Leadership IV

LDR400
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 Table of Contents

Heading Page number

WELCOME 1

MODULE PURPOSE AND OUTCOMES 1

Topic 1 The Nature and Importance of Leadership 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Defining Leadership 2

Topic 2 The Difference between Leadership and Management 3

2.1 Introduction 3
2.1 Comparing Management and Leadership 3

Topic 3 The African Context 5

3.1 Introduction 5

Topic 4 Leadership in a Multicultural Context 7

4.1 Introduction 7

Topic 5 Self-Leadership and Leadership Development 9

5.1 Introduction 9

Topic 6 Leadership Traits 11

6.1 Introduction 11

Topic 7 Charismatic and Transformational Leadership 13

7.1 Introduction 13
7.2 The Characteristics of Transformational Leaders 14

Topic 8 Ethics in Leadership 17

8.1 Introduction 17
8.2 Ethics in the Workplace 18

Topic 9 Emotional Intelligence and Leadership 21

9.1 Introduction 21

Topic 10 Leadership Power and Influence 25

10.1 Introduction 25

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Topic 11 Team Leadership and Motivation 27
11.1 Introduction 27
11.2 Leadership and Team Effectiveness 27
11.3 The Leader’s New Challenge – Virtual and Global Teams 30
11.4 Handling Team Conflict 30
11.5 Basic Motivation Theories 31
11.6 Other Motivation Theories 33

Topic 12 Entrepreneurial Leadership 37

12.1 Introduction 37

REFERENCES 39

© STADIO (Pty) Ltd Leadership IV LDR400

 Welcome

Welcome to Leadership IV (LDR400)!

We trust that you will enjoy the exiting issues and challenges you will be facing.
We look forward to accompany you on this meaningful and positive learning
journey. We are, however, even more interested in the impact that you will make
once you have mastered this subject.

Module Purpose and Outcomes

After studying this study guide, you should be able to:

• Understand the full meaning of leadership and management.
• Identify traits and characteristics that are associated with leadership.
• Apply the concept of ethics in leadership.
• Apply Leadership in a multicultural context with an understanding of the
difficulties faced by minorities in organisations.
• Explain Leadership in an African context.
• Turn a group of individuals into a collaborative team that achieves high
performance with adequate levels of motivation.
• Use leadership power and influence to help accomplish important
organisational goals.
• Explain the concept of emotional intelligence and leadership.
• Understand the concept entrepreneurial leadership.

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 Prescribed Reading

The prescribed textbook for the Leadership IV (LDR400) module is:

Van Zyl, E., Dalglish, C., Du Plessis, M., Lues, L. & Pietersen, E. 2022. Leadership
in the African context. 3rd ed. Cape Town: Juta [ISBN: 978–1–485–13235-6]

OR

Van Zyl, E., Dalglish, C., Du Plessis, M., Lues, L. & Pietersen, E. 2016. Leadership
in the African context. 2nd ed. Cape Town: Juta [ISBN: 978–1–485–11178–8]

Recommended Reading

• Dubrin, A. J. 1990. The principles of leadership. United States: South-

Western.
• Covey, S. R. 1999. Principle-centred leadership. New York: Simon &
Schuster.
• Goleman, D 1996. Emotional intelligence. London: Bloomsbury.

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 Topic 1
The Nature and Importance of Leadership

Prescribed Reading

Before continuing with this topic, please read the relevant chapter in your
textbook.

1.1 Introduction

Upon completion of this topic, you should be able to:

• Explain the meaning of leadership and its significance in the 21st century;
• Describe a framework for understanding leadership as a process;
• Explore leadership roles in a range of different contexts; and
• Explore the major challenges confronting leaders in Africa.

Maznevski, Steger & Amann (2007) provide us with a clear picture of the new
reality for today’s organisation that requires a deeper involvement of leadership
across all aspects of the organisation.

“Leading a complex organization requires an entirely different mind- set.

Hierarchy works if every level is doing something distinct and specific. However,
due to the interdependence in complexity, this is impossible in today’s
organizations. By simplifying and clarifying vision and values, core processes and
decentralization, and early awareness systems, hierarchy can be complemented
by “heterarchy”, the interdependent, networked organization in which every part
reflects a different perspective of the whole and which is needed in today’s global
business world” and for that Africa as well.

The boss no longer needs to “tell” the team members what exactly to do, but
rather depend on their initiative, creativity and competence for success. Leaders
need to understand the various leadership roles, the expectations of followers
and the challenges associated with being a leader.

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1.2 Defining Leadership

“Control is not leadership; management is not leadership; Leadership is

leadership. If you seek to lead, invest at least 50% of your time in leading
yourself-your purpose, ethics, principles, motivation and conduct. Invest at least
20% leading those with authority over you and 15% leading your peers.”

Dee Hock Founder and CEO Emeritus of Visa, defines leadership as a focus on
the individual capability of the leader: "Leadership is a function of knowing
yourself, having a vision that is well communicated, building trust among
colleagues, and taking effective action to realize your own leadership potential."

You will start to realise that much of this subject will focus on your own abilities
and skills as a leader. Leadership is about the act of leading yourself and others
through the application of various roles, styles in various positions regardless of
how you have acquired the position.

Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the “Reflections” questions at the end of the chapter in your textbook.

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 Topic 2
The Difference between Leadership and
Management

Prescribed Reading

Before continuing with this topic, please read the relevant chapter in your
textbook.

2.1 Introduction

After completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Explain the origin of management and leadership;
• Give your own definition of leadership and management;
• Explain the difference between leadership and management;
• Explain African management and leadership with focus on the changing
African context and the African cultural value system;
• Explain the differences between African, Western and European leadership
and management approaches; and
• Offer a few suggestions on how African leaders can manage/lead.

2.1 Comparing Management and Leadership

According to the South African Institute of Management (SAIM), management

and leadership are overlapping competencies. Managerial competencies are
composites of 4 sets of personal attributes and skills – the leadership component
is primarily personal attributes (natural and unique) + interpersonal skills,
whereas management comprises cognitive skills + management knowledge.

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The following table will provide us with some insight into this difference.

Managers Leaders
Implement Change Initiate and drive Change
Maintain status quo and stability Develop and encourage innovation
Monitor and control people Inspire people
Do things right Do the right things
Act reactively Assume a long-term perspective
Preserve authority Connect with followers
Positional power and authority Personal power and influence

Activity 2.1

Complete the activity “Leadership Assessment Quiz” in the prescribed

textbook.

Self-Assessment Questions

Provide your own view point on the issue of separating Leadership in an African
and a Western context.

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 Topic 3
The African Context

Prescribed Reading

Before continuing with this topic, please read the relevant chapter in your
textbook.

3.1 Introduction

• After completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Understand the nature of sub-Saharan African Geography, history and
demography;
• Articulate the myths and realities associated with contemporary Africa; and
• Identify the task confronting leaders in Africa in the 21st century.

Masango (2002), summarise that “African leaders have rediscovered, in the first
place, the power of unity and dialogue, which has opened a door to examine
African problems. The second discovery is that of building an infrastructure of
new leaders, where older leaders share their wisdom and pass on good African
values to the next generation. Good Leadership in Africa always shares life to
others. This sharing of life can be gathered from medicine people. Medicine
people always teach other about their wisdom and healing powers before they
die. They share their healing wisdom with others”. There is an African idiom,
which reminds adults or senior citizens to “share their herbs and healing powers
with the young ones, so that when they die, the young ones will continue the
work of healing among their people” (Mbiti 1977:164).

He further postulates, “sharing of knowledge gives power, not only to the one
who knows, but also to the one who receives. One who shares knowledge with
the villagers or community is the best leader.

This concept moulds future leaders through learning experiences. As a new and
developing community, we expect good governance from the new leaders,
especially in the area of interpersonal care and service to others. Good
governance requires that African leaders should lead and give direction for the
benefit of the community/villagers.

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This kind of leadership will lead others back to the basics of African Renaissance.
It should be rooted in the moral African virtues that produce lasting benefits for
the continent”.

Finally (Masango: 2002), indicates, “If Africa is to produce leaders who are
honest, competent and committed, the continent needs to embark on an
educational process which will nurture their leaders. This process will ensure that
they continue addressing the interest of African people as they engage in the
global life”.

Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the “Reflections” questions in your prescribed textbook.

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 Topic 4
Leadership in a Multicultural Context

Prescribed Reading

Before continuing with this topic, please read the relevant chapter in your
textbook.

4.1 Introduction

After completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Define culture;
• Identify the factors that impact on global and international leadership;
• Discuss Tropenaar’s cultural dimensions; and
• Lead more effectively in multicultural situations.

In an expanding global and diverse economy, where a mix of races and culture
exists – how well we lead and create opportunities amongst diverse communities’
results in how well the community thrives. Leadership is the process in which
one person influences others to accomplish an objective and directs the
organisation to accomplish a common task. It is one of the most relevant and
important aspects of the organisational context. A leader must be trustworthy
and should be able to communicate a vision – “where the company needs to go”.

With globalization the world is growing closer and more and more companies are
employing people of every nationality, age and race. With diversity in the
workforce there not only has to be a change in our leadership style but also in
our approach towards both internal and external customers.

What does Multicultural Leadership involve?

• A multicultural leadership does not focus on an individual. It believes in a
mutual relationship. The focus is on welfare, unity and harmony.
• People should work for a group success before personal gain.
• Act socially, interact politely and respect others.
• It involves working together as a team towards the success of the company.
• A multicultural leader thinks the best for its employees regardless of the
cultural or ethnic background.

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• The leader should consider him/herself just another part of the team or the
organisation and not as a superior. Stop the “you are the boss system”.
• Each individual is unique despite outer similarities. Successful businesses
are those that learn to accept the small differences that make us human
and work together for the greater good of the organisation.
• In a multicultural leadership to minimise a conflict, the employees are
reminded very often that we all are one family working together. This makes
the employee fell responsible towards the company.
• Allowing everyone to share their spiritual beliefs with one another and
providing the freedom to the employee to accept whichever belief they like.
This sometimes helps the employees to bond together spiritually and work
together towards the company goals.
• Develop a company’s vision; share the ideas, thoughts, and suggestions of
all the employees. The leader makes them feel a part of the system and
drives them to work more efficiently for the company.

Leadership in a multicultural organisation has some benefits and helps to:

• Understand and embrace diversity for a more enjoyable place of work.
• Handle multicultural customers better.
• Create a healthy working environment for more efficiency.
• Do better localised business.

Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the “Reflections” questions at the end of the chapter in your textbook.

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 Topic 5
Self-Leadership and Leadership Development

Prescribed Reading

Before continuing with this topic, please read the relevant chapter in your
textbook.

5.1 Introduction

After completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Explain the importance of developing self-leadership skills in Africa;
• Explain the importance of self-control systems;
• Give your own definition of self-leadership;
• Explain a theory of self-leadership;
• Explain the relation between self-leadership and personality;
• Recognise the advantages of applying self-leadership in the African context
and the development of leaders; and
• Understand leadership development through education, experience and
mentoring.

In this video interview, Professor Taylor explains the importance of knowing

oneself in order to be an effective leader. www.iese.edu.

Please follow the link below and view the video clip before continuing with this
topic.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-PVmSMosYU

Activity 5.1

Complete the activity “The self-leadership questionnaire” in your

prescribed textbook.

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 Activity 5.2

Complete the activity “Developing self-leader’s abilities” in your

prescribed textbook.

Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the “Reflections” questions in your prescribed textbook.

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 Topic 6
Leadership Traits

Prescribed Reading

Before continuing with this topic, please read the relevant chapter in your
textbook.

6.1 Introduction

After completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Identify general as well as task-related personality traits of effective
leaders;
• Explain motives and leadership traits;
• Describe cognitive factors and leadership traits;
• Discuss level 5 leadership traits;
• Discuss differences in gender, race and leadership traits;
• Discuss strengths and limitations in utilising the trait approach to predict
effective leaders; and
• Describe African viewpoints on traits, motives and characteristics of leaders.

Barnett (2009) points out that one approach to Leadership is “that leaders are
effective or ineffective due to their personality traits, or to stretch it a bit, are
effective or lack effectiveness because of their beliefs, values and ethics”. That
is the personality trait approach.

In contrast, another way of looking at leaders and their effectiveness is not to

look at WHO they are, but what they DO -- their behaviour and their skills. In
this approach one considers what effective and ineffective leaders DO differently.

It's likely that both ways are of value and complement each other, to help us
understand leaders, but it's important to understand one important implication.

Personality traits (and values, beliefs) are understood within Psychology as

relatively unchanging in the adult population.

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 Activity 6.1

Complete the activity “Leadership trait questionnaire” in your

prescribed textbook.

Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the “Reflections” questions at the end of the chapter in your textbook.

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 Topic 7
Charismatic and Transformational Leadership

Prescribed Reading

Before continuing with this topic, please read the relevant chapter in your
textbook.

7.1 Introduction

After completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Understand what charisma is;
• Understand the effect of charismatic leadership on their followers;
• Explain the meaning and types of charismatic leaders;
• Identify charismatic leadership characteristics;
• Understand the principles of transformational leadership;
• Identify the qualities of transformational leadership;
• Understand how transformational Leadership is practised;
• Explain the strenghts and critisism of transformational leadership; and
• Explain transformational leadership applied in the African context.

Transformational leaders are similar to charismatic leaders, but are distinguished

by their special ability to bring about innovation and change. These leaders
emerge to take an organisation through major strategic change. The
transformation of South African organisations to include all South Africans and
to empower them managerially and economically calls for transformational
leadership.

Transformational leadership moves followers to accomplish more than what is

usually expected of them. They become motivated to transcend their own self-
interests for the good of the group and/or the organisation.

A profile of a transformational leader is typified by the following characteristics.

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7.2 The Characteristics of Transformational Leaders

• They identify themselves as change agents: these leaders' professional and

personal agendas are to make a difference and transform the organisation
(or a part of it) that they work for.
• They are courageous: Transformational leaders take calculated risks; they
are able to face adversity and confront reality, even if it is painful, they
need to believe in themselves in spite of criticism, and especially since being
a change agent they will encounter resistance.
• They believe in people: Transformational leaders believe in building a team.
They do not go it alone and coach, assist and support their staff while
empowering them to reach their full potential.
• They are value driven: These leaders have core values that they do not only
preach, but live by as well. They know where they are going and how they
will get there.
• They are lifelong students: Transformational leaders accept that they never
know everything, they are willing to learn through experience (success and
failure), to look at themselves and to "renew" themselves as needed. This
ability enables the transformational leader to stay transformational and not
become merely transactional in leadership style.
• They have the ability to deal with complex ambiguity and uncertainty: Many
leaders accredit a large measure of their success to the disciplined approach
to problems resulting from formal tertiary education. Transformational
leaders need to be able to build models or theory, answer "what if'
scenarios, examine assumptions and develop principles.
• They are visionaries: They have the ability to dream and to share this dream
with others.

The following is a summary of the CEO of British Airways, Sir Colin Marshall’s
beliefs about leadership (Dauphinais & Price, 1998):
• Never take the organisation at face value look beneath the hood to see if
the raw material of human potential is there.
• Ask yourself every day, "Have I created the right structures to liberate the
skills and potential of the entire workforce?"
• Be candid. Do not dissemble, consciously or unconsciously, too many bosses
are hypocritical or get into states of make- believe. Cut out all lip-service
ideas.
• Know the strengths and limits of your organisation. Don't overreach; don't
promise subordinates or customers what you cannot deliver.
• Invite challenges. Dare your customers to make audacious demands.

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• Let experience be your teacher. Ask yourself continually, "What lesson is
staring me in the face? What are people seeking from my company, and
what can I do to help them get it?"

The great thing about management is that it is truly democratic. Anyone can
play. Anyone can break through the conventional wisdom and see what is crying
out to be done.

Activity 7.1

Complete the activity “Leader’s assessment quiz” in your prescribed textbook.

Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the “Reflections” questions at the end of the chapter.

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 Topic 8
Ethics in Leadership

Prescribed Reading

Before continuing with this topic, please read the relevant chapter in your
textbook.

8.1 Introduction

After completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Define and use interchangeable the concepts of ethics and morality;
• Describe ethics and ethical dilemmas in Africa;
• Discuss ethics in business today, including the causes of non-ethical
behaviour;
• Identify typical unethical; behaviour relating to the workplace;
• Understand the impact of ethics on leadership effectiveness;
• Apply the process for ethical decision making; and
• Describe the application of various strategies for ensuring an ethical
workplace.

Ethics are the standards of right and wrong that influence behaviour. The factors
that influence ethical behaviour include personality traits and attributes, moral
development and the situation (no formal policy, unsupervised work, code of
conduct and instances where unethical behaviour goes unpunished).

The recent spate of economic scandals, which include global corporations like
Enron and WorldCom, has squarely placed a microscope on the aspect of
Corporate Governance. Business leaders have been obliged to consider their
company’s virtues such as values, transparency, honesty, openness and trust.

The commitment to ethics and organisational integrity is a key component of

good corporate governance and one of the defining characteristics of a world-
class organisation (Slabbert et al. 2003).

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Actions:
• Is viewed as a highly credible and trustworthy person.
• Stands up for what is right despite potential personal- or business
consequences.
• Creates and instils strong values within the organisation.

Activity 8.1

Complete the activity “Questionnaire on ethics” in your prescribed textbook.

8.2 Ethics in the Workplace

According to Covey (1999), consistently making ethical decisions is not an easy

task. The leader with character, or as Covey defines it, the primary great leader,
is concerned with “the right thing to do” and not what he/she has the right to
do.

According to Jones, George & Hill (2000) an organisation’s code of ethics derives
from three principle sources in the organisational environment:
• Social ethics;
• Professional ethics; and
• Individual ethics of the organisation’s top managers (see the following
figure).

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Social Ethics

Social ethics are standards that govern how members of a society relate to one
another in matters involving issues such as fairness, justice, poverty and the
rights of the individual. Social ethics emanate from a society’s laws, customs and
practices and from the unwritten values and norms that influence how people
interact with each other.

Professional Ethics

Professional ethics are standards that govern how members in a profession,

managers, leaders or employees, make decisions when the way in which they
should behave is not clear-cut. Medical ethics govern the way doctors and nurses
are to treat patients. Doctors are expected to perform necessary medical
procedures and to act in a patient’s best interest and not their own.

Individual Ethics

Individual ethics are personal standards and values, which govern how
individuals interact with other people. Sources of individual ethics include the
influence of one’s family, peers, and upbringing in general.

The experience gained over a lifetime, through membership of significant social

institutions such as schools and religions, also contribute to the development of
personal standards and values that a person will apply to decide between right
and wrong, and whether to perform certain actions or make certain decisions.

Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the “Reflections” questions at the end of the chapter.

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 Topic 9
Emotional Intelligence and Leadership

Prescribed Reading

Before continuing with this topic, please read the relevant chapter in your
textbook.

9.1 Introduction

After completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Have and understanding of the history of emotional intelligence;
• Describe the difference between IQ and EQ;
• Explore the context of good leadership principles;
• Have a contextual understanding of the emotional intelligence building
blocks as defined by Bar-On;
• Understand the leadership characteristics/traits as defined by writers in
ancient time; and
• Understand the relationship between leadership traits and emotional
intelligence.

“What does emotional intelligence (EQ) really entails?”

The best way to answer this question is by means of a practical example, like
the terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre on the 11th of September 2001 in
the USA.

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Looking for a deeper meaning of the disaster on the 11th, one finds it bedded in
the truth that people started caring for each other again. “Mighty America”
suddenly realised it is still possible to cry on each other’s shoulders and to care
for each other again – they realised that it is still possible to make the human
connection. In doing so Americans experienced one of the deepest emotions,
namely compassion.

Etymologically explained the word compassion literally means ‘to suffer with’. No
wonder Chopra (2001) is of the opinion that compassion is one of the most
honoured and saintly emotions. It boils down to the fact that in the process of
giving yourself there is a direct experience of pain, yet in the giving there is also
love. Most significant, an act of compassion has the power to dissolve pain
without denying it, but by trusting it that love affords the greatest protection. By
discovering that the loving emotion exists and is stronger than any pain,
compassion could be postulated, as the strongest defence mechanism humans
have to withstand the most severe onslaught.

It is also true that compassion can only be finding in the inner-self. Operating
form the strength of the inner-self is the only way to accept, although life is
difficult, you will have the courage to challenge it.

Seeing it this way, the most important lesson to learn from the 11th of
September is that there is one common denominator, namely to discover
meaning in life cannot happen without pain and pain can only be dissolved
meaningfully by the power of compassion. Leaving our present state, in order to
achieve our future state, will not be accomplished without genuine loss, and no
small amount of anxiety. However, we may make the journey more unbearable
by refusing to undertake it, changing its direction or backing out halfway.
Attempting to alter the situation can even be more painful (Owen 1993).

Activity 9.1

Complete the activity “Leadership skills building exercise” in your prescribed

textbook.

The healing process could be compared to an oyster. In the growth process of

an oyster a grain of sand penetrates the shell, constantly rubbing against,
irritating and causing discomfort. Imagine how painful this process may be.

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Remember, for example, how uncomfortable and painful a little stone in your
shoe may be. However, the oyster does not lie in a corner and wait to die, but
grows around this obstacle and transforms the uncomfortable painful grain of
sand into a beautiful pearl (Coetzee and Gericke 1997).

Thus, to heal us from immediate and intense fear caused by tragedies like the
world trade centre, from growing fear experienced in our day-to-day lives in an
uncertain, demanding world and in our careers, lies in giving greater status to
emotions.

What we are looking for is what the well-known Victor Frankl experienced in his
concentration camp days. Frankl’s experience boils down to the fact that in spite
of all the enforced physical and mental primitiveness Jews experienced in Nazi
concentration camps, it was possible for the more sensitive one’s amongst them
who were used to a rich “inner life” (people who were emotionally more matured)
to survive. Although they may have suffered much pain, because they were often
of a delicate constitution, the damage to their inner-selves was less. They were
able to retreat from their terrible surroundings to a life of inner riches and
emotional and spiritual freedom. Only in this way can one explain the apparent
paradox that some inmates of a less hardy make-up often seemed to survive
concentration camp life better than those of a robust nature (Frankl 1976).

Another excellent example of somebody who has this inner strength or emotional
maturity to survive devastating circumstances was our own Nelson Mandela. He
survived for more than 27 years in an apartheid prison and after his release
became the President of South Africa. Above all, he shows compassion and care
for those who incarcerated him for all those years.

If the above explanation is true, the slogan: “Brains alone cannot make an
efficient leader” is even more applicable. It appears that there are also ethical
matters of importance in the make-up of leaders which are emotions related,
namely: knowing yourself better, cooperation of staff, creativity and open-
mindedness, understanding of other’s point of view, ability to use empathy in
negotiations, the quality of leadership, and effective communication.

What people so easily forget is to accept that emotions play an integral role in
defining character and determining both your individual and group destinies. It
involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' emotions, to discriminate
among them, and to use the information to guide one's thinking and actions. In
short, it is important to embrace the power of emotions intelligently.

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It involves abilities that may be categorised into five domains, namely:
• Self-awareness: Observing an emotion as it happens; realising the prior
ideas and conceptions that underlie an emotional response; being open to
intuitive insights; emotional honesty – a developed sense of integrity and
authenticity.
• Emotional maturity: Facing up to fears and anxieties, anger, sadness and
discontent and expressing that energy constructively, whilst retaining
spontaneity.
• Self-motivation: Channelling emotional energy in the service of a goal;
openness to new ideas; the ability to find breakthrough solutions and to
make sound decisions; resilient optimism based on competence; sense of
responsibility and personal power to get things done in accordance with
what is needed and wanted.
• Empathic understanding: Sensitivity to others' feelings and concerns and
willingness to respect their perspective; valuing the differences in how
people feel about things; the capacity to trust and be trusted, to forgive and
be forgiven.
• Quality communication: Managing emotions in others through
communication based on empathy and understanding, to build mutual
trust; social skills, including constructive handling of disagreements and the
ability to create and sustain friendships; leadership effectiveness (Coetzee
2002).

Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the “Leader in Action” questions in your prescribed textbook after

studying the case study “Nelson Mandela”.

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 Topic 10
Leadership Power and Influence

Prescribed Reading

Before continuing with this topic, please read the relevant chapter in your
textbook.

10.1 Introduction

After completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Discuss leadership power and influence in the African context;
• Define power and influence;
• Describe the application of power in leadership;
• Identify the sources of power;
• Describe the relationship between power and leadership models;
• Define the relationship between power and influence;
• List and define various tactics in influencing behaviour;
• Explain the effectiveness and sequencing of influencing tactics in different
relationships; and
• Reflect on a model for the integrative application of power and influence for
organisational effectiveness.

Until recent times, the focus of leadership studies and thought was either on the
first element (the leader's ability' to inspire change) or on the ability to get the
job done and attain set goals.

This approach is reflected in the differentiation between transactional leadership

and transformational leadership (Burns, 1992).

As implied by the term "transactional:", transactional Leadership is based on a

face-to- face transaction between the leader and the followers. Leaders focus on
developing agreements with followers, pointing out what they will receive if they
do something right or wrong.

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This "reward" or "punishment" can be by formal or informal means. Transactional
Leadership is a "traditional” approach to leadership, aimed at maintaining the
status quo.

In times of great change, need or turmoil, transformational leaders most often

come to the fore. The transformational approach based on inspiration. Leadership
is seen as a broad, visionary activity with the aim to inspire and transform people
to identify with the organisation and be personally committed to its goals.

The leader constantly challenges the status quo and assumptions about the
organisation. She/he also encourages other to do the same in an effort to raise
both leaders and followers to a higher level of motivation and morality. The
discussion of leadership traditionally focused on transactional and
transformational leadership. Transactional leadership concerned with
maintaining the status quo, transformational leadership with changing it.

Dunphy & Stace (1990) argue that managers should use the approach
appropriate for the situation, while recent research concludes that both
approaches can also be used simultaneously. A major disadvantage of
transformational Leadership is that it is very rarely found outside the domain of
senior management.

Managers need to see leadership as a variable; leadership cannot be considered

to be transactional or transformational only. For leaders to be effective, they
need to carefully assess every situation, and then, on merit, approach the
situation using a transactional, transformational or combined approach. This
applies to all levels of management.

Activity 10.1

Complete the activity “Leadership assessment quiz” in your prescribed

textbook.

Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the “Reflections” questions at the end of the chapter.

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 Topic 11
Team Leadership and Motivation

Prescribed Reading

Before continuing with this topic, please read the relevant chapter in your
textbook.

11.1 Introduction

After completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Define a team in the 21st century;
• Discuss Tuckman’s theory;
• Explain a team leader's approach for effective team performance;
• Explain what is meant by motivation;
• Explain what is meant by team motivation;
• Apply motivational theories in a team; and

Former Secretary of State Colin Powell says, "Good leaders sometimes make
people unhappy." Good Leadership involves a responsibility to the welfare of the
group. If you worry about people liking you and make choices based on
popularity, you will refrain from making tough decisions. You might even avoid
confrontation and, as a result, deserving people may not be rewarded for their
accomplishments. Sometimes leaders just have to draw a line in the sand and
take a stand!

11.2 Leadership and Team Effectiveness

According to Dessler (2001) productive teams have certain characteristics (like

mutual accountability). An important aspect for him is the question: “How does
one foster such characteristics?” He provides the following guidelines that
managers can use to build effective teams:
• Seek employee input: The basic reason for organising around work teams
is to tap employees’ motivation, commitment, and input. Therefore, while
management can install a team structure unilaterally, it is probably best to
start with a committee of employees.

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 At Levi Strauss, for instance, consultants brought in after the teamwork
problems surfaced recommended reorganising the teams from scratch,
using worker input. However by that time, productivity was so low that
downsizing was already mandatory.
• Establish urgent, demanding performance standards. All team members
need to believe the team has urgent and worthwhile goals, and they need
to know what their performance standards are.
• Select members for skill and skill potential. Choose people both for their
existing skills and for their potential to improve existing skills and learn new
ones.
• Pay special attention to first meetings and actions. Management has to
show that it is really committed to the team approach. When potential
teams first gather everyone monitors the signals to confirm, suspend, or
dispel concerns. If a senior executive leaves the team kick-off to take a
phone call 10 minutes after the session begins and then never returns,
people get the message that he or she doesn't care about the team.
• Set clear rules of behaviour. Good teams develop rules of conduct that help
them achieve their goals. The most critical pertain to attendance (for
example, no interruptions to take phone calls"); discussion ("no sacred
cows"); confidentiality ("the only things to leave this room are what the
team agree on"); analytic approach ("facts are friendly"); end-product
orientation ("everyone gets assignments and does them"); constructive
confrontation ("no finger pointing"); and perhaps the most important,
contributions ("everyone does real work").
• Move from "boss" to "coach". Self-directed work teams are, by definition,
empowered: They have the confidence, authority, tools, and information to
manage themselves. The team leader's job is not to boss, but to see that
team members have the support they need.
• Set a few immediate performance-oriented tasks and goals. Effective teams
mark their advancement by key accomplishments. This can be facilitated by
immediately establishing some short-term goals.
• Challenge the group regularly with fresh facts and information. New
information – about performance or new competitors -causes a team to
redefine and enrich its understanding of the challenges it faces. It also helps
the team reshape its common purpose and set clearer goals.
• Use the power of positive feedback. There are many ways to recognise and
reward team performance besides money. These include having a senior
executive speak directly to the team about the urgency of its mission and
using praise to recognise contributions.
• Shoot for the right team size. Create teams with the smallest number of
employees required to do the work. Large size reduces interaction and
involvement and increases the need for extra coordination.

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• Choose people who like teamwork. Do what companies like Toyota do:
Recruit and select employees who have a history of preferring to work in
teams and of being good team members. Increasingly, Internet-based
applications are available for helping managers match employees to team
needs. For example, Kolbe's WAREwithal online (www.warewithal.com),
allows potential team members to take an Internet-based test. This
identifies and classifies employees based on four Action Mode basic
behaviours, namely “Fact Finder”, “Follow-Through”, “Quick Start”, and
“Implementor” – on the assumption that the best teams require a balance
of such skills.
• Train, train, train. Make sure team members have the training they need to
do their jobs. Training should cover topics such as the philosophy of doing
work through teams, how teams make decisions, interpersonal and
communication skills for team members, and the technical skills team
members need to perform their jobs. It's hard to overemphasise the
importance of team training. When it opened a new automobile plant in
Spartansburg, South Carolina, BMW put its new employees through
numerous teamwork-related training sessions. These included sessions on
problem solving, communication, and how to deal with conflict within and
between teams. Then, during the next 18 months, workers received more
than 80 more hours of team skills training each, in areas like problem
analysis. As the HR director for BMW Manufacturing put it, training
employees about technical matters is straightforward; teaching them how
to work well with others is much harder.
• Cross-train for flexibility. Team members should receive cross-training to
learn the jobs of other team members. This can help reduce disruptions due
to absenteeism and boost flexibility, since all members are always ready to
fill in as required.
• Emphasise the task's importance. Team members need to know that what
they are doing is important for the company, so communicate that message
whenever possible. Emphasize the task's importance in terms of customers,
other employees, the organisation's mission, and the company's overall
results.
• Assign whole tasks. Try to make the team responsible for a distinct piece of
work such as an entire product, project, or segment of the business. This
can boost team members' sense of responsibility and ownership.
• Encourage social support. Work teams, like any group, are more effective
when members support and help each other. A manager should set a good
example by being supportive and taking concrete steps to encourage and
reinforce positive interactions and cohesiveness within the team.

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Provide the necessary material support. Social support is important, but the
results of a recent study showed that material support may be more important
than just ensuring group members are cohesive. The researchers found that such
material support includes timely information, resources, and rewards that
encourage group rather than individual performance. It also suggests
organisations should determine if the necessary support resources are available
before creating teams.

11.3 The Leader’s New Challenge – Virtual and Global Teams

A new form of group that is increasingly common in today’s organisations is the

virtual team, sometimes called a computer- mediated group or electronic group
network. This is a team of people who work together and solve problems through
largely computer-mediated rather than face-to-face interactions. Among the
many developments, the sophistication of networking technologies and
groupware programs are highly significant. As organisations become increasingly
global in their operations and perspectives, the opportunity to utilise virtual
teams whose members are dispersed around the world is highly advantageous.

The use of intranets and special software support for computerised meetings is
changing the way many committees, task forces, and other problem-solving
teams function. Working in virtual environments, team members address
problems and seek consensus on how to best deal with them. Such electronic
team meetings can cause problems, particularly when members’ working
relationships are depersonalised and some of the advantages of direct interaction
are lost. But the approach also has many potential advantages that make it
increasingly important. Members of computer-mediated teams can deal
collectively with issues in a time-efficient fashion and without some of the
interpersonal difficulties that might otherwise occur – especially when the issues
are controversial.

11.4 Handling Team Conflict

Phillips (2010) indicates, “It is commonplace for organisations today to work in

teams. Whether they are leader-driven teams or self- directed teams; the hope
is that productivity, creativity, and results will be greater in a team environment.
While this is a proven approach, any time you bring together people from
differing backgrounds and experiences, it is inevitable that conflict will occur.

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Many people and organisations view conflict as a negative, or something to be
avoided. Yet conflict, differences, or disagreements are a natural result of people
working together. Also, without conflict, teams can become complacent and not
perform at optimum levels. The challenge then becomes, how should the team
be prepared for this stage of their existence, and how should the team leader
facilitate through it?”

11.5 Basic Motivation Theories

Maslow
Abraham Maslow developed Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – one theory of human
motivation that has received a great deal of exposure in the past. In this theory,
Maslow classified human needs into five categories that ascend in a definite
order. Until the more basic needs are adequately fulfilled, a person will not strive
to meet higher needs. Maslow's well-known hierarchy is composed of (1)
physiological needs, (2) safety and security needs, (3) belonging and love needs,
(4) esteem needs, and (5) self-actualisation needs.

An assumption often made by those using Maslow's hierarchy is that workers in

modern, technologically advanced societies basically have satisfied their
physiological, safety, and belonging needs. Therefore, they will be motivated by
the need for self-esteem, esteem of others, and then self-actualisation.

Consequently, conditions to satisfy these needs should be present at work; the

job itself should be meaningful and motivating (Mathis & Jackson, 2000).

Following is a short description of the five levels in Maslow’s motivational

hierarchy:

• Physiological needs: these represent the most basic level in the hierarchy
and comprise of needs such as, food, water and warmth. If these needs are
not met behaviour of individuals will be directed towards satisfying them.
However, once these needs are satisfied, they no longer influence the
behaviour of the individual.

• Security needs: once an individual’s basic physiological needs have been

satisfied, his/ her security needs are activated. Security and protection, for
example job security, medical aid satisfies this level of motivational need.

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• Social needs: this is the individual’s need for love and friendship. An
individual also wants to be accepted and understood by others. Individuals
join different groups in order to satisfy their social needs for example joining
a sport club.

• Esteem needs: this level represents an individual’s higher order needs. This
is the need for self-respect and recognition, for example being the employee
of the month.

• Self-actualisation needs: the highest level of motivational need is the need

for self-actualisation. This is to develop the full potential of an individual,
for example receiving a doctor’s degree in your field of expertise.

Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory

As the name indicates Herzberg developed two factors to explain motivation. He
called them the “Motivators” and “Hygiene” factors.

• Herzberg’s Motivation Hygiene Theory: Frederick Herzberg's motivational

hygiene theory assumes that one group of factors, motivators, and accounts
for high levels of motivation. Another group of factors, hygiene, or
maintenance factors, can cause discontentment with work.

• The implication of Herzberg's research for management and HR practices is

that although managers must carefully consider hygiene factors in order to
avoid employee dissatisfaction, even if all these maintenance needs are
addressed, people may not be motivated to work harder. Only motivators
cause employees to exert more effort and thereby attain more productivity,
and this theory suggests that managers should utilize the motivators as
tools to enhance employee performance (Mathis & Jackson, 2000).

• Hygiene factors do not motivate employees, but prevent employees from

being dissatisfied about their work. Think a little bit about the fact that you
will have good managers, a nice office, good pay, and good working
relationships. Herzberg indicates this will only satisfy you, as a worker, but
will not motivate you. We still need to meet you motivational needs before
you will be highly motivated.

• Let us focus on what Herzberg indicates as the real motivators. The

motivators relate to the work you do and how challenging that work is.
Therefore the work needs to be interesting and challenging for employees
to be really motivated.

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 Think about the fact that you are presented with a new task, which you like
to do, and it is challenging for you to complete it and you can decide yourself
how you will complete it. Now will you not be motivated for the task?
Obviously yes! What is your feeling on this?

• Following is the theory of Herzberg summarised in a table format:

Motivators Hygiene Factors
Achievement Pay
Challenge Responsibility Supervision
Recognition Physical work conditions
Autonomous decision Rules, regulations & policies
Benefits

Low High Low High

Satisfaction Dissatisfaction
(Ivancevich, Lorenzi, Skinner, Crosby, 1997)

11.6 Other Motivation Theories

Mcgregor’s Theory X and Y

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y say that managers act towards subordinates
in relation to the view they have of them. Theory X managers view employees
as lazy, and motivated by pay.

Theory Y managers view employees as committed and motivated by growth and

development.

To illustrate the difference more practically we will use the following comparison.

Theory X management assumptions about employees:

• The average person dislikes work and will avoid it when possible. Therefore
managers will be responsible for organising and see that members will be
productive.
• Most people must be coerced, punished, controlled, directed or threatened
with punishment to get them to work. Your management style will be
autocratic.
• The average person is passive and prefers to be directed, and do not want
responsibility, and have little ambition and work as little as possible.
• The average person is inherently self-centred and does not care about the
organisation’s needs and goals.
• The average person will resist change.
• The average person is not very bright and easy to fool.

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• Theory Y management assumptions about employees:
• The physical and mental effort to do your work is as natural as the physical
and mental effort to play and rest.
• An employee will be self-directed and controlled to accomplish the goals
that he/she has committed to. Therefore people are not passive or resistant
to organisational needs.
• People will be committed to the objective if the reward relates to their
achievement.
• The average person seeks / wants responsibility.
• Most people are creative in solving organisational problems.
• The intellectual potential of people is not adequately utilised.
• The task of the manager is to create an environment where workers can set
their own goals and focus their efforts towards the organisational goals.
• Management focuses on setting objectives for the organisation.
(Robbins & Decenzo, 2001)

Frederick Herzberg’s Two-Factor Hygiene and Motivation Theory

Frederick Herzberg contributed to human relations and motivation two theories

of motivation as follows:
• Hygiene Theory
• Motivation

The first part of the motivation theory involves the hygiene theory and includes
the job environment. The hygiene factors include:
• The company,
• Its policies and its administration,
• The kind of supervision, which people receive while on the job,
• Working conditions
• Interpersonal relations,
• Salary,
• Status, and
• Security.

These factors do not lead to higher levels of motivation but without them there
is dissatisfaction.

The second part of Herzberg’s motivation theory involves what people actually
do on the job. The motivators are:
• Achievement,
• Recognition,

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• Growth/advancement and
• Interest in the job.

These factors result from internal generators in employees, yielding motivation

rather than movement.

Both these approaches (hygiene and motivation) must be done simultaneously.

Treat people as best you can so they have a minimum of dissatisfaction. Use
people so they get achievement, recognition for achievement, interest, and
responsibility and they can grow and advance in their work.

David C. Mcclelland: Achievement Motivation

Over the years behavioural scientists have observed that some people have an
intense need to achieve; others, perhaps the majority, do not seem to be as
concerned about achievement. This phenomenon has fascinated David C.
McClelland. For over twenty years he and his associates at Harvard University
studied this urge to achieve.

McClelland's research led him to believe that the need for achievement is a
distinct human motive that can be distinguished from other needs. More
important, the achievement motive can be isolated and assessed in any group.

Characteristics of People with a High Need for Achievement

Achievement-motivated people are not gamblers. They prefer to work on a
problem rather than leave the outcome to chance.

With managers, setting moderately difficult but potentially achievable goals may
be translated into an attitude toward risks. Many people tend to be extreme in
their attitude toward risks, either favouring wild speculative gambling or
minimizing their exposure to losses.

Another characteristic of achievement-motivated people is that they seem to be

more concerned with personal achievement than with the rewards of success.
They do not reject rewards, but the rewards are not as essential as the
accomplishment itself.

They get a bigger "kick" out of winning or solving a difficult problem than they
get from any money or praise they receive.

A desire by people with a high need for achievement to seek situations in which
they get concrete feedback on how well they are doing is closely related to this
concern for personal accomplishment. (McClelland, 1987)

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 Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the “Reflections” questions at the end of the chapter.

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 Topic 12
Entrepreneurial Leadership

Prescribed Reading

Before continuing with this topic, please read the relevant chapter in your
textbook.

12.1 Introduction

After completing this topic, you should be able to:

• Describe the context of entrepreneurial Leadership in Africa;
• Discuss the entrepreneurial and leadership challenges of the 21st century;
• Define entrepreneurial leadership;
• List and define various competencies and characteristics related to
entrepreneurial leadership;
• Explain the intra-personal challenges that entrepreneurial leaders have to
face;
• Reflect on the challenges faced by female entrepreneurial leaders in Africa;
and
• Explain entrepreneurial leadership and its application in corporate business.

The following links will provide insight into the world of entrepreneurial
leadership. Please view the YouTube clips before progressing with this topic.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=buR7bS0lb4A
Boland Jones – "Lessons in Entrepreneurial Leadership".

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QL4We4342yo
The New Entrepreneurial Leader – Author H. James Wilson in conversation with
contributor and Babson College Professor Jay Rao.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xnBPjXPNgiY
Jim Johnson gives a thorough overview of his journey as an entrepreneur and
decisions that led him away from being a corporate engineer to an independent
entrepreneur.

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http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ACf6aSDfbc
Today's vastly complex, globalised, and fast-evolving world requires a different
kind of leadership. The New Entrepreneurial Leader is a game-changing book
that details a new approach – entrepreneurial leadership -developed at Babson
College, the No. 1 school for entrepreneurship in the world. It embraces three
principles that add up to a fundamentally new world view of business and a new
logic of decision making.

Activity 12.1

Complete the activity “Leadership assessment quiz” in your prescribed

textbook.

Activity 12.2

Complete the activity “Leadership assessment quiz” in your textbook.

Self-Assessment Questions

Answer the “Reflections” questions at the end of the chapter.

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http://work911.com/leadership-development/faq/personality.htm
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Barnett, T. Leadership theories and studies.

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Burnes, B. 1992. Managing change. A strategic approach to organisational

development and renewal. London: Pitman Publishing.

Chopra, D. 2001. The deeper wound. recovering the sole from fear and suffering.
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Coetzee, W. & Gericke, M. 1997. Professional skills development. Cape Town:

Juta.

Coetzee, W. 2002. Sharpening your emotional intelligence. A training course for

criminal justice personnel in managerial and people effectiveness skills Based on
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Frankl, V.E. 1976. Man’s search for meaning an introduction to logotherapy.

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Fiedler contingency model. 2010
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Hersey, P. & Blanchard, K. H. 1977. The management of organisational

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Jones, G.R., George, J.M. & Hill, C.W.L. 2000, Contemporary management.
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Lussier, R.N. & Achua, C. F. 2004. Leadership: theory, practice and skills
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Mcclelland, D.C. 1987. Human motivation. New York. Press Syndicate of the
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Mbiti, J.S. 1977. Introduction to African Religion. London: Heinemann.

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