tINTRODUCTION TO THE WORLD RELIGIONS

AIM: The aim of this course is to help the students understand different
religious beliefs and practices of the major world religions. The five major religions
are: Hinduism, Judaism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam.
1. Hinduism: Hinduism mean a religion of India. It is not a single
religion but a variety of beliefs and spiritual practices which back to the time of
Krishna, who was considered as the incarnation of God in human form. He
taught that all life follows Karma, the love cause and effect, and our job is to do
our duty, (daham), according to our place in society without worrying how
things turn out. When we die we are reincarnated into a new body and if we
follow our daham, doing properly our duty in our past life, we get good Karma
which sends our soul upwards in the social scale. Our rebirth in the next life is
thus determined by what we do in this present life. The will of rebirth is called
samsa. it is possible for a person to live a holy life with good Karma and escape
the will, this escape is called moksho. Hinduism teaches that everything is one,
the whole universe is one transcended reality called Brahama. And there is just
one brahama but there are many Gods within it. And their roles and
responsibilities, and forms difere according to traditions. Braham is the creator,
vishinew is the presever who sometimes take on the human form, shiver is the
transform or lord of the dance, dudkar, is the protective mother, kanesher has
an elephant head and is thewise patrone of success. It is the third larges religion
in the world.

2. Judaism: it begins with God calling Abraham to live is land in

mespoteniamia and migrate to the land of canine. In return to their faith in the
one \god, the will have land and amny descendnats. From this promise came
the land of \isreal and the choosen people who later where inslaved in Egypt
but God freed them with the help of the prophet mosses who received the Ten
commandment. Judaism is one of the religions that many armies marched and
conquered and in 70 BC the Romans destroyed their temple in Jerusalem and
so the religion transformed itself from the temple religion with sacrifeces and
priests to the religion of the book. Because of this, Judaism is a faith of
symbolism, reverence and deep meanings tired the literature of its history. The
many scriptures make up the Hebrew book called Torah.

3. Buhddism: began with a young prince called sindatha. It is

believed that on the night she was conceive, her mother queen myre, is said to
have been visited in her sleep by a white elephant and ten months latter
sindatha was born into a life of abundance. But venturing outside the wall of

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his confront as a young man, he witnessed the suffering that had been hidden
from him and immediately sset out to investigate its sources. Why must people
indure suffering? At first he thought the source of suffering was attachment to
material things so he gave up his possession and became a wondering begger
and this did not make him happier. Then he over head the music teach telling
the student “do not tighten the string tomuch because it will break, and do not
keep it lose to much because it will not sound”. This made him realse that
looking for answer at the extream was a mistake, the middle way between
lurksury and poverty seemed the wisest. And while meditating under a budhi
tree, the rest of the answer came to him, is bound to suffering, and this
suffering is cause by selfish cranving of ones fulfilment at the expense of
others. He came up with an 8 step plan to help us reduce that cranving an thus
reduce the suffering. Sindatha become the first budah, the enlightened one.
Which is what budhahood means, compassion, insight, peace and steadfastness
focused on what is real and focused on loving others. Action in this religion are
more important that just belief in God or Gods.

4. Christianity: Christianity grew out of Judaism just as budahism

grew out of Hindusim. Just as hindus call Krishina, God in human form,
christians say the same thing about Jesus. Christians believe that the angel
Gabriel was sent by God to a young lady called Mary to become the mother of
his son. And his son was Jesus, raised as a carputer by Mary and her husband
joseph until he turned 30 when he begun his public career as the living word of
God. He was much interested in justice and mercy and so he healed the sick in
order to draw crowds and then taught about his heavenly father affectionate,
forgiving and attentive. He would eat with everyone to demonstrate the
kingdom of God, outcasts, sinners all eating together. He only lived three years
of his Carrere before his conversion wisdom got him into trouble with the
authorities. His enemies had him arrested and was persecuted by Rome as a
rebel by cruxification. But shortly he was buried few of his friend found the
tomb empty and quickly spread the word, convinced that he had been raised
from the dead. The first of his follows described his resurrected appearances
inspiring confidence that his message was true. The message, love one another
as I have loved you. Christian celebrate the birth of Jesus in December at
Christmas and his suffering, death and resurrection during holy week.

5. Islam: islam begun 1400 years ago with a man of venture

meditating in the mountain curve in the eredian desert. The man was
muhamand. He was visited by a divine messag, again the angel Gabriel
(Gubrieol) delivering to him the words of allah, the one God of Abraham. In

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 many years more and more messages came and he memorised tham and taught
them. The follows of this religion are called muslims. The word muslim means
the one who surrenders, a person who submits to the will of God. The most
important duties in this religion are called the five pillars. Shahadar, a muslim
declares publicly that there is no other God but Allah and muhamand is his
final prophet. Salahat, they pray five times a day facing Mecca, zacchat, every
muslim is required to give 2-3 percent of their net worth to the poor. Salmu, the
fast during the day in the lunar month of rahmadan to strengthen their
willpower and their relaiince on God. hatch, once in a life time, every muslim
must make a pilgrimage to the holy city of mecca. Rehesing for the time when
the will stand before God to be judged worth or unworthy for eternal life with
him. The word of God a corrected in the book called quaran, the only holy
book free from human corruption.
OBJECTIVES: At the end of this course students will be able to have a more
comprehensive understanding of the history, beliefs, and practices of the five major
world religions and acquire the ability to understand and distinguish between different
religious doctrines, religious convictions and appreciate the co-existence of different
belief in the Supreme Being.

COURSE OUTLINE
1.0 Introduction: The History of Religion
Types of Religions
What is religion? Definition
Theories of the origin of Religion
Tylor and franzer (Animism)
Sigmund Freud and James Henry Leuba (Nuerosis)
Emery Durkheim (Totemism)
1.2 Functions of Religion in the World
2.0 World Religions
2.1 Hinduism
2.2 Key Beliefs in Hinduism
2.2 The Caste System
2.3 The Aims of Life
2.4 The Life Stages
2.5 The Practices
3.0 Buddhism
3.1 The Four Noble Truths and the Eight Fold Path
3.2 Buddhist Devotion
3.3 Monastic Morality

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 3.4 The Buddhist Schools
5.0 Judaism
5.1 Abraham and Moses
5.2 The Twelve Tribes of Israel
5.3 The Branches of Judaism
5.4 The Diaspora and Modern Judaism
6.0 Islam
6.1 The Prophet Mohammed
6.2 The Five Pillars of Faith
6.3 Almsgiving and Pilgrimage
6.4 The Place of Women in Islam
6.5 Muslim’s Understanding of the War
6.6 The Practices
7.0 Christianity
7.1 Jesus Christ the Redeemer of Human Beings
7.2 The Catholic Spirituality
7.3 The Seven Sacraments
7.4 The Reformation
7.5 Ecumenism

References
Carmody J. T & Carmody D. L, Catholic Spirituality and History of Religions,
Paulist Press, New York 1991.
Dye J. W & Porthan W. H, Religions of the World, Meredith Publishing
Company, New York 1967.
National Geography Society, Great Religions of the World, National
Geography Society, New York 1971.
Mark L, Introduction to the Study of World Religions, Lynn University Digital
Press, Boca Raton 2017.
Fisher M. P, Living Religions. Tenth Ed., Pearson, New York 2017.
Smith H, Why Religion Matters: The Fate of the Human Spirit in an Age of
Disbelief. I st Ed., Harper Collins, Washington D.C 2001.
Smith H, The Illustrated World’s Religions: A Guide to Our Wisdom
Traditions. New Ed., Harper San Francisco, San Francisco 2009.

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 1.0 THE History OF RELIGION
What is religion?
1Pet. 3, 15. “Always be ready to defend what you believe in…”

It is always important to know what a thing is before approaching it. Thus, we

should ask the question of what it is. What is religion? Religions are different. And we
will be talking about religion so that we know what we believe in and what we do not
believe in.
There is no agreed definition of religion in academia.
Etymologically, religion comes from the Latin word, religio which comes from
the infinite form of the word religare where re means again, and lig or ligare means
read in the sense of go over, ‘consider’, ‘choose’ ‘bind’ ‘connect’ carefully again”.
Therefore, the common translation etymologically of religion is “to join again” or to
“reconnect”.
In this way, the term religion suggests “the joining or our human world to the
sacred world.
Most people agree that religion is a way in which a particular people “believe
or worship God or a supernatural being”, belief in the super natural being, organised
ways of worship, opium for the people. That is to say a system of beliefs that involve
the worship of God or gods, prayer, ritual and a moral code.
But this definition has a problem because it may not apply to other religion that
advocate the no belief in God or gods e.g. Hiduism and it is very insufficient.
Joseph Runzo, in Global Philosophy of Religion, defines genuine religion as a
“fundamental search for meaning (of life) beyond materialism…is a set of symbols
and rituals, myths and stories, concepts and truth claims which a historical community
believes gives ultimate meaning to life via its connection to a transcendent beyond the
natural order”.

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 The American anthropologist, Clifford Geertz (d. 2006) defines it in the
following way, “a religion is a system of symbols which acts to establish powerful,
pervasive and long lasting moods in men by formulating conceptions of a general
order of existence and clothing these conceptions with such an aura factuality that the
moods and motivations seems uniquely realistic”.
Emile Durkheim, the French sociologist, as he considered the different between
the sacred and the profane viewed religion as a unified system of beliefs and practices
relative to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden. For him, the
sacred and the profane are the essence of religion.
William James, says religions are feelings, acts, and expressions of individual
men in their solitude, so far as they apprehend themselves to stand in relation to
whatever they may consider the divine. The divine here does can mean God, nature or
a totem or a number of things.
In other ways, religion is a way human being relate to that which they regard as
holy, sacred, absolute, spiritual, divine or worthy of special reverence. As such it is a
range of social cultural systems, including designated behaviours and practices,
morals, beliefs, world views, texts, sanctified places, ethics etc. that generally relate
humanity to the supernatural transcendental and spiritual elements.
Religious practice may include rituals, sermons, and veneration of saints,
sacrifices, prayer, music, art or dance. Formation into a religion is extremely
important.
As we have seen so far, it is not easy to define, that is to set a limit to what
religion is, to pin it down and say this is religion by way of definition. The best way
thus is to describe it. And the best way is to describe religion is to articulate its key
elements or charecteristics:
1. Belief system: a worldview of a particular group of people. That is a fairly
complete and systematic interpretation of the world and the human persons
place and role in it. This explains why in any kind of religion, there is
always the dynamic relationship between the world and humans eg. value
for nature and to some etent worship of nature e.g. sun in Zoroastrainism.
2. Community: a religion always involves a group of people who show the
same belief system and practice the ideals. Thus a certain religion cannot be
called a religion in a strict sense if it does not have a community of
beleivers. That is way some religion a quiet harsh in expanding its
membership.
3. Rituals: religion always have enacted beleifs which are made real through
ceremonies. For example the catholic Christian always start their prayers
with the sing of the cross, the Muslims on the other hand kneel placing their
foreheads on the ground as the sign of their submission to god. By
prostrating, they feel nearest to god.

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4. Ethics: ethics is a major branch of philosophy which deals with the
morality, that is, the rightness or wrongness of human acts. Hence ethics
deals with the rules of human behaviour. In religion, ethics has to be
established. In other words, there should be rules of human behaviour that
govern the actions of the community of believers e.g. for Jehovah witness,
blood transfusion is always wrong or for Christians in general polygamy is
always wrong but in Islam polygamy is morally right. This explains why we
have different religious ethics e.g. Christian ethics, Buddhist ethics etc. it is
important to note that for most religions, this particular ethics that govern
the members action are viewed as having been revealed from the
supernatural realm, although in some case it can also be viewed as socially
generated guidelines, e.g. 10 commandments.
5. Centrality of myths: every religion has its only story. E.g. the major events
in the life of the Hindu god Krishna, the enlightenment story of the Buddha,
the exodus of the Israelites from oppression in Egypt, the death and
resurrection of Jesus, or Muhammad’s escape from mecca to medina.
6. Emotional experience: religions are always characterised by emotional
experiences, such as, dread, guilty, awe, mystery, devotion, conversion,
liberation ecstasy, bliss or inner peace. This emotional experiences is
always in connection with the soul joined to God.
7. Material expression: religions make use of an astonishing variety of
physical elements such as statues, paintings, musical compositions, ritual
objects, flowers, incense, clothing etc.
8. Sacredness: all religions are concerned with the deepest level of reality.
And for most religions, the core or origin of everything is always viewed as
sacred or mysterious. Thus, religion is always characterised by the element
of sacredness as contradistinction with the ordinary. This explains why
religious ceremonies deliberately use unique language, clothing and
architecture. In fact, sacredness is one of the most important if not the most
important element of religion

We can say that there are three types of religion.

1. New religions – those faiths that are recently developing or
developed.
2. Indigenous religions – smaller cultural and specific religious
groups e.g. mugiki of Kenya.
3. World religions – those faiths which are historically trans-cultural
and international.

Origin of Religion

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 It is extremely important to ask ourselves, why do people in almost all societies
(seem to) believe in the existence of invisible supernatural being/beings that (may)
influence human life for good or ill and whom it is advisable to pray to or propitiate?
And why have almost all societies developed rituals, sometimes very elaborate and
demanding in nature, in connection with such beliefs?

Why do people believe? The answer lies in the origin of religion. Religion, as it
were, is as old as man is. Simply put, man is a religious being from his time of
existence. He expresses this innate religiosity by asking critical question to help him
try to understand his origin and his destiny. Where did he come from? Where is he
going? Why is there good and evil? Where did everything come from? Man wants to
find meaning in life.

These fundamental questions perplexes the human mind, pushing it and

squeezing it to the furthest and hardest corner for the most important answers which
he cannot find. The anguish to search for answers and the discovery of his inability to
find answers torments him with fear forever. And in the middle of such confusions
man resorts to a higher power for security and continuation and comfort.

Indeed such endeavours renders religion the product of man ―not God’s work!
Therefore, the creator of religion is not God but man. What we call Divine revelation
is man’s nostalgia, man-revealing man to himself. There is nothing called the
revelation of the Divine. In conclusion, we firmly say that human belief in God is only
due to human illusion and to avoid the fear generated by this misconception has
resulted in the birth of religion. Fear is the root cause of religion. Thus, the nineteenth-
century German-English thinker Friedrich Maxmüller said that the foundation of
religion is “the fearful respect of man in phenomenal and frightening forces”.
Similarly, Giddings considers religious belief to be at the core of man’s reverence for
mystical “great terrible” powers.

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 There are many theories which support the fore-mentioned ideas, such as the
naturalistic1, anthropological2, Psychological and socio-political theories of the origin
of religion. Here, we will look at the psychological, sociological theories of the origin
of religion briefly.

Anthropological Theory of Religion

What is the simplest form of religion that ever existed? The proponents of this theory
are interested in the evolution of religion. You can understand a complex by
identifying its simplest form. So here, there are concerned with the origin of religion
and how it has evolved. The most import idea of this theory is Animism.
Animism
What is animism? The theory of animism was established by Edward Tylor and
Frazer who said that “culture can scientifically be studied and improved”. Culture
should not stay in its primitive state. Culture is born out of speculations or reflections
out of illusions and human tragedies. Human culture, is the another way of how

1
From the Enlightenment onwards there have been attempts by skeptics to account for religion naturalistically. Why do
people in almost all societies seem to believe in the existence of invisible supernatural beings that may influence human life
for good or ill and whom it is advisable to pray to or propitiate? And why have almost all societies developed rituals,
sometimes very elaborate and demanding in nature, in connection with such beliefs? In spite of much speculation, no
generally agreed answers to such questions have emerged. The pioneer of naturalistic theory of the origin of religion is Ernst
Haeckel (1834 – 1919), a scientist turned philosopher. He expressed his conviction that the discoveries of nineteenth century
science bring the solution of the enigmas, which have perplexed humankind through the centuries. He calls his system
“monism” in opposition to all dualisms, which differentiates God and nature, soul and body, spirit and matter. There is only
a single substance and it manifests itself as both matter and energy or body and spirit. Every material atom has a rudimentary
soul, which is far below the level of consciousness. In the course of evolution, the rudimentary psychical character of
substance gradually advances to consciousness, which according to him is a purely natural phenomenon. Monism implies
that there is no matter without spirit or energy, and no spirit without matter. This monism is founded on the demonstrable
results of science and it solves the riddles of existence. It gives negative answers to the traditional problems of God, freedom
and immortality. The ideas of God, freedom and immortality are based on a mistaken dualism. There can be no God apart
from the universe. An invisible God who thinks, speaks, and acts is an impossible conception. In the monistic deterministic
cosmos there is no room for the immortality of the soul or the freedom of the will.
2
The naturalistic interpretation of religion gained support from the developing science of anthropology. The ideas of Edward
Burnett Tylor (1832 – 1917), inspired other thinkers like James George Frazer (1854 – 1941) and Salomon Reinach (1858 –
1932) to formulate the anthropological theory of the origin of religion. Tylor makes two assumptions. (1) human culture –
including knowledge, art, religion, customs and the like – has its laws which can be studied scientifically. Like in nature, in
culture too we can find the uniform action of uniform causes. (2) the various grades of culture found in the human race can
be exhibited as stages in a process of development or evolution. Another idea to which he draws our attention is the
phenomenon of ‘survival’. An idea or a custom, once it has got established, tends to persist, and it may continue on into later
stages of culture where it has become meaningless. His main contribution was his theory of “animism” i.e. the belief in
spiritual beings. Confronted with the phenomena such as death, sleep, dreams etc., primitive man accounted for them in
terms of a spirit separable from the body. He believed in other spirits throughout all nature, some of these spirits having the
rank of powerful deities. Since these spirits were supposed to control events and to affect human lives, it was natural that
men should revere them and seek to propitiate them. According to him here we have the beginnings of religion, with the
belief in spiritual beings as its minimal condition. The higher religions have developed out of the matrix of primitive
animism. The superiority of the higher religions consists in their moral ideas, which are almost entirely lacking in primitive
religion and these moral ideas have turned out to be the abiding fruit of animism. According to James George Frazer we can
distinguish three stages in the mental development of mankind magic, religion and science and each of these do not follow
one another in a clear-cut succession. At the magical level man depends on his own strength to overcome the difficulties that
trouble him in his attempt to gain the ends. He believes that there exists a certain order of nature which he thinks he can learn
and manipulate by occult means. But experience teaches him that he is mistaken and there he turns to religion. In religion
man no longer relies on himself but seeks the help of invisible beings. He believes that these beings possess that power to
control natural events which magic failed to gain. The religious attitude supposes that there is some elasticity in the course of
nature, but experience teaches man that man is mistaken again. The rigid uniformity of nature is discovered, and religion,
regarded as an explanation of nature, is displaced by science. In science man reverts to the self-reliance but not through
occult means but by through the rational methods.

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religion existed primitively. Culture is an anxiety reducer because it gives us a sense
of control of certain powers.
However, in all cultures, there is an element of animism. For example in man
African cultures, when a person is sick, cleansing ceremonies, there is always a kind
or form of a sacrifice either a chicken or animal to appease the spirits. Moreover, in
order to appease these spirits, everybody or very important people must partake of it
otherwise it is considered not good.
Tylor believed that although they origin of religion appears to be multiple yet
there is only one idea underlying it, that is, belief in the soul or anima. Hence
animism.
Animism come from a Latin word anima, which means breath of life or it can be
translated as life, soul or spirit. Animism then is a belief that all objects, places, both
animate and inanimate all possess a distinct spiritual essence, which affect the lives of
the people and animals and also influence the objects and phenomenon of the
surrounding world. By animate we mean living and by inanimate we mean non-living
objects e.g. Rocks. Trees, rocks, rivers, man etc. have got spirits and these spirits
might be good or bad, they maybe helpful or they maybe harmful.
An animist believes that everything that happens is controlled by spirit of one kind or
another. He does not believe that sickness is caused by germs, harm bacterial but he
believes that sickness is caused by spirits that in some way have become angry or has
been offended. He believes that death is caused by evil spirits and these spirits are sent
to cause such harm by an enemy. Superstition e.g. black cats.
The basis of animism is fear. When something happens the question, an animist asks
is, who is the cause, which spirit is responsible. Thus, at birth, planting, and all the
important events in life the spirits must be given proper honour and reverence and if
there are not, then there is going to be a lot of problems for individual or maybe for
that society.
In addition, there is great fear of death in animism. If a man is believed to possess
great power while he was alive even when he is dead, he will still have that power to
influence life.
Belief in animism is because early people depended on what there have, on their
environment. If everything has a soul then there will not destroy them, that is treat
everything with respect, care for it.

The Psychological Theory of the origin of Religion

The main proponent of this theory is Sigmund Freud (1856 – 1939). But we
shall also study the view of James Henry Leuba (1867 – 1946) since he is considered
as the pioneer of this theory. According to Leuba the reason for the existence of
religion is not the objective truth of its conceptions, but its biological value. He
clarifies this idea with the example of the belief in a personal God. Earlier time

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theologians had put forward metaphysical arguments for the existence of such a God
for example the argument from design. The progress of the physical sciences has
destroyed the strength of such arguments. Now the theologians have changed their
arguments: they appeal to inner experience. Here, thinks Leuba, they have to agree
with psychology, which applies the scientific method into the inmost experiences of
the soul. The inner experience instead of establishing the existence of a personal God
show how belief in such a God has arisen from the gratification it provides for
affective and moral needs. He pays special attention to mystical experience which is
considered as the pinnacle of religious experience of God. He tries to explain it in
psychological and physiological terms. It is like a sublimation of sexual passion in the
ascetical life: it is a state of consciousness induced by certain drugs. It has affinity
with such pathological conditions as hysteria and epilepsy. For the psychologist who
remains within the province of science, religious mysticism is not the revelation of
God but of man. Human being can no longer endorse with intellectual honesty to a
religion with its transcendent beliefs.
Sigmund Freud, the originator of psychoanalysis, regarded religious beliefs as
illusions, fulfilments of the oldest, strongest, and most insistent wishes of humankind.
He considered religion as a mental defence against the more threatening aspects of
nature – earthquake, flood storm, disease and inevitable death. With these forces,
nature rises up against us, majestic, cruel and inexorable. However, human
imagination transforms these forces into mysterious personal powers. Impersonal
forces remain eternally remote. But if the elements have passions that rage as they do
in our souls, if everywhere in nature there are beings around us of a kind that we know
in our own society, then we can breathe freely, can feel at home in the uncanny and
can deal by psychical means with our senseless anxiety. We are still defence-less but
we are no longer helplessly paralyzed. We can at least react. We can apply the same
methods against these violent supermen outside that we employ in our own society.
We can try to adjure them, to appease them to bribe them, and, by so influencing
them, we may rob them of part of their power. Freud divides the mind into three
provinces; Id, Ego and Superego. Id is the unconscious region in which the basic
instincts of our nature crowd together with no sense of order or value. Ego is the
region in which contact with the external world is maintained and it aims at self-
preservation, selecting some of the Id’s demands for satisfaction and rejecting others,
according to circumstances. Superego is the deposit of the parental influences of
childhood, exercises a further control by banning those activities which are socially
undesirable. We come to know about the consciousness through the analysis of its
disguised manifestations. It contains primal instincts or drives and repressed
experiences. These repressed still live on in the unconscious and they manifest in
many varied ways. These manifestations are neuroses and Freud thinks that religion is
the universal obsessional neurosis of humanity which may be left behind when at last

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men learn to face the world relying no longer upon illusions but upon scientifically
authenticated knowledge.
Freud applies the idea of Oedipus complex (the Greek tragic hero who
murdered his father and married his mother) to the origin of religion. He supposes that
in primitive times human beings lived in small groups, each under the domination of a
father who possessed all the females. The sons where driven out or killed as they
excited the father’s jealousy. But they grouped together and killed the father, and
partook of his flesh so as to share in his power. This was the primal crime the
parricide that has set up tensions within the human psyche out of which have
developed moral inhibitions, totemism, and the other phenomena of religion. Having
slain their father, the brothers are struck with remorse, at least of a prudential kind.
They also find that they cannot all succeed to his position and that there is a
continuing need for restraint. The dead father’s prohibition accordingly takes on a new
(moral) authority as a taboo against incest. This association of religion with the
Oedipus complex, which is renewed in each individual, is held to account for the
mysterious authority of God in the human mind and the powerful guilt feelings which
make men submit to such a phantasy. Religion is thus the return of the repressed. The
idea of God is the magnified version of the image of the human father. The
transformation of the father into God takes place both in the history of the race and in
the history of individuals. Individuals in adult life project upon the world the infantile
memory of the father, and raise this image to the rank of a Father God. The father who
gave them life, projected them, and demanded their obedience, becomes the God who
is similarly creator, preserver, and lawgiver. Through this what he wants to emphasize
is that a religious belief is determined by the psychological history of the person who
holds it, and that such a belief is essentially infantile and neurotic. It is a projection of
the nursery upon the world, and is thus a flight from reality. In the real world which is
rigidly determined atheistic cosmos there is no Father God who reigns over it.

Summary
Region is an expression of underlying psychological neuroses and distress, an
attempt to control the oedipal complex, a means of giving structure to social groups,
wish fulfilment, an infantile delusion, an attempt to control the outside world. In the
end, religion is the unconscious mind’s need for wish fulfilment. Because people need
to feel secure and absolve themselves of their own guilty. People choose to believe in
God who represent a powerful father figure.

Sociological theory of religion

A religion is a unified system of beliefs and practices relative to sacred things,
that is to say, things set apart and forbidden- beliefs and practices which unite

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 into one single moral community called a church, all those who adhere to
them.
All known religious beliefs, whether simple or complex, present one common
characteristic: they presuppose a classification of all things, real and ideal, of which
men think, into two classes or opposed groups, generally designated by two distinct
terms which are translated by the words profane and sacred (profane, sacre). This two
terms, the one containing all that is sacred, the other all that is profane is the
distinctive trait of religious thought; the beliefs, myths, dogmas are either
representation or systems which express the nature of sacred things, the virtues and
powers attributed to them, or their relation to each other and with profane things.
But by sacred things one must not understand those things which are called
goods or spirits,; a rock, a tree, a spring, a pebble, a piece of wood, a house or rather
anything can be sacred. The circle of sacred things cannot be determined once and for
all. Its extent varies indefinitely, according to the different religions.
These sacred things, are distinguished from the profane by first of all, the place
they are generally assigned in the hierarchy of things. They are naturally superior in
dignity and power to profane things and to man when he is only a man and has
nothing sacred about him. One thinks of himself as occupying an inferior and
dependent position in relation to them; only there is nothing in it which is really
characteristic of the sacred. This means that, it is not enough that one thing be
subordinate to another for the second to be sacred in regard to the first, there is
nothing in these things relations which is really religious.
This is not equivalent to saying that a thing can not pass from one of these
different words into the other. This is notably demonstrated by the initiation rites;
these rites, such as they are practiced by a multitude of peoples, are along series of
ceremonies with the object of introducing the young man into religious life: for the
first time, he leaves the purely profane worlds where he passed his infancy, and enters
into the world of sacred things. This change of state is not a simple and regular
development of pre-existent, but a transformation -totius substantiae- of the whole
being.
This far, we can say that a religious beliefs are representations which express
the nature of sacred things and the relations which they sustain, either with each other
or with the profane things. And finally rites are the rules and conduct which prescribe
how a man should comport himself in the presence of these sacred objects.
The second element in the definition is that the idea of religion is inseparable
from that of the church, that is to say, religion should be and eminently collective
thing. As such, the sentiments of the believers of all times cannot be purely illusory.
The reality cause of the sensations sui generis out of which religious experience is
made, is society. Everything that man has, moral civilization, religion is the work of
society.

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 Society in its elementary form exists as different clans, each of which is
identified with a separate totem animal, plant or other objects. The totem is considered
sacred to the clan that claims it and it can not be ordinary killed and eaten except on
those selected occasion when it is ritually sacrificed and eaten. In addition, the clan
itself is considered sacred because it is considered to be one with the totem. And most
important the emblem of the totem is as it is the very model, the perfect example of a
sacred thing. Totemism, which appears in the very simplest societies, is itself the
simplest, most basic, and original form of religion; all other forms can only grow out
of it. Thus, totemism is not a product, not a derivative of some more basic form of
religion; it is itself the source from which all other kinds of religions worship
ultimately arise.
We may ask, what is a totem? A totem is in the first instance a symbol. But a
symbol of what? It is a symbol of the “totemic principle”, the hidden force
worshipped by the clan (god). It is as well the concrete, visible image of the clan. But
if the totem “is at once the symbol of the god and of the society, is that not because
god and the society are only one?” this entails that the “god of the clan” the totemic
principle, can be nothing else than the clan itself, personified and represented to the
imagination under the visible form of the animal or vegetable which serve as a totem.
Worship of the totem is worship of the society itself.

1.1 The Function of Religion

We have this far, tried to understand what religion by tracing it by definition,
origin. It will be unfair to religion if we just ended up hear pretending to have grasped
what it is. Fundamentally, we have to look at what religion does to its believers.

i. Creates and Enforces Social Cohesion

A human society is a complex whole made up of many subordinate parts –
sexes, age grouping, professional and economic classes, political bodies. These classes
if left alone with their relative freedom their integration is constantly threatened. One
way of overcoming this threat towards disintegration and dissolution of the social
bonds is by means of communal rituals and rites. According to the French father of
sociology, Durkheim, “It is by uttering the same cry, pronouncing the same word, or
performing the same gesture in regard to some object that they become and feel
themselves to be in unison”. This means religion functions as a means of social
solidarity and gives answers to difficulty questions. It create and reinforce the
collective bond.
If some has a faith like yours, you know all a lot about them all at once and that
create a quick bond.

14
 As such, religion also promotes a value consensus in society and maintain
social order and acts as a conservative force. Ensuring that the rapid change of society
in time when kept in check and prevented anomy and egoism in society.
Discipline: religion imposes self-discipline and social order. The norms and
ethics of a religion helps to regulate behaviour both at the individual and collective
level leading to self-discipline and maintaining social order.
Cohesion: religious ceremonies help people to reaffirm their commitment to
social bonds and thus strengthen social bonds.
Vitalising: religion transmits values from one generation to the next, ensuring
norms and values are vital to organisation of society. Ensuring that norms and values
of society are similar over time.
Euphoric: religion alleviates frustration by allowing people to become part of
something bigger than themselves. Allowing people to be part of the bigger common
good that their personal desires, helps individual to see suffering as a sacrifice for
others, rationalising their action as having a purpose.
Provides a sense of Meaning and Purpose
Human beings are uncertain. They struggle for their survival amidst the
uncertainties, insecurities and dangers, some-times they feel helplessness. It is
religion which consoles and encourages them in all such time of crisis. Religion gives
paradigm for life. Religion gives right shelter to them. Human beings get mental peace
and emotional support. It encourages them to face their lives and problems with
optimism. It answers the question where we come from, where are we going, and what
is our purpose in life? It gives a sense of identity for individual, family and
community — a sense of belonging, security, meaning and order (mental Peace), even
in the midst of an ever-changing world.
Religion is liberative. Many people have risen to liberate themselves from
slavery because of their religious beliefs
Religion Gives Recreation: Religion plays a charming role in providing
recreation to the people. Religious rites and festivals which are performed in every
religion which gives relief to the people from mental exertion. Similarly, religious
lectures, musical concerts followed by the utterance of hymn etc. gives much more
pleasure to the people and provides eternal recreation.

15
8. Religion influences economy: Sociologists like Sombart

2. It inculcates social virtues: Religion promotes the major social virtues like
truth, honesty, non-violence, service, love, discipline etc. A follower of the religions
internalizes these virtues and becomes disciplined citizen of the society.
3. Religion promotes social solidarity: Religion gives rise to the spirit of
brotherhood. Durkheim viewed that religion strengthens social solidarity. In fact,
religion has the supremely integration and verifying force in human society. It is true
that common belief, common sentiment, common worship, participation in common
rituals etc. are the significant cementing factors which strengthen unity and solidarity.
4. Religion converts the animal qualities to human qualities: Religion
inculcates the spirit of self-service. It demands that people should be charitable and
benevolent. Through various religious experiences they forget the worldly life and
problems. This experience suppresses the animal desires and converts the animal
qualities of man to human qualities.
5. Religion is an agent of socialization and social control: Parsons viewed
that religion is one of the most important agents of socialization and social control. It
has significant role in organizing and directing social life. It helps in preserving social
norms and strengthening social control. It socializes individuals and exercises control
over both individual and group in various ways. As an informal means, religion
regulates the activities of people in its own way. Organisation like temples, mosques,
church, etc. also control the behaviour of the individuals at different level.
6. Religion promotes welfare: Religion teaches to the people to serve the
masses and promote their welfare. It gives message that “the service to humanity is
service to God”. For this reason, people spend money to feed the poor and the needy.
Great religions like Hinduism, Judaism, Islam, and Christianity etc. put emphasis on
alms-giving to the poor and beggars. It develops the philanthropic attitude of the
people and thereby injects the idea of mutual help and co-operation. With the
influence of religious beliefs, different religious organisations engage themselves in
various welfare activities.
and Max Weber rightly established the relationship of religion with economic
system. Weber observed the influence of Protestant ethics in the development of
capitalism. Sombart found this spirit of capitalism in Jewish norms. For the distinct

16
religious principles present in Christianity, capitalism grew in protestant countries but
not in the country like India, Pakistan etc.
9. Religious influences political system: Religion has played a significant role
in political system in the ancient and medical society. Even in modern times in many
countries of the world, religion directly and indirectly influences political activities.
During ancient and medieval period, the monarchs were treating themselves as the
representatives of God or ruling the society in the name of God. Even today, Political
leaders take oath in the name of God. The political system of the countries of the
world like Iran, Pakistan, Italy, Germany, England etc. are influenced by religion.
10. Religion Strengthens Self-confidence: Religion is an effective means to
strengthen self-confidence. There are certain beliefs like ‘work is worship’, ‘duty is
divine’, ‘result in predestined’ etc. which is found in various religions gives strength
to the individual and promotes self-confidence.

1.3 The Difference between Religion in the West and East.

Though religion serves a common purpose, it is often understood and practiced
in different ways, depending on the part of the globe one is living in; each locale has
its unique particularly. At the risk of being grossly over-simplified, it is interesting to
note the difference between religion in the East and the West; that is to say, the
difference in the role of religion between the Eastern cultures of Asia and the Western
cultures of Europe, North America and Africa.

1. Western Religion
In generally, the West has usually understood itself as an individual-oriented
civilization. However, without doubt, there are the exceptions to this norm.
Nevertheless, it is a civilization that has, as one of its principal categories of reality,
the concept of the self. In the West, reality is understood to revolve around or be in
relation to the individual self. Thus, society is conceived of as a composite of discrete
individual service.
Furthermore, the primary activity of the self in the Western world is usually
understood to be the process of cognition. To know oneself is one of the highest
virtues (Socrates). To think is to be. I exist because I think (Descartes). This is to say
that in the West, the self apprehends and participates in the world primarily through
the process of individual cognition, what might be called a dominant “axis of
ideology” on humanity’s grid of existence. As a result, the mind is always given
primary importance; the body is only secondary. Therefore, the principal concern in
the West is not how to act with the body, but what to believe with the mind. Thus, in
religious terms, dogma is given precedence over ritual.
Religion in the West is understood primarily as an organized ideology of belief
system. Membership in this religious system is usually thought of as “shared belief”,

17
or mutual assent to ideology. Groups are thought to basically be an amalgamation of
individuals who have given mutual assent of their selves, connecting with another
through shared belief. Moreover, there are also elements of mutual ritual assent (e.g
the Catholic Mass), not just ideological assent. Nevertheless, preference is given to
shared ideology.
In this kind of model, the world is understood primarily as a place of
interactive, and often competing, ideologies, all of which the self is capable of directly
relating to. With this Western emphasis on “mind” and “reason”, a high priority is
inevitably placed upon thought systems and ideologies that possess “logical
coherence”. This insistence upon logical coherence, in turn, results in the Western
insistence upon ideological particularism-the refusal to adhere to a blending of two
conflicting thought systems. The outcome is a religious marketplace where belief
systems are thought to be competing entities.
In the West, a religious person is one who is said to have a “belief” in a set of
ideas or dogma. The emphasis is on intellectual assent, not on ritual. Furthermore, the
dogma is understood as mutually exclusive of all other competing religious systems.
One is a Protestant or a Catholic, but certainly not both. One is a Jew or a Muslim, but
certainly not both at the same time. These religious enterprises, seen in the West as
mutually exclusive, are understood as competing sets of dogma/ideology. Hence,
religion is ultimately understood as a matter of personal, and often extremely private,
preference. Religion is the West stands at a crossroads in the 21 st century. As the
ideology of religion fails to connect with the next generation, the practice of religion
will be greatly diminished and no longer a compelling force in Western society. The
cathedrals of Europe have become empty shells, except for occasional tourist or
culturally curious at Easter and Christmas. In short, the role of religion in the West is
in question.

2. Eastern Religion
The East (Asia and Japan in particular), if generalities again will be permitted,
has usually understood itself as a group-oriented civilization. Rather than the category
of the autonomous, individual “self” holding primary importance (as is the case in the
West), in the East it is the concept of the “group” which holds supreme. This is not to
say that the concept of self does not exist in the East, just that it is secondary to the
larger category of the group. In other words, the self exists only in relation to the
group. For example, when people in the East introduce themselves, it is generally by
surname (the clan/group/family name), and secondary (if at all) by given name.
Furthermore, at the end of life, one is buried in the family grave, not an
individual plot. The group is at the centre of the Eastern world. All of reality revolves
around or is in relation to the corporate group. Moreover, the principal activity of the
self in relation to the group is not “thinking” (as is the case in the West), but rather

18
“doing”. It is thus ritual, not dogma, that holds primacy in the practice and role of
religion. The reason for this, quite simply, is that ritual activity is the means for
identification with and method of belonging to the group, ultimately serving as a way
of including or excluding members.
Thus, in the East, the world is primary conceived of and experienced through
corporate ritual, what might be called a dominant “ritual axis” on the grid of human
existence. In this way, corporate ritual is understood to be the essential means by
which group identification and patronage to that group is established and maintained.
What is of fundamental importance to note, in this Eastern system, is that it is sacred
ritual (as opposed to religious ideology) that, in fact, creates and maintains the
solidarity and identification of the group, as giving the group a way of apprehending
and understanding the lived world. Thus, the group requires obligatory participation in
sacred corporate ritual of all its members if they truly intend to become constitute
parts of the world. What is ultimate importance is not that the ritual should be
understood (or an ideology adhered to or believed in), but rather that the sacred ritual
actually be performed and participated in.
In the East, engagement in ritual does not necessarily require uniformity of
belief but rather uniformity of action. This is why religion is the East, at least from the
Western perspective, looks like full-scale eclecticism. The reason for this is simply the
fact that uniform belief is not required for the formation of group cohesion-uniform
ritual is. This is why there is an implicit toleration of multiplicities of ideology in the
East. The toleration exists because of the understanding that it is the ritual action that
gives the group its identity, rather than adherence to a uniform belief system.
Therefore, what is ultimately of importance in the East is that the ritual is actually
performed and actively participated in, for this is how the group receives its identity
and unity.
How does this practically look in Asia? In Japan a country of profound
tradition and decorum-one is said to be born a Shinto, married a Christian, and buried
a Buddhist. It simply is a matter of what stage/juncture in life one is. The Pew
Research Centre (2017) found that 70.4% of the Japanese population identified as
Shinto, 69.8% identify as Buddhist, while 1.5% identify as Christian (demonstrating
how the Japanese identify with multiple religions), and others also claim to be Daoist
and Confucian. While in the Western way of thinking, we may find this incredulous
that there would be an overlap of completing religious systems being adhered to
simultaneously, for the Asian practitioner this makes complete sense.
Religion is simply the social fabric that holds a people together. Practiced as
ritual (rather than dogma) and not demanding of logical coherence but rather corporate
participation, religion is that very glue which binds a people together into an
inextricably linked society. The East apprehends itself, and its relationship to the
world, through the lens of ritual. It understands that it is through the process of

19
corporate ritual activity that the group is defined, and the social order is established. In
short, it is not whether you have “faith” in the dogma of the religion. It is not whether
you “believe” in its teaching. Rather, it is whether you assent to and participate in the
requisite and group-constitutive ritual. As Confucius taught, if Li (holy ritual) is
properly in place, then all of society will be well ordered and properly in place. Living
in Asia, one is Shinto, Buddhist, and Christian at one and the same time, reaffirming
the social fabric that knits society together.

World Religions by percentage

1. Christians 33.32%
2. Muslims 21.01%
3. Non-Religious 14.09%
4. Hindus 13.26%
5. Other Religions 12. 48%
6. Buddhist 5.84%

2.0 THE EASTERN RELIGIONS

The major Eastern Religions include: Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam. Among
these three religions, only Islam is monotheistic, meaning that they believe in one
God. Whereas, Hinduism and Buddhism are polytheistic religions meaning that they
believe in more than one God.

2.1 HINDUISM
The word Hindu is derived from indo-Aryan language Sanskrit root Sindhu
believed to be the name of the Indus River in the north-western part of India. In
Arabic, al-hindu referred to the land beyond the Indus meaning the land of the Hindus
and by the 18th century, the European merchants and colonists began to refer to the
followers of Indian religion collectively as Hindus. Thus, the English term Hinduism
to describe a collective of practices and beliefs of Indian religions.
Hinduism is not a single religion, but a diversity of ideas on spirituality and
traditions, it has no ecclesiastical order, no unquestionable religious authorities, no
governing body, no prophets nor any abiding holy book; hindus can chose to be any
thing: polytheistic(a belief in multiple dieties), pantheitstic (a philosophical religious
belief that reality, the universe and the cosmos are identical to divinity and supreme
being), panetheistic (all in God- is a belief that the divine intersects every part of the
uuniverse and also extends beyond space and time), monotheistisc (belief that there is
only one deity), atheistic (the absence of belief in the existence of deities) or humanist
(man is the startin poin for moral and philosophical inquiry).

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 It includes numerous traditions, which are closely related and share common
themes but do not constitute a unified set of beliefs or practices. Hinduism has no
founder or date of origin. There is no codified text, There is no systematic doctrine,
there is no essential ritual. The authors and dates of most Hindu sacred texts are
unknown. As such Hinduism is refered to the religion of India, a set of religious belief
and practices, a way of life, a diverse system of thought marked by a range of
philosophies and shared concepts, rituals, cosmological system, theology,
metaphysics, mythology etc., as such a religious and universal order. As a religion it is
the world’s third largest and the oldest thus it has been described as the sanatana
dharma “the eternal dharma” based on the belief that its origin lie beyond human
history as revealed in the Hindu texts.
From the above, we have tried to show that hindu beleifs are vast and diverse,
and thus Hinduism is often referred to as a family of religions rather than a single
religion. Within each religion, in the family of religions, there are different theologies,
practices and sacred texts, Hinduism, we repeat does not have a unified system of
beleifs encoded in a declarartion of faith or a creed but rather an umbrella term
comprising the plurality of religious phenomena of india. According to the Supreme
Court of India:
“unlike other religions in the world, the Hindu religion does not claim any
prophet, it does not worship any one God, it does not believe in any one
philosophic concept, it does not follow any one act of religious rites or
performances; in fact, it does not satisfy the traditional features of a religion of
creed. it is a way of life and nothing more”.

Hindu Text
All Hindu texts and written in Sanskrit and there is no one holy hindu text but a
body of scripture texts. There are two historic classifications of hindu text. Sruti- that
which is heard and Smriti-that which is remembered.
The Sruti refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious tests
believed to be eternal knowledge authored neither by human nor divine agent but
transmitted by sages (rishis). These comprise the central cannon of Hinduism. It
includes the four Vedas (the Rigveda, the Yajurveda, the samaveda nad the
Artharvaveda. Each veda has been subclassfied into four major texts type - the
Samhitas (mantras and benedictions), the brahmanas (commentatries on rituals,
ceremonies and sacrifices), the Aranyakas (texts on rituals, celemonies, sacrifices and
symbolic sacrifices) and the early Upanishads (texts discussing meditations,
philosophy and spiritual knowledge). Among these texts the Upanishads alone is
considered scripture par excellence of Hinduism. The main central concepts of
Brahaman (Ultimate reality) and Atman (soul, self) are central in the Upanishads

21
 It is worthy to note that hindus consider the Vedas to be timeless revelation,
apauruseya, which means not of man, superhuman and impersonal authorless. The
knowledge in the Vedas is believed in Hinduism to be eternal, uncreated, neither
authored by human nor by divine source, but seen and heard and transmitted by sages.
The Smriti are a specific body of Hindu texts attributed to the author as a
derivative work and are considered less authoritative than the sruti in Hinduism.
The Smriti literature is a vast corpus of diverse text that include but no limited to the
Vedangas: the hindu epics, the Sutras and the shastras: the text of hindu philosophy,
the Puranas, the Kavya or poetical literature, the Bhasyas and numerous Nibandhas
covering politics, ethics, culture, art and society.

Key Beliefs in Hinduism (purusarthas)

Prominent themes in hindu belief include Dharma (ethics/duties), samsara (the
continuing cycle of entanglement in passion and the resulting birth, life, death, and
rebirth), Karma (action, intent and consequesnces) moksha (liberation from
attachment and samsara), Artha (prosperity, economic values) and the various yogas
(paths and practices). However, in Hindu thought there are the four proper goals of
human life known as the Purusarthas. These include; the Dharma, Artha, Karma and
Moksa.

Dharma (moral duties, righteousness, ethics)

Dharma is considered the foremost goal of human life in Hinduism. The
concept include behaviours that are considered to be in accord with the order that
make life and universes possible and include duties, rights, laws, conduct, virtues and
right way of living of each individual as well as behaviours that enable social order,
right conduct. Dharma is that which all existing being must accept and respect to
sustain harmony and order in the world – the pursuit and execution of one’s nature
and true calling. According to the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4. XIV, “nothing is
higher than dharma. The weak overcomes the stronger by dharma, as over a king.
Truly dharma is the truth (satya); therefore, when man speaks the truth, they say: he
speaks the dharma”, and if he speaks dharma, they say, “he speaks the truth!” for both
are one3. In the Mahabharata, Krishna defines dharma as upholding both this –worldly
and other- worldly affairs (Mbh 12.110.11). In other words, dharma is the way of
living properly according to our gifts. To act in accordance with the law, to come to
ones supreme self. Not to judge one’s life by others goals.

Artha (the means or resources needed for a fulfilling life)

The central theme in Hindu philosophy is that every person should live a
joyous, pleasurable and fulfilling life, where every person’s needs are acknowledged

3
See also Charles Johnson, the Mukhya Unapnishads: books of hidden wisdom, Kshetra, p. 481.

22
and fulfilled. These people’s needs can only bee fulfilled when sufficient means are
available. Artha, then is described as the pursuit of the means necessary for a joyous,
pleasurable and fulfilling life. It is indeed the persuit of means, resources assets, or
livelihood, for the purpose of meeting obligation, economic prosperity and to have a
fulfilling life. This concept include all “means of life” activities and resources that
enable one to be in a state one want to be in, wealth, career and financial security.

Moksa (Liberation, freedom from suffering)

Moksha is the ultimate, most important goal in Hinduism. It is a concept
associated with liberation from sorrow, suffering, liberation from Samsara (a birth-
rebirth cycle). According to Deutsch, moksha is a transcendental consciousness of the
perfect state of being, of self-realization, of freedom and of realising the whole
universe as self, setting free the faculties and removing of obstacles to unrestricted
life, permitting a person to be more truly a person in the fullest sense.

Karma and Samsara

Karma is literally translated as action, work, or dead. It refers to a Vedic theory
of the moral law of cause and effect. This theory is a combination of (1) causality that
may be ethical or non-ethical; (2) ethicization, that is good or bad actions have
consequences; and (3) rebirth. Karma thus is an interpretation of the present
circumstance of an individual with reference to his or her actions. These actions and
their consequences may be in a persons current life, or in past lives.
The cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth is called Samsara. Samara means
wandering as well as world, where the term connotes “cyclic change” or running
around in cycles. It is the cycle of death and rebirth. Liberation from samsara through
moksha is believed to ensure lasting happiness and peace.
Samsara in other words is the understanding that all of existence is caught up
in an endless cycle of birth, death and rebirth (reincarnation) that is determined by the
principle of karma, or the good/bad effect of our actions. Ultimately, with enough
good karma, one will reach moksha or liberation, and thereby ultimate release from
samsara and complete unity with the Brahman, when one’s individual form is no
longer distinguished from the Brahman but subsumed completely by it.
Most Hindu scholars agree that it is in keeping the dharma (moral order/law) and artha
(pathways) of duty, knowledge, and devotion that moksha is achieved. Yoga is
another example of a pathway to liberation, through physical and mindful training of
the body. Dharma is fulfilled when one knows their station in life, their stage in life,
and their aim in life.

Concept of God

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 Hinduism is henotheistic, that is, belief in one God while recognising many
others. They see god in everything and everything in God. The principle of all things,
the ultimate reality is Brahman (universal soul) and atman (the individual soul).
Brahman is viewed as the true reality of all things and it cannot be describe but
can only be experienced. According to hind belief we are all part of Brahman and
what we perceive as our individuality is an illusion (Maya) created by our sense.
There is something deeper than our individuality and this is referred to us Atman.
Atman is actually Brahman in each individual reality. Atman is eternal and when we
die it subjugates itself to another reality.

Brahman and the Hindu Gods (the Trimurti)

There are 39 gods in Hinduism. Some of these gods are: the God of music,
knowledge and art (saraswati), the god of wisdom (Genesha), the god of healthy
wealth and peace (Dhata), the god of death and the underworld (Yama) etc.
However, there are three supreme gods in Hinduism called the Trimurti. The
trimurti is made up of three Gods: brahman the creator, the source of the universe,
Vishnu the sustain or the preserver of reality and shiva the destroyer. These three
Gods represent the cycle of life: birth life and death thtat is at the heart of Hindu
philosophy. But they are not gods but expression of Brahman.
Brahman is that reality that we do not perceive present in all reality, it contains
everything and everything is in it. He is not worshiped because he is seen to have
completed his creative work.
Vishnu the preserver is said to have taken different incarnation or avatars to
protect the universe from evil forces.
Shiva the god of destruction. However, shiva distrutive nature is not out of
badness, but its born out of necessity that in order to create something new, the old
must first be removed. As such he is associated with transformation and creation.

The Tridevi
The tridevi is made up of three female goddesses. Parvati, the wife of shiva is
the hindu mother goddess who presides over energy, creativity, marriage and
motherhood and together with Lakshmi (the godes of wealthy, good fortune, material
accomplishments) and saraswati she forms the Tridevi. The Tridevi is the female
counter part of the trimurti formed by the wives of these Gods.

2.3 The Caste System

The caste system began in Vedic age (1500-500 BC). This social stratification,
which one is born into (though women may have mobility through marriage), ensures
the proper ordering of duties requisite for smooth operation and governance of

24
society. These castes include the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. These
anatomically correspond, respectively to the head, the arms, the legs, and the feet of
the human body.
1.The Brahmins are the priests-those entrusted with the proper ordering of
Hindu regulation and the performance of requisite rituals, especially in life passages.
They are the spiritual and intellectual leaders of society.
2. The Kshatriyas are the rulers, warriors and nobility-those who administer
and protect the land.
3. The Vaishyas are those charged with the economic welfare-the merchants,
traders and farmers. They ensure the proper flow of commerce and material exchange
throughout the land, e.g, the economic experts.
4. The Shudras are the manual labours and servants-those who supply the
necessary services needed by the other three castes.
Over time, a fifth caste emerged and were charged with tasks so unclean (the
removal of human waste, disposal of corpses, butchering of animals etc) that they
were called the Chandalas or Dalits (untocheables or outcasts). These tasks and those
performing them were considered so abhorrent that they were often excluded from
communal rituals, not allowed into certain temples, and required to identify
themselves when walking on public roads.
Mahatma Gandhi took up their cause in his social activism, and publicly
renamed this lowest of the castes the Harijans (The children of God). In 1950, the
Indian government formally abolished the caste system, but all intents and purposes, it
is still active for Indian’s social ordering today. They believe that without following
the duties of each of these castes, one cannot hope to achieve moksha or release from
samsara. They believe that only males from the upper caste (the Brahmin) can achieve
moksha.

2.4 The Aims of Life

There is no singular purpose or aim for Hinduism aside from moksha
(liberation). It recognizes that there are four unique purposes or motivations that
govern one’s actions throughout life. These are dharma, artha, kama and moksha.
1. Dharma or duty is simply doing what is required of us-not because we want
to, but because we must. This is the most fundamental aim in life, living in accord
with one’s duty, as well as recognizing and honouring the duty of others.
2. Artha is doing things for the sake of material gain-the amassing of wealth
and power. There is nothing wrong or immoral about gaining wealth; the search for
material gain is a noble and recognized aim in life. However, in case of conflicts with
dharma, dharma must always take precedence.

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 3. Kama is doing things for obtaining pleasure, and there is nothing wrong
with seeking pleasure in life. The quality of pleasure should be of higher value than
simply the quantity of pleasure.
4. Moksha is doing things in order to achieve liberation.

2.5 The Stages of Life

Hinduism is very innovative on the aspects of practical method for preparing
for the next life by providing a means for a gradual move away the present life. This is
accomplished by acknowledging four distinct “stages in life”, each lasting
approximately 25 years, that allows for the unique aspects of each to be fully
experienced and celebrated, yet always mindful of the ultimate aim of “leaving” this
life behind in the hope of achieving samsara. The four stages are: brahmacarin
(student youth); grihashta (householder, adulthood); vanaprastha (forest dweller,
middle age; and sannyasin ( renouncer, old age).
1. The first 25 years of life called the student are marked by a chaste life of
studying under the auspices of a guru (teacher) whom one serves with absolute loyalty
and humility.
2. The next 25 years is the householder stage, which is marked by marriage
(including the active enjoyment of a sexual life), raising children, accumulating
material wealth, and running a household. Manuals, such Kama Sutra were written
expressly for this purpose in order for the householder to fully enjoy the sensual
pleasures of this stage in life.
3. The next is forest dweller, at the outset of grey hair, where one begins to
gradually detach from the material world while spending long periods in the forest
contemplating spiritual matters and cultivating a readiness to move beyond the
material world.
4. The final stage is the renouncer (at age 75), where one completely
renounces all material possessions, desires and attachments (including close friends
and familial relationships), becomes a wandering ascetic in preparation for death.

2.6 The Practices

There are no required rituals, dogmas or practices that Hinduism can be
ascribed to. Hinduism is beyond definition. It simply is. The principle of Brahman
dictates that all is one, and therefore any number of emanations of God or expressions
of faith are permitted inasmuch as they all originate and end in the same source of
reality: the Brahman. However, the three deities are Vishnu (with his avatar Rama and
Krishna), Shiva. And Kali (Devi shown devotion towards, depending on one’s
personal penchant. This may include particular feast days and fast days, particular
communal celebrations at the local temple (e.g, Diwali or Holi), and keeping Puja
(devotional rituals) at home in front of divine images. The women of the household

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often traditionally keep the rituals in the homes, with the male Brahmin priests
performing the public ceremonies. Most traditional Hindus are vegetarian (though
there is ample evidence that this was not always so), and the norm for marriage is
through arrangement between families, with the bride often leaving her own family to
go and live with her in-laws in a multi-generational household.

Conclusion
We affirm that Hinduism is the oldest and most diverse of all the world’s
religions. It defies the normal definitions of religion such as having a codified text,
systematic dogma, or requisite core ritual. It allows for multiplicity of viewpoints and
practices. One can easily be a Christian, a Muslim, a Jew or any religion and a Hindu
at the same time; there is no competition or inconsistency inasmuch as all religions
express the essential unity of reality. All is one and religion is one. It’s possible to find
in the same household the Muslims, Christians and Hindus all at once. However,
prejudice and intolerance don’t escape India. In recent century, there had been
violence between Hindus and Muslims. Hinduism can be critiqued for its treatment for
women (e.g, the Code of Manu), for its subjugation of the Dalit caste (citing the
fatalism of birth), for its indifference to the destitute that is simply dismissed with the
notion of karma.

3.0 BUDDHISM
Buddhism is the fourth largest religion in the world. It is an Indian religion that
encompasses a variety of traditions, beliefs and spiritual practices attributed to the
original teachings of the Buddha. In a strict sense, Buddhism is less of being a religion
than being a philosophy. It is a philosophy of life, that is, how one lives. This is
because, for many religions, they are focused on a God, something that transcends our
existence. Nothing like that exists in Buddhism. It is all about coming to know ones
true and secret self. It originated in India and its main goal is to overcome suffering
and ending the cycle of life, death and rebirth. The believe that the whole of life is
suffering, and our goal first and foremost should be to eliminate suffering not only in
our life but in the life of every living creature. This is done by that attainment of
Nirvana or through the path of the Buddha. But they are no one particular way to
reach Nirvana or the enlightenment.
Buddhism was founded by an Indian prince named Siddhartha Gautama who
belonged to the Sakya clan of the Kshatriya or worrior caste, who where aristocrats
one rung below the Brahmins in the social scale of india. He was married to a woman
called Bimba or Gopa and had a son, Rahule.
Five days after Siddhartha was born eight brahmins foretold his destiny as the
Buddha, on condition that he retire from the world. To prevent this, his father raised
him in tremendous comfort, living an affluent and sheltered life. Yet, according to

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tradition, these things, like Francis of Assis did not make him satisfied. No material
pressure could satisfy him. Unable to find happiness. He left everything to find, in his
own words, “the incomparable security of a nirvana free from birth and endless
reincarnation”.
This life crisis begun when for the first time he saw poverty and misery
torching people. All these, all these years was sheltered from him by his family. He
had grown up not knowing that the world was a place of suffering and yet he
experience this type of suffering because he was disconnected from the very things
that gave him meaning. He had everything yet he saw others who are being torched by
poverty, illness, misery. The question was “Why so much suffering? What causes
suffering?
And basically Buddhism is about eliminating suffering in our lives and that is
salvation. Salvation is now, there is nothing beyond this world.
Shocked and distressed at the suffering in the world, Gautama left his family at
the age of 29 to seek enlightenment through asceticism. Wondering perhaps for six
years searching of an answer to the mystery of human existence. But even the most
extreme asceticism failed to bring enlightenment. At first he studied yoga philosophy
but even this did not him satisfaction. He then tried ascetical practices and meditation
on his own, going to extremes like rigorous fasting and almost without food, eating
repulsive herbs and repressing his natural emotions.
Finally, Gautama found what he was looking for. One day as he sat in
meditation beneath a Bodhi tree, light suddenly dawned. From that time he became
the Buddha-the “enlightenment one”. This enlightenment is not a revelation from a
divine being. There is no God in Buddhism. This is about one ness with the powers of
the universe. It is about discovering the clearest experience of his life – discovering
you true self.
As such, he felt himself liberated from the eternal successions of death and
rebirth, and delivered from sensual passion and all desire. He realised that by ending
desire, we can end suffering. We only suffer because we desire. If we are freed from
desire everything on earth will be happy. How do we overcome desire? By the
Buddhist dharma (teachings of Buddha) namely, the Four Noble Truths and the Noble
Eightfold Path.
He spent the remaining 45 years of his life teaching the path to liberation from
suffering (the dharma) and establishing a community of monks (the sangha). Shortly
before his death he give his members a final instruction, “be lamps to yourselves,
betake yourselves to no externa refuge. Hold fast to the truth as a lamp […] look not
for refuge to anyone besides yourselves”.
The basic principle of Buddhism is not doubting the existence of gods or evil
spirits but its primarily concerned with deliverance or emancipation. And
emancipation meant breaking through the chain of repeated birth and rebirth. To

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obtain this liberation one has to practice what the Buddha considered the four basic or
noble truths. These truths are not speculative but therapeutic.
That is to say Buddha preached a religion devoid of speculation and refused to
discuss metaphysics on a reason that greed for views on questions of this kind “tends
no edification”. A famous parable, told by his own person, perfectly illustrates the
Buddha’s point of view.
It is as if a man has been wounded by an arrow thickly smeared with poison ,
and his friends and kinsmen were to get a surgeon to heal him, and he were to
say, I will not have this arrow pulled out until I know by what man I was
wounded, whether he is of the worrior caste, or a Brahmin, or of the
agricultural, or of the lowest caste. Or if he were to say, I will not have this
arrow pulled out until I know of what name of family the man is,; or whether
he is tall or short, oor of middle height; or whether he is black or dark or
yellowish; or whether he comes from such and such village or town or city; or
until I know whether the bow with which I was wounded was a chapa or a
kodada, or until I know whether the bow stringwas swallow-wort, or bamboo
fibre, or sinew, or hemp, or of milk-sap tree, or until I know whether the shaft
was from a wild or cultivated plant […]. Before knowing all this, that man
would die.

Similarly, it is not on the view that the world is eternal, that it is finite, that the
body and soul are distinct, or that the Buddha exists after death that a religious life
depends. Whether these views or positions are held, there is still rebirth, old age, there
is death, and grief, lamentation, suffering, sorrow, despair. These views do not
conduce to absence of passion, that is, tranquillity and Nirvana.
The four noble truths are in sequence, that existence involves suffering, that the
cause of suffering is desire and the clinging to existence, that the way to escape from
suffering and existence is to be rid of these desires, and to be delivered one must
follow the eightfold path. Throughout this process each one must do the work by
himself. Other human being may help, and therefore community life is important, but
in the last analysis, everyone saves himself.

3.1 The Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path

The First noble Truth: All of life is inevitably comprised of dukkha, which
means dissatisfaction translated as suffering in English. Dukkha means that even if
life is not physically paining, it can be disappointing and changing. Thus, every
existential phenomenon, by definition, is in a state of dukkha (suffering) in general
“birth is painful, old age is painful, death, sorrow, dejection and despair are painful”.
Contact with unpleasant things is painful; not getting what one wishes is painful;
losing soothing is painful. Even the more subtle kind of pain, arsing from unsatisfied

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delight in bodily form or feeling, volitional craving or pleasures of imagination. In
short, existence equates to suffering. We may have momentary happiness, but this is
fleeting and never permanent. Ultimately, we all experience grief, anguish and pain-
there is no escaping this reality of suffering.

The Second Noble Truth: the cause of Dukkha (suffering) is rooted in what
causes it and it is Tanah (thirst or desire). Three kinds of thirst are the fountain head of
suffering: thirst for pleasure, for prosperity, and foe continual existence. Human
beings desire and crave possessions, power and life itself. So they end up constantly
disappointed because all those things end. People want things they do not have and the
things they currently have are never desired. And everything is always changing while
we desire to remain forever and to stay the same forever. The secret to happiness is to
enjoy what you without attachment and not to desire what you do not have. In other
words, it is our desires and cravings that produce suffering. These may be material or
immaterial attachments. Suffering then comes as a result of desire, and in particular,
of our desire to hold on to things in perceived permanence.
However, these things would not make us unhappy except for the blind thirst
(tanha) in nature which derives us to demand for ourselves and the persons we love
more than the universe is ready to give. We crave for bodily pleasure and either do not
get it, or find that it does not satisfy, or face the prospect of losing what we enjoyed.
The same with prosperity, and the desire for continual living frustrated by the
certainty of death.
The Third Noble Truth: is eliminate tanha (desire) to eliminate dukkha
(suffering). Since we cause our own suffering by desiring, we can end it also. To end
suffering we have to get rid desires and attachments and you will get rid of suffering.
To put this another way, freedom from dukka comes when one is able to sever all ties
to tanha. This is possible by eradication of the notion “I and mine”. All suffering is
bound up with the concept of “I am this or that”. Of all delusions that men are
attached to, the worst is their belief in the constancy and reality of their “name and
shape, of the Ego or self yet the identification of the self is not with the visible body
but with the soul. Our egos (and desires which are wrapped up in our egos) do not
really exist. Therefore to attain Nirvana of the ceasation of suffering is to remove
ignorance about the unreality of the Ego and the conquest of craving which arises
from such ignorance.

The Fourth Noble Truth – the middle way (the path): the elimination of tanha is
possible by following the middle way between extremes of excess and defect. This is
the life of a detached and avoid the extremes of self-indulgence or the extreme of self-
denial. The practical instruction for living this middle way is spelled out in what is

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termed “The Noble Eightfold Path. The noble eightfold is in eight step guide to de-
programe the desire addictive brain.
1. Right View/understanding: right view is accepting the four noble truths
Understand that there is suffering in the world and that the Four Noble Truths can end
suffering.
2. Right thought: Your worst enemy cannot harm your more than your
thoughts. Avoid harmful thoughts like greedy, fear anxiety cloud your mind. Feel your
mind with positive thought like love, kindness and compassion.
3. Right Speech: focus on positive words, speak kindly and avoid words that
are hurtful like lies and gossip. These only makes you and others to suffer.
4. Right Action: the Buddha believe in a philosophy of Ahimsa or no violence.
Be faithful and do the right thing. Instead of hurting other with your actions, you
should try and have an endless love for all life. Right action include conquering anger
with love, evil with good, greediness with generosity, lies with truth
5. Right Living: Make sure that your livelihood does not harm others. Avoid
life that involve death like slavery or the selling of weapons or poisons. Be an honesty
and kind person to all.
6. Right Effort: right effort builds on right thought. It means putting effort in
welcoming good thought and pushing away bad though. This is done by meditation.
Everything that brings suffering begins as bad thought. Violence, greediness, anxiety
all begin as negative thought. Using right effort you will nourish your positive
thoughts and water your mind garden and when your mind is filled with right thought,
negative thoughts will find not space to grow.
7. Right mindfulness or awareness: mindfulness s paying your attention in
every moment. Do not late you memories distruct your present experience.
Mindfulness helps you to understand your body and the environment so that you can
see what causes positive and negative reactions in you in each moment.
8. Right Concentration: focusing your mind on a single thing while meditating
whether it’s your breath or thoughts without destruction so that you can enter into
reality. Concentration gives you insight into your thoughts and why they happen.

3.2 Buddhist Doctrines

All Buddhist doctrines a razor focused on the elimination of dukkha. The
Buddha teaching is a path way so that we can end suffering together. For this to
happen we need to wake up and see things as they are really are at different levels.
Anatta (No-self)
There is a story of the young reporter at the airport. He spots a Buddhist monk
and decides to interview him. He asks the monk, sir what do you say is the worlds
biggest problem. Is it global warming, corruption? The monk smiles and says before I
answer you question let me ask you a question first. Who are you? I am a report,

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answers the journalist. No that is you profession says the monk. Who are you? Am
john smith, the report answered. No that is you name, says the monk. Who are you?
Am a human being. The reporter answered. No that is your species, who are you? This
goes on for some time until the reporter finally gives in and says alright, it seems like I
do not know who I am. Then the monk says to him, this is the world biggest problem.
How did the Buddha answer this question. The question that eventually lead
him to the enlightenment. The fundamental question that faces each one of us. Who
are you?
Deep down we feel we are individuals, we may change and develop as id there
is a permant core inside us, the core that persist through time. This is what brings
Dukkha – suffering, dissatisfaction. It is a feeling, no matter what, that your
experience could be better. That something is not ok. The number on cause of dukkha
is the feeling of this is me, this is mine, this is myself. It is the feeling of I which the
Buddha called grasping.
We observe our bodies, thoughts desires and consciousness and we call them
our own, we grasp them, and become attached to them, we accumulate possessions,
we chase after social rank, but fate takes away all we have accumulated, little by little
time there is change. How much pain, suffering of the one who feels the lose of this is
me, this is mine, this is myself. This is the sickness that brings suffering. If we
extinguish the feeling of I, then we will see everything as it truly is, we will know in
our hearts that everything is ok. There is nothing to gain and nothing to lose. And this
is nirvana.
According to the Buddha you are not your body, not an immortal soul, not
consciousness, not you mind, not primal cosmic substance. But according to Buddha it
is also not right to say that you do not exists, that you are nothing. This teaching come
to be known as Anatta, the teaching of no-self. This is a stranger doctrine yet to
understand it, you become enlightened. To know what you are, and what you are not
is the key to ending suffering once and for all.
To understand the Buddha’s teaching we should first understand the five (5)
khandhas or aggregates. What made Buddha to discover hoe to end suffering.
According to Buddha what we are used to calling the “self”, the “I”, is nothing but a
combination of five components. The five Khandhas. In short, the five khandhas are
the constituency of our consciousness experience. They bring the reality as we
experience it objectively. The five (5) khandhas are the following:
Form: form covers everything physical, visual, colours, texture and sensual.
Feeling: feeling include everything that arises from the sense organs. That
feeling pleasant, unpleasant or neutral. Things like boredom, excitement, saddens,
pleasure, pain e.c.t.

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 Cognition: cognition covers memories, future plans. It also covers ideas. The
idea of what a flower is, of what colour red is, of what good life is. It also includes the
idea of who or what you are.
Mental formation: includes all desires and emotions like likes and dislikes.
Everything that moves you on an emotional level.
Consciousness: accounts for the very fact of awareness of objects as the
interact with the sense organs. That make thing that make you to feel like you. That
consciousness.
Let us use an allegory to understand this teaching on how we normally see
reality. Think of a movie playing on the television, like a movie of Jean-Claude Van
Demme. When you look at the images in the movie, they immediately mean
something to you. The emotions, you are looking at a person, the strong man, van
Demme himself. You can see his colour and fabric of his clothes, his body language,
his facial expression. Sometimes you even forget that you are watching a movie, and
immediately something is captured, the reality of what you see. However thing of the
nature of these images. Think of the screen on which you are watching them, apart
from the screen this movie is just a composition of flames. Each flame is made up of
pixels, and each pixel is made up of three colours, red, green and blue. These are the
three aggregates of the video. All the complexity of the video, all the information it
gives you, and the emotions it produces, these all comes from the beautiful
combination of the three components (red, blue and green). There is no actually Van
Demme in front of you. It is just a combination of red, blue and green which fools you
that you are seeing Van Demme, it fools you into admiring his skill.
The Buddha argued that subjective experience is like that. The feeling of I
appears only real when you are not looking closer to it. If you look closely, you will
see that the is no I in you experience, nothing that can be yourself. They are just a
very, very elaborate symphony of the five aggregates from which the illusion of self
appears.
These aggregates apply to self in that we can not find within our experience
that falls outside these Five (5) categories. And more importantly, can you find
yourself anywhere within these categories. The body, the feelings, the desires and the
consciousness you perceive you call your own, but if they are your own, then who are
you? Who is the owner of your body, who is feeling your feelings, who is the thinker
of your thoughts, who desires your desires, who is aware of your consciousness. The
answer to these question seems so clear, so obvious. It is me. It is myself. That is not a
rational conclusion but a good feeling that you are somebody, the self.
It is actually when we reach this feeling that the Buddha says, that it is the
answer of the enlightened. We say the person is born, he has died, he has re-
incarneted, when actually there is not person to be found anywhere. There is no
Buddha, no me, and no you too. It is just the five aggregates flowing in time, falling

33
apart and then coming back together. Am another stream, you are another, but we are
all aggregates flowing in different ways.
But since the pattern of out aggregates are so complex, and the enlightened
mind is so distracted, the aggregates fall into misconception that they are person, that
they are one thing, and the world and everything else is another. What we call I is just
a complexity of the khandhas. Every model of the self you can have is a mistaken
view. It is only are form of grasping one of the five aggregates. You say the person
has died with the physical body, you are grasping the form. You say yourself is that
feels good or bad over something, you are just grasping the feeling, you say I think
therefore I am, you are grasping cognition, those who I am my choices and free will,
you are grasping mental formation and those who perceive themselves as pure
awareness, they are grasping consciousness.
The Buddha claimed that none of these can be the self. Why? First none of the
aggregates can be self because you can not control none of them. You can not control
yourself to feel calm when you are actually anxious, you can not even choose what
your next thought will be or rather you can not choose what to choose. The five
aggregates change according to conditions and situation which are external to them,
therefore none of the aggregates can be our self. Secondly, the aggregates come and
go, they can not be the self because there are impermanent. One minute you thing and
feel one way and you feel completely different the next. One time you body is young
and fragile but before you know it its old. If your self was one of the aggregates then it
too must be changing all the time. Then it will mean, oneself in one moment another
self begins in the next.

Sunyata (all things are empty) – Nagarjuna (d. c 250)

Nagarjuna is a 3rd century thinker and he is considered the founder of a school known
as Madhyamika or the middle way as well as the most important idea of the sunyata or
that all things are emptiness. And through this he was able to develop what is called
Mahayana Buddhism.
This is not talking about that there is nothing that exists. Instead it means that all
things are empty of there intrinsic nature of existence, that is, there is nothing in the
world that exists intrinsically but everything is empty.
This teaching of emptiness is connected to the key Buddhist teachings. The doctrine of
no-self (anatta) and the doctrine of dependence arising. The Buddha taught that there
is no-self. Everything we think of our self when we say I, is actually an illusion. There
is no self in any human being but only a collection of kadhas (aggregates) such as
consciousness, mind and sensations that come together to make this idea of a unified
self when actually it is not there.
No subject (no experiencer)

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According to Buddha, because it is empty of self and of what belongs to self that it is
said “empty is the world”. The first meaning of emptiness is that in our experience of
reality, the self is nowhere to be found. There is no I. For the Buddha conscieness is
like a musical performance. The musician, the musical instrument and the music itself.
In the same way consciencesness involves sense objects, sense organs and
consciencenss. Music arises when the musician is playing the instrument, in the same
way, conscience ness arises when the sense object comes into contact with the sense
organs. It is in these three components of experience, of the sense organs, sense
objects an consciousness that the self cannot be found. There is no you experience the
experience only an endless cycle of causes and conditions.

No object (nothing to be experienced)

Connected to this is the idea is dependence arising. There is nothing being
experienced. Everything in the world depends on other things for their existence.
Everything is temporal and un-independent of other things for them to exist. For
example, when you look at the flower, you may think that it exists by itself and
independently, but this is not true. Try to think of the flower without the soil from
which it grows, the sunlight that helps it to grow and illuminates it, what about the
space in which it stands, or the particular time in which it is there. Suddenly you no
longer have a flower at all. And this is true of all things in the world. There is nothing
that exists independently. All things are constantly dependent on everything else
existence. Even the parts that make other specific things to exists are themselves
dependent on other things, even the parts of those parts are just the same. This leads to
a conclusion that they can be anything at all, because all things we can see even the
world are only a collection of other things that make them appear in a certain way at a
particular time. It is us who conceptualise that thing into a false entity. ……..king
malida’s question over the charliot…….in this story the king is having a discussion
with a Buddhist sage. The king asks the sage about the doctrine of no-self, how it can
be that there is no thing called the self when it seems to be an apparent reality to
everyone. Nagasina points to a chariot and asks what is a chariot? Is the chariot in the
wheels? In the axel? Is it in the seat? The king answers negative to all question on the
parts of the chariot including if the chariot is the combination of all parts. The sage
said if the chariot is not contained in any of those parts then there is no chariot. The
designation chariot is dependent on all these varies parts but in reality what we call a
chariot is only a concept. A name that is applied to something that actually have
independent existence of its own. The self is the same way. We say that there is a self,
we talk about ourselves using words like I because it is convenient in every day world
but in reality there is no such thing. It is only a name that we give to a collection of
temporally aggregates.

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 In conclusion, there does not exist anything that is not dependently arising.
Therefore, there does not exist anything that is empty. To say things exist and that the
do not exist are to extremes. The middle way is that things are empty. To see that
things are dependet on each other means also that suffering is dependent on
something, thus, if you understand the causes and conditions of your suffering and
remove them so too will you remove suffering that springs from them.

No subject and object

How is experience possible if there is no one to experience and the things to be
experienced? Experience is one thing that we cannot deny. We all have experiences
and we can question the experiences. What real is experience.
Lets take an example. Let us use the colour blue in from of you. As you look at
this colour, notice how you can describe this experience. There is you looking at the
blue colour, there is the blue colour, and there is the experience of the seeing the
colour. Now, what is the difference this blue in you experience of seeing the blue.
Could you experience this blue if the colour was not there? No. without the object,
you can not experience that object. What about if you were not seeing this colour,
would it exist? Yes. Of course blue will still exist even if I was not seeing it. Noe how
will that blue exist if you were not seeing it now? What evidence do you have to
support that? It is because we have seen blue in the past. Seeing orange is the proof of
its existence. Our experience is that base upon which the existence of blue is
confirmed. What we call objects of experience and the subject of experience have no
meaning without the other. The division of subject and object in the experience is
empty. All that exists is experience, the unity of all things. Reality is both that which
is experience and that which is experiencing.
We end by saying, as Christians, that the eye which I see God is the same eye
through which God sees me; my eye and God’s eye are one eye, one seeing, one
knowing, one love.

To conclude this discussion we can say that according to Buddhist, reality is

characterised by impermanent and dependence arising. The conventional reality that
we experience consisting of things and concepts that are only conventional
constructions and ultimately un real. There is no chariot, just as there is no individual
self. Anything that we experience is only a construct of the variety of factors and
temporal re-happenings. None of these things are ultimately real. There is nothing that
has intrinsic nature that can be categorised as real. Everything is empty of themselves.
This is what is referred to when we talk about the teaching of emptiness or sunyata.
According to Nagarjuna, reality is characterised entirely by emptiness. All things are
empty of their intrinsic nature but at conveniently conceptualised to be real. There can
not be any thing real.

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Nagarjuna is not an nihilist. He is not saying that nothing exists but that nothing have
an intrinsic nature or essence, thtere is nothing that have an independent existence.
Everything is dependent on others things for their existence thus empty of itself.
We can conclude that there is nothing that exists in the world because all in unreal.
There is only constantly dependence arising such that the things we experience are not
there at all on there on.
However, emptiness is not the nature of things in that way. Emptiness is not some
kind of primodial reality ante rem but a correction to a mistaken view of how the
world exists. According to nagarjuna, there are no ultimate truths at all. Not even
emptiness. Indeed emptiness itself is empty. That is to say, dependent origination we
declare emptiness. It (emptiness) is a dependent concept; just that it is the middle way.
Because emptiness also depends on things that are empty.
The two truths
In simple terms, this is the idea that there are two essential ways of approaching
reality: conventional truth and ultimate truth. We can either look at the world through
conventional truth, that is, through the concepts and construct that we apply into it.
That there are things in the world, that am a human being, that there are things like
nirvana and reincarnation. These conventional truths are accepted because they are
useful in life. It is useful that I consider you and me to be different on some level of
interaction and it is useful for me to see that am distinct from a lion. We need
conventional truth to reach the ultimate reality. And what is that ultimate reality, it is
that everything is empty.

NB: The Buddha (Siddhartha), who was the first to be “awakened”, is not worshipped
as a deity. In fact, Buddhism is said to be a non-theistic religion. There is no god, and
certainly the Buddha is not looked upon as such. He is honoured and viewed as an
inspiration, but he is not prayed to. His compassion for others inspires us to do the
same.

4.0 Monotheistic Religions

“Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one”
(Deuteronomy 6:4)

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 Judaism, Christianity and Islam monotheistic religions. The one God is the God
of all peoples. Generally speaking, monotheism in these religions is not a
philosophical question or rather not primarily a matter of intellectual verification but a
fruit of religious experience and an expression of a practice based on faith.

These three in particular trace their origins back to the historical figure of
Abraham and understand themselves to be deeply connected to the historical context
of the Semites (speakers of Hebrew, Arabic and Aramaic).
Although there are major differences between these religion, each tradition
draws on the previous, progressing chronologically from Judaism to Christianity to
Islam, and all three share common held positions.
1. God: All three believe in a single divine being who is personal; possessing
mind and will; eternal; not subject to the limits of time or change; all-powerful
(omnibenevolent). These religions are sometimes referred to as ethical
monotheism.
2. Creation: God created a world distinct from himself, a world that is real, not
illusory, and totally dependent on God-a world that is good.
3. Revelation: In a unique historical event, God revealed his will, requiring
obedience (disobedience being understood as sin).
4. Immortality and judgement: There is life after death. At death, God will
judge each individual for reward or punishment.
5. Prophets: someone whom God uses to convey his message.

5.0 ISLAM
Islam is an Abrahamic, monotheistic religion in that it traces its roots from/to
Abraham. The word “Islam” means “submission” (to the will of God) centred on the
Quran and the teachings of Muhammad, their religious founder. The adherents of
Islam are called Muslims (one who submits). . In the world, it is the second largest
religion with about 1.9 billion followers.
Perhaps the single most defining aspect of Islam, in contrast to monotheistic
religions, is that it understands itself as the true form of what monotheism ought to be.
That is to say, Muslims believe that Islam is the complete and universal version of a
primordial faith that was revealed many times through earlier prophets, the most
important being Adam, the first man, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus. In short,
Islam understands itself simply as the reform or correction to the monotheism of
Judaism and Christianity. Thus, Judaism and Christianity are regarded as earlier
version of Islam.

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 They too consider the Quran to be the verbatim of God and the unchanged,
final revelation. Alongside the Quran, Muslims also believe in what they call previous
revelations, such as the Torah (Tawrat), the Zebur (Psalms), and the Injeel (gospels).
In addition, they consider Muhammad as the main and final Islamic prophet,
through whom the religion was completed. His teachings and normative called the
sunnah documented by hadith (the verbally transmitted record of the teachings, deeds
and sayings, silent permission or disapprovals of Muhammad) constitute a model for
all Muslims to follow. We should hereby note that in Islam, divine revelation is
constituted by the Quran alongside the Sunnah and they make up the primary sources
of Islamic law and theology/beliefs.
Finally, Islam believes that “There is no God but God” echoed “you shall have
no other God’s before me” (Exodus 20:3) and they acknowledge the absolute
supremacy of this God. Thus, it is no accident that the word “Islam” literally means
“submission” or “surrender”, and one who does this is called a “Muslim”, which in
turn translates to “one who “submits”.
This God, ―Allah — is a God of justice but punishes unrighteousness. It states
that there will be a final judgement wherein the righteous will be rewarded with
paradise and the unrighteous will be punished in hell.
According to this religion, Allah responds to anyone who cries to him in
distress and He mercifully provides guidance to humanity so that they can follow “the
straight path”. A faithful Muslim will end all sentences of future intent with “insha
Allah” literally “God willing” or “if God wills it”. For example, “Good night, see you
tomorrow would be followed by “God willing”. This is simply the way in which every
Muslim is reminded that God is in control; a faithful Muslim’s task is simply to
surrender to God’s will.

5.1 The Prophet Mohammed

Muhammad bin Hashim, is believed to be the founder of Islam. However, in
Islam, he is believed to be the seal of the messengers and prophets of God in all the
main branches of Islam. God revealed himself to Muhammad by giving him the Quran
so that he can restore Islam which they believe did not with Muhammad but is the true
unaltered original monotheistic faith of Dam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus and the others
prophets.
Muhammad was born in 570 CE in Mecca. His father, Abd al-Muttalib ibn
Hashim, died a few months before he was born and his mother Amina bint Wahb, died
when Muhammad was six, leaving Muhammad a double orphan. He was raised under
the care of his grandfather, Abd al-Muttalib. At the age of 13, his grandfather
transferred him to Syria to stay with his and paternal uncle, Abu Talib where he met
and married Khadijah (d. 619). Muhammad together with Khadijah had four children,
Zainab, the first daughter, followed by Ruqayyah, umm Kulthum and Fatima Zahra.

39
 In the later years he would seclude himself in a mountain for several nights in
prayer and at the age of 40, in 610, he is said to have received his first verbal
revelation from the angel Gabriel while in the cave called Hira, being asked by God to
preach the oneness of God in order to stamp out idolatry. In 613, Muhammad started
preaching these revelations publicly proclaiming that “God is One” and that complete
submission (Islam) to God (Allah) is the right (din) way and that he was the prophet
like any other prophets in Islam.
Initially, Muhammad and his followers suffered persecution from the Meccan
polytheists until in 622 when the followers of Islam migrated from Mecca to Medina.
This even, Hijra, marks the beginning of the Islamic calendar, also know as the Hijra
calendar. In medina, Muhammad united tribes under the constitution of medina. In
December 629, after eight years of fighting wigbhjth the Meccan, he gathered 10, 000
muslim converts and marched on the city of Mecca and conquered it. He died in 632.

5.3 The Five Pillars of Islam

The five pillars of islam are the fundamental practices in Islam, considered to
be obligatory acts of worship for all muslims. They complies of the following:
1. The Shahadah (the oath and creed): shahadah is an Islamic oath and creed.
It declares belief in the oneness of God and the acceptance of Muhammad as God’s
massager. It reads, “I bear witness that there is no deity but God, and I bear witness
that Muhammad is the massager of God”. a sinle honest recitation of the shahadah is
all that is required for a person to become a muslim.

2. The Salah (daily prayers): Salah also known as Namaz is worship

performed by Muslims. Facing qibla4, the direction of the Kaaba5. They pray five
times a day, that is, at dawn, midday, mid-afternoon, sunset and before bed. This act is
predicated upon ritual ablutions (wudhu) of washing the hands, arms, neck and feet,
removal of shoes, laying a prayer carpet facing Mecca, kneeling and bowing with
head to the ground, saying specific prayers depending on the time of day, and quoting
passages from the Qur’an. Salah is comprised of prescbried repetitive cycles of bows
and prostartions, called rakat which varies from prayer to prayer. Salah can be
performed either in solitude or collectively (Jama’ah). When performed in Jama’ah
worshipers line up in parallel rows behid the learder k own as the Imam.

3. Zakat (that which purifies): Zakat is a form of charity and alms giving
collected by Ummah (community). It is a religious duty of every muslim who meets
the necessary criteria of wealth to help the needy, often considered as tax. Every
Muslim is required to donate at least 2.5% of their yearly income including wealth and
4
Qibla is the direction towards Kaaba in the sacred mosque in Mecca.
5
Kaaba is a stone building and holiest site, the Masjid al-Haram in mecca. It is considered to be the house of
God and is the qibla (direction of prayer) for Muslims around the world.

40
assets to the needy Muslims in their community (normally by their local Mosque).
This provides a kind of social safety that ensures a levelling of material wealth.

4. Sawm (fasting): this is the practice of abstaining from food, drink, smoking,
sexual activities and anything that substitutes food and drink during the holy month of
Ramadan — the lunar month when Mohammed first received the words of the Qur’an.
It is observed between dawn and nightfall. Fasting has been prescribed as a form of
religious obligation for over coming their lust and desire. According to the Quran, if
humans cannot prevent themselves from desire then they can not achieve salvation,
“as for him who fears to stand before his Lord and restrain himself from low desires,
paradise is surely the abode” Quran 79, 40-41.
Days of fasting.
- fasting in the month of Ramadan is compulsory.
- days of oath: if one swear that he will fast, it should be fulfilled. Breaking
such an oath is considered sinful.
- days of voluntary fasting: Muslims are encouraged to fast on Mondays and
Thursdays, any 6 days in the Islamic month of Shawwal (10 th month), white days, (the
13th, 14th 15th) day of each lunar month.
- the day of Arafah (9th day of Dhu’l-Hijja6) in the Islamic calendar.
- Tasua (9th day) ND Ashura (1oth day) of Muharram (first month of the
Islamic calendar).

5. Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca): Every Muslim who is physically sound and

financially is required to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in their lifetime. It
is the ultimate act of faith which binds the Muslim to God through a successive
number of rituals. Pilgrims from every corner of the world converge on the holiest city
of Islam, Mecca (Medina the prophets final resting place, and Jerusalem being the
third most holy). The pilgrims discard any defining identifiers or class distinctions,
such as jewelry and clothing, instead donning a simple white cloth that shows the
unity of the ummah-the global Muslim community. Central to the experience is
walking around the Ka’bah, the altar first built by Adam to worship God, further
enhanced by Abraham and his don Ishmael, and considered holy by Arabians even
before the advent of Islam. Pilgrims circumnavigate the Ka’bah seven times in unity
with all others on pilgrimage. The Hajj itself is an allusion toward and remembrance
of the one who faithfully took Ishmael into the Arabian desert and raised him. Her
name in Arabic is Hajjar, or in English Haggar: the wife to Abraham according to
Islamic understanding, or maidservant of Sarah according to Jewish teaching. Thus,
the word Hajj itself is a call to mirror the same journey of faith that Hajjar herself
took.
6
Dhu al-hijja is the tweveth and final month in the Islamic calendar in which the Hajj (pilgrimage) and Eid al-
Adha (festival of the sacrifice) takes place.

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 4.1 JUDAISM
Judaism is the oldest monotheistic religion and the source of the world biggest
religions, that is, Christianity and Islam. It is the worlds lest popular religion with
about 15 million followers mostly in the middle east, Europe and north America. Its
followers are called Jews and the typical place of their worship is called a synagogue.
The father of this religion is Abraham in about 2100 BCE. Judaism is believe
to originate from Abraham when he called by God from the land of Ur in
Mesopotamia to “go from your country and your kinsmen and your father’s house to
the land that I will show you. I will make of you a great nation. And I will bless you
and make your name great”, and he was promised a land of Canaan which is now
Israel. That is it originates from God’s covenant with Abraham to say, if you worship
me, if you listen to me I will make you great.
Abraham has a wife called Sarah with who he had a son Isaac. He had also
another son Ishmael with his wife maid Hagel. In terms of testing the covenant
Abraham is tested by God to kill his only son Isaac to show how faithful he is to God
(submission). Another sing of the covenant in the Torah demands that all male
children are circumcised, “You shall circumcise the flesh of your foreskins, and it
shall be a sign of the covenant between me and you. Throughout generations, every
male among you shall be circumcised when he is eight days old” (Gen 17:11-12).
After leaving his land, Abraham and his people wondered for many years until
they ended up as slaves in Egypt. Eventually after some time, the pharaoh of Egypt
was being threaten by the number of the Jews and their strength, so he decided to be
killing all male Hebrew children. It was during this time that the man who will
liberate the Hebrews was born – Moses. Moses leads them to the land of Canaan.
As there where on this journey, when they reached Mount Sinai, Moses was
give the rules written on the tablets of stone by God, which become the Ten
Commandments to follow. This is at the root of Jewish faith.
These Ten Commandments, the first four deals with the relationship with the
one God and the other six deal with the relationship with other people (Exd. 20, 7-17).
Other important figures in Jewish faith include King David and his son
Solomon who built a first holy Temple in Jerusalem which was destroyed by the
Babylonians. The popular symbol of Judaism is the start of David, a symbol of unity.
At its core Judaism is believed to have its base in the Torah, that is the five first
books of the Hebrew bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, numbers and Deuteronomy).
They also have other texts based on their experience and the teaching of the Rabbi and
the prophetic books called Tannak.
There are three Jewish movements, or sects.
Orthodox Judaism: these are the strict observers of the Jewish law. For
example, most of the Jews observe Shabbat as a weekly moment of celebration and

42
remembrance how they dress, what they can and cannot eat (kosher laws). And they
pray three times a day.
Conservative Judaism: which sees the Jewish law as obligatory but they have
adopted a certain way to navigate around those laws. Such as the driving to the
synagogue during Shabbat, which traditionally it is not allowed.
Reformed Judaism: these are the more liberal Judaism to suit the modern days.
Thirteen principles of Jewish faith.
1. God exists and is the cause of all existence:
2. God is one: he is not divided unity.
3. God is incorporeal: he has no body.
4. God is eternal: this means that nothing pre existed God or brought God into
being.
5. Serve God exclusively: worship only God and not anything that he created.
6. God communicates through prophecy: This communication is Gods
initiative.
7. Moses was the ultimate prophet: God chose him from all humanity, for all
of time to receive the highest degree of prophetic experience.
8. The Torah is of divine origin: along with all the explanations that Moses
offered, are all from Gods mouth.
9. The Torah is immutable: it is not changeable since it was delivered by God
and nothing can be amended in any way.
10. God is Omniscient: God knows everything. These includes the active
attention to each individual at every moment.
11. God rewards and punishes: God communicated his expectation and gave us
the ability to chose and these choices have consequences.
12. They will be a messiah: there will be a time when the Torah will be
fulfilled in entirety, that is the messianic era, who will be the descendent of
king David who will be a global leader.
13. The dead will be resurrected: at the end of time, God will restore the lives
of the departed people both of the righteous who will go to heaven and the
evil who will go to hell.

Christianity
Christianity is another Abrahamic religion which is rooted in Abraham as their father
of faith. Christianity has to do with the person of Christ. Who is Christ? It is and
English word which represents a Hebrew idea, Hebrew promise. And that is the
promise of the messiah, the anointed one. The messiah was to come because of the
separation of man and God as result of sin. Therefore, its origin is rooted in historical
facts about the birth of Christ to his death and resurrection from the dead. Its message

43
centers on the doctrines which Christ revealed to his followers as a mystery that lies
beyond human reason. This Christ is the embodiment of God in a human form. He
performed miracles and was executed by the roman authority and rose from the dead
after three days and appeared to his disciples for 40 days before he ascended back to
heaven.
People are saved by faith in Jesus Christ. And after death they will live an eternal life.
Three reason why Christianity is superior
1. Superior revelation of God: most religions have very limited view of God
either as an impersonal force or a super human being. Christianity reveals that
God is a spiritual personal god with consciousness, will, power, knowledge,
moral force and communicative power. Christianity explains what type of god
is and what he wants from us.
2. Superior leader: all other religions have men and women as there leader.
Christianity has god himself as their leader in the form of a human being Jesus
Christ. This leader is always alive to direct and encourage his followers in
every generation.
3. Superior solution: Christianity offers solutions to the problem of humanity. It
identifies the problem underlining the human problem and suffering that we
see. That is separation from God caused by sin or disobedience to god. and a
solution is offered. God himself takes up the responsibility by coming down
and pay by death. God does for humans what humans cannot do for themselves
by eliminating the guilty and death cause by sin. Other religion try to offer
solution by imposing religious laws or practices.

Jesus Christ
The only authentic source about Jesus is the bible. The bible contains eyewitness
account of Jesus for us to read even to this day. In short, the whole bible is about
Jesus. For example, the Old Testament describes the creation and the preparation
for his coming. The New Testament or the gospels are the eyewitness account of
his life and the establishment of the Christian church.
Who is Jesus?
He historically existed he was born of the Virgin Mary who was betrothed to
Joseph from the lineage of David. He began his ministry by claiming that he was
the messiah and he was executed by the roman leaders.
1. Peter the apostle: he was a fisherman who was called by Jesus to be his disciple
and witnessed Jesus’s miracles. He was executed in Rome claiming that what
he had heard and seen was true. Peter describes Jesus as “the Christ the son of
the living God” (Mt. 16, 16).so peter claimed that Jesus was the messiah
promised by the Old Testament. In other words, he was the one sent by God to

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 save mankind. Jesus according to peter was divine and resurrected from the
dead.
2. Thomas the Apostle: he is always referred to as the doubting Thomas because
he is always looking for proof to who Jesus is. In john 20, 24-25 Jesus
confronts Thomas and encourages him to believe. After this confrontation
Thomas shows us that Jesus was risen from the dead, Jesus is God worthy of
worship and has authority.
3. Paul the apostle: Paul was a Jew and an early persecutor of the church. He was
a Pharisee and a religious zealot. He encountered Jesus in a vision. After this
encounter Paul was changed (Acts 22, 3-18) and went on to preach and
established the church in the roman empire. He was martyred by Nero in Roma
in 67 AD. In his writings, he describes Jesus (Col. 1, 15-18). As we can see
Paul says that Jesus is the visible image of God, existed before creation,
supreme over creation, agent of creation, is eternal, head of the church in
heaven and on earth, leads to the resurrection.
4. Jesus himself: what did Jesus say about himself?
i. Samaritan woman: the saviour and messiah.
Jn. 4, 25-26. He describes himself as the saviour spoken about and
waited by the Jews.
ii. Peter the apostle: Son of the living God
Mt. 16, 15-17. Jesus confirms what Jesus says about him and even goes
on to say how peter has come to that knowledge. It is a revelation from
the father.
iii. The apostles: Lord over heaven and earth.
Mt. 28, 18-20. Jesus claims exclusive divine authority over everything.

Branches of Christianity
The are six major branches of Christianity. These are Roman Catholicism,
Protestantism, Eastern Orthodoxy, Oriental Orthodoxy, Restorationism and the church
of the east.

Roman Catholicism
The Catholic Church also known as the Roman Catholic Church is the largest
Christian church, with 1.3 billion followers. The pope, who is the bishop of Rome is
the chief pastor of this church.

45
The core beliefs of Catholicism are founded in the Nicene Creed or the niceno-
constantinopolitan creed. This creed is a definition of the belief that Jesus is “divine
and human” (Two natures) “begotten of the Father” (con-substantial). These
definitions where against the heresy of Arius (Arianism) and Nestorius
(Nestorianism).

Arianism is a Christological position that Jesus, as the Son of God, was created by
God. God alone is immutable and self-existent and the son of God but a creature with
a beginning. The council of Nicaea (325) condemned this teaching and declared the
son to be “of one substance with the father”.

Nestorianism is another theological Christian doctrine, which opposes the hypostatic

union and emphasizes a radical distinction between two natures (human and divine) of
Jesus Christ. The Jesus in the world was human and the Jesus in the trinity was divine,
thus Mary is not the mother of God but the mother of the human Jesus who suffered
and died on the cross. Anthropos and not theotokos.

The Catholic Church also teaches that it is one, holy, catholic and apostolic church
founded by Jesus in his great commission. These are the four marks of the church also
known as the attributes of the church.

One
This mark derives from the Pauline epistles, which states that the church is one. In
1cor. 15, 9 Paul spoke of himself as having persecuting “the church of God”, not just
the local church in Jerusalem but the same church that he addresses at the beginning
of the letter as “the church of God in Corinth” (1Cor. 1, 2). In the same letter, he tell
the Christians: “you are the body of Christ and individual members and just as the
body is one and has many members and all the member if the body, though many, are
one body” (1Cor. 12, 12; Eph. 4, 5-6). Thus there is neither Jew nor Greek, neither
slave nor free, no male or female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus (Gal. 3, 28).

In other words, firstly, the church is one because of her source, that is, the unity in the
Trinity of persons, of one God, the father, the Son and Holy spirit.
Again, the church is one because her founder: for the word made flesh, the prince of
peace, reconciled all men to God by the cross, restoring unity of all in one people and
one body

Lastly, the church is one because of its soul: it is the Holy Spirit, dwelling in those
who believe and ruling over the entire church, who brings about that wonderful

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communion of the faithful and joins them together so intimately in Christ that he the
principle of the church’s unity

Holy
The word holy in this sense means set apart for a special purpose by and for God. the
church is holy because it has been set apart to do God’s work and because God is
present in it. They understand the holiness of the church to derive from Christ’s
holiness. United with Christ, the church is sanctified by him; through him and with
him and she becomes sanctifying. Thus, all activities of the church are directed
towards the sanctifying of men in Christ and the glorification of God.

Catholic
The word catholic is derived the Greek adjective καɵολɩκóς (katholikos) which means
“general”, “universal”. It is associated with the Greek verb καɵλου (katholou)
meaning “according to the whole”, “entirely” or in “general”. That is a combination of
the preposition κατα (kata) meaning “according to” and όλος (olos) meaning “whole”
Applied to the church, the word catholic means that in the church the wholeness of the
Christian faith, full and complete, all-embracing, and with nothing lacking is
proclaimed to all people without excluding any part of faith or any class or group of
people (CCC. 830-856). The church of Christ subsist in the Catholic Church.

We can conclude by saying that the church is catholic in a double sense: first, the
church is catholic because Christ is present in her. In her subsists the fullness of
Christ’s body united with its head; this means that she receives from him the “fullness
means of salvation” which he has willed: correct and complete confession of faith, full
sacramental life, and ordained ministry in apostolic succession.
Secondly, the church is catholic because she has been sent out by Christ on a mission
to the whole world of human race in the great commission.

Apostolic
This describes the church’s foundation and beliefs as rooted and continuing in the
living tradition of the apostles of Jesus and have apostolic succession. That is to say, a
church is apostolic as it recognises in practice the supreme authority of the apostolic
scriptures.
The church is foundered on the apostles in three way:
i. She was and remains built on “the foundation of the apostles”, the witness
chosen and sent on mission by Christ himself (Eph. 2, 20; Rv. 21, 14; Mt.
28, 16-20; Acts 1, 8; 1Cor. 9,1; 15, 7-8, Gal. 1, 1)
ii. With the help of the Spirit dwelling in her, the church keeps and hands on
the teaching she has heard from the apostles.

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 iii.She continues to be taught, sanctified and guided by the apostles until
Christ comes through the successors in pastoral office; the college of
bishops in union with the successor of peter.
Sacraments
The Catholic Church believes that there are seven sacraments instituted by Christ
while he was here on earth. According to the Catholic Church, a sacrament is an
invisible sign of inward grace. These seven sacraments includes, Baptism,
confirmation, Eucharist, Holy Orders, Matrimony, Penance and Anointing of the Sick.
As such, there are divided into three categories or groups. The first category consist of
the sacrament of baptism7, confirmation8 and the Holy Eucharist9. Although each
sacrament is meant to strengthen our faith and forge a deeper relationship with God,
this group is called the «sacraments of initiation» for they introduce and confirm us
into the family of God and render us participate in the life of God. In short, they lay
the foundation of every Christian life. Baptism washes or frees us from original sin
and makes us children of God and we are conferred with the character of priests, kings
and prophets. By the sacrament of confirmation we are thus strengthen in faith and we
come to share in the banquet of heaven and are united with Christ in the sacrament of
the Eucharist. That is, the Eucharist allows us to taste the body and blood of eternal
life and be reminded of Christ’s love and sacrifice. As the Catechism of the Catholic
Church, adds, by these sacraments of Christian initiation, the believers receive in
increasing measure the treasures of the divine life and advance towards the perfection
of charity10.

The other category contains only two sacraments: the sacrament of penance and the
sacrament of the anointing of the sick. This category is called the sacraments of
Healing11. As it were, penance allows us to have a spiritual healing and absolution
from sin for people who have distanced themselves from God through sin. So during
this sacrament, one confesses his or her sins to God through a priest who absorbs their
sins by God’s mercy and order them to live a more faithful life through the observance
of penance. Confession is essential for cultivating and fruitfully living out the word of

7
Mt. 28, 19 «Go therefore and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of
the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit». See also Mk. 1, 9-11; Acts 16, 31-33.
8
Jos. 1, 9 «have I not commanded you? Be strong and courageous. Do not be terrified; do
not be discouraged, for the Lord your God will be with you wherever you go»; Jn. 3, 16; 8,
12.
9
Mt. 26, 26-28 «while they were eating, Jesus took some bread, and after a blessing, He
broke it and gave it to the disciples and said “Take, eat; this is My body”. And when He had
taken a cup and given thanks, he gave it to them, saying, “drink from it, all of you; for this is
my blood of the covenant, which will be poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins”»;
Cor. 10, 16-17; Acts 2, 42-46.
10
CCC., 1212.
11
Ibid., 1420.
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God. We are not perfect people, even if we try to be. It feels so better to confess some
of those things you have done wrong and receive forgiveness. This helps us have a
stronger relationship with God12. The sacrament of the anointing of the sick is only
bestowed upon those who are seriously ill or suffering, which unites the afflicted with
Christ’s passion. This sacrament is administered by anointing the forehead, the palms,
the feet and the chest (as the situation my demand) with the oil of the sick with a
special blessing for each anointing. These special blessings are meant to strengthened
the sick person and make them more connected or united with God in both mind and
body13.

The last category is that of the «sacraments of service» in that they are directed
towards the salvation of others so that if they contribute as well as to personal
salvation, it is through service to others that they do so 14. It is in this category that we
find the sacrament of marriage and holy orders. In particular, they confer a particular
mission in the Church and serve to build up the people of God (church community).
That is to say, by their devotion to each other, marriage mirrors Christ’s love and
service to the church. Through marriage, a couple promises to help build each other in
faith, to serve each other and the church and be faithful to each other until death as
Jesus is faithful to the Church15. Thus, the Christian spouses are fortified and, as it
were, consecrated for the duties and dignity of their state by a special sacrament16.

The sacrament of the Holy orders on the other hand, is for those who choose to
become a priest through a valid ordination. These men are able to perform sacred
duties and serve the church community by providing them with the sacraments of the
church. This sacrament, we should affirm, is not the same with that which we become
when we are confirmed. As such, there are two types of priest-hood in the Catholic
Church. The common priest hood which every confirmed Catholic share in the
priesthood of Christ. We should note that common priesthood is not a sacrament but a
gift that the Holy Spirit gives to those who receive the sacrament of confirmation. The
other type of priesthood is the ministerial priest-hood. It is only the ministerial priest
hood received through a valid ordination which is a sacrament and thus called holy
orders17.

12
Lk. 13, 3; Prv. 28, 13; Ezk. 18, 21«But if the wicked do penance for all his sins which he
hath committed, and keep all my commandments, and do judgement, and justice, living he
shall live, and shall not die»
13
James 5, 14 «is anyone sick among you? Let him call for the elders of the church, and let
them pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord»; Mk. 6, 13; Mt. 8, 17.
14
CCC., 1533.
15
Eph. 5, 25 «For husbands, this means love your wife, just as Christ loved the church. He
gave up his life for her»; Jer. 29, 11; Gen. 1, 27-28.
16
GS., 48, 2.
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 17
1Pet. 2, 9: «you are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for his own
possession to proclaim the excellences of him who called you out of darkness into his
marvelous light». (Thus) «pay careful attention to yourselves and all the flock, in which the
Holy Spirit has made you overseers, to care for the church of God, which he obtained with
his own blood» (Acts 20, 28).
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