can be both an individual’s personal and physical territory.
Personal territory refers to the “bubble” of space we keep
between others and ourselves. This varies depending on the
person, culture and the situation.
 IMPORTANCE
1. A holistic view of a cultures language can only be achieved after
examining both the verbal and nonverbal communication.
2. Nonverbal communication is important to anthropological
research because they are either culturally or globally shared.
Learning more about how members of a society communicate
may reveal more about their culture or explain actions that
couldn't otherwise be explained.
For Example - Bowing in Japan communicates many things
depending on how it is done. Ojigi, or Japanese bowing, is used
as a greeting, a way to apologize, and a way to show respect.
The degree of the bow indicates the amount of respect. Fifteen
degrees is the common greeting bow for those you already know
or are on an equal social level. A thirty-degree bow is used for
people who have a higher social rank, such as a boss, but not
someone to whom you are related. The highest respect bow is
forty-five degrees and used when you apologize.
 CHARACTERSTICS
• No use of words-
Non-verbal communication is a communication without words or
language like oral or written communication. It uses gestures, facial
expressions, eye contact, physical proximity, touching, etc. for
communicating with others.
• Culturally determined-
Non-verbal communication is learned in childhood, passed on to
you by your parents and others with whom you associate.
Through this process of growing up in a particular society, you
adopt the taints and mannerisms of your cultural group.
• May conflict with verbal message-
Non-verbal communication is so deeply rooted, so unconscious,
that you can express a verbal message and then directly
contradict it with a nonverbal message.
• Largely unconscious-
Non-verbal communication is unconscious in the sense that it is
usually not planned nor rehearsed. It comes almost
instantaneously
• Shows feeling and attitude-
Facial expressions, gestures, body movements, the way you use
your eyes — all communicate your feelings and emotions to
others.
• Vague and imprecise-
Non-verbal communication is quite vague and imprecise. Since in
this communication, there is no use of words or language which
expresses clear meaning to the receiver.
• Different meaning-
Non-verbal symbols can have many meanings. Cross-culture
aspects give various meanings to same expression in respect of
non-verbal communication.
 WHAT CAN AFFECT OUR NON-VERBAL
COMMUNICATION

• Stress

• Distractions

• Unexpected Circumstances
 CONCLUSION
Oral communication is thus a mixture of verbal and nonverbal
messages. A good communicator is one whose nonverbal cues
authenticate and reinforce his words.
As the old folk saying goes, "Action speaks louder than words."
So if your actions belie your words there is every possibility the
listener may choose to believe your actions, rather than your
words.
SOCIAL CONTEXT OF LANGUAGE
 INTRODUCTION
Language in social context is focused on a language acquisition
and language learning, significance of language in a community,
and relation of language and society.
Sociolinguistics examines the relation between language and
society, between the uses of language and the social structures
in which the users of language live.
 HUMAN BEINGS AND LANGUAGE
• Man is a social being who always needs another’s help. It is
hardly imagined that he is able to live alone in a forest without
being accompanied by another. In reality, he lives together and
cooperates between one and another. In the effort to fulfill his
daily need, he has to work together between one and another.
• The cooperation among the members of a social group will run
well if a means of communication known as language is
used. By using a language man can express his ideas and
wishes to other people such as when he needs their help. There
will be a close cooperation among members of the group.
• Troike and Muriel Saville in the book ‘The Ethnography Of
Communication’ state that the means of communication used in
a community may include different languages, different regional
and social dialects of one or more languages, different register,
and different channels of communication (oral or written).
• Further they, in a more detailed description ,state that the
language use is related to the social organization of the group,
which is likely to include differences in age, sex, and social
status, as well as differences in the relationship between
speakers, their goal of interaction, and the setting in
communication takes place.
The communicative repertoire (linguistic repertoire) may also
include different occupational code, specialized religious
language, secret codes or various kinds, imitative speech, whistle
or drum of language, and varieties used for talking to foreigners,
young children, and pets.
 LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY
• A society can be seen from its physical environment. Our view of
physical environment may be conditioned by our language. In this
relation, it can be explained that the physical environment in which a
society lives can be reflected in its language, normally in the
structure of its lexicon (the way in which distinctions are made by
means of single words). For instance, English has only one word
for snow but Eskimo has several. For English people, it is not
necessary to make distinction of snow because their physical
environment of society does not enable it; there is only kind
of snow in the society. For Eskimos, it is essential to distinguish one
kind of snow from another in individual words. Their physical
environment ‘force’ them to make some names of snow.
• “Whorfian hypothesis” also called Sapir-Whorf theory. It was
based originally on studies of the Hopi Indians. Whorf said that
Hopi and European had different ways of talking about the
world, so it influenced the way they saw the world. The Hopi
language treats the world as full of things that are “non-discrete”
and “flowing” whereas European languages see them as
discrete and countable. European languages treat time as
something that can be divided up into separate seconds,
minutes and days. The Hopi language treats time as indivisible
so that Hopi will not talk about minutes and weeks.
Would their world view shift depending on the language
they were speaking?
• A language is used by a man as a means of communication in
his effort to interact one with another. In reality, he is not free
from rules of using language agreed by speech communities in
which he lives and interact with the other members of the
community in accordance with the values and the other cultural
aspects. The values of a society, for instance, can have an
effect on its language. The most interesting way in which this
happens is through the phenomenon known as taboo. Taboo
can be characterized as being concerned with behaviour which
is believed to be supernaturally forbidden, or regarded as
immoral or improper; it deals with behaviour which is prohibited
in an apparently with behaviour.
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE
AND SOCIETY
It explains why people speak differently in different social
contexts. It discusses the social functions of language and the
ways it is used to convey social meaning.
1. Social structure may either influence or determine linguistic
structure and/or behaviour. For instance, in relation to the
age-grading phenomenon, whereby young children speak
differently from older children and, in turn, children speak
differently from mature adults
2. linguistic structure and/or behaviour may either
influence or determine social structure. This is
supported by the Basil Bernstein’s finding on the use
of elaborated and restricted codes.
3. language and society may influence each other; this
influence is dialectical in nature. This is to say that
speech behaviour and social behaviour are in a state
of constant interaction and that material living
conditions are an important factor in the relationship.