European Journal of English Language Teaching

ISSN: 2501-7136
ISSN-L: 2501-7136
Available on-line at: www.oapub.org/edu

DOI: 10.46827/ejel.v8i4.4999 Volume 8 │ Issue 4 │ 2023

THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING

ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12 STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKING
IN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

Trinh Doan Thi Nguyen1,

Huan Buu Nguyen2i
Tra Vinh University,
1

Vietnam
2Can Tho University,

Vietnam

Abstract:
Research has indicated that questioning is used as an interactive way to engage students
in learning English as a foreign or second language. In particular, rooted in Socratic
philosophy, this strategy involves students in thinking and communicating ideas and
knowledge to others for effective learning. However, teacher questioning in English
classroom context in higher education in Viet Nam has not received much attention.
Moreover, classroom questioning and teachers’ perceptions of this instructional practice
facilitating students’ critical thinking in English major classes remained scarce. Therefore,
this study aims to investigate the effects of questioning as pre-reading activity on
students’ critical thinking in EFL reading classes. The participants in this study were 80
grade 12 students of the two classes at a high school, in Kien Giang province. Data
collection in this study includes pre-tests, post-tests, questionnaires, and interviews. The
findings from this study indicate that the implementation of questioning as a pre-reading
activity by students in the experimental group yielded positive effects on students’
critical thinking in reading classes. Pedagogical implications for teachers and school
administrators are made.

Keywords: questioning, pre-reading activity, critical thinking, reading comprehension

1. Introduction

Reading is an interactive process between the reader, a particular text, and the context in
which knowledge is processed (Nuttall, 1996). Therefore, critical thinking within the
realm of reading of a specific text involves an individual reader’s ability to examine,
evaluate, and integrate the conveyed information. In particular, critical thinking

i
Correspondence: email nbhuan@ctu.edu.vn, nbhuan@gmail.com

Copyright © The Author(s). All Rights Reserved. 88

 Trinh Doan Thi Nguyen, Huan Buu Nguyen
THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

strategies empowers students to become engaged readers and augment their reading
proficiency. One way to enhance students’ reading in English is through questioning
since reading functions as a tool through which students can gain deeper level of critical
thinking and better prepare for practical skills required for future ideals or academic
purposes (e.g., Le & Nguyen, 2017).
However, high school students in Viet Nam encountered several obstacles when
learning reading. First of all, the majority of Vietnamese students lack the habit of critical
thinking, which hinders the development of high-order thinking skills, including
analysis, evaluation, and creativity. It is assumed that students from Asian cultures
generally struggle with developing critical thinking abilities, which makes their academic
pursuits difficult (Atkinson, 1997). Furthermore, because teaching reading in tertiary
settings is mainly based on traditional lecture mode, students are likely to encounter
problems in engaging in critical thinking while reading (H. B. Nguyen, 2013). Therefore,
this present study aims to contribute to the existing body of knowledge by examining the
use of questioning as a pre-reading activity in English language teaching in order to foster
critical thinking abilities in reading classes at a high school in Kien Giang.

2. Literature review

2.1 Reading comprehension

According to the constructivist theory, reading comprehension is an individual’s ability
to comprehend a text in a variety of ways based on his or her own experiences or prior
knowledge (Anderson & Pearson, 1984). This view implies that reading comprehension
results in the mental interpretation of the meaning embedded in the text while
considering the readers' prior knowledge (Kintsch, 1998). In fact, Nuttall (1996) states that
decoding the meaning of a text entails both the reader and the text in a participatory
process. Duke (2003) and Grabe (2009) explain that reading comprehension involves a
process through which readers interact with the text, and make sense of the information
presented to them while connecting it to their prior knowledge and experiences.
Moreover, a range of cognitive processes and skills are needed to enhance students’
reading comprehension (Keenan et al., 2008).
For the purposes of this study, reading comprehension is defined as an interactive
process where students use critical thinking to access information from a specific text,
understand it, interpret it and explain its content.

2.2 Questioning
Asking questions is a type of signal that has the potential to capture students' attention.
Class questioning involves a teaching act related to what students have studied, or a
directive of what to do and how to perform a given task (Zhang, 2018).
Wilen (1991), Paul and Elder (2007), and Peterson and Taylor (2012) all noted that
questioning (or teachers' questions) is widely known as an important part in engaging
students in thinking about and comprehending a text. Questioning has its roots in the

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

philosophy of Greek philosopher Socrates as it encourages students' critical thinking and

expression of their views for effective learning (Maphosa & Wadesango, 2016; Şeker &
Kömür, 2008).
Lundy (2008) stresses that higher level questions do not yield a single correct
response but rather encourage students to use critical thinking. Lewis (2015) discovers
that asking questions at a higher level provides teachers with additional information of
students’ comprehension of a particular text passage. The implications are that teachers
must prepare questions to encourage students to think of the meanings behind the
concepts they are studying.
For the purposes of this study, questioning is defined as teacher-generated
inquiries that encourage student interaction, knowledge processing, and participation.

2.2.1 Questioning as pre-reading activity

Ajideh (2003) claims that pre-reading activity questions refer to a teaching strategy that
encourages student engagement, learning, and critical thinking. Ajideh (2003) also states
that one form of top-down processing activity that should be completed prior to reading
is questioning, whether it is generated by the teacher or the learner. This method focuses
on material delivery and provides instructions so that students know how to respond to
pre-reading questions (Amalia & Devanti, 2017). Moreover, Zhang (2018) states that the
process of posing questions and providing feedback to students depending on their
responses is referred to as the use of questions.
The questioning strategy the instructor utilizes at the pre-reading stage,
particularly in English, needs to be honed and maintained while supporting students'
text comprehension. Therefore, to improve text comprehension, teachers must consider
the type of question that can immerse students in their learning process.

2.2.2 Types of questioning

Cárdenas (2021) distinguishes questions into two groups. The first category covers all
questions whose primary objective is to confirm facts, assess comprehension, or confirm
or corroborate information. These questions' solutions are previously known by teachers.
This category of questions also shares the feature of being low-level, which discourages
engagement and, as a result, skill development. These are categorized as recall questions
(Gall, 1984), display questions (Wangru, 2016) or classroom management questions
(Iksan & Daniel, 2015). On the other hand, the second group consists of questions whose
major objectives are to encourage conversation and improve students' critical thinking
abilities (Wangru, 2016). The high-level questions also known as referential questions or
creative questions that teachers do not know the answers (Al-Zahrani & Al-Bargi, 2017).

2.2.3 Levels of questions

Bloom's (1956) taxonomy is the most widely utilized system for classifying the cognitive
levels of instructor inquiry and pupil response in literature. In the new taxonomy, the six
levels of thinking have been renamed as remembering, understanding, applying (the first

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

three lowest levels of thinking), analyzing, evaluating, and evaluating (the final three
highest levels of thinking). However, higher level questions fall into four categories:
application (using the facts in different contexts), analysis (putting concepts into logical
patterns of knowledge), synthesis (creating new ideas from existing ones), and evaluation
(appreciating the value of what is latent in our thinking) (Lee & Kinzie, 2011).

2.3 Critical thinking

2.3.1 Definition of critical thinking
There are several definitions of critical thinking in the literature. Critical thinking, which
literally refers to the process of thinking through a decision or evaluating information, is
widely used in higher education, especially in teaching and learning of English as a
second and foreign languages (e.g., Asgharheidari & Tahriri, 2015; Atkinson, 1997; Ennis,
1985; Fahim, 2012).
According to Ennis (1985), critical thinking is the ability to think logically about a
certain text or amount of information from a particular subject. This concept suggests the
ability to encourage students' independent thinking; the capacity to determine what to
do or what to believe (e.g., Ennis, 2002; Thurman, 2009).
Another view is that Halpern (2003) defines critical thinking as the application of
cognitive techniques that increase the probability of a desired outcome. His perspective
implies that critical thinking is deliberate, argumentative, and goal-oriented. These
aspects of a cognitive process include problem-solving, drawing conclusions, and
making decisions. Likewise, Moon (2008) claims that critical thinking plays a key role in
both higher education and professions, because it is seen as a crucial component of
student learning achievement. From Moon's point of view, it supports the notion that
integrating critical thinking into the learning process allows students to develop their
thinking abilities, giving them the opportunity to build on new information or knowledge
by evaluating it on a more advanced level.
However, Floyd (2011) delves into the issue of critical thinking, noting that Asian
students often fail to appreciate this skill when compared to their emphasis on rote
learning, memory retention, and comprehension. On the contrary, Mason (2007)
highlights a wide array of perspectives regarding critical thinking as presented by
various scholars. This range encompasses its relevance to general skills or broad
competencies (e.g., Ennis, 1985; Paul, 1982), discipline-specific skills (McPeck, 1981), and
its connections to rationality, disposition, and ethics (Martin, 1992). In light of these
conceptualizations or interpretations, it becomes crucial to consider teachers' perceptions
of how students process information or acquire knowledge. By doing so, teachers are
likely to refine their instructional strategies, and then incorporate critical thinking into
student learning process (e.g., Ennis, 2016; Le & Nguyen, 2017).

2.3.2 Relationship between questioning and critical thinking

Questioning and critical thinking are intertwined in the context of foreign language
teaching and learning, including English. In particular, questioning acts as a catalyst for

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

the enhancement of critical thinking skills among students. Teachers’ questions can
engage students in discussing, analyzing and evaluating the information presented to
them, then making informed decisions or judgments (Ennis, 2016). On the other hand,
critical thinking entails asking questions which allows students to move beyond
understanding at a superficial level and deepen their active engagement in breaking
down information for analysis and evaluation. Given the paucity of research on the
effects of questioning on the improvement in reading comprehension and critical
thinking skills, the current study thus endeavors to explore the relevance of
implementing the questioning strategy as a potential tool for fostering students’ critical
thinking in the context of reading lessons.

2.3.3 Relationship between reading comprehension and critical thinking

In the literature, there is a strong connection between reading comprehension and critical
thinking. Norris and Phillips (1987), for instance, point out that reading involves more
than just reading what is written on the page; rather, it involves thinking. Additionally,
according to Beck (1989), "there is no reading without reasoning." (p. 677). While Ruggiero
(2004) has acknowledged the cognitive component of reading as reasoning, Yu-hui and
his colleagues (2010) claim that reading involves thinking in order to create meaning.
In order to read well, students must possess the inferential and reasoning abilities
to make links between the information embedded in a given text and prior knowledge.
The ability to perceive or create an inferential or causal/logical relation when one is
required in order to create a cohesive mental representation of the text is fundamental to
these abilities (Aloqaili, 2011).

2.4 Related studies

The role of questioning in promoting reading comprehension gained the approval of
many scholars (e.g., Bui, 2021; Do and Tran, 2020; Pham and Hamid, 2013b); Tran and
Phuong, 2018).
Sunggingwati and Nguyen (2013) investigated the practice of teacher questioning
and teaching reading in secondary schools in Indonesia. This multiple-site case study
included participation from three teachers of grade 11 classrooms from three separate
secondary schools. Data collected in this study included observations, interviews, and
textbook analysis. The findings from this study show that the teachers depended on the
textbooks while teaching reading and the question types they used to help students
understand what they were reading. The findings also indicate that the teachers mainly
used low-level questions; therefore, they needed support to ask higher levels of questions
that could promote student use skills such as application, analysis, and evaluation.
A study by Pham and Hamid (2013) was carried out to examine the relationship
between teachers' beliefs of the use of good questions, their practices, and students'
cognitive level. Participants in the study were 13 new EFL teachers at Vietnam National
University. An open-ended questionnaire survey and classroom observations were used
to collect qualitative data. The findings show that there was a discrepancy between

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

teachers' beliefs and practices. Despite the congruence between teachers’ beliefs and
practices, it was found that discrepancies between the two remained with regard to four
aspects: purposes in asking questions, cognitive level, content focus, and clarity of
questions through lexis and syntax.
Another study by Tran and Phuong (2018) investigated the impact of questioning
and semantic map in prereading stage on EFL gifted high school students’ reading
comprehension. The participants were 52 gifted students from two science classes for
twelfth graders (they were non gifted English students). The data were collected through
two reading proficiency tests (pre-test and post-test) and individual interviews. The
findings show that integrating questioning and semantic mapping had positive effects on
the reading comprehension abilities of gifted students. However, this study has certain
limitations in terms of its research design. Firstly, the limited sample size (n=52) prevents
the researchers from drawing conclusions regarding how questioning and semantic
mapping influenced students' reading comprehension. Additionally, this research only
focused on gifted students, thus, restricting the generalizability of the effects of
questioning and semantic maps to all gifted high school students.
Do and Tran (2020) investigated a case study of teachers’ questioning in English
reading classrooms at a university in Vietnam. The participants in this study were a
teacher and 30 first-year English majors. Data collected in this study included audio-
recordings and classroom observations of English classes. The findings of the study show
that the audience-oriented questions and content-oriented questions could facilitate
student learning in reading lessons and that the teacher should prepare lessons based on
the constructivist learning theory in ways that foster the growth of students' learning
behaviors and their knowledge construction through questioning with regard to
interaction and students interests or preferences.
Several studies have addressed the effects of questioning as pre-reading activity
on students’ critical thinking in reading comprehension (e.g., Duster, 1997; Ghabanchi
and Behrooznia, 2014; Hou, 2019; Karimi and Veisi, 2016; Song, 2019)
Duster (1997) investigated the effective questioning techniques in the classroom
and how teachers employ them as a technique to encourage students' creativity and
critical thinking. Following a thorough investigation using classroom observations,
student interviews, and a questioning framework, a review of the educational literature
was conducted. The finding is reached based on the literature review and the field
analysis, which shows that effective classroom questioning occurs when teachers plan
their questioning strategies and when they employ a variety of different question types
that are appropriate for the overall learning level of the classroom. However, the problem
of the study was that many teachers were unable to pose open-ended, divergent, and
convergent questions. This highlights the need for training programs to assist teachers in
improving their classroom questioning behaviour.
A study by Ghabanchi and Behrooznia (2014) examined the impact of
brainstorming as a pre-reading strategy on reading comprehension ability as well as
critical thinking ability of EFL learners. With 29 participants in the control group and 25

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

in the experimental group, the study used an experimental design. In this study, a 45-
item reading test with multiple choice answers adapted from Flash (2005) was used. To
assess students' reading comprehension skills and their ability for critical thinking, the
TOEFL reading, and the Watson-Glaser critical thinking appraisal are used. The results
of the tests showed that participants' reading comprehension and critical thinking
abilities were both significantly improved by brainstorming techniques. However, the
current study has certain limitations. First, the subjects were chosen using the available
sampling. Second, the researchers had to use an intact groups design because
randomization requirements could not be met, although they made an effort to identify
homogeneous individuals by using a reading comprehension pretest.
Another study by Karimi and Veisi (2016) examined the effects of teaching critical
thinking skills on reading comprehension of Iranian intermediate EFL learners. 50
students from Arshia Language Institute in Islam, Iran participated in this study. Pre-
tests, post-tests and intervention were used to determine the effects of critical thinking
skills on learners’ reading comprehension in EFL classes in Iran. The findings
demonstrated that teaching critical thinking abilities has positive effects on learners'
reading comprehension. However, the interaction of gender and teaching critical
thinking was not significant.
Hou (2019) investigated the effects of questioning strategies on critical thinking
dispositions. A quantitative examination of surveys taken by 51 English-major students
at a junior college in Taiwan. The findings show that employing questioning significantly
improved most students' critical thinking attitudes. However, while many students
exhibited good opinions toward teacher-led questioning activities, some others
expressed less interest in participating in student-created questioning activities because
they struggled to pose questions during group discussions and manage time. Moreover,
students' questioning could put a significant burden on their ability for comprehension,
particularly for those with limited language skills.
Song (2019) conducted a study to investigate whether teachers' questioning has an
impact on the critical thinking skill or ability of high school students in English class. In
this study, 384 high school students and 8 teachers participated in the study. Data
collected in this study include observation and interview for teachers and questionnaire
and reading ability tests for students. The results of this study indicated a moderately
positive link between teachers' questioning and students' critical thinking scores through
classroom observation record table, students' test-day reading scores, and the data from
students' critical thinking questionnaire.
The aforementioned studies have stressed the positive effects of the use of
questioning on students’ reading comprehension and critical thinking abilities in English
classes; however, few studies have delved into the incorporation of questioning as pre-
reading activity, specifically focusing on critical thinking among high school students.
Therefore, this present study contributes to the existing knowledge in this field.

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

3. Methodology

A mixed-methods design which combines both qualitative and quantitative methods of

data collection and analysis was considered appropriate in this study because while the
use of quantitative data was intended to provide a detailed justification for the initial
quantitative findings, qualitative data aimed to deepen understanding of participants’
views or ideas towards the topic under investigation.
The pre-test and post-test of reading were used to gather quantitative data. The
format of these assessments was the same as that of the reading sections of the national
exam. Pretests were delivered to the experimental group (EG) and the control group (CG)
to check students’ level of reading comprehension before conducting a treatment process.
After taking the pretest, the students in the experimental group received the treatment
with mini tests while the control group received a whole class teaching method. After the
intervention, the post-test was given to two groups to investigate if using questioning
affected students’ critical thinking in reading classes. The both pretest and post-test
related to the questioning tests were designed with 25 questions including four main
reading passages. The allotted time of the tests was forty-five minutes and students were
required to circle the correct answers from the reading tests. Then, the student’s answer
sheets were collected from two groups and their work was assessed later.
In this study, the three-part questionnaire was used to assess students' critical
thinking skills. There are three of them: (1) participant background; (2) 30 items adapted
from Bui’s (2021) and Wiboonwachara’s (2019); and (3) self-report. The first section of the
questionnaire asked participants personal questions. The second portion was designed
with 30 items in 4 clusters including The benefits of questioning as pre-reading activity,
Understanding of the benefits of questioning, Challenges of using questioning and The
relationship between questioning and critical thinking. The participants were asked to
respond to the statements using the Likert scale, which had five levels: Strongly disagree
(1), Disagree (2), Neutral (3), Agree (4), and Strongly agree (5). The third section is self-
report. This section had four open-ended questions which enabled participants to
respond to these four questions in a free and natural way.
Semi-structured interviews with open-ended questions were conducted to gather
qualitative data about how students perceived the effects of the questioning strategy on
their critical thinking. The content of the questionnaire and the literature review would
be used to create the interview questions. Ten questions from the interview would be
broken down into two themes: (1) EFL students' conceptual understanding of
questioning in learning reading and its significance at the pre-reading stage; and (2)
students' attitudes towards the effects of questioning as pre-reading activity on students'
critical thinking in reading classes.
Eighty grade 12 students (39 females and 41 males) from a high school in the Kiên
Giang participated in this study on the basis of convenience sampling (Fraenkel, Wallen,
& Hyun, 2012). Specifically, forty participants of the experimental group took part in the

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

intervention, questionnaire and six of them joined the interview to confirm their attitudes
towards the effects of questioning on students’ critical thinking in reading lessons.

4. Findings

4.1. Findings from the tests

4.1.1 Performance of both groups on the pre-test

Table 4.1: Descriptive statistical features and Independent sample t-Test

Pre- critical thinking in reading
Group
N Min Max Mean SD t df Sig.(2t) MD
EG 40 1.6 7.2 4.240 1.2707
.144 78 .886 .04
CG 40 1.6 6.8 4.280 1.2126

Table 4.1 shows the mean scores of students’ critical thinking in the reading pre-test of
both groups. The results of the test show that there was a slight difference (MD=.04) in
the mean scores of the two groups (MEG=4.24, SDEG=1.27, MCG=4.28, SDCG=1.21) for reading
comprehension before the implementation of questioning as pre-reading activity with
regard to students’ critical thinking in reading. Independent-Sample-t-Test was run to
confirm whether there were statistically significant differences. The results of Independent
Sample-t-Test show that there was no significant difference in the pre-reading test
between the two groups (t=1.44, df= 78, p=.88). In another words, students from the two
groups had the same starting point.
*Particular levels of critical thinking at the pre-test of the two groups

Table 4.2: Critical thinking of the two groups

Three levels of critical thinking
Reading levels
Group N Test Min Max Mean SD Sig(2.t) t df
EG 1.2 4.4 3.00 .78
Comprehension level 40 Pre .954 .058 78
CG 1.6 4.8 3.01 .76
EG 0 0.8 0.55 .251
Synthesis level 40 Pre .161 1.42 78
CG 0 0.8 0.47 .254
EG 0 2.0 0.68 .436
Analysis level 40 Pre .245 1.71 78
CG 0 2.0 0.80 .479

Table 4.2 shows the descriptive statistics for three specific levels of critical thinking in
reading, which were comprehension level, synthesis level, and analysis level, for both
groups. An Independent Sample-t-Test was conducted to measure where there was a
significant difference in students’ critical thinking level between two groups before the
study. The results of the test show that there was no statistically significant difference
between the mean scores of the experimental group (M=3.00, SD=.78, M=0.55, SD=.251,
M=0.68, SD=.436 respectively) and that of the control group (M=3.01, SD=.76, M=0.47,
SD=.254, M=0.80, SD=.479 respectively), (p=.954, p=.161, p=.245> 0.05, t=0.58, 1.42, 1.71

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

respectively, df=78). As a result, it can be concluded that the students from both groups
had the same level of critical thinking in reading skill before the intervention.

4.1.2 Performance of both groups on the post-test

Table 4.3: Descriptive statistical features and Independent Sample t-Test

Post- critical thinking in reading
Group
N Min Max Mean SD T Df Sig.(2t) MD
EG 40 2.8 8.4 5.770 1.2966
2.94 78 .004 .096
CG 40 1.6 8.4 4.810 1.6064

Table 4.3 shows the mean scores of students’ critical thinking in reading post-test of both
groups. The results of the test show that there was a slight difference (MD=.096) in the
mean scores of the two groups (MEG=5.77, SDEG=1.30, MCG=4.81, SDCG=1.61) for reading
comprehension after the use of questioning as pre-reading activity concerning students’
critical thinking. An Independent Sample t-Test was run to check whether there was a
statistically significant difference between the mean scores of students’ critical thinking
in reading in the control group and that of the experimental group in the post-test. The
results of Independent Sample-t-Test show that there was a significant difference in the
post-test reading comprehension between the two groups (t=2.94, df= 78, p=.004). The
result shows that the reading skills of the two groups after employing the treatment
process were different. In other words, the students in the experimental group improved
their reading comprehension after the intervention in comparison with those in the
control group.
*Particular levels of critical thinking at the post-test of the two groups

Table 4.4: Critical thinking of comprehension level of the two groups at the post-test
Three levels of critical thinking
Reading levels
Group N Test Min Max Mean SD Sig(2.t) T Df
EG 1.2 3.6 2.13 .561
Comprehension level 40 Post .000 3.68 78
CG 1.2 4.0 2.71 .822
EG 0.4 1.2 0.87 .220
Synthesis level 40 Post .000 6.82 78
CG 0.0 0.8 0.47 .299
EG 0.8 4.0 2.79 .810
Analysis level 40 Post .000 6.44 78
CG 0.0 4.0 1.63 .802

Table 4.4 shows the descriptive details of critical thinking levels, which were about
comprehension level, synthesis level, and analysis level, for two groups. An Independent
Sample-t-Test was conducted to measure whether there was a significant difference in
students’ critical thinking level between the two groups after the intervention. The results
of the test show that there was a significant difference between the mean scores of the
experimental group (M=2.13, SD=.561, M=0.87, SD=.220, M=2.79, SD=.810 respectively)
and that of the control group (M=2.71, SD=.822, M=0.47, SD=.299, M=.1.63, SD=.802
respectively), (p=.000, t=3.68, t=6.82, t=6.44 respectively, df=78). Therefore, it can be

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

concluded that the students from both groups had different levels of critical thinking in
reading after the intervention.

4.2 Findings from the questionnaire

4.2.1 Reliability of the questionnaire
Data collected from the questionnaire of 30 items were administered to 80 students to
identify students’ attitudes towards the effects of questioning as pre-reading activity on
students’ critical thinking in reading classes. A scale test was run to check the reliability
of the questionnaires. The results show that Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (α) is .934,
indicating that the questionnaire was reliable for data collection.

4.2.2 Data analysis and interpretation of the questionnaire

The purpose of this section is to present the four main subsections of the questionnaire
including students’ attitudes towards the benefits of questioning, understanding of
benefits of questioning, challenges, and the relationship between questioning and critical
thinking.

a. Students’ attitudes towards the benefits of questioning

Table 4.5 indicates the results of items 1-6, concerning the benefits of questioning in
learning reading.

Table 4.5: Students’ attitudes towards the benefits of questioning

Items SD D N A SA Mean
1. Questioning as pre-reading activities
4 2 28 6
allows me to identify the main idea of 3.9
10 5 70 15
the text.
2. Questioning as pre-reading activities
4 7 28 1
arouses my curiosity about the main idea 3.7
10 17.5 70 2.5
of the text.
3. Questioning as pre-reading activities 4
7 17.5 29 72.5 3.6
allows me to guess the main idea of the text. 10
4. Questioning as a pre-reading activity
6 6 26 2
allows me to relate prior knowledge to 3.6
15 15 65 5
connecting the main point of the text.
5. Questioning as a pre-reading activity
4 3 32 1
helps me familiarize myself with the 3.8
10 7.5 80 2.5
main idea of the text.
6. Questioning as a pre-reading activity
2 2 2 34
helps me understand the minor or specific 3.7
5 5 5 85
idea of the text.

Table 4.5 shows that 85% of the students (n=34) agreed that questioning as pre-reading
activity allowed them to identify the main idea of the text. In item 2, 72.5% of the
participants (n=29) agreed that questioning as a pre-reading activity could arouse their
curiosity about the main idea of the text. The following one, nearly three quarters agreed

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

that questioning as pre-reading activity allowed them to guess the main idea of the text.
For item 4, 70% of students (n=28) thought that questioning as a pre-reading activity
allowed them to relate prior knowledge to connecting the main point of the text. For item
5, 82.5% of students (n=33) contented that questioning as a pre-reading activity could
them familiarize with the main idea of the text. For last item, 85% of students agreed that
questioning as a pre-reading activity could help them understand the minor or specific
idea of the text.
For the six items in the questionnaire with regard to attitudes towards the benefits
of questioning, the students in the experimental group agreed that the employment of
questioning could help enhance their reading comprehension. In particular, the overall
average score for all 6 items was 3.7, which exceeded the acceptable score of 3.0 and
ranged from 3.6 to 3.9.

b. Students’ understanding of benefits using questioning as a pre-reading activity

Table 4.6 indicates the results of items 7-16, concerning the understanding of benefits of
questioning in learning reading.

Table 4.6: Students’ understanding of the benefits of questioning in learning reading

Items SD D N A SA Mean
Motivation
7. Questioning as pre-reading activities 4 9 27
3.6
helps me understand the text quickly. 10 22.5 67.5
8. Questioning as a pre-reading activity 2 8 30
3.7
motivates me to learn reading. 5 20 75
9. Questioning as a pre-reading activity allows 2 12 26
3.6
me to share ideas with other friends eagerly. 5 30 65
10. Questioning as a pre-reading activity 2 2 34 2
3.8
allows me to practice English more frequently. 5 5 85 5
Feelings
11. Questioning as a pre-reading activity helps 2 8 30
3.7
me become confident in reading the text. 5 20 75
12. Questioning as a pre-reading activity
6 10 20 4
allows me to reduce worry about reading 3.5
15 25 50 10
assignments.
Fun
13. Questioning as a pre-reading activity 4 4 31 1
3.7
makes learning enjoyable. 10 10 77.5 2.5
14. Questioning as a pre-reading activity 4 5 30 1
3.7
gets me excited to read. 10 12.5 75 2.5
15. Questioning as a pre-reading activity 2 1 28 9
4.1
makes my reading activity enjoyable. 5 2.5 70 22.5
16. Questioning as a pre-reading activity 2 11 26 1
3.7
enhances the fun in the classroom. 5 27.5 65 2.5

Table 4.6 shows students’ motivation, student’s feeling and student’s fun when learning
reading with questioning as a pre-reading activity. In item 7, 67.5 % of the students (n=27)

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

agreed that questioning as pre-reading activities could help them understand the text
quickly. In item 8, three quarters of students (n=30) said that questioning as a pre-reading
activity motivates them to learn reading. In item 9, 65% of the participants (n=26) was in
agreement that questioning as a pre-reading activity allowed them to share ideas with
other friends eagerly. In item 10, 90% of the students (n=36) said that questioning as a
pre-reading activity allowed them to practice English more frequently. In item 11, three
quarters of students (n=30) agreed that questioning as a pre-reading activity could help
them become confident in reading the text. For item 12, 60% of the students (n=24) agreed
that questioning as a pre-reading activity allowed them to reduce worry about reading
assignments. In the next item, 85% of the students (n=32) that questioning as a pre-
reading activity made learning enjoyable. In item 14, 78% of the students (n=31) agreed
that questioning as a pre-reading activity made them excited to read. For item 15, 92.5%
of the students agreed (n=37) that questioning as a pre-reading activity made their
reading activity enjoyable. In the last item, 68% of the participants (n=27) agreed that
questioning as a pre-reading activity could enhance the fun in the classroom.
For the 10 items in the questionnaire with regard to attitudes towards the benefits
of questioning, the students in the experimental group agreed that the employment of
questioning could give them a strong motivation in learning reading. To be specific, the
average mean score of 10 items was 3.7, which was higher than the acceptable score of
3.0, and ranging from 3.5 to 4.1.

c. Students’ challenges of questioning as pre-reading activity

Table 4.7 below indicates the results of items 18-20, concerning the challenges of using
questioning in learning reading.

Table 4.7: Students’ challenges of questioning as a pre-reading activity

Items SD D N A SA Mean
17. Questioning as a pre-reading activity 9 16 7 8
2.3
in reading class makes me anxious. 22.5 40 17.5 20
18. Questioning as a pre-reading 11 15 2 12
2.4
activity is time-consuming. 27.5 37.5 5 30
19. Questioning as a pre-reading 6 18 10 6
2.4
activity is difficult. 15 45 25 15

Table 4.7 shows that 20% of students (n=8) agreed that questioning as a pre-reading
activity in reading class makes them anxious, while 62.5% of the students (n=25) had
opposite attitudes. In item 18, 30% of the students (n=12) contended that questioning as
a pre-reading activity was time-consuming whereas 65% of the students (n=26) showed
their disagreement. In item 19, 15% of students (n=6) agreed that questioning as a pre-
reading activity was difficult, while 60% of the participants (n=24) expressed their
objection.
For the three items in the questionnaire concerning attitudes towards the
challenges, the students in the experimental group confirmed that the employment of

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

questioning could reduce challenges in learning reading. Especially, the average mean
score of 3 items was 2.4, which was lower than the standard point of 3.0 in the Likert scale
and ranging from 2.3 to 2.5.

d. The relationship between questioning and critical thinking

Table 4.8 below indicates the results of items 21-30, concerning the relationship between
questioning and critical thinking in learning reading.

Table 4.8: The relationship between questioning and critical thinking

Items SD D N A SA Mean
20. Questioning improved your thinking 4 4 30 2
3.8
abilities. 10 10 75 5
21. Questioning developed your logical 2 10 27 1
3.7
thinking. 5 25 67.5 2.5
22. Questioning made you process the 2 34 4
4.0
information better e.g. fact, opinion, biases. 5 85 10
23. Questioning allowed you to examine
2 11 26 1
the connections between ideas, subjects, 3.7
5 27.5 65 2.5
or themes in written texts.
24. Questioning assisted you in reaching 2 2 4 32
3.7
logical conclusions. 5 5 10 80
25. Questioning encouraged you to consider
2 14 21 3
a decision more carefully and sensibly 3.6
5 35.5 52.5 7.5
before making it.
26. Questioning motivated you to exercise
4 2 32 2
critical and rational thought before making 3.8
10 5 80 5
any decisions.
27. Questioning helped you identify 4 15 21
3.8
the connection between objects or situations. 10 37.5 52.5
28. Questioning helped you better retrieve 2 6 29 3
3.8
the information. 5 15 72.5 7.5
29. Questioning helped you better examine 3 10 24 3
3.7
the data you gathered each day. 7.5 25 60 7.5
30. Questioning as a pre-reading activity 2 2 36
3.8
allows me to think and analyze the text contents. 5 5 90

Table 4.8 reveals that 80% of the students (n=32) agreed that questioning improved their
thinking abilities. In item 21, 70% of the students (n=28) contended that questioning
developed their logical thinking. For item 22, 95% of the students (38) indicated that
questioning made them process the information better in terms of fact, opinion, and
biases. In item 23, 68% of the students (n=27) agreed that questioning allowed them to
examine the connections between ideas, subjects, or themes in written texts. In item 24,
80% of the participants (n=32) were in agreement that questioning assisted them in
reaching logical conclusions. In item 25, 61% of the students (n=24) said that questioning
encouraged them to consider a decision more carefully and sensibly before making it. In
next item, item 26, 85% of the learners (n=34) agreed that questioning motivated them to

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

exercise critical and rational thought before making any decisions. In next item, item 27,
52.5% of the students (n=21) agreed that questioning could motivate them to exercise
critical and rational thought before making any decisions. For item 28, 80% of the
students (n=32) said that questioning could help them better retrieve the information. In
item 29, 68% of the participants (n=27) agreed that questioning could help them better
examine the data they gathered each day. In the last item, 90% of the students (n=36)
contended questioning as a pre-reading activity allowed them to think and analyze the
text contents.
For the 11 items in the questionnaire with regard to the relationship between
questioning and critical thinking, the students in the experimental group confirmed that
the employment of questioning could enhance their critical thinking in learning reading.
Especially, the average mean score of 11 items was 3.76, which was lower than the
standard point of 3.0 in the Likert scale and ranging from 3.6 to 4.0.

4.3 Findings from the interviews

This section reports the findings from the interviews. The themes are identified as
students’ attitudes towards questioning, challenges, and the relationship between
questioning and critical thinking.

4.3.1 Students’ attitudes towards questioning

Analysis from the interview data indicates that six students yielded positive attitudes
towards questioning. The following extracts illustrate their views.

“I think questioning helps us as students actively participate in the learning process;

provides us with an opportunity to share information with one another and helps teachers
assess whether we understand the lesson or relate to background knowledge about that
topic. Additionally, I can visualize the main content of the upcoming lesson.” (Trang,
interview extract)

“I think questioning will help us focus on the lesson to find the answer and have
opportunity to express our own opinions. Next, questioning is an activity that makes the
lesson more exciting and engaging.” (Khang, interview extract)

The other two students expressed their opinions about why the teacher should
make questions at pre-reading stage.

“The purpose of teachers asking questions during the pre-reading stage is to help us as
students get started and lead us into the main content of the reading material. Through
this activity, I think I gain some insights into the knowledge that I already had about the
upcoming topic.” (Thanh, interview extract)

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

“Questioning is a form of communication between individuals, which involves using a

series of questions to explore a problem, an idea, or something interesting and a process of
forming ideas to develop further understanding of a topic” (Xuyen, interview extract)

4.3.2 Students’ understanding of benefits of questioning as a pre-reading activity

The other three students said that they felt motivated by the teacher’s use of questioning
at pre-reading stage. The following extracts demonstrate their views.

“Honestly, questioning at pre-reading stage helps me know whether my background

knowledge has been correct or not and sufficient enough. And when I answer the teacher
questions, I think this type of instruction helps me become more confident and ready to
receive my teacher’s feedback.” (Kien, interview extract)

“I often feel a little nervous, but then I feel happy because I get involved in the activity of
contributing ideas or opinions for a lesson. When I answer and receive feedback from the
teacher that my answer is correct, I feel very delighted and become confident.” (Khang,
interview extract)

“Through the question-and-answer activities, these allow us to become more confident in

expressing our opinions.” (Xuyen, interview extract)

4.3.3 Challenges of using questioning as a pre-reading activity

Analysis from the interview data shows that five students reported having encountered
challenges of the use of questioning as a pre-reading activity. The following extracts
illustrate their views.

“I found it challenging due to a lack of information and knowledge of social, political, and
scientific issues; therefore, it is difficult for me to express my opinions on these topics. In
addition, my ability to present my ideas and persuade others is limited. Furthermore, a lack
of vocabulary is a barrier for me to answer the questions made by the teacher or convince
other peers.” (Trang, interview extract)

“I sometimes thought that it is challenging for me to express my views in front of others

on reading topics related to social matters. In addition, time pressure makes it difficult for
me to think of answers. Furthermore, I was struggled by pronunciation, vocabulary, and
grammatical structures.” (Khang, interview extract)

Three students struggled with difficult questions. The following extracts show
their views.

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

“When the teacher's questions are too challenging, students may only concentrate on
searching for the specific information needed to answer those questions, and they may end
up overlooking other important information.” (Trang, interview extract)

“If the teacher's questions are unclear or ambiguous, it can be difficult for students to
comprehend and respond to them. Therefore, effective questioning skills are crucial for
teachers to ensure that their students can fully understand and engage with the material.”
(Xuyen, interview extract)

“Unclear questions can lead to confusion among students, as they may not fully grasp the
intended focus of the question. Furthermore, if the question is difficult, it can be difficult
for us as students to consider the appropriate answer expected by the teacher.” (Kien,
interview extract)

The other two students said that they needed more time to practice the questioning
strategy in reading lessons. The following extracts illustrate their views.

“I think that during the pre-reading stage, the time for activities is limited, so the teacher
should ask a few key questions to explore and lead into the reading. I think 8-10 minutes
should be enough. The important thing is the cooperation or interaction between students
and the teacher, as well.” (Trang, interview extract)

“One major issue is the amount of time needed for the activity. Inefficient time
management by the teacher can limit the time that students have to engage with the text.”
(Xuyen, interview extract)

“I think all of these reading activities require student thinking to express their own
opinions. Therefore, it will take time to think, so it is necessary to allocate sufficient time
for us as students during the reading period.” (Kien, interview extract)

4.3.4 The relationship between questioning and critical thinking

Two students expressed that questioning and critical thinking are closely related in
reading classes. The following extracts demonstrate their views.

“I think critical thinking is used in other subjects such as Mathematics, Physics,

Chemistry, and Literature or when explaining a problem, a phenomenon. This is the same
as in reading class, I use critical thinking.” (Trang, interview extract)

“I think in daily life activity, I will encounter a lot of questions every day. For example,
after finishing the lesson on the physical properties of sulfuric acid, the teacher asked the
students, "Why shouldn't we pour water into concentrated sulfuric acid, but instead
slowly pour concentrated sulfuric acid into water?" With a question like that, I will apply

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STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

the knowledge I have learned, combined with observation of the phenomenon to explain
that.” (Kien, interview extract)

5. Discussion

This section discusses the key findings of the study in relation to relevant studies to
answer the two research questions.

Research Question One: What are the effects of questioning as pre-reading activity on
students’ critical thinking in reading classes at high school?
The findings from the study show that students in the experimental group used
questioning as a pre-reading activity, resulting in better reading outcomes compared to
those in the control group; thus, implementing questioning focused on critical thinking
comprehension, synthesis, and analysis levels in the curriculum proved more beneficial
for enhancing high school students' reading comprehension. In fact, the findings from
the first research question are in line with the findings of a study by Ghabanchi and
Behrooznia (2014), who reported that participants’ reading comprehension and critical
thinking abilities were both improved through brainstorming as a pre-reading strategy.
This finding is consistent with that in a study of Karimi and Veisi (2016), who examined
the effects of critical thinking skills on reading comprehension of Iranian intermediate
EFL students. In other words, this finding shows that teaching critical thinking abilities
had positive effects on students’ reading comprehension. The finding also confirms
Song’s (2019) research, which claimed that using questioning could enhance high school
student’s critical thinking. Additionally, this study supports the conclusions from the
findings of a study by Do and Tran (2020), who contended that using questioning as a
pre-reading activity could allow students to advance their critical thinking level.

Research Question Two: What are students’ attitudes towards the implementation of
questioning as pre-reading activity on students’ critical thinking in reading class?
The findings from the study indicate positive attitudes of students towards
questioning as pre-reading activity in reading classes. Most of the students in the
experimental group found that the implementation of questioning as pre-reading activity
could help them enhance their reading skills. This finding is in line with those by
previous researchers, namely Aloqaili (2012) and Bui and Nguyen (2021), who affirmed
that questioning at pre-reading stage could trigger students’ background knowledge and
improve students’ reading ability. These authors further claimed that this instructional
approach could provide students with greater opportunities to express their own views
or opinions and specifically understand the main ideas of the topic and the reading
content easily. In the same line of reasoning, questioning at pre-reading stage was
beneficial for activating student’s background knowledge, as noted in the literature
(Maphosa & Wadesango, 2016; Tran & Phuong, 2018).

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

The findings from this study show that most students believed questioning could
help them enhance their understanding of lessons, create an engaging classroom
environment, facilitate reading, boost confidence and enjoyment, and provide them with
more opportunities to share ideas and prior knowledge with peers. This finding is in line
with those of studies by Şeker and Kömür (2008), Karimi and Veisi (2016), and Nguyen
(2019) who highlighted that teachers using questioning as a pre-reading strategy
acknowledged its effects to activate students’ prior knowledge, stimulate their curiosity,
and generate their interest in the text, while students reported that teachers’ questions
could allow them to relate their background knowledge to learn new lessons, increase
their confidence in learning to read, and heighten their comprehension of teacher
feedback. This observation coincides with studies conducted by Maphosa and
Wadesango (2016b), Amalia and Devanti (2017), Hong and Nguyen (2019), and Phan and
Nguyen (2021), who indicated that implementation of purposeful questions could
stimulate students’ critical thinking, encourage active participation, create collaborative
learning, and sustain motivation and engagement throughout activities preceding a
particular reading text.

6. Conclusions

This study sheds light on how questioning as a pre-reading activity influences students'
critical thinking in reading text passages. In other words, incorporating questioning
before reading plays a vital role in promoting reading performance of high school
students at Vinh Thuan upper secondary school, Kien Giang province, Vietnam. Through
the results of the reading tests, this study reveals the effects of employing pre-reading
questions on different aspects of reading performance, encompassing comprehension,
synthesis, and analysis. Particularly, the findings from post-tests indicate that students in
the experimental group demonstrated their higher levels of comprehension and synthesis
compared to their counterparts.
The findings highlight that students with limited command of English language
proficiency in terms of linguistic forms or structures managed to engage or interact with
other peers in reading classes by using the questioning strategy. Through activating their
existing knowledge, students could generate a greater number of ideas to process
information. Concerning students' attitudes towards the use of questioning-based pre-
reading activity in reading classes, the qualitative findings reveal positive acceptance of
the questioning strategy by the students.

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

About the Authors

Trinh Doan Thi Nguyen is a master’s student at Tra Vinh University, Vietnam. She has
been teaching English at a high school in Kien Giang province for more than 20 years.
She chose this profession for her desire and passion. Her research interests include
teaching methodologies, critical reading, and critical thinking.
Huan Buu Nguyen is Associate Professor, School of Foreign Languages, Can Tho
University, Vietnam. His research interests include action research, teacher change,
language learning, ESP, and curriculum planning.

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STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

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THE EFFECTS OF QUESTIONING AS PRE-READING ACTIVITY ON EFL GRADE 12
STUDENTS’ CRITICAL THINKINGIN READING CLASSES IN KIEN GIANG, VIETNAM

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