MODULE 6 UNIT 2: Language Policy

Objectives
The specific objectives of this unit are to
a. explain the concepts of language policy and planning in multilingual nations;
b. describe types of policies in African nations; and c. mention and
critique some language provisions that express national ideologies on multilingualism, using Nigeria as a
case study.
6.2.1 Language Policy: Definition and Principles
Language policy has a great role to play in both language planning and national development. Without much ado, a
language policy refers to the ideas and opinions of people about the attitudes, beliefs and practices of people about
their languages. Such ideas may be unwritten or, sometimes, written in documents. A public policy represents the
position of government on language issues published in national documents such as white papers, memoranda and
the constitution. For example, some language provisions stated in the constitution (the Amended Constitution of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria 2011, henceforth The Constitution) and National Policy on Education (NPE 1977,
revised 1981, 1998, 2004 and 2013) are stated below.
i. The business of the National Assembly shall be conducted in English, and in Hausa, Ibo and Yoruba when
adequate arrangements have been made therefor. (The Constitution, Para.55)
ii. The business of a House of Assembly shall be conducted in English, but the House may in addition to English
conduct the business of the House in one or more other languages spoken in the State as the House may by
resolution approve. (The Constitution, Para.97)
Also, a provision in the NPE states as follows:
iii. …every child shall be taught in the mother tongue or language of the immediate community for the first four
years of basic education. In addition, it is expected that every child learn one Nigerian language. (NPE revised
2013, Section 8g)
Language Policy Contd
A language policy is crucial to language planning. If the community in question feels that the task of language planning is of
sufficient interest to demand the authoritative attention of the political system, then the issue of language becomes a matter of public
policy. This usually takes the form of the government issuing a white paper or policy statement on the planned course of action on
the utilisation of the language resources of a nation. Even when policy statements are not written, they, nonetheless, reflect the
people’s ideologies, beliefs, attitudes and practices in the languages.
Basically, a policy contains only a general outline of preferred terminal goals and realisable objectives in terms of the number of
languages to be recognised and assigned primary and secondary functions. For instance, if more than one language is recognized in
a society, which one should come first; at what stage should the others be introduced; will the entire community be involved at once
or only those at school initially; would there be enough resources to spread on all the objectives in a balanced manner; and finally,
is the community capable of meeting these objectives? Some of the resources mentioned above involve, not only finance materials
and manpower, but, also, political resources of influence, authority and institutional capability accessible to the planners. For
instance, the policy of mother tongue education is suggested by Professor Aliyu Babatunde Fafunwa in Nigeria.
The formulation of a policy aims at identifying and assigning roles to languages in various domains such as education, official or
national communication in relation to politics, economics, the media, health, cultural preservation and national integration and
foreign relations. The goal is to enable and enhance sustainable national development through the various domains. Development
goals are set in these areas from time to time institutionally. For example two of such are the African Union New Partnership for
Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and the United Nation’s sponsored Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The goals of the
MDGs intended to be achieved by the year 2015 pertain to eradication of poverty and hunger, achievement of Universal Primary
Education, promotion of gender equality, reduction of child mortality, improvement of maternal health, combating HIV/AIDS,
environmental sustainability and development of global partnership for development (cf. Bamgbose 2014). Nations often develop
periodic plans or even long time plans to set targets for development such as the Vision 20-2020 in Nigeria whose main objective is
to position the country to become one of the world’s leading economies by the year 2020.
6.2.2 Types of Language Policy Decisions in Africa
Three types of policy decision which are crucial to the consideration of language policies and planning in developing nations of Africa are
identified thus (see Fishman 1971, Verdoodt 1979): Type A – The Amodal type; Type B – The Unimodal type; and Type C – The
Multimodal type
Type A – The Amodal Policy Decision
This type of policy decision is as a result of two major factors. First, there is a lack of perceived sociocultural integration at the national level
in which the policy operates. In other words, there is no of feeling of unity of history, customs, values or mission traceable into a distant past.
Second, there is lack of felt political integration at the national level. That is, it is a type of working agreement that draws all the diverse
groups together. The two factors usually lead to the selection of a LWC as the national official language. With few exceptions, such nations
usually opt for the language of their pre-independence western rulers for all national purposes. One reason for this is the fact that, normally at
independence, there are already western-trained and modernly-oriented elite who hope to continue in positions of authority in all the basic
governmental services as well as in industry, commerce, education and culture.
Nations in which Amodal policy is preferred need to engage in limited language planning activities. It is felt that the situation operating in the
donor country should also apply and an exo-normative standard LWC adopted. In some cases, however, some groups in the society may still
clamour for the promotion of their local languages. Thus the local languages may be promoted to facilitate the preparation of more effective
teaching and learning materials. There is also the encouragement of terminal literacy work in some of the local mother tongues among the
other adults that require literacy. Bilingualism is seen as a transitional stage in countries where the Amodal decision is taken. The younger
generations are expected to give up their local tongues in exchange for the foreign national language, which is also the LWC, while the older
generation is expected to lose whatever aspects of the LWC they have acquired and then revert to their various tongues. Ultimately, the
former process is expected to win over the latter. However, this situation is only idealistic. In real life situation, a diglossia pattern usually
exists where the mother tongue is used with intimates and the LWC is used at work or with non-intimates. Note that many families will
remain bilingual with constant switch between the local languages and LWC. Biculturalism is also seen as transitional in this situation. It is,
therefore, expected that with time, the various ethnic categories will merge into a supranational entity, usually with a western mono-cultural
lifestyle.
Types of Language Policy Contd
Countries in which the Amodal policy decision is taken include Cameroon, Liberia, Gambia and Guinea. In Cameroon
the LWC and indigenous languages are in conflict. Meanwhile, English and French have equal footing at the Federal
level, although the latter has a de-facto predominance. In Guinea, people are castigating French as a depersonalizing
and dehumanizing. And lastly, in Gambia. Liberia, and Sierra Leone, English serves as the official language.
Type B – The Unimodal Policy Decision
The nations in which Type B decision predominates tend to be based upon language established sociocultural unity
and established political boundaries as well. There is widespread consensus among the population that a single great
tradition is available to provide indigenised and symbolically elaborated laws, beliefs, customs, literatures, heroes
mission and identity appropriate for a nationwide identification This is the situation that is operating in South Africa
and Namibia where we find the language Afrikaans being used by Africans, Afrikaans being a combination of
Afrikaner and Deutsche. Other countries in this group are Burundi (Kirundi), Ethiopia (Amharic), Botswana
(Setswana), Rwanda (Kinyarwanda], Lesotho (Sesotho), Tanzania and Uganda (Swahili). Arabic-speaking countries
too can be put in this situation where Arabic is the national language and English or French serves official uses
–Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Somalia (also Somali), Sudan and Tunisia. In Kenva, English plays an official role
while Swahili is another LWC.
Types of Language Policy Contd
Type C – Multimodal Policy Decision
This type of policy is characterised by a conflicting or competing multiplicity of some great traditions. Each of the competing
traditions is ideologically strong enough to support a separate socio-cultural and political entity. As such, their co-occurrence
within a single polity makes for further constant internal tension and for national disunity, particularly in the absence of a
super-nationalistic goal, since nationalism is a rather well-developed but traditionally regional phenomenon.
This is the case with the Nigerian polity where there are several languages conflicting with one another, each trying to gain
supremacy over the other in terms of national goals and recognition. At the regional level, language selection is no more than it
was in the unimodal policy type. Since regional great traditions have their own language counter language counterparts, it is at
the broad national level that language selection problems occur. This is why so far any indigenous for the role of national
language would feel an unfair advantage to its native speakers, its native region and to its native great tradition in the
management of national affairs.
For greater national prominence, among the various contending indigenous languages, a foreign LWC is frequently selected or
utilised as an official or as a working language at the national level and, sometimes, in conjunction with one or more
indigenous languages. This has been the case with the Nigerian polity where there are so many contending indigenous
languages for the role of a national language However, no one particular indigenous has been appointed to the post of a
national language simply because of the problem of disunity which may emerge from this. It is in the light of this that English
language is chosen as the LWC and is supported partially by three other Nigerian indigenous languages (see provisions (i) and
(ii) on p.103). In South Africa, eleven languages have been listed as official languages.
In the Francophone countries e.g. Zaire, French is considered and used as the national/official language and in conjunction
with other prominent indigenous languages. The same situation operates in some countries outside Africa like India, Pakistan,
Sri Lanka, Malaysia and Singapore.
6.2.3 A Critique of Language Policy Provisions in Nigeria
A comprehensive national language policy would contain language provisions to guide communication in different aspects of social
life – politics, education, literature, law, mass media, economy, health, national integration, agriculture, science and technology,
religion and culture. But there is no comprehensive language policy to address language-related problems in these areas. Instead, a few
provisions are observed, two stated in the national constitution (see 6.1) and many others stated a while ago from the National Policy
on Education (revised 2013) document. Eight provisions on which so much discourse has taken place on the subject are examined here
as listed in Appendix 1 of this book. Altogether, all the provisions have problems with their formulation and would have to be
reformulated.
Provision 1. This provision has remained unchanged in the constitution since 1979, but it has not been implemented for various
reasons. A major reason is the preference given to three languages, Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba, by mentioning them overtly in the
constitution (cf. Adegbite 2008a). This is the main complaint by the ethnic minority groups expressed in agitations by politicians and
scholars for equality of languages and the rights of individuals (cf. Egbokhare 2004). Another reason is the expression “when adequate
arrangements have been made therefor,” that has been described by scholars as an escape clause that covers up inaction (cf. Bamgbose
1994). A reformulation is required for this provision to correct the flaws above.
Reformulation: The business of The National Assembly shall be conducted in English and Nigerian indigenous languages, when
desirable. (The use of italics is to highlight the key area(s) of the changes made.)
Provision 2. Like Provision 1 above, this provision has been in the constitution since 1979, unchanged and it has hitherto been
considered appropriate by scholars. But considering the reality of the situation, where English is a second language, the indigenous
language(s) ought to be considered primary at the state level and should be mentioned before English (Adegbite 2010). A
reformulation is thus suggested as follows:
Reformulation: The business of a House of Assembly shall be conducted in the language(s) of the immediate
environment in each State, as the House may by resolution approve, and in English.
A Critique of Language Policy Provisions in Nigeria Contd
Provision 3. There has been a revision of this provision in NPE (revised 2013) from the earlier statement in the NPE (revised
2004) edition. The earlier provision states as follows:
Government appreciates the importance of language as a means of promoting social interaction and national cohesion; and
preserving cultures. Thus every child shall learn the language of the immediate environment. Furthermore in the interest of
national unity, it is expedient that every child shall be required to learn one of the three Nigerian languages, Hausa, Igbo, and
Yoruba. (NPE, 2004, Para. 10a)
Like the flaw in Provision 1, the explicit statement of the three languages mars the provision and has prompted the revision in
2013 as follows:
Every child shall be taught in the mother tongue or the language of immediate community for the first four years of basic
education. In addition, it is expected that every child shall learn one Nigerian language. (Para. 8g, p. 4)
The revision is an improvement over the previous formulation because it has eliminated bias towards a few languages and
given the child or community the freedom to choose from any of the languages he/she/they may desire. But the preamble of
the provision in the earlier version provides a sound basis for the provision and need not have been removed, as shown below:
Reformulation: Government appreciates the importance of language as a means of promoting social interaction
and national cohesion; and preserving cultures. Thus, every child shall be required to learn
another Nigerian language apart from his/her own native language.
A Critique of Language Policy Provisions in Nigeria Contd
Provision 4. This provision is well formulated and is in conformity with international standards. But scholars have reported its
non-implementation. Ohiri-Aniche (2001) reports that most of the nursery schools in Nigeria, which are privately owned, use
English as a medium of instruction and some of them do not even have the “mother tongue or language of the immediate
community” as a subject on the school time table. Some proprietors’/proprietresses’ and head teachers, of course, are aware that
the provision is valid and reasonable (Adegbite and Obilade 2002), but what can they do? Instead, they give the usual escapist
excuse: “That is what the parents want, and s/he who pays the piper dictates the tune.” Can one really blame them for succumbing
to the parents’ pressure, under the false notion of “the earlier English, the better”? Many parents who speak English to their
children at home lack mastery of the language themselves and do not realise what damage they cause their children who may have
to unlearn in future some of the wrong things they have been taught as children. The education administrators who are to enlighten
the parents and also monitor the schools to ensure that they comply with the provision are themselves compromised and the
perpetuation of ignorance continues.
Not minding the merit of the provision above, a possible misconception has arisen with respect to the silence on the role of
English in it. Though it is argued that the role of English can be inferred from the provision, such a role is not clearly specified,
hence the need for its reformulation as follows:
… ensure that the medium of instruction is principally the mother tongue or the language of the immediate community, while
English is taught as a subject …
Provision 5. In NPE (2004) there is a provision that makes the role of French a matter of public policy in Nigeria. The provision
reads as follows:
For smooth interaction with our neighbours, it is desirable for every Nigerian to speak French. Accordingly, French shall be the
second official language in Nigeria and it shall be compulsory in Primary and Junior Secondary Schools but Non-vocational
elective at the Senior Secondary School (NPE 2004, Para 10b)
A Critique of Language Policy Provisions in Nigeria Contd
The provision has been heavily criticised because of the circumstances surrounding its formulation. The provision of French as ‘a
second official language’ was hastily drafted by the military government under General Sani Abacha at that time to spite Britain during
a temporary period of ‘strained’ political relationship between them. Scholars aver that the provision is ambitious and unrealistic,
questioning the essence of a ‘second official’ language when the existing official language, English, is daunting enough to cope with
(cf. Bamgbose 2017). It is also not feasible to introduce French in the primary school curriculum, since every primary school teacher
teaches all subjects and very few of them can teach the subject. Learning a foreign language such as French should be an optional and
not a compulsory task. Although the provision on French as a second language has been removed from the NPE (2013) and the status
reduced, the language is retained as a subject in the curriculum. The current provision needs to be reformulated for two reasons. First,
there is no need for the restrictive expression ‘in monolingual communities’ in the provision. Also, including French in the primary
school curriculum is rather too early as the curriculum will be too loaded.

Reformulation: … the medium of instruction in the Primary School shall be the mother tongue or language of immediate
environment. During this period, English shall be taught as a subject; from the fourth year, English shall
progressively be used as a medium of instruction and the mother tongue or language of immediate environment and
Arabic (for Muslims) shall be taught as subjects… (Primary Education, Para. 20d, p.11)

Provision 6. The main problem with this provision is that the implementation is haphazardly done as it lacks the political will and
commitment of the government. The provision is also well-formulated, to some extent, and it would suffice in the meantime, in view
of indigenous languages that do not yet have the script, human and material resources to cope beyond the lower level as mediums of
instruction. Otherwise, scholars have commented that the fourth year period of change-over from language of immediate environment
A Critique of Language Policy Provisions in Nigeria Contd
early for effectiveness (Fafunwa, et al. 1989, Afolayan 2001, Obanya 2002). They suggest that the native language should be used as
a medium of instruction throughout the six years of primary school or even up till the end of basic education, after the third year of
junior secondary school, while at the same time taught alongside English as a subject. Note, however, the omission of the mother
tongue in the provision’, like in Provision 5, which should be corrected. The concept of ‘mother tongue should be differentiated from
‘language of immediate community’ as they do not mean the same. Also, note the observation made earlier about the non-feasibility
of teaching French at this level of education.
Reformulation: … from the fourth year, English shall progressively be used as a medium of instruction and the mother tongue or
language of immediate environment French and Arabic shall be taught as subjects. - Primary
Education (NPE, Para 20e, p. 12)
Provision 7. The mother tongue or language of immediate community is wrongly omitted in the list of subjects here at the Junior
Secondary School level. It should be included.
Provision 8. The problem with this provision is that ‘a Nigerian language’ and ‘literature in English’ are listed as electives at the
Senior Secondary School level, whereas, they ought to be compulsory subjects, in order to achieve the goals of efficient
bilingualism and functional literacy (Adegbite 2010).
Exercises
20. Discuss the concept, objectives, goals and requirements of language policy.
21a. Identify and explain the types of language policy decisions in Africa.
b. Examine the language in education policy in Nigeria with respect to
the development and roles of English and Nigerian languages.
22. Identify and critically comment on the language provisions in the
Constitution of Nigeria and the National Policy of Education.