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Introduction
 Introduction

INTRODUCTION

The present study focuses on the land revenue system in the Jagirs of Amber Rulers
from c. 1650-1750. This period is significant as it marks a transition in the Mughal
Empire, with the weakening of central authority and the rise of regional powers. The
study examines the various aspects of the land revenue system, including the nature of
land assignments, the bureaucratic structure, and the relationship between the state,
landlords, and peasants.

 Significance of the Study

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This study is significant for several reasons. First, it provides a detailed examination

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of the land revenue system in a specific region during a critical period of Indian

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history. Second, it revisits existing theories about the Mughal land revenue system,

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such as the notion that the Mughals imposed excessive land revenue demands on
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peasants. Third, it highlights the role of regional powers in shaping the land revenue
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system.
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 Scope of the Study

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The study focuses on the region of eastern Rajasthan, which was under the control of
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the Amber Rulers. This region is rich in archival sources, which allows for a detailed
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micro-level study. The study covers the period from c. 1650-1750, which coincides
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with the expansion of the Amber state and the weakening of Mughal authority.
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 Key Findings
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The study found that the land revenue system in the Jagirs of Amber Rulers was
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complex and multidimensional. The state used a variety of land assignment, including
khalsa (direct administration), jagir (assignment of land to mansabdars in lieu of
salary), and madad-i-mash (grants to religious institutions). The bureaucratic structure
was also complex, with a hierarchy of officials responsible for collecting and
managing land revenue. The relationship between the state, landlords, and peasants
was often fraught with tension. The state sought to maximize land revenue
collections, while landlords sought to protect their own interests. Peasants were often

1
 Introduction

the most vulnerable group in this system, and they bore the brunt of high land revenue
demands.1

Irfan Habib's seminal work, "The Agrarian System of Mughal India: 1556-1707,"
brought the medieval Indian economy to the forefront of historical discourse.
Utilizing empirical data, Habib meticulously analyzed the revenue system,
administrative structures, and agrarian economy in general, including the zamindari
system, agricultural production and trade, the condition of peasantry, and the system
of land grants.

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Noman Ahmad Siddiqi's "Land Revenue Administration under the Mughals (1700-

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1750)" delved into the complexities of land ownership under the Mughal Empire.

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With clarity and insight, Siddiqi examined the conflicting yet interdependent rights

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and interests involved, shedding light on the Mughals' administrative practices. By

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synthesizing data, he illustrated how the Mughal administration attempted to reconcile
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inherent contradictions within the land revenue system.
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As regional social and economic history gained prominence, material form regional
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sources acquired crucial importance. S. Nurul Hasan and Satish Chandra utilized
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Rajasthan's vast documentary material for pioneering studies. Satish Chandra's

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"Medieval India; Society, The Jagirdari crisis and The Village" explored critical
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aspects of medieval Indian society, including the evolution of medieval Indian

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society, the structure and stratification of village society, and the factors leading to the
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Mughal Empire's disintegration and the establishment of British rule.

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Subsequent studies by S.P. Gupta and Dilbagh Singh on Amber fully exploited
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available information on agricultural production, food grain prices, and rural society.
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These studies provided fresh insights into the 17th and 18th-century agrarian
economy, paving the way for examining village society's structure and stratification in
light of changes in agricultural production, revenue demand, and prices. They also
added a new dimension to understanding the impact of state policies on the agrarian
economy.

1
W.H Moreland, Agrarian System of Moslem India,A Historical Essay with Appendices,Low Price
Publication, Delhi, 2011.

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 Introduction

S.P. Gupta's "The Agrarian System Of Eastern Rajasthan (c. 1650-1750)" offered a
detailed account of the taxation and administration systems in Eastern Rajasthan from
1650-1750. Using Eastern Rajasthan as a test case, Gupta argued for minimal regional
variation in northern India's agrarian structure during Mughal times. He analysed a
variety of documented sources, especially from the Rajasthan State Archive in
Bikaner, to study village-level details on cultivated areas, taxation, price lists for
agricultural commodities, and village and district-level accounts of income and
expenditure

Dilbagh Singh's book "The State, Landlord and Peasants, Rajasthan in the 18th

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Century" argues that the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries till 1750

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witnessed considerable agricultural and commercial expansion, but the next half-

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century reversed this trend. A sample study of selected parganas in the area reveals

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that the net area under cultivation shrank by fifty percent between 1750 and 1790.
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This is partly attributed to the Maratha inroads and partly to natural calamities. Singh
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also notes that this shrinkage in agricultural production was accompanied by a

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growing economic stratification and an increased control by merchants of landed

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resources.
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This topic is also closely connected with zamindars. In this context, a major trend has
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developed for systematic study of the ruling classes in medieval India. Attention in
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particular has been focused on the position and role of zamindars and nobility, their
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mutual interactions, and their role in the state. As far as nobility is concerned, some
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earlier writings had focused on analysing its relationship with the monarch and to a
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lesser extent to its racial and ethnic character. Blochman noted the foreign character
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of nobility under Mughals, while Moreland endorsed the opinion of Francois Bernier
that the Mughal nobility consisted of foreign adventurers who enticed each other to
court.

A more critical study of the nobility started with Satish Chandra's "Parties and Politics
at the Mughal Court 1707-1740", in which the foreign character of Mughal nobility
was questioned and factionalism in the nobility sought to be related to a growing
crisis of the jagirdari system.

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 Introduction

In a detailed study of the organization and composition of the Mughal nobility under
Aurangzeb, Athar Ali adopted a statistical approach for analysing the position of the
different ethnic and religious groups, as well as the hereditary element in the nobility
and the inter-penetration of the zamindars with the official nobility.

Significant work has been done on the position and role of zamindar under the
Mughals. The main efforts have been i) to examine the rights of the zamindars in land
ii) stratification among the zamindars iii) their social background with particular
reference to the caste, tribal, and clan structures iv) their social, economic,
administrative, and cultural roles. The position and role of the different strata of

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zamindars have been analyzed by S. Nurul Hasan in an article "The Position of

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Zamindar in Mughal Empire". Noman Ahmed Siddiqi in his work "Land Revenue

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Administration under the Mughals 1700-1750" also tries to analyse the position of

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different strata of zamindars, particularly in Gujarat.
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In the context of the general history of Rajasthan, significant works are available from
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various scholars. M.L Sharma has made a worthwhile study of the political outline of
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Amber rulers. He has furnished great details on the achievements and privileges
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enjoyed by Amber rulers during the Mughals. V.S. Bhatnagar and Bhargava have
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outlined the expansion of Jaipur rulers, and have given information about their origin
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and main jagir possession in their region as watan.

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Jadunath Sarkar's2 pioneering work, "A History of Jaipur c. 1503-1938," marked the
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first attempt to systematically document the region's history, meticulously examining

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various aspects, including political, geographical, and to some extent, economic

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factors.
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Madhvi Bajekal3 delved into the intricate relationship between the state and the rural
grain market in eighteenth-century Eastern Rajasthan. Her study, based on Arhsattas
and Chittis, highlights the state's policy of employing state traders to procure its

2
Jadunath Sarkar, A History of Jaipur c. 1503-1938, revised and edited by Raghubir Singh,
Maharaja Sawai Man Singh II Museum, Jaipur, 1984.
3
Madhavi Bajekal, ‘The State and Rural Grain Market in Eighteenth Century Eastern Rajasthan’ In
Merchant Markets and State in Early Modern India, Edited by Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Oxford
University Press Delhi, 1990, 90-120

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 Introduction

revenue share at fixed prices and subsequently utilize them as agents for the disposal
of state grain.

G.S.L Devra4 shed valuable light on the position of the mercantile class and their
unique role in contemporary politics and revenue administration. Drawing upon
Bikaner Bahiyat, he demonstrates their significant influence over the market. B.L
Gupta5 conducted a comprehensive investigation into the status of the mercantile
community in Rajasthan. His work, based on records from Jaipur, Jodhpur, Bikaner,
Kota, as well as Sanskrit inscriptions, Persian sources, and contemporary literature,
reveals that merchants from various parts of India migrated to Rajasthan and played a

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crucial role in the rural economy of eastern Rajasthan. Rulers actively encouraged

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merchants from other regions to settle in their territories, granting them various

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privileges.

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Enriching our understanding of Amber State through primary regional sources,

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unveiling the intricate tapestry of Amber state's history necessitates a thorough

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examination of primary regional sources. Fortunately, a wealth of archival material,

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meticulously preserved in the Rajasthan State Archive, Bikaner, provides an

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invaluable window into the state's political, economic, and social landscape. These
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documents, ranging from revenue records to official correspondence, offer granular

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insights into the intricacies of governance, commerce, and agrarian practices.

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Among the most significant sources are the Arhsattas, detailed revenue records that
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provide comprehensive information on income, expenditure, landholdings, and

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taxation within each pargana, the administrative division of the state. These records,
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compiled from daily reports, meticulously document the state's financial

administration and the nature of land grants bestowed upon individuals and
institutions.

Arzdashtas, written petitions addressed to the Amber rulers, offer another layer of
understanding. These documents, penned in both Rajasthani and Persian, illuminate
4
G.S.L Devra, ‘Land Control and Agrarian Mercantile classes in Western Rajasthan c. 1650-1700’,
PIHC, Delhi, 1997, pp. 377-85.
5
B.L Gupta, Trade and Commerce in Rajasthan during the 18th Century, Jaipur Publishing House,
1987.

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 Introduction

various aspects of the state's political, economic, and administrative functioning. They
provide invaluable insights into the daily workings of the revenue mechanism, the
condition of agriculture, and the role of the mercantile class.

The Amber Abhilekh, a collection of miscellaneous papers, further enriches our

understanding of the state's affairs. These documents, including parwanas (official
orders), letters (patr), and arzdashts, shed light on political events, agrarian practices,
and social dynamics at the village level. They also provide glimpses into the
appointment of pargana officials, trade networks, and the role of jagirs, land grants
assigned to individuals or institutions.

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The Dastur Komwar documents, meticulously organized by caste and profession,

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offer a comprehensive view of Amber's social structure and economic activities.

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These records chronicle the activities of merchants, artisans, and other individuals,

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providing insights into their roles within the state's economy. They also document the
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honours bestowed upon merchants by the Raja, highlighting their importance in the
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administrative apparatus.
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Khatut Ahalkaran documents, correspondence between state officials, reveal the nitty-
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gritty of daily administration. These letters provide details on the settlement of

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disputes, the activities of moneylenders, the impact of rainfall scarcity on prices, and
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the involvement of Bohras, a Muslim merchant community, in lending practices.

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They also shed light on the storage and trade of grains.

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Kharitas, letters exchanged between rulers of different states in Rajasthan, offer

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insights into interstate relations and diplomatic exchanges. These documents reveal
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information on moneylenders, the protection and patronage extended to traders, and

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tax concessions granted to merchants.

Parwanas, issued by rulers to senior officials or traders, provide glimpses into the
state's administrative hierarchy and economic policies. These documents reveal the
appointment of pargana and village level officials, invitations extended to merchants
and artisans, tax relaxations, and measures aimed at promoting trade and commerce in
urban areas.

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 Introduction

Kapad Dwara documents, housed in the City Palace at Jaipur, offer valuable maps
and plans related to water management systems and canals. These documents provide
insights into the state's efforts to enhance agricultural productivity.

Chitthis, letters from the diwan to pargana administrators, offer detailed information
on village-level administration, agrarian practices, and social dynamics. They also
provide insights into disputes, commercial practices, trade organization, the role of
mercantile communities, and rural-urban interactions.

Yaddasht documents, maintained by village officials, offer details on the operation of

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merchants, their roles in revenue collection, and their involvement in surety and

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hawalgi (money remittance) systems. These documents also provide insights into the

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agrarian condition of villages, including the number of ploughs and bullocks owned

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by peasants and the area under cultivation.

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Dastur ul amal documents, schedules of revenue rates framed by the Amber state,
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provide insights into the rules and regulations governing taxation. These documents
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reveal the rates and levies imposed on agricultural and non-agricultural products,
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offering a glimpse into the state's revenue collection system.

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Jamabandi documents, records of revenue assessments for villages and parganas,

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reveal the intricacies of land revenue administration. These documents provide

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information on taxes, the role of moneylenders and merchants in the bichoti

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(intermediary) system, the rate of assessment per bigha (land unit), the share of
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cultivators and the state, and the prices of crops.

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Roznama Potdar documents, daily descriptions of receipts and expenditures, provide

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detailed information on land revenue, peshkash (tribute), inam (land grants), rahdari
(road tax), and other revenue sources. These records, maintained by the potdar
(treasurer), offer a comprehensive overview of the state's financial transactions.

Nirakh Bazar documents provide prevalent market rates of agricultural and non-
agricultural products. These are the daily reports. These records are tremendously rich
in their information related to market prices. These documents commence from 1662
to the 19th century. For a detailed study of prevalent market rates of Amber State, we
have nirakh bazar documents of approximately sixty parganas namely Lalsot,

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 Introduction

Chatsu, Amarsar, Amber later Sawai Jaipur, Bahatri (Baswa), Dausa, Ajabgarh, Gazi
Ka Thana, Geejgarh, Malarna, etc. These documents are unique, as they offer an
extensive range of information on the economic structure of the state. Enough
statistical data is available in these documents to analyse and understand the economic
phenomenon of the state. These daily reports throw a good light on the uniformity in
market rates and provide even slight fluctuation among them. Another important thing
is that these documents enable us to make a comparison between crops, food grains,
other commodities and different parganas over the years. These records were
prepared by the panchmahajans and preserved as permanent records at the Rajasthan

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State Archives, Bikaner.

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Enriching the Discourse on Land Revenue Systems in 17th-18th Century Rajasthan

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we study Amber Rulers' jagirs in this thesis, titled "Land Revenue System in the
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Jagirs of Amber rulers from c. 1650-1750" which delves into the intricate land
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revenue system prevalent in the jagirs, held by the Amber rulers during the 17th and
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18th centuries. It aims to bridge the existing gaps in our understanding of this crucial
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aspect of Rajasthan's agrarian history.

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While previous studies have primarily focused on the jagir assignments granted by
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the Mughals to the Amber rulers, geographical factors influencing agricultural

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productivity, and revenue assessment methods, this thesis delves deeper into the
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economic landscape of the Amber jagirs. It examines the state's primary sources of
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income, the proportion of revenue generated from land, and the mechanisms
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employed to manage this complex system.

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Chapter-1, in the thesis commences by exploring the geographical and political

context of the Amber rulers and their jagirs. It highlights the significance of
geographical features in shaping economic prosperity and examines how rainfall
patterns and irrigation measures impacted crop productivity. Additionally, it analyses
the political environment, including the extent of territory controlled by the Amber
rulers, to understand the overall economic landscape.

Chapter-2, investigates the agrarian production and revenue generated from various
crops within the jagirs. It sheds light on the varied crop patterns, diverse revenue

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 Introduction

assessment methods, and the extent of land under cultivation across different
parganas (administrative divisions). This detailed analysis provides insights into the
total income accrued by the rulers through land revenue and other non-agrarian taxes.

Chapter 3, the social stratification within villages, particularly land ownership

patterns and the distinction between cultivating and non-cultivating peasants, is the
focus of It examines the impact of land ownership disparities on agrarian productivity
and explores the underlying tensions and contradictions that arose from these social
dynamics. This chapter underscores the importance of understanding land ownership
structures as a key indicator of social stratification and its potential influence on

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agricultural output.

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Chapter-4, shifts the focus to the role of merchants as intermediaries between the

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rural agrarian society and the state. It analyses the merchants' multifaceted influence

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on the rural economy, from their control over grain markets to their involvement in
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revenue administration. Notably, their role in providing loans and agrarian inputs to
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peasants during times of famine ensured the continuation of cultivation and

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maintained the flow of revenue.

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Chapter-5, delves into the lives of the primary agrarian producers – the peasants. It
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examines the social and economic dynamics within rural society, including the
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relationships between various constituents, such as landowners, peasants, and artisans.

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By understanding these intricate social-economic relations, we gain a deeper

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understanding of the agrarian economy and the factors influencing its productivity.
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Chapter-6, explores the administrative machinery that underpinned the land revenue
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system in the jagirs. It delves into the roles and responsibilities of various pargana
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officials, including the diwan (chief revenue officer), amil (revenue collector), amin
(assessor), chaudhary (village headman), and patel (accountant). These officials
played crucial roles in ensuring the smooth collection of revenue, maintaining land
records, and overseeing agricultural production.

This comprehensive thesis provides a valuable contribution to our understanding of

the land revenue system in the jagirs of Amber rulers during the 17th and 18th
centuries. It sheds light on the economic dynamics of this period, the role of various
factors involved in the agrarian system, and the challenges faced by the state in
managing a complex and evolving revenue structure.

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 Introduction

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Map: Physical Geography

Courtesy Faiz Habib

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