THE FUNDAMENTAL UNIT OF LIFE-:

 While examining a thin slice of cork, Robert Hooke saw that the cork resembled the structure of a
honeycomb consisting of many little compartments.
 Cork is a substance which comes from the bark of a tree. This was in the year 1665 when Hooke made
this chance observation through a self-designed microscope.
 Robert Hooke called these boxes cells. Cell is a Latin word for ‘a
little room’. This may seem to be a very small and insignificant
incident but it is very important in the history of science.
 This was the very first time that someone had observed that living
things appear to consist of separate units.
 The use of the word ‘cell’ to describe these units is being used till
this day in biology.
 Let us take a small piece from an onion bulb. With the help of a pair of forceps, we can peel off the skin
(called epidermis) from the concave side (inner layer) of the onion. This layer can be put immediately in
a watch-glass containing water.
This will prevent the peel from getting folded or getting dry. What do we do with this peel?
 Let us take a glass slide, put a drop of water on it and transfer a small piece of the peel from the watch
glass to the slide.
 Make sure that the peel is perfectly flat on the slide. A thin camel hair paintbrush might be necessary to
help transfer the peel.
 Now we put a drop of safranin solution on this piece followed by a cover slip.
 Take care to avoid air bubbles while putting the cover slip with the help of a mounting needle. Ask your
teacher for help.
 We have prepared a temporary mount of onion peel.
 We can observe this slide under low power followed by high powers of a compound microscope
 Cells were first discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665. He observed the cells in a cork slice with the help of
a primitive microscope.
 Leeuwenhoek (1674), with the improved microscope, discovered the free living cells in pond water for
the first time.
 It was Robert Brown in 1831 who discovered the nucleus in the cell. Purkinje in 1839 coined the term
‘protoplasm’ for the fluid substance of the cell.
 The cell theory, that all the plants and animals are composed of cells and that the cell is the basic unit of
life, was presented by two biologists, Schleiden (1838) and Schwann (1839).
 The cell theory was further expanded by Virchow (1855) by suggesting that all cells arise from pre-
existing cells. With the discovery of the electron microscope in 1940, it was possible to observe and
understand the complex structure of the cell and its various organelles.
 The invention of magnifying lenses led to the discovery of the microscopic world.
 It is now known that a single cell may constitute a whole organism as in Amoeba, Chlamydomonas,
Paramoecium and bacteria.
 These organisms are called unicellular organisms (uni = single). On the other hand, many cells group
together in a single body and assume different functions in it to form various body parts in multicellular
organisms (multi = many) such as some fungi, plants and animals.
 Can we find out names of some more unicellular organisms? Every multi-cellular organism has come
from a single cell. How? Cells divide to produce cells of their own kind. All cells thus come from pre-
existing cells.
 Some organisms can also have cells of different kinds.
 It depicts some cells from the human body. The shape and size of cells are related to the specific
function they perform.
 Some cells like Amoeba have changing shapes. In some cases the cell shape could be more or less fixed
and peculiar for a particular type of cell; for example, nerve cells have a typical shape.
  Each living cell has the capacity to perform certain basic functions that are characteristic of all living
forms. How does a living cell perform these basic functions? We know that there is a division of labour in
multicellular organisms such as human beings.
 This means that different parts of the human body perform different functions. The human body has a
heart to pump blood, a stomach to digest food and so on. Similarly, division of labour is also seen within
a single cell.
 In fact, each such cell has got certain specific components within it known as cell organelles.
 Each kind of cell organelle performs a special function, such as making new material in the cell, clearing
up the waste material from the cell and so on.
 A cell is able to live and perform all its functions because of these organelles. These organelles together
constitute the basic unit called the cell.
 It is interesting that all cells are found to have the same organelles, no matter what their function is or
what organism they are found in.

What is a Cell Made Up of?

 If we study a cell under a microscope, we would come across three features in almost every cell; plasma
membrane, nucleus and cytoplasm. All activities inside the cell and interactions of the cell with its
environment are possible due to these features.

5.2.1 PLASMA MEMBRANE OR CELL MEMBRANE

 This is the outermost covering of the cell that separates the contents of the cell from its external
environment.
 The plasma membrane allows or permits the entry and exit of some materials in and out of the cell. It
also prevents movement of some other materials.
 The cell membrane, therefore, is called a selectively permeable membrane.
 Some substances like carbon dioxide or oxygen can move across the cell membrane by a process called
diffusion.
 We saw that there is spontaneous movement of a substance from a region of high concentration to a
region where its concentration is low.
 If the medium surrounding the cell has a higher water concentration
than the cell, meaning that the outside solution is very dilute, the cell
will gain water by osmosis. Such a solution is known as a hypotonic
solution. Water molecules are free to pass across the cell membrane in
both directions, but more water will come into the cell than will leave.
The net (overall) result is that water enters the cell. The cell is likely to
swell up.
 If the medium has exactly the same water concentration as the cell, there will be no net movement of
water across the cell membrane. Such a solution is known as an isotonic solution. Water crosses the cell
membrane in both directions, but the amount going in is the same as the amount going out, so there is
no overall movement of water. The cell will stay the same size.
 If the medium has a lower concentration of water than the cell, meaning that it is a very concentrated
solution, the cell will lose water by osmosis. Such a solution is known as a hypertonic solution.
 The plasma membrane is flexible and is made up of organic molecules called lipids and proteins.
 However, we can observe the structure of the plasma membrane only through an electron microscope.
 The flexibility of the cell membrane also enables the cell to engulf in food and other material from its
external environment. Such processes are known as endocytosis.
 Amoeba acquires its food through such processes.

5.2.2 CELL WALL

 Plant cells, in addition to the plasma membrane, have another rigid outer covering called the cell wall.
 The cell wall lies outside the plasma membrane. The plant cell wall is mainly composed of cellulose.
  Cellulose is a complex substance and provides structural strength to plants. When a living plant cell loses
water through osmosis there is shrinkage or contraction of the contents of the cell away from the cell
wall.
 This phenomenon is known as plasmolysis.

NUCLEUS
 The nucleus has a double layered covering called nuclear membrane. The nuclear membrane has pores
which allow the transfer of material from inside the nucleus to its outside, that is,
to the cytoplasm.
 The nucleus contains chromosomes, which are visible as rod-shaped structures
only when the cell is about to divide.
 Chromosomes contain information for inheritance of characters from parents to
next generation in the form of DNA (Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid) molecules.
Chromosomes are composed of DNA and protein.
 DNA molecules contain the information necessary for constructing and organising
cells. Functional segments of DNA are called genes. In a cell which is not
dividing, this DNA is present as part of chromatin material. Chromatin
material is visible as entangled mass of thread like structures. Whenever
the cell is about to divide, the chromatin material gets organised into
chromosomes.
 The nucleus plays a central role in cellular reproduction, the process by
which a single cell divides and forms two new cells.
 It also plays a crucial part, along with the environment, in determining the way the cell will develop and
what form it will exhibit at maturity, by directing the chemical activities of the cell.
 In some organisms like bacteria, the nuclear region of the cell may be poorly defined due to the absence
of a nuclear membrane. Such an undefined nuclear region containing only nucleic acids is called a
nucleoid.
 Such organisms, whose cells lack a nuclear membrane, are called prokaryotes (Pro = primitive or
primary; karyote ≈ karyon = nucleus). Organisms with cells having a nuclear membrane are called
eukaryotes.
 Prokaryotic cells also lack most of the other cytoplasmic organelles present in eukaryotic cells.
 Many of the functions of such organelles are also performed by poorly organised parts of the.
 The chlorophyll in photosynthetic prokaryotic bacteria is associated with membranous vesicles (bag like
structures) but not with plastids as in eukaryotic cells.

CYTOPLASM
 When we look at the temporary mounts of onion peel as well as human cheek cells, we can see a large
region of each cell enclosed by the cell membrane.
 This region takes up very little stain. It is called the cytoplasm.
 The cytoplasm is the fluid content inside the plasma membrane. It also contains many specialised cell
organelles.
 Each of these organelles performs a specific function for the cell. Cell organelles are enclosed by
membranes.
 In prokaryotes, beside the absence of a defined nuclear region, the membrane-bound cell organelles are
also absent.
  On the other hand, the eukaryotic cells have nuclear membrane as well as membrane-enclosed
organelles.

CELL ORGANELLES
 Every cell has a membrane around it to keep its own contents separate from the external environment.
 Large and complex cells, including cells from multicellular organisms, need a lot of chemical activities to
support their complicated structure and function.
 To keep these activities of different kinds separate from each other, these cells use membrane-bound
little structures (or ‘organelles’) within themselves.
 This is one of the features of the eukaryotic cells that distinguish them from prokaryotic cells. Some of
these organelles are visible only with an electron microscope.
 Some important examples of cell organelles which we will discuss now are: endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, lysosomes, mitochondria and plastids. They are important because they carry out some very
crucial functions in cells.

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ER)

 The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a large network of membrane-bound tubes and sheets. It looks like
long tubules or round or oblong bags (vesicles).
 The ER membrane is similar in structure to the plasma membrane. There are two types of ER– rough
endoplasmic reticulum (RER) and smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER).
 RER looks rough under a microscope because it has particles called ribosomes attached to its surface.
The ribosomes, which are present in all active cells, are the sites of protein manufacture.
 The manufactured proteins are then sent to various places in the cell depending on need, using the ER.
 The SER helps in the manufacture of fat molecules, or lipids, important for cell function.
 Some of these proteins and lipids help in building the cell membrane. This process is known as
membrane biogenesis.
 Some other proteins and lipids function as enzymes and hormones. Although the ER varies greatly in
appearance in different cells, it always forms a network system.
 Thus, one function of the ER is to serve as channels for the transport of materials (especially proteins)
between various regions of the cytoplasm or between the cytoplasm and the nucleus.

GOLGI APPARATUS
 The Golgi apparatus, first described by Camillo Golgi, consists of a system of membrane-bound vesicles
(flattened sacs) arranged approximately parallel to each other in stacks called cisterns.
  These membranes often have connections with the membranes of ER and therefore constitute another
portion of a complex cellular membrane system.
 The material synthesised near the ER is packaged and dispatched to various targets inside and outside
the cell through the Golgi apparatus.
 Its functions include the storage, modification and packaging of products in vesicles. In some cases,
complex sugars may be made from simple sugars in the Golgi apparatus. The Golgi apparatus is also
involved in the formation of lysosomes

LYSOSOMES
 Structurally, lysosomes are membrane-bound sacs filled with digestive enzymes. These enzymes are
made by RER.
 Lysosomes are a kind of waste disposal system of the cell. These help to keep the cell clean by digesting
any foreign material as well as worn-out cell organelles.
 Foreign materials entering the cell, such as bacteria or food, as well as old organelles end up in the
lysosomes, which break complex substances into simpler substances.
 Lysosomes are able to do this because they contain powerful digestive enzymes capable of breaking
down all organic material.
 During the disturbance in cellular metabolism, for example, when the cell gets damaged, lysosomes may
burst and the enzymes digest their own cell. Therefore, lysosomes are also known as the ‘suicide bags’ of
a cell.

MITOCHONDRIA
 Mitochondria are known as the powerhouses of the cell. Mitochondria have two membrane coverings.
 The outer membrane is porous while the inner membrane is deeply folded. These folds increase surface
area for ATP generating chemical reactions.
 The energy required for various chemical activities needed for life is released by mitochondria in the
form of ATP (Adenosine triphopshate) molecules.
 ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. The body uses energy stored in ATP for making new
chemical compounds and for mechanical work.
 Mitochondria are strange organelles in the sense that they have their own DNA and ribosomes.
Therefore, mitochondria are able to make some of their own proteins.

PLASTIDS
 Plastids are present only in plant cells. There are two types of plastids – chromoplasts (coloured plastids)
and leucoplasts (white or colourless plastids).
 Chromoplasts containing the pigment chlorophyll are known as chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are important
for photosynthesis in plants. Chloroplasts also contain various yellow or orange pigments in addition to
chlorophyll.
 Leucoplasts are primarily organelles in which materials such as starch, oils and protein granules are
stored. The internal organisation of the Chloroplast consists of numerous membrane layers embedded in
a material called the stroma.
 These are similar to mitochondria in external structure. Like the mitochondria, plastids also have their
own DNA and ribosomes.

VACUOLES
 Vacuoles are storage sacs for solid or liquid contents. Vacuoles are small sized in animal cells while plant
cells have very large vacuoles.
 The central vacuole of some plant cells may occupy 50-90% of the cell volume. In plant cells vacuoles are
full of cell sap and provide turgidity and rigidity to the cell.
  Many substances of importance in the life of the plant cell are stored in vacuoles. These include amino
acids, sugars, various organic acids and some proteins. In single-celled organisms like Amoeba, the food
vacuole contains the food items that the Amoeba has consumed.
 In some unicellular organisms, specialised vacuoles also play important roles in expelling excess water
and some wastes from the cell.
 Each cell thus acquires its structure and ability to function because of the organisation of its membrane
and organelles in specific ways.
 The cell thus has a basic structural organisation. This helps the cells to perform functions like respiration,
obtaining nutrition, and clearing of waste material, or forming new proteins.
Thus, the cell is the fundamental structural unit of living organisms. It is also the basic functional unit of
life.

Cell Division
 New cells are formed in organisms in order to grow, to replace old, dead and injured cells, and to form
gametes required for reproduction.
 The process by which new cells are made is called cell division. There are two main types of cell division:
mitosis and meiosis.
 The process of cell division by which most of the cells divide for growth is called mitosis. In this process,
each cell called mother cell divides to form two identical daughter cells (Fig. 5.7).
 The daughter cells have the same number of chromosomes as mother cell. It helps in growth and repair
of tissues in organisms. Specific cells of reproductive organs or tissues in animals and plants divide to
form gametes, which after fertilisation give rise to offspring.
 They divide by a different process called meiosis which involves two consecutive divisions. When a cell
divides by meiosis it produces four new cells instead of just two (Fig. 5.8).
 The new cells only have half the number of chromosomes than that of the mother cells. Can you think as
to why the chromosome number has reduced to half in daughter cells?
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Tissue
Definition Of Tissue
Tissue is that group of cells, which have the same structure and origin from the same cells, they are
organized together to perform a task efficiently.

Basic Information Of Tissue

 Use of the word “Tissue” -
 Study of Tissues -
 The Branch of Histology was founded by the Italian scientist Marcello Malpighi.
 Whereas it was given the name “Histology” by scientist Mayer (1819 AD).

What is Tissues System

 When tissues collectively perform a specific function, then such a group of tissues is called a tissue
system.

What is Plant Tissue

 Plant tissues provide structural energy and support to plants. These tissues are mostly dead, as they do
not require repair.

Types Of Plant Tissue

Meristematic Tissue
 Cells have capacity of division
 Composed of immature cells
 Undifferentiated
 Cells are always living
 Cells have dense cytoplasm
 Vacuoles are absent
 Thin cell wall

Connect With Us - 1
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Meristematic Tissue

Connect With Us - 2
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Permanent Tissue
 Cells have no capacity of division
 Composed of mature cells
 Fully differentiated
 Cells may be living or dead
 Loss cytoplasm
 Vacuoles are present
 Cell wall may be thick or thin

Difference Between Meristematic Tissues And Permanent Tissues

Meristematic Tissue Permanent Tissue

Cells have capacity of division Cells have no capacity of division
Composed of immature cells Composed of mature cells
Undifferentiated Fully differentiated

Connect With Us - 3
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 4
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Parenchyma Collenchyma Sclerenchyma

Cells Living Living Dead
Cell wall Thin Thickened at coroner Very thick due to lignin
due to pectin mainly
Intercellular space More Very little No
Functions Food storage Provide flexibility &mec Makes plant hard and
hanical support stiff & prov

Connect With Us - 5
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Definition Of Tissue
A group of cells in which cells are similar in structure, function and origin is called tissue
But in a tissue, cells may be dissimilar in structure and function.

Main Functions of Epithelial Tissue

 Protection
 covering
 Secretion
 Absorption
 Excretion
 Diffusion

Connect With Us - 6
Science www.parchamclasses.in

EXAMPLE OF EPITHELIUM TISSUE

Connect With Us - 7
Science www.parchamclasses.in

POSITION OF DIFFERENT TYPE OF EPITHELIAL TISSUE

Connect With Us - 8
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Skeletal connective Tissue

Bone Cartilage

Cartilage
 Softer and more flexible than bone
 It has solid matrix called chondrin Matrix - protein + Sugar
+ Fibers
 Provide smoothness to the bone surfaces at the joints
 Some locations - nose tip, ear pinna , trachea, larynx

Cartilage

Connect With Us - 9
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Areolar Connective Tissue

 Cell types - fibroblasts, plasma cells, macrophages, mast cells and a few white blood cells
 All 3 types of fibers present
 Gelatinous ground substance

Fibrous Tissue

Muscular Tissue

Nervous Tissue

Connect With Us -
10
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Cancer
 Cancer is a disease in which some of the body’s cells grow uncontrollably and spread to other parts of the body.
 Cancer can start almost anywhere in the human body, which is made up of trillions of cells.
 Normally, human cells grow and multiply (through a process called cell division) to form new cells as the body
needs them. When cells grow old or become damaged, they die, and new cells take their place.


Connect With Us -
11
 (Human Digestive System) मानव पाचन तंत

पाचन तंत को दो मुख् भागो मे ववभाजित कक्ा िाता है

The Digestive System is divided into two main parts

1. (Alimentary Canal)
2. (Associated Digestive Glands)

Alimentary Canal
 Major layers of the wall of the alimentary canal

Mouth or Buccal Cavity

Tongue
 A long and muscular structure
 Front part of tongue is free
 The back part is attached to the surface of the mouth
 Tongue helps in chewing and swallowing food as well as speaking by the action of its muscles

Taste Buds
 Bitter taste on back
 Sour taste on the edge of the middle
 Salty taste on front edges
 Sweet-tasting on the forepart

Human Teeth
 Teeth are small, hard and white colored structures located in the mouth (jaw) which are found in
Animals.
 Teeth are used for tearing and chewing food.
 Some animals (especially carnivores) also use teeth for hunting and protection.
 The roots of the teeth are covered by the gums.
 Teeth are not made of bones but are made up of hard tissues of varying densities.

Human temporary teeth have twenty

 Molars are later replaced by Premolars.
 In these, the last chavaranaks located at the four ends are also called wisdom teeth or wisdom
teeth.

Humans have 16 teeth in each jaw (upper and lower).

 In two rows of 8-8 are evenly spaced
 There are 4 types of permanent teeth – incisors, denticles,
anteroposterior and chrysalis.

Type of Teeth
1. (Incisors)
 Four incisors are located in the upper jaw and four incisors are located in the front of the lower
jaw.
 Their shape is flat and sharp like a chisel.
 Therefore, these teeth perform the function of cutting food.
2. (Canine):
 In the upper and lower jaws, two canine teeth are found.
 Their shape is pointed,
 They do the work of tearing the food.
3. (Premolars):
 Two forelimbs are found in the half of each jaw.
 they are wide in size
 They do the work of cutting and breaking food.
4. (Molars Teeth)
 । Their number is four each in the upper and lower jaws.
 Being relatively wide in size, they perform the function of breaking, grinding and chewing the
food.
 The last mandible of each jaw is called the Wisdom Teeth.

Artificial Teeth
 After the teeth have fallen out (tooth decay), prostheses can be placed in their place.
 There are two types of artificial teeth-
1. (Full Teeth)
2. (Dental Spire)
 First of all, bone, ivory, hippo or man's tooth were used to sit on the base of gold or ivory.
 The use of porcelain teeth started from the 18th century.
 In the year 1860, Vulcanized rubber was used for the base.
 Presently, artificial teeth are made from acrylics, resins
and plastics.
Crown
 the part of the tooth that protrudes above the gum
 This part is wider than the rest of the tooth
 The spire has three parts, the Anatomical Crown, Enamel
and Dentine.
 The anatomical crown is the top part of the tooth
 Enamel is the outermost layer of the tooth which is the
hardest tissue in the human body.
 It protects the teeth from bacteria and pressure caused by
eating food.
 A layer called dentin lies beneath the enamel
 It extends from the top to the root, which protects the teeth
from cold and hot substances.
Cervical
 The part located between the top and the root of the tooth is
called the griva.
 It mainly consists of three parts-
 The gums are fleshy and usually pinkish colored connective tissue,
which is attached to the cervix of the tooth.
 Pulp is the innermost part of the tooth which is made up of tiny
 blood vessels. It is called the medullary cavity.

Root
 The root makes up about two-thirds of the tooth.
 It extends to the bone and keeps the tooth fixed in its place.
 Root canal: The passageway in which the marrow is located is called root canal.
 (Cementum) : It is a bone-like structure that covers the root of the tooth.
 (Nerves and Blood vessel): Nerves control the force exerted while chewing food, while blood
vessels provide nourishment.
 (Jaw Bone):
 It is also called alveolar bone.
 Tooth sockets are located in this.
 This bone surrounds the root of the tooth and keeps the teeth fixed in their place.


Pharynx
 Pharynx at the back of the buccal cavity
 It is usually 12 cm. long structure
 There are two common passages or openings for swallowing food and for
breathing.
 The gullet opens from the pharynx into the esophagus and the glottis into
the trachea.
 A flattened structure is found ahead of the larynx, which is called the
Epiglottis.
 While swallowing food, it covers the glottis so that food does not enter the
trachea.

Oesophagus
 9 to 10 inch long tube made of muscle
 starting from the lower part of the pharynx and attached to the
stomach
 Esophagus receives saliva containing food from the gullet
 Its walls are contractile and muscular, in which layered squamous
epithelium is found.
 As soon as the food reaches the esophagus, it starts expanding and
shrinking, this is called Peristalsis.
 Due to this process, food reaches the stomach from the esophagus.
 A valve sphincter is found between the esophagus and the stomach,
which prevents food from returning to the Oesophagus.
 The Oesophagus does not participate in any kind of digestion
process.
 It only transports food to the stomach.
 Digestive glands are not found in the esophagus, but only mucous glands are found in it.

Peristalsis
 It is necessary for the smooth movement of food in the digestive
canal.
 For example, it is needed to carry food from the esophagus to the
stomach, from the stomach to the small intestine and from there to
the large intestine, then to the colon and from there to the anus.
Stomach
 The abdominal cavity has a bilobed sac-like structure located on the left side.
 Its length is about 30 cm. it occurs
 The anterior part of the stomach is called the cardiac and the back is called the pyloric.
 The part between the cardiac and the pyloric is called the fundic.
 The inner wall of the stomach is made up of columnar epithelium cells.
 This layer of cells is buried in place in place
 The cells of these recessed parts form the gastric gland.
 These glands secrete gastric juice into the stomach
 The outer part of the mucous membrane is called the submucous
membrane.
 In this, veins are located in the form of blood vessels..
 Involuntary muscle fibers are located in three layers outside the
subconjunctival
 Pulp-like food in the stomach is called chyme.
 Gastric juice contains hydrochloric acid mucus and inactive pepsinogen.
 Hydrochloric acid converts inactive pepsinogen to active pepsin, which aids in the digestion of
proteins.
 Mucous is produced from mucous cells
 It protects stomach cells from hydrochloric acid and pepsin.

Intestine
1. Small Intestine
2. large Intestine

Small Intestine
There are two structures in the intestine:
1. Small Intestine
2. large Intestine

Small Intestine:-
 A muscular valve-like structure called the Pyloric Valve is found between the
stomach and the small intestine.
 6 to 7 meters long
 Allows food to come from the stomach to the small intestine but does not
allow it to return to the stomach

Duodenum
 U shaped folded structure
 Pancreas is located near the joint of duodenum and stomach.
 Duodenum or Brunner's Glands are found in Duodenum.
 which secrete alkaline mucus
Jejunum
 located between the duodenum and the lleum----
middle part of small intestine
 2.5 m long and 4 cm. thick coiled
tube
 (Tissue Layers)
(Mucus Layer)
(Submucosa layer)
(Muscularis)
(Serosa)|

 Partially digested food called chyme

 Chyme enters the duodenum from the duodenum and is mixed by muscle contraction
 To ensure maximum absorption of nutrients present in the food

Lleum
 end part of small intestine
 is longer (about 3.5 m) than the remaining two parts
 Nutrients left over from the gut are absorbed into the ileum
 After the digestion process is completed in the ileum, the remaining part
of the food enters the large intestine.
 Complete digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids and fats takes
place in the small intestine.
 The small intestine absorbs the digested nutrients and mixes them into
the blood and lymph.

Large Intestine
Main function of Large Intestine
 (i) absorb water
 (ii)/ Removal of undigested food from the body.
There are three main parts of the large intestine
1. (Caecum)
2. (Colon)
3. (Rectum)

Caecum

Colon

Rectum

Anus
GlandsAssociated Digestive Glands
 Glands associated with the alimentary canal, which aid in the digestion of food
 Digestive glands aid in the digestion of food by secreting a variety of juices

Salivary Glands
 Three pairs of salivary glands are found in humans.
 Sublingual Glands
 Submandibular Glands
 Parotid Glands

Sublingual Glands
 The first pair of salivary glands are present in number one each on either side of the tongue

Submandibular Glands
 The second pair of salivary glands are present in number one each on either side of the maxilla bone in the
middle of the lower jaw.
Parotid Glands
 The third pair of salivary glands are present in number one each under both the ears.

Saliva

Gastric Glands
Liver

Function of Liver
Secretion of Bile
 secretes a greenish alkaline liquid
 ph value around 8.6
 The bile salts present in bile help in the digestion of fats.
 Bile juice is excreted by the liver, but it is stored in the gallbladder.
Glycogenesis
 Liver cells convert excess glucose present in the blood into glycogen with the help of insulin, hormone.
 accumulated in the liver and muscles

Glycogenolysis
 When the amount of glucose in the blood decreases, glycogen is converted back into glucose to
maintain the normal supply of glucose in the body.
Gluconeogenesis
 A metabolic activity
 To maintain the amount of glucose in the body, sometimes glucose is also synthesized from other
substances such as proteins, lipids, glycerol, glucogenic amino acids in addition to carbohydrates.
Synthesis of Vitamin
 Liver cells synthesize vitamin A from carotene. In addition, iron and copper are also stored in the
liver

Storage
▪Manufactures and stores glycogen under carbohydrate metabolism.
▪Along with this, the liver also stores fat, vitamins (A and D) and minerals.
Destruction of dead red blood cells (RBC's)
 Haematopoiesis
 produces blood during pregnancy

Gallbladder

Pancreas

Function of Pancreas
Intestinal Glands

Process of Digestion
 Respiration
 The process of biological oxidation of food in the presence of oxygen at the cellular
level in organisms is called respiration.
 The energy released during respiration is
converted into adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
and stored as chemical energy.

Process of Respiration

Stages Of The Whole Process of Respiration

External Respiration

Ingestion of oxygen from the atmosphere

Exchange of Gases
 The air inhaled in the process of breathing reaches the alveoli of the lungs.
 Due to the high pressure of oxygen (O2) in the air present in the alveoli, this oxygen reaches the blood
through the veins and the CO2 mixed in the impure blood (deoxygenated blood) present in the veins is
mixed in the air of the alveoli.
 exchange of gases difference in their pressure

Transportation of Gases
 Normally 98.5% of the oxygen in the human body is transported by the hemoglobin found in the red blood
cells (RBCS) and the remaining 1.5% of the oxygen is transported by the blood plasma.
 Hemoglobin combines with oxygen to form a temporary compound oxyhemoglobin.
O2 + Hb + HbO2
(ऑक्सीज) (हीमोग्ोोबज) (ऑक्सहीमोग्ोोबज)

Haemoglobin
 Iron containing proteins - Pigments containing iron, heme or Haemitin and globin proteins
 The average amount of hemoglobin (Hb) in the blood of a healthy human is 15 grams per 100 ml. it occurs
 । The color of hemoglobin (Hb) is violet. Whereas pure blood containing oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) is bright red
and impure blood is purple in color.

Respiration
1. Respiration is a biochemical and oxidation process under biological control.
2. In this, the free energy in the form of kinetic energy is contracted into a special substance adenosine
diphosphate (ADP) in several steps.
 In this, ATP molecules are formed from ADP.
 This action takes place at normal temperature (25-45°C).
 This action takes place with the help of enzymes.

Combustion
 It is an uncontrolled chemical and oxidation process.
 In this, all the released energy is released simultaneously in the form of light and heat.
 there is no such action
 Combustion takes place at high temperature.
 Enzymes are not required in combustion.

Internal Respiration
 takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell

Internal Respiration
 Dissociation of Oxyhaemoglobin
 When oxyhemoglobin reaches the cells through the action of blood circulation, it breaks down into
oxygen and hemoglobin under the condition of partial pressure of oxygen, which delivers about
25% oxygen to the tissues
HbO2 + Hb + O2
(ऑक्सीहीमोगमलोब) (ीहीमोगमलोब) (ऑक्सीब)

 Oxidation of Food Stuffs

Anaerobic Respiration
 anoxic respiration Absence of oxygen (O2)
 In this chemical process, glucose is partially broken down in the cytoplasm by enzymes, this whole process is
called glycolysis.
 Produces pyruvic acid as an end product in the process of anoxic respiration
 In this process only 4 molecules are produced as ATP energy.
 Out of which 2 molecules are spent during the ATP process and the remaining 2 molecules have ATP energy
available.
 In the absence of oxygen in stable pyruvic acid, it is converted into lactic acid or ethyl alcohol.
 In fleshy plants and fungi, etc., pyruvic acid is converted into ethyl alcohol and gives off CO2.
 Pyruvic acid is converted into lactic acid in animal muscles.

Aerobic Respiration
 presence of oxygen
 This action takes place in the mitochondria.
 In this, pyruvic acid is completely oxidized through a series of chemical processes and with the help of
various enzymes.
 As a result of which carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are formed.
 Large amount of energy is released in this which remains in the form of ATP molecules.
 38 ATP energy is obtained in the last step of this process. Out of 38 ATP energy obtained from glucose, 55-
60% of the energy is used by the organisms, the remaining energy is lost.
C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + 2830KJ (कि्ो ीू्)
Science parchamclasses.in
Excretory System

 Long-term stay of excretory substances in the body is injurious to health,

so the body excretes these substances outside the body through different
organ groups.
 The organ groups involved in this process are collectively called the
excretory system.

(Excretion)
 The biological process of excreting harmful and toxic wastes produced
by the animals from the body is called Excretion.
 Metabolism from the body cells results in the breakdown of complex
compounds (ammonia, carbon dioxide, urea, uric acid, etc.) collected
in the body and the formation of some waste products.
 called excretory substances

(Classification of Excretory Substances)

Science parchamclasses.in

1.(Ammonotelism)
 Most bony fish, tadpoles and aquatic insects - excretion as ammonia
 Ammonia molecules dissolve quickly in water, so they easily cross membrane barriers.
 Excretion ofa ammonia in fish - gill
 The kidney plays a minor role in the excretion of ammonia.

2. (Ureotelism)
 Ammonia is extremely harmful to cells
 While cells can tolerate high concentrations of urea, because urea is about a million times less
harmful than ammonia
 Mammals and most adult amphibians, which are terrestrial, many marine fishes and turtles,
which face the problem of water conservation in the hyperosmotic environment
 Urea is produced in the liver through a metabolic cycle (urea cycle or ornithine cycle). In which
ammonia and carbon dioxide combine to form urea.
 Urea is carried through the circulatory system to the kidneys, from where it is excreted.

Animal - / Name of main urea excretory organ

1 - human - kidney
2 - Amoeba - skin (surface) and vacuole
3 - earthworms - excreta
4 - lobster - green glands
5 - tapeworms - flame cells
6 - Arthropoda - Malphagi tubules
7 - Cilantrata - Skin (surface) and mouth

3. (Uricotelism)
 Some terrestrial animals excrete nitrogenous uric acid produced by nitrogen metabolism.
 This acid allows the minimum amount of water to be lost in animals.
 The solubility of uric acid in water is much lower than that of ammonia and urea.
 That is why it is emitted as a solid waste.
 Terrestrial snails, moths, birds and many reptiles excrete uric acid.

Excretory Organ
1. (Kidney) -Extraction of excessive water and nitrogenous waste material such as urea etc. in the form
of urine from the blood.
2. (Lungs) - carbon dioxide and water vapor emissions
3. (Liver) -Extraction of nitrogenous substances.
4. (Intestine) - Excretion of excess amount of calcium and salts of metals
5. (Skin)-
 (A) (Oil Glands) -(Sterol), (Hydrocarbon), (Wax)
 (B) (Sweat Glands)-Sweat, excretion of unwanted amounts of urea, sodium chloride (salt),
water and lactic acid in sweat from the body.
Extra Facts-:
 Lungs - Toxic gas (CO2) from the blood is expelled
 Skin - works to remove the impurities of the body in the form of sweat (sweat contains 98% water
and 2% impurities (in the form of acids and minerals))
 Large Intestine - Performs the function of expelling toxic and excretory substances from the body
in the form of feces
 In the rectum - the stool from the large intestine is passed out through the anus
Science parchamclasses.in
(Kidney) -
 Every human has two kidneys.
 It is located under the right-left ribs of the spine and behind the belly.
 The left kidney is located slightly higher than the right kidney.
 They are adapted to remove excretory substances from the blood and
maintain sufficient amount of useful substances in the blood.
 The shape of kidney is similar to kidney beans.
 Generally the length of a kidney is 10 cm, width is 5 cm. And the thickness is 3
cm. it occurs.
 Its weight in an adult individual is about 120-170 grams.
 Each kidney is surrounded by fibrous connective tissues of dark brown and red colour.

(Kidney) -
 A membranous covering is found around the kidney, which is called
peritoneum.
 Each kidney is surrounded by a shell, which is called Renal Capsule.
 The inner surface of the kidney is concave. In which there is a longitudinal
opening, which is called hilum (renal hilum).
 The renal artery and nerves enter through it, and the renal vein and
urinary canal exit.
 The inner part of the kidney is divided into two parts-
 1. (Cortex) / Outer Cortex
 2. (Medulla) / Inner Medulla

(Kidney) -
 The outermost part of the kidney lies below the renal shell in a thin or narrow
form, which is called the bulge and the inner part is called the medulla.
 The medulla is divided into small conical parts called pyramids.
 The thick part of each pyramid is its basal part.
 The protruding conical part of the pyramids of the kidney is called renal
papilla.
 Kidney stones are formed due to uric acid, calcium oxalate and calcium
phosphate.

(Nephron)
 Each kidney in the human body is made up of about 1 million (1 million)
long nebules called nephrons or nephrons.
 Nephron is the functional unit of the kidney.
 There is an epithelial tubule, which is about 3 cm. It is long and 20-60
micrometers thick (diameter).
 The nephron controls the chemical composition of blood.
Science parchamclasses.in

1. (Renal or Malpighian Corpuscle)

 Glomerulus and Bowman's Capsule are made up of
 The glomerulus consists of a network of tubules, which consist of efferent and afferent arterioles.
 The width of the afferent arteriole is greater than that of the efferent arteriole, so the blood
brought here is filtered by the glomerulus.

Proximal convoluted tubule

 The initial part of the renal tubule is closed and the last part remains open.
 At the closed end, the nephron is located in the form of a double-membraned pleomorphic
Bowman's capsule.
 Bowman's capsule extends further into a convoluted renal tubule - the proximal convoluted
tubule
 Epithelial cells of this part are specialized, which transport salts and other substances from the
cavity to the internal fluid.
 The cells forming the level of the tubule cavity are topped by numerous microtubules (finger-like
growths) that increase in surface area.
Science parchamclasses.in

Henle's loop
 Its initial part starts from the end of the proximal tubule and ends at the initial part of the distal
tubule.
 This U shaped hairpin loop is made up of descending and ascending arms.
 The initial IV-V segments of the descending arm are thick, and their diameter is similar to that of
the proximal tubule.
 However, the cells here have fewer micronuclei and mitochondria than the cells of the proximal
tubule.

Remote helix tube

 The ascending part of the Henley loop is connected to the distal coiled tube.
 Its distal part remains attached to the collection tube.
 Each collecting duct receives microscopic pollen from a number of malignancies.
 The cells of this part are layered by cuboidal epithelium with microtubules.

Functions of Nephron

1. (By Filtration)
 The thickness (diameter) of the afferent arteriole is greater than that of the efferent arteriole.
 Therefore, the pressure of blood in the glomerulus increases, due to which the action of filtration
is accomplished.
 This process of filtration at high blood pressure is called ultrafiltration.
 Water, glucose, and mineral salts are filtered out of blood plasma by ultrafiltration process.
 By this process only plasma proteins and blood cells are not filtered and remain in the blood.
 The filtered blood is called a fluid filtrate.
 This filter goes into the tubule of Bowman's Capsule.
2. (Reabsorption)
 After filtering through the Bowman's Capsule, the blood reaches a network of capillaries outside
the nephron.
 Many beneficial elements present in the filtration are reabsorbed by the blood capillaries present
around the tubules of the nephron.
 This process of absorption takes place during the passage of blood through the tubules of the
nephron.
 The blood is then returned to the circulation. This process is called reabsorption.
Science parchamclasses.in

 Most of the water is absorbed by filtration by the process of osmosis.

 Through absorption, beneficial elements like glucose, vitamins, minerals-salts, hormones, etc., are
absorbed from the blood.

(Micturition and Composition of Urine)

 Micturition is the process of passing urine.
 The process of passing urine is accomplished through the relaxation of the smooth muscles of the
bladder wall and the skeletal muscles that open around the bladder opening.
 Urine is a transparent aqueous fluid with characteristic odor and metabolic waste, which is light
yellow in color and slightly acidic (average pH 6.0 and its range 4.2-8.2).
 A normal adult produces about 1.5 liters of urine in 24 hours.

(Composition of Urine)
 1. जल - 95%
 2. यूरिया - 02%
 3. प्रोट, वसा, शर्िा एवं अनय र्लाइडस - 1.3 %
 4. क्एिरटिट - 0.1 %
 5. यरू िर अमल - 0.05%
 6. स्डियम (Na) - 0.35%
 7. रैल्शयम (Ca) - 0.015 %
 8. प्रै शशयम (K) - 0.15%
 9. कल्िोट (Cl) - 0.6%
 10.स््फर (so) - 18 %
 11. ्ॉस्फर (PO) - 0.27%
 12. मैगटिशशयम (mg) - 0.006%
Apart from these, very small amounts of ammonia, hippuric acid, lead, amino acids, arsenic, iodine
and nitrogen are also found in urine.

(Hemodialysis and Kidney

Transplantation)
Science parchamclasses.in

(Role of Lungs in Excretion)

 About 432 liters of carbon dioxide (CO2) and 400 ml are released by
the human lungs. Water is expelled daily by normal displacement.
 The loss of water by the lungs is very less in hot and humid conditions
and more water loss by the lungs in cold and dry weather.
 The rate of respiration through the mouth and nostrils affects the loss
of water by the lungs.
 Various volatile substances are also easily removed from the excretion
by the lungs.
 Oily glands are found in the human skin, which secrete two types of
fluids on the surface, these are sweat by the sweat gland and the
excretion of sebum (oily fluid) by the sebaceous gland.
 Sweat is an aqueous fluid (99.5% water), which contains sodium chloride (NaCl), lactic acid, urea,
amino acids and glucose.
 The amount of sweat released from the human body can range from negligible to 14 liters per day.
 It also depends on the activity of the body and the temperature of the environment.
 The main function of sweat is to keep the body cool by evaporation.

(Role of Liver in Excretion)

 The liver expels cholesterol, bile pigments (such as bilirubin
and biliverdin), inactive products of steroid hormones,
vitamins and drugs.
 The liver passes these substances into the bile.
 Bile mixes with many substances and reaches the bowel, which
are finally passed out with the faeces.
 Reproduction System
Puberty
In the process of physical growth and development after birth, various physical and psychological changes take
place in human beings.

MaleReproductive System

MaleReproductive System
(Testis)

Two types of cells in spermatozoa

1. (Spermatogenic Cells) :
 These cells produce spermatozoa through meiosis
 This process is called spermatogenesis

2. (Sertoli Cells)
 Provides nourishment to sperms and helps in their development
 Interstitial cells are located in the extracellular region of the
seminiferous tubules, which secrete androgen hormones.
 Androgen hormones are found in the ovaries and adrenal glands
of men as well as women, but the amount of their secretion is
very less.
(Epididymis)
 A highly coiled canal is attached between the posterior part of the testis and the spermatic cord.
 Length 5-6 meters
 maturing, storing and transporting sperms produced in the testis

(Vas Deferens)
 a long muscular canal
 which connects the epididymis to the seminal vesicles
 The spermatic cord carries the function of carrying mature spermatozoa from the epididymis to
the urethra.

(Seminal Vesicle)
a pouch-like structure
Which is located below the urinary bladder and on the side of the
spermatic cord
The glands located in it secrete a liquid alkaline substance (pH value = 7.4),
from which most of the semen is formed.
Fructose is present in the seminal fluid
Appearance of secondary sexual characteristics
 Secondary sex organs development
 Sperm production starts
 Deep / cracking voice
 Broadening of the shoulder
 Height increase
 Appearance of hairs in armpits and genital area
 Appearance of beard and moustache

Human Reproduction
 Humans use sexual reproduction, involving the combination of germ cells from two individuals.
 Sexual maturation occurs during puberty, marked by physical changes indicating readiness for
reproduction.
 Changes at Puberty
 Common in male and female
 Thick hair growth in armpits and genital area.
 Skin becomes oily, may result in pimples.
In girls
 Breast size begin to increase.
 Girls begin to menstruate.
In boys
 Thick hair growth on face.
 Voice begin to crack.
Testis
 Pair of testes are located inside scrotum which is present outside abdominal cavity.
 Scrotum has a relatively lower temperature needed for the production of sperms.
 Male germ cell i.e. sperms are formed here.
 Testes release male sex hormone (testosterone).
Function of testes:
 Regulate production of sperms.
 Bring changes at puberty.
Vas deferens
 It passes sperms from testes upto urethera.
Urethera
 It is a common passage for both sperms and urine. Its outer covering is called penis.
Associated glands
 Seminal vesicles and prostate gland add their secretion to the sperms. This fluid
 provide nourishment to sperms and make their transport easy.
 Sperm along with secretion of glands form semen.
Ovary
 A pair of ovary is located in both sides of abdomen.
 Female germ cells i.e. eggs are produced here.
 At the time of birth of a girl, thousands of immature eggs are present in the ovary.
 At the onset of puberty, some of these eggs start maturing.
 One egg is produced every month by one of the ovaries.
Oviduct or Fallopian tube
 Receives the egg produced by the ovary and transfer it to the uterus.
 Fertilisation i.e. fusion of gametes takes place here.
Uterus
 It is a bag-like structure where development of the baby takes place.
 Uterus opens into vagina through cervix.
Fertilization of Egg
When egg is fertilised
 The fertilized egg called zygote is planted in uterus and develops into an embryo.
 The embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s blood with the help of a special tissue
 called placenta. It provides a large surface area for the exchange of glucose, oxygen and waste
material.
 The time period from fertilization upto the birth of the baby is called gestation period. It is about 9
months.
When egg is not fertilised
 The uterus prepares itself every month to receive fertilized egg.
 The lining of the uterus becomes thick and spongy, required to support the embryo.
 When fertilisation had not taken place, this lining is not needed any longer.
 This lining breaks and comes out through vagina as blood and mucus.
 This cycle takes around 28 days every month and called menstruation

Contraceptive Method
Physical barrier
 To prevent union of egg and sperm.
 Use of condoms, cervical caps and diaphragm.
Chemical methods
 Use of oral pills
 These change hormonal balance of body so that eggs are not released.
 May have side effects.
Intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD)
 Copper-T or loop is placed in uterus to prevent pregnancy.
Surgical methods
 In males the vas deferens is blocked to prevent sperm transfer called vasectomy.
 In females, the fallopian tube is blocked to prevent egg transfer called tubectomy.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Primary sex Organs /Ovary

 female reproductive organs
 There are two in number, which form gamete.
 Ovaries about 2-4 cm. long and about 2.5 cm. Up To Wide Elliptical (Oval Shaped)
 It is connected by a membrane to the uterus and pelvic wall. Which is called Mesovarium
 The internal tissues of the ovary are called stromal

(i) (Estrogen) (ii) (Progesterone)

(i) (Estrogen) :
 This hormone stimulates the development of female sexual characteristics and accessory genitals
 It is also called as Female Growth Hormone.
 Due to the effect of estrogen, the development of genitals like breasts, oviducts, uterus, vagina etc.
 This hormone also affects the external body structure, voice, temperament etc. of women.

(ii) (Progesterone)
 Graphian vesicles located in the ovary after the release of the egg convert into a structure called
corpus luteum.
 This corpus luteum secretes a hormone called progesterone. This hormone prepares the body of
women for pregnancy.
 If the egg released by the ovary is not fertilized, the corpus luteum is destroyed and there is a
decrease in the secretion of progesterone and as a result a new menstrual cycle begins.
 When the egg is fertilized, the progesterone develops blood vessels to nourish the fetus and fetus
 Stimulates the glands present in the end rometrium to secrete nutrients so that the early embryo
can be nourished
 Due to the effect of progesterone hormone, the mammary glands of women enlarge, as a result,
the size of their breasts also increases.

(Relaxin Hormone)
 A hormone called relaxin is secreted by the corpus luteum and placenta in the pregnant woman's
body.
 With the development of the baby in the womb, this hormone makes the joint called the pubic
symphysis of the pelvic plexus loose or flexible and by expanding it, it increases in the middle area,
so that the baby can be born easily.
(Oviduct or Fallopian Tube)
 also called ovum duct
 have two oviducts
 ovules on either side of the uterus
 The oviduct is about 10-12 cm. in the form of a long tube
 Collecting ovum from the ovum and storing and nourishing them till
fertilization takes place.
 The fertilization of the female egg by the male's sperm takes place in the
ampulla of the oviduct.
 After this the fertilized egg enters the uterus and develops in the uterus until
birth as a baby.

(Uterus)
 Uterus is a hollow and muscular genital located between the urinary bladder and
rectum in the pelvic region of women.
1. (Perimetrium)
2. (Myometrium)
3. (Endometrium)

(Cervix)
 This is the lower part of the uterus, which is connected to the vagina in the form of a narrow
passage.

(Vagina)
 Vagina is the main genital of women which extends from the cervix to the vulva outside the body.
 It is a muscular and flexible structure, which opens outside the body in the form of a narrow tube.
 The outer part of the vagina is called the Vaginal Orifice.
FEMALE FERTILITY AGE

Menarche Menopause

Menarche - 1st Menstruation Starts from puberty Menopause - Menstruation Stop

After age of 45 - 50

Menstrual cycle
 Menstrual phase: Day 1, uterus lining which is prepared for implantation starts to shed which
lasts 3 to 5 days.
 Follicular phase: In this phase, the primary follicle starts developing into a mature Graafian follicle.
The uterus starts preparation for another pregnancy.
 Ovulatory phase: Mid-cycle phase, this is the phase in which ovulation takes place i.e., day 13-17.
The end of the follicular phase along with the ovulation period defines the fertilisation period.
 Luteal phase: It is the post-ovulation phase, where the fate of the corpus luteum is decided. If
fertilisation occurs, pregnancy starts. If fertilisation doesn’t occur, it marks the onset of another
cycle.
 Human Skeleton
 In humans and other vertebrates, a rigid integrated structure is found inside the
body.
 It is made up of bones, cartilage and muscles. All the bones are connected to each
other by different types of joints. This basic structure of the body of organisms is
called skeleton.
 The Study of Bone - Osteology
 The Study of Cartilage - Chondrology

 The process of growth and formation of new bones from cells is called bone
development.
 Normally all bones are formed by the age of 20-25 years.
 Man's age is also ascertained by bone building test.

(Functions of Skeleton)
(i) (Protection of Internal organs)
(ii) (Help in Movement)
(iii) (Certain Shape and Support)
(iv) (Storage of Minerals and Fat)
(v) Formation of Blood Cells

Red bone marrow

 Segmentation of the skeletal system (based on presence in the body)

(Exoskeleton) (Endoskeleton)
(Exoskeleton)
 The group of anatomical structures present on the outer surface of the body of animals is
 which provides protection and support to the body
 Animal Shells
 Feather of birds
 Scale present on the body of fishes and reptiles,
 Animals: Cockroach, grasshopper, crab, shrimp, snail, oyster, tortoise etc.

(Endoskeleton)
 Endoskeleton is located inside the body of animals
 Along with providing protection and support to the internal organs, it also gives a definite shape
and size to the whole body.
 Formation - takes place from the mesoderm in the process of embryonic development
 This type of skeleton is found in organisms of the phylum Echinodermata (starfish, sea urchins,
Brittle stars, etc.) and in Cota. Found in phylum of organisms (mammals, fish, birds, reptiles etc.)

Anatomical Part Of The Endoskeleton

(Cartilage) (Bone)

Bone
 Solid and rigid connective tissue
 Bone collagen fibers and calcium and magnesium salts
  The entire skeletal system is made up of different types of bones and cartilages, which have
different structures, sizes and shapes.
 Generally bones are formed from cartilages - Ossification
 Bone in its infancy - Cartilage
 (transformed into hard bones during physical development)
 Two types of cells take part in the formation of bones – osteoblasts and osteoclasts.
 Osteoblasts form the outer solid part of the bone and osteoclasts form the marrow cavity.
 38% of the bones are made up of a protein called ossein and 62% of the inorganic salts
(mainly calcium phosphate and magnesium phosphate), due to which the bones are solid and
hard.
 A covering of fibrous connective tissues is present
 The periosteum is attached to other muscles by ligaments or
tendons.

(Ligament and Tendon)

 Both nerve and tendon are bands of powerful fibrous tissue. A
ligament connects two bones or cartilages, whereas a tendon
connects a muscle to a bone.

(Bone Marrow)
 A hollow cavity is found in thick and long bones, which is called
Marrow Cavity. The marrow cavity is filled with a special type of
semi-fluid, which is called bone marrow.

(Yellow Bone Marrow)

 It is found in the central part of the bones
 Yellow bone marrow produces small amounts of white blood cells
(WBC's)

(Red Bone Marrow)

 It is found at the ends or sides of bones.
 Red bone marrow produces red and white blood cells and platelets.

(Types of Bones)
1. (Investing Bone)
It is also called dermal bone. Investing bones are found in the human skull and shoulder.
2. (Cartilaginous Bone) :
The bones which are formed by the transformation of cartilage developed in embryonic stage are
called chondrocyte bones.

Types of bones on the basis of shape

1. (Long Bones)
2. (Short Bones)
3. (Irregular Bones)
4. (Pneumatic Bones)
5. (Sesamoid Bones)
6. (Flat Bones)

(Cartilage)
 Cartilage is a type of connective tissue made up of cells called chondrocytes and collagen fibers.
 Cartilage is a flexible and elastic structure which is present at the joint on the sides of long bones.
 Blood vessels and nerves are absent in cartilage
 Cartilage is covered by a fibrous membrane called perichondrium, which is very helpful in its
regeneration in case of damage to the cartilage.
 Calcium salts are absent in the cartilage and in their place, an elastic substance called chondroitin
is found, which provides elasticity to the cartilage.

(Difference Between Bone and Cartilage)

(Bone) (Cartilage)

Bones are hard, elastic and rigid organs that Cartilage is a soft, elastic and flexible
make up the vertebral skeleton. connective tissue that protects bones from
friction.

There are two types of bones – solid and Cartilage is of three types - hyaline, fibrous,
spongy (rarely structured) elastic.

Bone cells are called osteocytes. Cartilage cells are called chondrocytes.

Blood vessels are present in the bones. Blood vessels are absent in cartilage.

The matrix present in bones is either The matrix of cartilage is completely

organic or inorganic. organic.

Calcium salts are present in the bone. The presence of calcium salts is not
mandatory in it.

Bidirectional growth occurs in the bones. Unidirectional growth occurs in cartilage.

(Difference Between Bone and Cartilage)

 (Bone)
 Bones are hard, elastic and rigid organs that make up the vertebral skeleton.
 There are two types of bones – solid and spongy (rarely structured)
 Bone cells are called osteocytes.
 Blood vessels are present in the bones.
 The matrix present in bones is either organic or inorganic.
 Calcium salts are present in the bone.
 Bidirectional growth occurs in the bones.
(Difference Between Bone and Cartilage)
 (Cartilage)
 Cartilage is a soft, elastic and flexible connective tissue that protects bones from friction.
 Cartilage is of three types - hyaline, fibrous, elastic.
 Cartilage cells are called chondrocytes.
 Blood vessels are absent in cartilage.
 The matrix of cartilage is completely organic.
 The presence of calcium salts is not mandatory in it.
 Unidirectional growth occurs in cartilage.

(Human Skeleton System)

(80) (126)
(Skull)
Spinal cord (33 at birth and 26 bones in adult) Bones of the limbs) (Girdles) ()
(Ribs)
sternum

Axial Skeletal System

 (Skull)
(a) (Cranium)

(b) (Facial Bones)

(c) (Ear Ossicles)

(d) (Hyoid Bone)

Hyoid - 1
(Back bone)
(Sternum or Breastbone)
 have a long and flat bone
 It is located right in the middle of the thoracic cage
 Almost all the ribs in the human body are attached to the thoracic vertebrae at the back
and to the sternum in the front.
 The ribs and the sternum together form the thoracic cage.
(Forelimbs)

1. (Arm)
2. (Forearm)
3. (Hand)
(Arm)
 Upper part - Humerus A long bone
 Structure between Bahu and Hasta – (Radius) and (UIna)
 Ulna is bigger than the radius
(Forelimbs)
 There are total 27 bones in the hand.
 Carpals) - 8 bones in the wrist
 (Metacarpals) - 5 bones in palm
 (Phalanges) – 14 14 Bones fingers (3 each) and thumb (2 bones)

(Pectoral or Shoulder Girdle)

✔ Pectoral - 4 bones
✔ it consists of two halves
 Each half of the scapula - a scapula and a clavicle (collar bone)
 The scapula is located at the back of the thorax
 A large, flat and triangular bone is situated between the second
and seventh ribs.
 There is an acromion process on its hand side edge.

(Hindlimbs)
✔ Upper part of the foot i.e. thigh - Femur
✔ / It is the longest bone in the human body

• Underneath this, a bone called patella is found in the knee, which is

shaped like a cap.
• Two long bones called tibia and fibula are found below the knee.
• Ankle - 7 bones called tarsals
• Metatarsals - 5 bones in each paw
• There are three phalanges in each of the four fingers of each foot and two toes in each
thumb.
• Thus a total of 60 bones are found in both the legs.
Difference between degree of plexus and pelvic girdle

(Pectoral Girdle) (Pelvic Girdle)

1. It is situated in the thoracic part between both the 1. It is located in the back of the lower body, between
hands. the two legs.
2. In its glenoid cavity one end of the humerus bone of 2. In its acetabulum, the bone of the hindquarters is
the hand is attached to one end of the femur. attached.
3. This glenoid cavity is made up of scapula, caracoid 3. Its formation Acetabulum is made up of Ilium, Pubic
and clavicle bones. and Ischium.
4. It provides protection to the heart and lungs and 4. It forms the hip and provides support to the feet.
support to the hands.
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

(Circulatory System)

 In the body of humans and other vertebrates, a well-developed organ group

is found for the transport of various nutrients, gases, and excretory
substances, which is called the circulatory system.
 With the exception of some invertebrates, the circulatory system is also
found.

(Functions of Circulatory System)

1. Transport of Nutrients
2. Transport of Nitrogen
3. Transport of Hormones
4. Transport of Oxygen

(Open Circulatory system)

 In the open circulatory system, blood flows into the open space after flowing in
the blood vessels for some time.
 This circulatory system is present in Arthropoda and Mollusca etc.
 This blood circulatory system has minimum blood pressure and speed and the
circulation cycle is completed in less time.
 For example, the blood circulation cycle in cockroach is completed in just 5 to 6
minutes.
 Organisms like moths, insects, etc. have an open circulatory system.

(Closed Circulatory System)

 In a closed circulatory system, the blood flow occurs in the closed tubules.
 This tube is in a well developed stage.
 In such systems, the pressure and speed are high and the material is
transferred through the tissue fluid.
 All types of vertebrates have a closed circulatory system.

Connect With Us - 1
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

(Human Circulatory System)

 There is closed and double circulation in the human body.
 This circulatory system is mainly made up of two components.
 Blood and Lymph.
 On this basis, the circulatory system of the human body is divided into two
subsystems-

(Blood Circulatory System)

 Discovery of blood circulatory system - English scientist William Harvey
 Year - 1628
 Other Name (Cardiovascular System)
 Because the heart plays the most important role in the circulation of blood
throughout the body.

Connect With Us - 2
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

(Blood )
 Blood - a fluid connective tissue
 Carries all the necessary substances (such as nutrients and oxygen) to the cells
 Metabolic waste products such as CO2 produced during metabolic activities are
taken back by the cells.

(Structure of Blood)
 blood-reddish extracellular fluid
 The red color of blood is due to the protein present in it called hemoglobin, in which iron element is found.
 Blood is somewhat heavier than water and is alkaline in nature, with a pH between 7.3 and 7.4.
 About 5-6 liters of blood is found in the body of a healthy human being, which is about 7-8% of the total weight
of that person.
 Blood volume is found to be less in women than in men.

(RBC's)
 Cells – spherical (nucleus absent)
 The red color of blood is due to hemoglobin - red pigment
 Main function - supply of oxygen to the body
 Lifespan - about 120 days

Connect With Us - 3
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

(Blood Corpuscles)
 Blood corpuscles - make up 45% of the blood

(WBC's)
 Granules - Irregularly shaped and nucleated
 The number of white blood cells in the blood is less than that
of red blood cells.
 They protect the body from external and internal infections.
 They are the largest of the blood cells.
 Life span of WBCs - approximately 10-13 days
 Monocyte or nucleus are the largest white blood cells.

(Lymphocyte cells)
 These cells are important components of white blood cells and are the smallest WBCs.
These are of two types-
 1. B- lymphocyte
 2. T- lymphocyte
 They are produced by lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland and bone marrow.
 They form antibodies or immune proteins and play an important role in the body's immune system, their
numbers are greatly reduced when AIDS occurs.

Difference between T and B cells

(Platelets)
 They are subtle and colourless.
 The nucleus is not found in them.
 DNA only it happens.
 These are helpful in blood clotting, repair of blood vessels and protect the body
from infection.
 Platelet cell lifespan - 8-12 days
 In human blood - from 1 lakh 50 thousand to 4 lakh per cubic millimeter platelets

(Functions of Blood)
 The main function of blood is to transport O2, CO2, hormones and wastes
 Prevention of diseases- Antibodies present in the blood neutralize toxic, foreign
and incompatible substances and break them down.
 Cleansing of the body - WBC's destroy the broken, dead cells waste or debris etc.
 Control of body temperature - When the blood temperature rises as a result of
rapid metabolism in the more active parts, then blood flows in more quantity in
the blood vessels of the skin and controls the body temperature.
 The clotting of blood on the wound stops the flow of blood.

Connect With Us - 4
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

Blood, Plasma and Serum

Blood
1. Blood is liquid connective tissue.
2. Its color is dark red.
3. It contains living blood cells.
4. It lacks fibrinogen protein.

Plasma
1. This is the liquid matrix of blood.
2. It is colourless.
3. It does not contain blood cells.
4. It contains fibrinogen protein.

Serum
1. When blood clots, the clot and the liquid part is called serum.
2. It is light yellow in color.
3. It does not contain blood cells.
4. It lacks fibrinogen protein.

Heart
 (Human Heart) - (Muscular) (Conical)
 Circulatory System - Central Pumping Organ
 Which carries blood to all parts of the body through
blood vessels.
 The heart of a normal adult person is about 12 cm.
long and 9 cm. widens
 Whose weight is about 300 grams.
 The heart is located in the thoracic cavity, below the
ribs and between the lungs.
 The heart is surrounded by a double membrane - the
pericardium.
 Between the two membranes there is a fluid filled - Pericardial Fluid.
 This fluid protects the heart from external shocks.

(Layers of Heart Wall)

(Epicardium)
1. It is the outermost layer of the heart wall, which is another name for the Visceral layer of the pericardium.
2. It is a thin covering that lubricates and protects the outer surface of the heart.

(Myocardium)
1. It is the middle layer of the heart wall which is made up of cardiac muscle tissue.
2. It is the thickest layer of the heart wall and is the part of the heart that pumps blood.

(Endocardium)
1. It is the innermost layer of the heart wall which is made up of simple squamous epithelium tissues.
2. It is very smooth which does not allow blood to stick inside the heart.

(Structure of Heart)
 The thickness of the heart wall varies in different parts of the heart.
 The wall in the atrium of the heart is very thin because there is no need to pump blood much.
 On the other hand, in the ventricles, the middle layer of the heart wall (the myocardium) is thicker so that the
blood can be pumped to the lungs or the whole body.

Connect With Us - 5
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

 The heart wall in the right side of the heart is less thick than in the left because it has to pump blood only to the
lungs.
 Whereas the left side has to pump blood throughout the body.

(Chambers of Heart)
 The upper bracket on the left is called the left atrium and the upper bracket
on the right is called the right atrium.
 Similarly, there are two brackets in the lower part too, the lower bracket on
the left side is called the left ventricle and the lower bracket on the right side
is called the right ventricle.
 Both the atriums are located in the broad front of the heart which are
separated from each other by a septum called the intraatrial septum.
 In the embryonic stage, a hole is found on the inter-atrial wall of the heart, which is called foramen ovale.
 In adults, this pore closes and remains as a remnant, which is called Fossa Ovalis.
 The life span of these babies is not very long.

In some babies, this hole does not close completely even after birth, due to which pure
and impure blood keeps mixing together, such babies are called Blue Baby.

 Both the ventricles are located in the narrow part of the back side of the heart.
 The ventricles are also separated from each other by a thicker septum than the atria.
 Which is called the interventricular septum.
 The left atrium is connected to the left ventricle by an opening called the left atrioventricular aperture.
 There is a bicuspid valve on this hole which is also called mitral valve.
 This valve ensures the one-way flow of blood (from the left atrium only to the left ventricle).
 Similarly, the right atrium is connected to the right ventricle by an opening called the right atrioventricular
tricuspid.
 There is a tricuspid valve at this hole, which allows blood to flow from the atrium to the right ventricle but
prevents it from going in the opposite direction.
 A large pulmonary arch emerges from the left side of the front part of the right
ventricle.
 Three semilunar valves are located at the place of exit of the pulmonary arch.
 Due to this valve, blood flows from the right ventricle to the pulmonary arch, but
cannot return.
 The pulmonary arch further divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries, which
carry blood to the lungs.
 The aorta emerges from the front of the left ventricle, which carries blood to all other
parts of the body (except the lungs).
 There are also three semilunar valves at the origin of the aorta.
 These valves allow blood to enter the aorta from the ventricles but do not allow it to
return.
 Arteries going to all parts of the body (except the lungs) originate from the aortic arch.
 Two precaval veins and one postcaval vein open in the left atrium, which bring impure blood from all parts of
the body into the right atrium.
 Pulmonary veins open in the left atrium which bring pure blood from the lungs to the left atrium.
 The aorta emerges from the front of the left ventricle, which carries blood to all other parts of the body (except
the lungs).
 There are also three semilunar valves at the origin of the aorta.
 These valves allow blood to enter the aorta from the ventricles but do not allow it to return.
 Arteries going to all parts of the body (except the lungs) originate from the aortic arch.
 Two precaval veins and one postcaval vein open in the left atrium, which bring impure blood from all parts of
the body into the right atrium.
 Pulmonary veins open in the left atrium which bring pure blood from the lungs to the left atrium.

Connect With Us - 6
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

 The flow of blood throughout the body is made possible by the pulsation or pumping of the heart.
 There are two phases of heart beat - systole and diastole.
 Contraction means contraction and dilation means relaxation or normal state.
 systole and dilstole take place in the vessels of the heart (atria and ventricles) respectively.
 This process does not occur simultaneously in all the four veshamas, rather, both the atria are simultaneously
contracted and relaxed and both the ventricles are simultaneously contracted and relaxed.

(Heart Beat)
 1 systole and 1 diastole together make up the heart beat.
 The heart of a normal healthy person beats about 70 to 75 times in a minute (an average of 72 beats per
minute).
 The heart rate is slow in large animals while the heart rate
is fast in small animals.
 It is controlled by the cardiac center present in the
medulla oblongata of the posterior brain
(Rhombencephalon).
 Adrenaline and thyroxine hormones control the heartbeat.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) present in the blood lowers the pH
of the blood and increases the heart rate.
 Acidity and alkalinity: Maximum and minimum the heart
rate respectively.
 Veins coming from different parts of the body together form two major veins -
Superior Vena cava and Inferior Vena Cava.
 These two veins are connected by two separate openings in the right atrium. The
upper mahavira brings impure blood (deoxygenated blood) from the upper part of the
body and the lower mahavira from the lower part of the body and transports it to the
right atrium.
 Now there is a contraction in the right atrium due to which the blood present in the
atrium gets a push and the tricuspid valve located between the right atrium and the
right ventricle opens and impure blood goes into the right ventricle. .
 Immediately after this, the right ventricle contracts and this impure
blood flows out through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. The
impure blood carried to the lungs by the pulmonary artery is purified
by the lungs.
 The lungs and the left atrium are connected to each other by the

Connect With Us - 7
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

pulmonary vein. Oxygenated blood, purified by the lungs, enters the left atrium through this pulmonary vein.
 Due to contraction in the left atrium, the bicuspid or mitral valve opens and pure blood enters the left ventricle.
There is a contraction in the right ventricle and pure blood comes out of the aortic orifice and enters the aorta.
 There is also a valve at the head of the aorta, which prevents blood from returning to the ventricles. From the
aorta, this pure blood reaches the arteries and artery cells.
 The flow of pure blood from the arterial cells occurs in the blood capillaries, from where this blood reaches
various organs and tissues of the body.

(Electrocardiogram : ECG)
 Electrocardiogram (ECG) is a record of the electrical changes
produced by the potential difference of the heart muscles during a
heartbeat.
 The instrument used is called an electrocardiograph.

(Stethoscope)
 A stethoscope is an instrument used by physicians to listen to the sounds of the
heart, breathing, and intestines.
 The sound is produced due to the action of valves in the heart. The sound
produced by the heart is divided into four parts.
 1. S1 2. S2 3. S3 4. S4

(Blood Vessels)
 The vessels through which the circulation of blood takes place in the human body are called blood vessels or
blood vessels.

(Arteries)
 Such blood vessels which carry oxygenated blood from the heart to
different parts of the body are called arteries.
 The walls of the arteries are relatively thick, muscular and flexible.
 This can cause the arteries to shrink and dilate.
 They have the ability to bear high pressure.
 When the heart pumps blood into the arteries, the pressure is very high.
 Therefore, the blood circulation in the arteries is jerky and fast.

(i) (Pulmonary Artery)

 This artery is connected to the right ventricle of the heart, which
further divides into two branches.
 Each branch is associated with a single lung.

Connect With Us - 8
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

 Although the arteries carry pure blood, the exception is the pulmonary artery, which carries impure blood from
the right ventricle to the lungs.

(ii) (Aorta)
 This artery leaves the left ventricle of the heart and goes to the end of the thorax. This bend is called the aortic
arch.
 The aorta further divides into other branches and carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to other parts
of the body.
 Aorta is the largest artery of the human body.
 Arterioles: Innumerable flexible branches with less diameter emerge from the arteries, which are connected to
the blood capillaries, these are called arterioles.

(Veins)
 Such blood vessels which carry deoxygenated blood from different parts of the
body to the heart are called veins.
 The walls of the veins are thinner and less muscular than the arteries.
 The internal cavity of the veins is wider.
 Since blood flows through the veins with low pressure, most veins have valves
to prevent impure blood from flowing back to the organs.
 The capillaries of the artery carry oxygen and nutritional blood to the organs, after which this blood becomes
impure by taking carbon dioxide from the organs.
 Thereafter, it enters from impure blood organs into the capillaries from which small veins or veins are formed.
 Here the subtle veins join together to form the veins and the veins finally form the great veins.
 Although all the veins carry impure blood, but the pulmonary vein is its effluent which carries pure blood from
the lungs to the left atrium.

(Blood Capillaries)
 Blood capillaries are very fine blood vessels.
 The thickness of their wall is only of a cellular level.
 Their diameter is only slightly more than that of red blood cells.
 For this reason, red blood capillaries can pass through only arranged in a row
within it.

Formation of Blood Capillaries

 Arteries are divided into branches, which are called arterioles.
 Cells are recombined to form venules and the exchange of various substances in the tissues like food, O2, CO2,
etc. by diffusion of various substances such as food, O2, CO2, etc.
 In many ways, the network of blood capillaries spread
throughout the body is the most important part of blood
circulation, as it is where the exchange of substances between
blood and tissue cells takes place.
1a) Heredity :-
The transfer of characters or traits from the parents to their off
springs is called heredity.
b) Variations :-
The differences between the characters or traits among the individuals of the same species are called variations.

2) Accumulation of variations during reproduction

 When organisms reproduce, the off springs show minor variations due to inaccuracies in DNA copying. These
variations are less in asexual reproduction and more in sexual reproduction.

Connect With Us - 9
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

 Some variations are useful variations and they help the organism to adjust to the changes in the environment.
Some variations do not help the organism to adjust to the changes in the environment and they may die and
become extinct.

3) Rules for inheritance of characters (traits) :-

 Characters are transferred through genes
present in the DNA molecules in the
chromosomes present in the nucleus of
the cell.
 The inheritance of characters is due to
the fact that both the father and mother
contributes equal amount of genetic
material to the child. So for each trait there are two factors one from the father and one from the mother.
 Gregor Johann Mendel conducted experiments with garden pea plants and determined the rules for the
inheritance of traits.

a) When plants having one pair of character (Eg:- tall and short plant) was crossed (Monohybrid cross) :-
 Mendel selected pea plants having one pair of character – a tall pea plant and a short pea plant. He selected
pure tall (TT) and pure short (tt) pea plants and cross pollinated them. He obtained all tall plants (Tt) in the first
generation (F1 ). When the first generation plants were self pollinated, he obtained tall and dwarf plants in the
ratio 3:1 in the second generation. (F2)
 The ratio of pure tall (TT), hybrid tall (Tt)
and pure dwarf (tt) was in the ratio 1:2:1
 The trait that is expressed in the F1
generation is called the dominant trait

Connect With Us -
10
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

and the trait that is supressed in the F1 is called the recessive trait.

b) When plants having two pairs of characters (Eg:- shape and colour of seeds) were crossed (Dihybrid cross) :-
 Mendel selected pea plants having two pairs of characters – shape and colour of seed. He selected plants
having round yellow seeds (RRYY) and wrinkled green seeds (rryy) and cross pollinated them. He obtained all
plants with round yellow seeds (RrYy) in the F1 generation. When these plants were self pollinated in the F2
generation out of 16 plants, 9 had round yellow (RrYy), 3 had round green (Rryy), 3 had wrinkled yellow (rrYy)
and 1 had wrinkled green (rryy) seed. In the ratio 9:3:3:1.

4) Sex determination in human beings :-

 Human beings have 23 pairs of chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell. Out
of this two chromosomes are sex chromosomes X and Y. The female has two
X chromosomes (XX) and male has one X and one Y chromosome (XY). The
sperms and eggs have one set of sex chromosomes. Some sperms have X
chromosome and some have Y chromosome. All eggs have X chromosome.
 If a sperm having X chromosome fuses with an egg having X chromosome
the child will be a girl. If a sperm having Y chromosome fuses with an egg
having X chromosome the child will be a boy.

Connect With Us -
11
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

Nutrition
Disease
 A disease is an abnormal condition that negatively affects the structure or function of all or part of an organism,
and that is not immediately due to any external injury.
 Diseases are often known to be medical conditions that are associated with specific signs and symptoms.

Genetic Disease v/s Acquires Disease

Non-communicable
LIFESTYLE DISEASE

Connect With Us - 1
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

Communicable or Infectious

Pathogens for Infectious Diseases

 Protozoa
 Bacteria
 Virus
 Fungi
 Helminths

Protozoans Diseases

Disease name of protozoan (Vector)

1. (black water fever) plasmodium Female Anopheles mosquito

2. Black fever Leishmania donovani Sand fly

3. Oriental sore Leishmania tropica Sand fly
4. Espundia Leishmania mexicana Sand fly
5Sleeping sickness (African) Trypanosoma gambiense CC Fly
6. Amoebic dysentery Entamoeba histolytica House fly, cockroach
7. (Gum disease) Entamoeba gingivalis

Malaria (Black Water Fever)

 Leberen: Discovered Plasmodium
 Ronald Ross: Malaria is spread by female Anopheles mosquito
 Female Anopheles mosquito contains Plasmodium in its saliva
 Plasmodium is digenetic
 Infectious stage of Plasmodium - Sporozoite (bacteria)
 Sporozoite - Liver - Red blood cell (RBC)

Toxic substance - hemozoin is released

Chills and high recurring fever at intervals of three to four days

Connect With Us - 2
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

Amoebiasis / Amoebic Dysentery

 Pathogen - Entamoeba histolytica
 Entamoeba histolytica lives in the large intestine of humans
 Transmission - Contaminated food and water
 Common symptoms - Diarrhea, abdominal pain, blood in stool

Kala-azar / Black fever / Dum-dum fever

 Pathogen - Leishmania donovani (protozoan)
 Vector - Sand fly
 Symptoms - Spleen, liver get enlarged and eventually skin turns black

Sleeping sickness
 Pathogen - Trypanosoma (protozoan)
 Vector - C-fly
 Symptoms - Pain in chest and joints, swelling in neck and hands,
lethargy and excessive sleepiness

Bacterial Diseases

DROPLET INFECTION AIRBORNE INFECTION

Droplet particles size > 5-10μm in diameter Droplet particles size <5μm in diameter
cannot remain in the air for long periods of time and can remain in the air for long periods of time and

be transmitted to others over distances less than 1m. be transmitted to others over distances greater than 1 m.

Name of bacterial disease Name of the bacterium Affected organ or effect

Typhoid (CFW) Salmonella Typhi spleen, intestinal glands
Tuberculosis(TB) Mycobacterium tuberculosis Lung
Cholera/ () Vibrio cholerae loss of water from the body or dehydration
Plague/ Black Death (insect bites) Yersinia pestis Lymph node, neck, armpit, lung
Leprosy / Mycobacterium leprae skin, nerves, eyes, nose
Pneumonia Streptococcus pneumoniae Lung
Lock Jow Costridium titanei nervous system, muscle, neck, jaw
Diphtheria Convictorium Diphtheria (Throat)
Pertussis (Whooping cough) Haemophilus Pertussis trachea or windpipe
(STD) Nijiria gonorrhoeae urethra, reproductive tract

Tetanus
 Tetanus is a serious infection caused by bacteria infection attacking your nervous system.
 The bacteria "Clostridium tetani" produces the nerve toxin resulting in tetanus.
 The condition causes muscle contractions, especially in the jaw and neck muscles.
 Tetanus can cause breathing problems and lead to a condition called "lockjaw".
 The bacteria are found in the soil and animal and human intestines.

Connect With Us - 3
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

Viral Diseases

Genital Warts [STD]

Influenza (Flu)
Common cold
Swine flu
Chikungunya (Aedes aegypti mosquito]
Yellow fever (Aedes aegypti mosquito)
Zika fever (Aedes aegypti mosquito) [ STD]
Japanese Encephalitis (Aedes aegypti mosquito)
Ebola Virus Disease
Nipah Virus Infection ( person to person]

Chicken pox Pearly blister on body

Small pox Reddish spot on body
Dengue fever / breakbone fever Joints, Eye, Muscles
Polio Nervous, Skeletal, Muscular system
Rabies / Hydrophobia Nervous system
Mumps Parotid gland
Measles / Rubeola Nose Throat. Eye. Skin
Herpes Skin
AIDS Immune system
Hepatitis Liver
Meningitis Brain

HIV & AIDS

 AIDS : Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
 AIDS was discovered in USA in 1981
 AIDS is caused by - Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
 HIV is a Retrovirus
 HIV is a ssRNA

HIV is made up of Lipid + Glycoprotein +Enzymes +RNA

Enzyme - Reverse Transcriptase enzyme
HIV attacks on T Cell or CD4 Cells (a type of WBC)

Connect With Us - 4
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

HIV Present in
 Blood
 Lymph
 Semen
 Vaginal fluid
 Breast milk
 Body fluid containing visible blood

Test to confirm HIV

 ELISA Test
 Western Blot Test

Fungal Diseases

Fungal Diseases Affected parts

Ringworm Anywhere else in the body
Athlete's foot Foot
Barber's itch Face
Genital itch Near reproductive organs
Meningitis Brain & spinal cord
Aspergillosis Respiratory system

Helminths
1. Ascariasis
 Pathogen Ascaris (most common roundworm in human), lives in all intestine
 Spread by Contaminated food, water, vegetables, fruits etc.
 Symptoms: muscular pain, fever, thema, blockage of intestinal passage

Infectected person Stool Contamination of food, water, fruits, vegetables Healthy person infected

Fertilizes eggs

2. Elephantiasis
 Pathogen: Wuchereria bancrofti (roundworm), lives in lymphatic vessels (female)
 Spread by: Bite of female Culex mosquito
 Pathogen blocks the lymphatic vessels, leads to inflammation of organs.

3. Taeniasis
 Pathogen : Taenia solium & Taenia saginata (Tapeworms)
 Spread by : infected uncooked meat of pigs & cows
 Symptoms : normally not visible but can affect brain , eye, lungs, liver etc.

Genetic Diseases
 Haemophilia
 Colour blindness
 Down's syndrome
 Edward's syndrome
 Patau's syndrome
 Turner's syndrome

Connect With Us - 5
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

 Klinefelter's syndrome
 Supermales
 Superfemales
 Sickle cell anemia
 Wilson's Disease

Genetic Diseases
 Haemophilia
 Genetic disorder (rare)
 Absent many clotting factors in blood
 Affects ability blood's ability to clot
 Also called bleeder's disease
 Causes prolonged bleeding

 Colour Blindness
 Genetic disorder
 Also called 'daltonism
 cone cells of retina disturbed
 Affected person can not distinguish the red and green colours.

Genetic Diseases : Autosomal Disorders

 Down's syndrome
 Extra copy of 21" chromosome
 Patient has chromosomes 45 + XY (male) and 45 + XX (male)
 Also called trisomy 21, Mongolism, Mongoloid
 Edward's syndrome
 Extra copy of 18 chromosome
 Patau's syndrome
 Extra copy of 13" chromosome

Turner's syndrome only in female

 One of the two X-chromosomes is missing in female
 Total chromosomes in female = 44 +X , 45 Chromosomes instead 46 Makes female infertile
 Short helght and sex organs are less developed

Klinefelter's syndrome in Male

 Extra copy of X-Chromosome
 Total chromosomes = 44 + XXY i.e 47 instead 46
 Smaller testes, sterility, long height, long limbs, female like voice

Superfemales (Poly female syndrome)

 Many extra X chromosomes
 44 + XXX, 44+ XXXX, 44 + XXXXX Chromosomes

Supermales (Poly Y male syndrome)

 Many extra Y-chromosomes
 44+ XYY, 44+ XYYY Chromosomes

Sickle cell anemia

 RBC to deform into sickle shaped
 Blood disorder

Connect With Us - 6
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

Immunisation
 It is the capacity of the body to produce an immune response either naturally, or through vaccines. Such
approaches develop immunity or resistance to a specific illness.
 Immunisation can be defined as the process by which a person is made resistant to a particular disease by the
administration of a vaccine.

Immunity
 Acquired Immunity
 Acquired immunity or adaptive immunity is the immunity that our body acquires or gains over time.
 Unlike the innate immunity, this is not present by birth.
 Innate Immunity
 This type of immunity is present in an organism by birth.
 This is activated immediately when the pathogen attacks. Innate immunity includes certain barriers and
defence mechanisms that keep foreign particles out of the body.
 Innate immunity refers to the body’s defence system.

Vaccination
 Vaccination is a simple, safe, and effective way of protecting you against harmful diseases, before you come into
contact with them.
 It uses your body’s natural defenses to build resistance to specific infections and makes your immune system
stronger.
 Vaccines train your immune system to create antibodies, just as it does when it’s exposed to a disease.

POLIO 1st VACCINE Or Salk Vaccine

 Discovered 1st polio vaccine in 1951
 An Inactivated (Killed) Polio Vaccine (IPV)
 Injectable
 first used in 1955 Jonas Salk

POLIO 2nd VACCINE Or Sabin Vaccine

 Discovered 2nd polio vaccine in 1957
 Weekend Polio Vaccine
 Oral polio vaccine (OPV)
 first used in 1961 Albert B. Sabin

NUTRITION
DEFINITIONS
 Food: any substance, solid or liquid, that contains nutrients.
 Nutrients: substances that can be digested and used by the body.
 Elements: All nutrients are made up of elements. They are simple substances
that cannot be broken down into anything simpler.
 Diet: the selection of food each person eats
 Balanced diet: contains all the nutrients in the correct amount for the needs of the body.
 RDA: Recommended dietary allowance
 GDA: Guideline daily amount

Nutrients
There are 6 nutrients
 Proteins
 Fats / Lipids

Connect With Us - 7
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

 Carbohydrates
 Mineral elements
 Vitamins
 Water

Nutrients
 Macronutrients: needed in large amounts by the body i.e. protein, fat and carbohydrate.
 Micronutrients: Needed in small amounts by the body i.e. vitamins, minerals
 Composition: the elements that make up the nutrients.
 Classification: dividing things into groups or classes.
 Sources: foods that supply a large amount of a nutrient.
 Functions: Uses of nutrients in the body

Protein - Composition
 Made up of the elements:
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
 Nitrogen
 Protein is the only nutrient with nitrogen which is needed for growth
 The elements join to form Amino Acids
 The amino acids link together in long chains called Proteins

Protein - Composition

Protein - Classification
 There are 2 classes of protein
1. HBV protein (High Biological Value)/ First class protein / Animal protein.
2. LBV protein (Low Biological Value ) / Second class protein / Plant protein.
Both classes of protein are needed in the diet
Protein - Sources
 Animal protein: meat, poultry, fish, eggs, cheese, yoghurt, milk.
 Plant protein: Lentils, Beans, Peas, nuts, cereals
Plant protein foods contain:
 Less saturated fat
 More fibre
 Cheaper to produce

Connect With Us - 8
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

Protein - Sources

Protein - Functions’
 The growth of all body cells
 For repair of worn or damaged cells
 To make hormones, enzymes and antibodies in the body

Protein - functions

Protein – RDA and Energy value

 RDA for protein is 1g per day per Kg of body weight.
 1 gram of protein can release 4 kilocalories or 17 kilojoules of energy

Lipids (fats & oils)- Composition

 Lipids are called fats when solid at room temperature and oils when they are liquid at room temperature.
 Made of 3 elements:
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen
 The elements make units called glycerol and fatty acids
 Each glycerol joins to 3 fatty acids to form a lipid

Lipids - structure

Connect With Us - 9
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

Lipids - Classification
There are 2 classes of lipids
1. Saturated lipids: animal fats, solid at room temperature.
2.Unsaturated lipids: plant and fish oils, liquid at room temperature

Lipids - Sources
1. Saturated fats are found in: butter, suet, lard, meat, cheese, eggs, milk, yoghurt.
2. Unsaturated fats are found in: fish, nuts, seeds, cereals, soya beans, olives, avocado pears, some margarines,
cooking oils.

Saturated fat sources

Unsaturated fat sources

Lipids - Function
 Releases heat and energy for the body
 Insulates the body
 Protects delicate organs e.g. kidneys
 Source of fat soluble vitamins A, D, E, K
 Delays hunger
 Adds flavour to foods

Connect With Us -
10
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

Functions of fat

Overeating Lipids
 Overweight or obesity
 Saturated fats raise blood cholesterol. This causes high blood pressure, strokes and heart disease

Benefits of saturated lipids

 Help reduce cholesterol
 Omega 3 and omega 6 fatty acids reduce risk of heart disease and improve brain function. They are found in oily
fish, seeds and nuts

Carbohydrates - Composition
Made of 3 elements:
 Carbon
 Hydrogen
 Oxygen

 The elements form single sugar units e.g. glucose

 The sugar units link up to form other carbohydrates

Carbohydrates-Classification
 There are 3 classes of carbohydrates
 Sugars
 Starches
 Cellulose (fibre, roughage)

Carbohydrates - Sources
1. Sugars are found in: fruit, honey, table sugar, cakes, biscuits, sweets, fizzy drinks, jam
2. Starches are found in: bread, potato, pasta, rice
3. Cellulose is found in: Fruit, vegetables, whole-cereals, seeds, nuts, beans, brown bread, brown rice, high fibre
breakfast cereals

Connect With Us -
11
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

Carbohydrate - functions
 To supply the body with energy
 Extra carbohydrate is changed to body fat and stored
 Cellulose is needed to keep the digestive system healthy and lower cholesterol

Cellulose
 Not digested, just passes through our digestive system unchanged
 Helps to push food through the intestine and prevent constipation, diverticulosis and cancer of the colon
 We need to eat 30g of fibre a day to be healthy most people only eat 15g

Sugar
 Sugar is a food we need to eat less of
 Too much sugar is causing obesity, tooth decay and diabetes
 A lot of sugar is hidden in foods that don’t really taste sweet especially convenience foods e.g. spaghetti hoops,
check label for ingredients

Reducing Sugar in your Diet.

 Replace sugary snacks with healthy fruit , nuts, yoghurt etc.
 Drink water instead of fizzy drinks
 Sweeten breakfast cereals with fresh or dried fruit e.g. raisins, banana
 Check sugar content on food labels and choose low sugar foods

Vitamins – (micronutrients)
 Essential for good health
 Each vitamin has its own job to do in the body
 If a vitamin is missing from the diet a deficiency disease can occur

Vitamins - Classification
1. Fat –Soluble (dissolve in fat) Vitamins: A,D,E,K.
2. Water – Soluble (dissolve in water) Vitamins:B, C
 If more of the fat soluble vitamins is eaten than the body needs it is stored in the liver.
 If an overdose of these vitamins is eaten it causes hypervitaminosis which is harmful to the body.
 Water soluble vitamins are not stored in the body, if too much is eaten they are removed in the urine.
 It is therefore important to eat water soluble vitamins every day

Fat soluble vitamins

Connect With Us -
12
Economics www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us -
13
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Nervous System
• All the activities of the human body depend on the mutual coordination of all the organs and organ systems.
• The complex structure made up of organs and appendages spread throughout the body, which establishes
coordination, harmony and balance between different organs and organ systems of the body, is called
nervous system.
• The nervous system is made up of sensory organs such as nerves, brain, spinal cord and nerve cells.
• The nervous system in higher level organisms is extremely complex.

The nervous system of higher animals performs three basic functions:

• receiving impulses from the internal and external environment and transmitting it to the brain through
nerve fibers.
• informing the brain by receptive information
• transmitting the response to the relevant organ.

Connect With Us - 1
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Human Nervous System

• The structural and functional unit of the nervous system - the
nerve cell ie neuron
• longest cell in the body
• Number of nerve cells in the body - about 100 billion (101)
• Most of them are found in the brain.
• Some nerve cells that are outside the central system, are found in
small groups, - Ganglia

Connect With Us - 2
Science www.parchamclasses.in

1. (cell Body or Cyton)

• It is the main part of the nerve cell.
• It contains a nucleus and cytoplasm.
• This mass contains many protein-rich colored particles, which are
called Nissl's granules.

2. (Dendrites)
• Thin fibers coming out of the cell body are called Dendrites.

3. (Axon)
• Starting from the cell body, a very thin and long nerve
fiber emerges, which is called Axon
• It acts as a messenger from one neuron to another.
• Its end end is divided into thin branches, - Synaptic
Knobs
• These knobs make a special connection with the knobs
of other nerve cells - synapses.
• It is through this that a nerve cell transfers its neural
information to the adjacent neuron.
• Some nerve cells have a covering of a specific substance around the nerve, - Myelin Sheath
• This cover is fragmented at some distance.
• These fragmented places are called Node of Ranvier.
• The part between two nodes is called Inter Node.

Nerve cells (depending on number and nature of nerves)

Unipolar Neurons
Bipolar Neurons
Multipolar Neurons

Connect With Us - 3
Science www.parchamclasses.in

1 . (Unipolar Neurons)
• These nerves are mainly found in invertebrates.
• In these, dendrites do not arise directly from the cell body.
• In polar nerve cells, only one process emerges from the cytoplasm.
• Thus a single strand of polar nerve cells functions as both an axon and a dendrite.

2. Bipolar Neurons
• Bipolar nerve cells have two spurs at two opposite ends of the
cytoplasm.
• One of these is the nerve cord and the other is the trunk.
• This type of nerve cells are usually present in sensory organs, such as in
the eyes (retina), ears, in the vital mucous membrane of the nose
(Olfactory Mucous Membrane).

3. Multipolar Neurons
• In multipolar nerve cells, there is only one nerve cell and many
peduncles.
• Most of the nerve cells of the central nervous system of vertebrates
fall into this category.

Connect With Us - 4
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Central Nervous System

• The most important unit in the human body is
• Produces information and instructions for all body functions
• Establishes coordination between other active body parts and affects them.
• For this reason, it is called the Central Processing Unit (CPU) of the body.
• The central nervous system is mainly made up of two organs - brain or spinal cord.

Brain
• The brain is the control and command center of the body and nervous system.
• It interprets the information received from the sensory organs and gives instructions for the reaction of the
body.
• Along with this, it also controls many functions of the body, such as movement, balance, temperature
control, voluntary and involuntary actions, hunger, thirst behavior etc.

(Cranium)
• The human brain is a soft organ located within the cranium.
• The cranium protects the brain from external shocks like a hard shell.
• A three-layered protective covering is found over the brain, which is called the meninges.

Connect With Us - 5
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Basic Of Brain
• Volume of a fully grown human brain - about 1650 ml.
• Weight - approx 1300-1400 grams
• At the time of birth, the size of the brain of a child is about one-fourth of the full grown brain of an adult.
• Brain development in the two years after birth - about 75-80% of the time
• Its full development - by the age of 6 years
• Nerve cells in the human brain - 100 billion
• All cells are connected to each other.
• One nerve cell is connected to 25,000 other nerve cells.
• In this way 250 lakh crore nerve groups are interconnected.
• The function of providing nourishment and support to a nerve cell - neuroglia cells (numbering about a
trillion)

1. (Olfactory Lobe)
❖ Provides human sense of smell
❖ The sense of aroma, odor etc. is possible only due to the olfactory
body.
❖ The olfactory body in humans is less developed than in dogs and
sharks.
❖ Dogs have a very high sense of smell, so dogs are used by security
agencies to search for criminals, suspicious persons or objects.

2. (Cerebrum)
❖ It is about two-thirds of the entire brain.
❖ It is the largest part of the human brain.

Connect With Us - 6
Science www.parchamclasses.in

❖ These parts are called Cerebral Hemisphere. Both the cerebral hemispheres are
connected by a bundle made of tissue and nerve fibers called the corpus
callosum.

3. (Diencephalon)
→ The diencephalon is a small part of the forebrain, which is located within
the brain. It is divided into four parts

(Epithalamus)
❖ The epithalamus is mainly composed of the pineal gland and the
habenula.
❖ Both these structures secrete a hormone called melatonin.
❖ This hormone regulates the daily activities of the body and sleep.

(Sub Thalamus)
❖ Some part of the subthalamus is formed from the tissues of the
midbrain which extend to the diencephalon.
❖ It contains a sub-thalamic nucleus.
❖ Which is attached to the basal ganglia (group of nerve cells).
❖ It helps in controlling the speed.

(Thalamus)
❖ The thalamus is made up of two elliptical structures.
❖ The thalamus is also called the relay station, because all sensory
information (except smell) going to the cortex is first stopped in the
thalamus and then sent to its target.

(Hypothalamus)
❖ The hypothalamus is a small area located at the base of the brain.
❖ It organizes and controls the internal activities of the body.
❖ Being connected to the brain, the hypothalamus controls the body's internal balance (especially involuntary
behavior) while maintaining isostatic state.
❖ The centers present in it control the expression of hunger, thirst, anger, peace and love.
❖ The hypothalamus maintains the body's temperature at approximately 37 °C through a complex
thermosetting system.
❖ The hypothalamus affects respiration and heartbeat, and sends signals to them to correct abnormal
conditions.
❖ It regulates growth and sexual behavior by being associated with the pituitary gland.

Connect With Us - 7
Science www.parchamclasses.in

(Mesencephalon or Midbrain)
→ The middle brain is located between the thalamus/hypothalamus of the fore brain and the pons of the
posterior brain.
→ It is the second largest part of the brain.
→ The upper part of the midbrain is a group of nerve cells.
→ It controls vision, hearing and reflex actions.

1 (Corpora Quadrigemina)
→ The upper part of the middle brain is made up of four solid lobes called
corpora quadrigemina.
→ These bodies are related to the senses of vision, the nerves of vision
coming out of them go towards the eyes.

2. (Cerebral Peduncle)
→ It is made up of fibers, which connect the spinal cord to the brain.

Posterior Brain
→ The hindbrain is the last part of the human brain which includes the
following parts-

Connect With Us - 8
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 9
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 10
Science www.parchamclasses.in

What is Plant Morphology ?

✔ Study of external structure, form and features
✔ It includes the roots, stem, leaves, flower and fruits

Detailed Structure of Plant

Connect With Us - 1
Science www.parchamclasses.in

➔ Developed from radicle

➔ Positive geotropic
➔ Negative phototropic
➔ Nodes and internodes are absent
➔ Do not bear fruit, flower and leaves
➔ Unicellular root hairs are found in epidermis

Main Functions of Roots

✔ Absorption of water and minerals from the soli
✔ Mechanical support
✔ Synthesis of plant growth registers (plant hormones

Other Functions of Roots

✔ Food storage
✔ Respiration

Roots
Fibrous Roots
Adventitious Roots
• In grass, Monstera and the banyan tree, roots arise from parts of the plant other than the radicle

Connect With Us - 2
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Modification of Roots
For food storage-
✔ (Radish)
✔ (Carrot)
✔ (Turnip)
✔ (Beet)

Mechanical Support
❖ Prop root - (Banyan)
❖ Stilt root - (Maize), (Sugarcane)

Respiratory root
✔ Pneumatophore - (Rhizophora)

For other biological activity

✔ Sucker root - (Cuscuta)
✔ Assimilatory root

✔ Developed from plumula /

✔ Negatively geotropic/
✔ Positively phototropic/
✔ Nodes and internodes are present /
✔ Bear fruit, flower and leaves/

Functions of Stem
✔ Bear leaves, fruits and flowers /
✔ conducts water, mineral and
photosynthates /
✔ Food storage
✔ Support
✔ Protection
✔ Vegetative propagation

Connect With Us - 3
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 4
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 5
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Modification of Aerial stem

Stem thorn
Stem tendril
Phylloclade
Cladode

Connect With Us - 6
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Leaf
● The leaf is a lateral, generally flattened structure
borne on the stem
● It develops at the node and bears a bud in its axil
● The axillary bud later develops into a branch

• Parts of Leaf : Leaf base, Petiole & Lamina

Leaf Venation
• Parallel Venation - Mostly in monocots

• Retuculate Venation -Mostly in dicots

Connect With Us - 7
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Types of Leaf
Simple Leaf
▪ It's lamina is entire or when incised, the incisions do not touch the
midrib

Compound Leaf
▪ The incisions of the lamina reach up to the midrib breaking
it into a number of leaflets
▪ Examples - Neem , Coconut , Silk cotton, Rose etc.

Phyllotaxy
❖ Alternate
❖ Opposite
❖ Whorled

(Main Functions of Leaves)-

✔ photosynthesis
✔ exchanging gases for respiration
✔ vaporize

(Modified Leaves)-
✔ Leaf Spines : (Opuntia or Cactus)
✔ 2Leaf tendril : (pea)
✔ 3) Pitcher :
✔ 4) Bladerwort : aquatic insectivorous plant)

Connect With Us - 8
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Diagram Representation of Parts of Flower

Flower
❖ Main reproductive organ of Angiosperm plants

Connect With Us - 9
Science www.parchamclasses.in

POLLINATION
❖ Pollination is an essential part of plant
reproduction.
❖ Pollen from a flower's anthers (the male part of
the plant) rubs or drops onto a pollinator.
❖ The pollinator then take this pollen to another
flower, where the pollen sticks to the stigma
(the female part)

Cross-PollinationIn this process,pollen grains are

transferred from a flower of one plant to the (stigma)
flower of another plant .

Self PollinationIn this process, the pollen grains transfer

from the stigma of the same or genetically similar flower.

Different Modes of Pollination

❖ Anemophilous
❖ Entomophilous
❖ Hydrophilous
❖ Zoophilous
❖ Ornithophilous

Connect With Us - 10
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Process of Fertilization in Flowering Plant

What happens after fertilization?

The ovary becomes the fruit.
ovule becomes seed
Calyx, Corolla, Stigma. Style: All these whither
or wither and fall.

Connect With Us - 11
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Parts of Fruit
● After fertilization the ovary wall becomes the fruit wall, the thick
fruit wall consists of three layers
● outer fruit wall
● middle fruit wall
● inner fruit wall

Edible part of fruit - (V.V.I)

● Mango, papaya and banana - mesocarp
● Apple, Pear, Strawberry and Guava - Pushpasana (Thalamus)
● Guava and Grapes - Pericarp
● Coconut Endosperm
● Cashew and Groundnut - Cotyledon

Parthenocarpic Fruit
● Fruit is formed without fertilization of the ovary
● It is seedless fruit
● Examples- Banana, Papaya, Grapes, Guava , Tomato, Orange, Watermelon, Pineapple, etc.

Connect With Us - 12
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Grass family or Poaceae Family

Includes monocot plants
● Maize
● Wheat
● Rice
● Barley
● Millet
● Grassland
● Bamboo

Fabaceae or Legume Family

Root with root nodules
● Gram
● Arhar
● Sem
● Moong
● Soyabean
● Groundnut
● Pea
● Bean

Connect With Us - 13
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Algae
❏ Algae are the simplest autotrophic and aquatic organisms of the plant kingdom.
❏ They have the capability of photosynthesis and store food in the form of starch.
❏ Unicellular
❏ Multicellular
❏ Found in moist places, mud, fresh water, average warm water bodies, ponds,
lakes, rivers and saline water bodies of the sea.
❏ Algae Growing on ice - (Cryptophytes)
❏ Algae Growing on Rocks - (Lithophytes)

Study of Algae - (Phycology)

Classification of Algae

(F.E.Fritsch)

Economic Importance of Algae

• Carbohydrates, inorganic substances and vitamins A, C, D, and E
are found in abundance in algae.
• In Japan, algae called Porphyra and Ulva are used for
food.
• Alva is also called sea salad.
• Rhodymenia palmata is used as tobacco in Scotland.
• Nostoc is the major algae consumed in China.
• Amblycus is used as food in India and other neighboring
countries.

Industrial Use of Algae

• A substance called alligen is obtained from algae, which is important in
volcanization, the rollers of typewriters and the manufacture of non-flammable
films.
• Synthetic wool is made in Japan from algae called Sargassum.
• A substance called mucilaginous kerogenin is prepared from algae called Chondus
crispus, which is used in cosmetics, shampoo, shoe polish, etc.
• Algae like Laminaria, Fucus etc. are used to make iodine, bromine acid, acetone etc.
• A substance called agar-agar is obtained from red algae, which is used in
laboratories for plant culture, gels, ice cream, etc. This material is used in making

Connect With Us - 1
Science www.parchamclasses.in

heatproof, soundproof, synthetic fiber, leather, soup, sauce etc. This substance is obtained from algae
called Prasylaria and Geladium.

Agricultural Use of Algae

• Algae like Nostoc, Anabaena etc. fix nitrogen of the
atmosphere. Bacteria also participate in this process.
Some algae are also used as manure in agriculture.
• Blue Green Algae are used to make the Wasteland
fertile land. For example, Nostoc.

Medicinal Use of Algae

• Antibiotic called Chlorellan Algae called Chlorella - it is crystalline which protects against both Gram-
positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
• Cara and Nitella algae are helpful in eradicating malaria.

Harm by Algae
• Algae algal bloom or algal eruption - increase aquatic
pollution (life of fish present in water is endangered)
• Cephaleuros - Red rust of tea on tea plants
• Algae - Green layer on the ground in rainy season
(produces excessive slippage)

Protozoa
• The words Protozoa (early) and Zoan (animal)
• The word protozoa was first used in 1818 by the German biologist Georg August
Goldkus.
• Some organisms are capable of photosynthesis
• Also called Protophyta means early plant

Nutrition in Protozoan Organisms

⮚ In general, all protozoan organisms are heterotrophs, which obtain their
nutrition by preying on other micro-organisms or in the form of parasites.

Movement in Protozoan Organisms

⮚ Protozoan organisms move or move with the help of fibrous structures called pseudopodia,
flagella or cilia.

Connect With Us - 2
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Reproduction of Protozoa
⮚ Protozoan organisms reproduce both sexually and
asexually. In Plasmodium, Taxoplasma,
Apicomplexan, etc., the formation and contraction
of zygote leads to the formation of gametes by
sexual reproduction.
⮚ Asexual reproduction occurs in amoeba and other
parasitic protozoa through binary fission, multiple fission or budding.

BACTERIA

Fermentation
⮚ Breakdown of organic matters / carbohydrates by bacteria or yeasts in the absence of oxygen is
called fermentation

Connect With Us - 3
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Economic Significance Of Bacteria

⮚ To increase soil fertility in agriculture
⮚ in dairy
⮚ in the vinegar industry
⮚ in wine and beer manufacturing
⮚ in the tobacco industry
⮚ in the tea industry
⮚ the tea industry
⮚ in extreme industry
⮚ to get fibbers
⮚ in pharmaceutical
manufacturing
⮚ manufacturing of antibiotics
⮚ Digests cellulose in ruminant animals

Connect With Us - 4
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Bacterial Diseases in Human

Diseases Bacteria Types of Bacteria
Cholera Vinio Collieri Comma shaped
Diphtheria Corinobacterium diphtheriae Rod shaped
Leprosy ' Mycobacterium leprae Rod shaped
Pneumonia Diplococcus pneumoni Spherical shaped
Plague* Bacillus pestis Rod shaped
Typhoid Salmonella Typhi Rod shaped
Tuberculosis Mycobacterium tuberculosis Rod shaped
Tetanus Clostridium tetani Rod shaped
Whooping Cough' Haemophilus Pertussis Rod shaped
Syphilis* Treponema pallidum Spiral shaped
Gonorrhea* Spherical shaped

Connect With Us - 5
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 6
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 7
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 8
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Fungal Diseases In Animal

Aspergillosis
Aspergillosis is an infection, growth, or allergic response caused by the Aspergillus
fungus.

First Antibiotic

Connect With Us - 9
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 10
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Economic Importance of LICHENS

⮚ Reindeer moss or Kledonia used as food in the Arctic region (by reindeer and
cattle)
⮚ Iceland Moss - In Iceland it is used to make cakes
⮚ Parmelia - in making curry (in South India)
⮚ In making medicine - in hydrophobia, epilepsy, lung disease, diarrhea, jaundice,
whooping cough etc.
⮚ getting the dye
⮚ Rosella and Lasalia - in obtaining litmus paper
⮚ in perfumery
In the manufacture of incense, incense material and soap
⮚ In brewing (in Russia and Sweden)
⮚ Asaniya - in making antibiotic
⮚ some lichens are poisonous

Mycorrhizae
An association between fungus & root of a higher plant.

Connect With Us - 11
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 12
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 13
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 14
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 15
Science www.parchamclasses.in

Connect With Us - 16