Practical File: Introduction to Psychology

What is Psychology?
Definition
Psychology is formally defined as a science that systematically studies mental processes,
experiences, and behaviors in various contexts.
● Mental Processes: These include internal, covert activities such as thinking, feeling,
perceiving, and remembering. They are not directly observable but are inferred from
behavior.
● Experiences: These are subjective states of consciousness or awareness that
individuals undergo, such as feelings of happiness, sadness, pain, or dreams.
Experiences are personal and internal.
● Behavior: This refers to any overt or observable action or reaction of an organism,
including talking, walking, eating, or expressing emotions. Behaviors can be simple
reflexes or complex actions.

Goals of Psychological Enquiry

Scientific inquiry in psychology aims to achieve the following goals:
1. Description: This involves accurately detailing a behavior or phenomenon to facilitate
proper understanding. For example, describing the specific symptoms of a particular
mental disorder.
2. Prediction: This goal involves understanding a particular behavior in relation to other
behaviors, events, or phenomena, and attempting to forecast their occurrences under
certain conditions with a margin of error. Predictions become more accurate as the
number of observed individuals increases. For instance, predicting academic success
based on study habits.
3. Explanation: The third goal is to identify the causal factors or determinants of behavior
and the conditions under which the behavior does not occur. This involves
understanding why a behavior happens. For example, explaining why certain teaching
methods lead to better learning outcomes.
4. Control: If the causal factors of a behavior are known, a person can control that
behavior by modifying its antecedent conditions. Control encompasses making a
particular behavior happen, reducing it, or enhancing it. This is about applying
psychological knowledge to influence behavior positively. For example, developing
interventions to reduce anxiety.
5. Application: The ultimate goal of scientific inquiry in psychology is to apply the
accumulated knowledge to bring about positive changes in people's lives. This involves
using psychological principles to solve real-world problems. For instance, designing
effective therapy programs or workplace interventions.

Steps in Conducting Scientific Research

Scientific research in psychology typically follows these steps:
1. Conceptualizing a Problem: Researchers begin by selecting a broad theme or topic
for study. They then narrow down the focus and develop specific research questions or
problems based on a review of past research, observations, and personal experiences.
Finally, they formulate a hypothesis, which is a tentative solution or a testable prediction
about the relationship between variables.
2. Collecting Data: This second step involves developing a research design or a blueprint
for the entire study. Decisions are made regarding four key aspects: the participants in
the study (who will be studied), the methods of data collection (how information will be
gathered), the tools to be used in the research (what instruments will be used), and the
procedure for data collection (the systematic steps involved).
3. Drawing Conclusions: After data collection, the next step is to analyze the collected
data using statistical procedures to understand what the data mean. This can involve
graphical representations like pie charts, bar diagrams, and various statistical methods.
This analysis helps to verify the initial hypothesis and draw conclusions by placing them
in an appropriate context.
4. Revising Research Conclusions: Based on the data analysis, the existing hypothesis
may be confirmed, or a new hypothesis might be formulated and tested with new data.
Research findings can also be reviewed and revised by other researchers, making it a
continuous and iterative process aimed at building a robust body of knowledge.

Important Concepts in Psychological Research

● Experiment: A carefully controlled scientific procedure conducted to determine whether
certain variables manipulated by the experimenter have an effect on other variables. It
is used to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
● Hypothesis: A possible explanation for a behavior being studied that can be answered
by an experiment or a series of observations. It can also be defined as a tentative and
testable answer to a problem.
● Variables: Factors that can be varied and can assume more than one value. In
research, variables are the characteristics or conditions that are manipulated,
controlled, or measured.
● Independent Variable (IV): A variable that is controlled and manipulated by the
experimenter and is applied to the participants to determine its effect on another
variable. It is the presumed cause.
● Dependent Variable (DV): A measurable behavior that is exhibited by a participant and
is expected to be affected by the independent variable. It is the presumed effect.
● Control Group: The group in an experiment where participants are treated identically to
those in the experimental condition, except that the independent variable is not applied
to them26. This group serves as a baseline for comparison.
● Experimental Group: The group in an experiment where the independent variable is
introduced or manipulated. The effects observed in this group are compared to those in
the control group.
Psychological Test
A psychological test is a standardized instrument designed to objectively measure one or more
aspects of an individual's total personality through verbal or non-verbal responses.
"Standardization" implies that the test is objective, reliable, and valid. It provides an "objective
and standardized measure of a sample of behavior". This "sample of behavior" refers to an
individual's performance on predefined tasks, and the score obtained is believed to reflect a
psychological construct (e.g., intelligence, personality, aptitude). The science behind
psychological testing is called psychometrics.

Characteristics of Psychological Tests

1. Standardization: This means the procedures for administering, scoring, and
interpreting the test are specified precisely and uniformly. This ensures that different
testers will follow the same procedures, allowing for direct comparison of test
performance across different people or the same person at different times.
2. Objectivity: Objectivity refers to the fact that if two or more researchers administer the
same psychological test to the same group of people, they would achieve more or less
the same values for each person. This is achieved by ensuring that test items convey
the same meaning to everyone, specific instructions and procedures are provided, and
personal bias is minimized.
3. Norms: A norm is an average score on a particular test made by a specific,
representative population. Reference to a table of norms allows for ranking an
individual's performance relative to their age group or a relevant population. Norms
provide a framework for interpreting individual scores.
4. Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency of the scores obtained by an individual
on the same test when administered on two different occasions or under similar
conditions. A reliable test produces consistent results.
○ Types of Reliability:
■ Test-Retest Reliability: Computed by finding the coefficient of correlation
between two sets of scores obtained from the same group of persons on
the same test over a period of time. It indicates the temporal stability or
consistency of test scores over time.
■ Split-Half Reliability: Gives an indication of the degree of internal
consistency of the test. The test is divided into two equal halves (e.g.,
using an odd-even method), and the scores from both halves are
correlated. A high correlation indicates that all items on the test measure
the same construct.
5. Validity: Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures what it is intended to
measure. A valid test accurately assesses the construct it purports to measure.
○ Types of Validity:
■ Face Validity: A measure of how representative a research project
appears to be "at face value". It is a superficial assessment of whether
the test seems to measure what it's supposed to.
 ■ Content Validity: The estimate of how much a measure represents every
single element or domain of a construct. It ensures that the test items
cover the entire range of the concept being measured.
■ Criterion Validity: Assesses whether a test reflects a certain set of
abilities by comparing the test scores with an external criterion48.
■ Concurrent Validity: Measures the test against a benchmark test
administered at the same time. A high correlation indicates strong
criterion validity.
■ Predictive Validity: A measure of how well a test predicts future
abilities or behaviors. It involves testing a group and then
comparing their scores with results obtained at some point in the
future.
■ Construct Validity: Defines how well a test or experiment measures up to
its claims. A test designed to measure depression, for example, must
only measure depression and not closely related ideals such as anxiety
or stress. It establishes that the test truly measures the theoretical
construct it intends to.

Methods of Data Collection

Psychologists employ various methods to collect data:
1. Observation: An effective method for describing behavior, involving witnessing an
event and recording it.
○ Steps of Observation:
■ Selection: Psychologists select a specific behavior for observation (e.g.,
how children behave on their first day of school).
■ Recording: The researcher systematically records the selected behavior
using various means, such as tally marks, detailed notes, or audio/video
recordings.
■ Analysis of Data: Psychologists analyze the recorded data to derive
meaningful insights and patterns.
○ Types of Observation:
■ Naturalistic Observation: Observations conducted in natural, real-life
settings without any effort by the observer to control or manipulate the
situation. Commonly used in schools and hospitals.
■ Controlled Observation: This type of observation is typically done in
laboratory experiments where the environment and variables can be
manipulated.
■ Participant Observation: The observer becomes an active part of the
group being observed, gaining an insider's perspective.
 ■ Non-Participant Observation: The group or individuals are observed from
a distance, often through cameras or one-way mirrors, without the
observer directly interacting with them.
2. Survey Method: A technique for gathering information about a wide variety of
behaviors and attitudes, such as people's attitudes towards family planning. Survey
research utilizes different techniques like interviews, questionnaires, and observations.
It can also be used to predict behavior, but researchers must be careful in choosing a
representative sample.
○ Advantage: Enables researchers to describe characteristics of relatively small
samples and generalize that information to a larger population.
3. Interview: A face-to-face conversation with a specific purpose, such as to derive factual
information, opinions, and attitudes.
○ Types of Interviews:
■ Structured/Standardized Interview: The questions are clearly written in a
predefined sequence.
■ Unstructured/Non-Standardized Interview: The interviewer has the
flexibility to make decisions about the questions to be asked, their
wording, and their sequence.
○ Question Types: Questions can be either open-ended (allowing respondents to
answer in their own words) or closed-ended (with specified response options).
4. Case Study: Refers to an in-depth, intensive study of a particular case, which can be
an individual with distinguishing characteristics, a small group with commonalities,
institutions, or specific events. A case study employs multiple methods for collecting
information, such as interviews, observations, and psychological tests. While it provides
rich, in-depth information, validating findings from a single case can be challenging.
5. Correlational Studies: These studies are conducted to find relationships between
variables for prediction purposes. The strength and direction of the relationship are
determined by the correlational coefficient, which ranges from +1.0 to -1.076.
○ Types of Correlation:
■ Positive Correlation: As the value of one variable increases, the value of
the other variable also increases (e.g., study time and grades).
■ Negative Correlation: As the value of one variable increases, the value of
the other variable decreases (e.g., stress levels and immune function).
■ Zero Correlation: Indicates that there is no relationship between two
variables.
6. Questionnaire: Consists of a predetermined set of questions that respondents read and
answer on paper. Both open-ended and closed-ended questions can be used.
Questionnaires are primarily used for collecting background and demographic
information, attitudes, opinions, and knowledge about a particular topic. It is a common,
simple, and low-cost self-report method of collecting information.
7. Field Experiment and Quasi-Experiment:
○ Field Experiment: The researcher conducts the experiment in a natural setting
where the phenomenon naturally exists. For example, teaching one group by a
 demonstration method and another by a lecture method and then comparing
their performance. These are often more time-consuming and expensive.
○ Quasi-Experiment: In this design, the independent variable is selected rather
than directly varied or manipulated by the experimenter. For example,
comparing children who lost parents in an earthquake (experimental group) with
those who experienced the earthquake but did not lose parents (control group).
The researcher cannot randomly assign participants to conditions.

Standard Scores and Ranks

These are ways to interpret individual scores relative to a larger group.
● Percentile Rank: An individual's percentile rank on a test designates the percentage of
cases or scores lying below it. For example, P-20 means the individual is situated above
percent of the group, meaning 20% of the group falls below this person's rank.
● Decile Rank: Designates the one-tenth part of the group in which any tested person is
placed by their score. For example, a testee with a decile rank of is located in the
highest percent of the group. It is often used when the number of scores in a distribution
is small.
● Stanine: According to this method, the standard population is divided into groups94.
Stanine is the lowest, and stanine is the highest, with the average score typically falling
around stanine 595.
● Sten Scores: Standard scores on a scale of ten.
● Standard Scores: Designates an individual's position with respect to the total range and
distribution of scores. The standard score indicates, in terms of standard deviation, how
far a particular score is removed from the mean of the distribution.
○ The formula for a Z-score (a type of standard score) is: Z=(X−M)/SD
■ Where X = individual score
■ M = Mean of the distribution
■ SD = Standard Deviation of the distribution

Uses/Applications of Psychological Tests

Psychological tests are widely used for various purposes:
1. Detection of Specific Behavior/Abilities: Psychological tests are used to measure
and detect specific abilities and characteristics of a person.
2. Individual Differences: A psychological test is used to measure individual differences,
which refers to the variations in abilities between different persons and the performance
of the same person at different times.
3. Diagnosis and Assessment: Psychological tests are commonly used in clinical
psychology to diagnose mental disorders. They are also employed in mental hospitals
 and coaching/guidance centers for the assessment and diagnosis of various mental
disorders.
4. Promoting Self-Understanding: Psychological tests provide standardized information
about an individual's abilities, capabilities, aptitudes, potential competencies, interests,
traits, and states. This information helps individuals understand their own personality
and aids in planning their future.
5. Industrial and Organizational Settings: In industry and business, tests are helpful in
selecting and classifying personnel for placement in various jobs, from simpler semi-
skilled roles to highly skilled positions and even top management.

Types of Psychological Tests

Psychological tests are classified based on various criteria:
● On the Basis of Administration:
○ Group Test: Administered to a group of individuals simultaneously.
○ Individual Test: Administered to one individual at a time.
● On the Basis of Behavior Measured:
○ Ability Tests:
■ Intelligence Tests: Measure general cognitive ability and intellectual
potential.
■ Achievement Tests: Measure what an individual has learned or
accomplished in a specific area.
○ Personality Tests: Measure an individual's personality traits, characteristics, and
typical behavioral patterns.
■ Structured Personality Tests: Use objective scoring, often self-report
questionnaires (e.g., MMPI).
■ Projective Techniques: Present ambiguous stimuli to elicit responses that
reveal unconscious aspects of personality (e.g., Rorschach Inkblot Test,
TAT).
■ Behavioral Analysis: Directly observes and assesses specific behaviors in
different situations.
● On the Basis of Context/Nature of Items:
○ Verbal Tests: Require the use of language (reading, writing, speaking) for
responses.
○ Non-Verbal Tests: Do not require language for responses, relying on gestures,
drawing, or manipulation of objects.
○ Performance Tests: Require individuals to perform a task or manipulate objects.

Difference Between Test and Experiment

Feature Psychological Test Experiment

Primary Purpose To measure intellectual To determine cause-and-
and non-intellectual effect relationships
characteristics of an between variables118. The
individual116. To evaluate researcher manipulates a
certain attributes of an situation to prove or
individual117. disprove a hypothesis119.

Hypothesis It does not typically It always involves a

involve a hypothesis in its hypothesis that is being
administration or tested121.
interpretation for an
individual120.

Standardization It is a standardized It does not necessarily have

instrument and has norms and is primarily
established norms for meant for the verification
comparison122. of various principles or
theories123.

Control/Manipulation Measures existing traits or The researcher actively

abilities; the individual's controls and manipulates
responses are the focus. the independent variable to
observe its effect on the
dependent variable.

Goal Assessment, diagnosis, Understanding causal

classification, prediction relationships and general
of individual behavior. principles of behavior.

Setting Can be administered in Often conducted in

various settings (clinical, controlled laboratory
educational, settings, but also in field
organizational). settings.