Original from text

7.1 The “Solomonic” Dynasty & the Christian Kingdom, 13th -16th Centuries
The founder of this dynasty was a local ruler in Amhara called Yekuno-Amlak. Yekuno
Amlak claimed to be the descendant of the Aksumite kings. Accordingly, he founded
the so-called "Solomonic" dynasty, using the legend of Queen of Sheba and King
Solomon. This dynasty, which came to power in 1270, called itself "Solomonic".
Yekuno Amlak and his followers took this dynastic name to justify their legitimacy
by claiming that the Zagwe rulers were illegitimate.Similarly, the name "Solomonic"
is placed in quotation marks because the claim of descent from King Solomon of
Israel is legendary and cannot be historically proven. However, the claim was
elaborated in the Kibre Negest ("Glory of Kings") in the 14th century. The Kibre
Negest claims that the Ethiopian ruling class descended from the line of Menilek I,
son of the Queen of Sheba and King Solomon of Israel. As a result, Ethiopian
monarchs from Yikuno Amlak to Emperor Haile Silassie I claimed descent from Menilek
I.In 1270, when it came to power, the Christian Kingdom was confined to the
territory of Southern Eretria, Tigray, Lasta and the northern part of Shewa. From
this area, Yekuno 121History Grade 9 Student TextbookAmlak and his successors,
such as Amde-Tsion (r.1314-44), began to expand the dynasty's territory. Its
territorial limits covered the ancient highland provinces of Aksum and Zagwe in the
north. It also covered the regions of Gondar and eastern Gojjam in the northwest,
Bizamo and Damot in the southwest, the Gurage lands and the Omotic populations of
Wolaita and Gamo in the south and Ifat, Fatagar, Dawaro, Hadiya and Bali in the
east and southeast. Amde-Tsion was the first "Solomonic" King, who embarked on a
wider and rapid territorial expansion policy.Their main motives of expansion were
economic and political, i.e., to control the trade routes and territorial seizures.
The control over the Zeila trade route helped Yekuno Amlak strengthen his economic
power. In turn, the economic strength helped him to organize and sustain a strong
army. As a result, the Christian Kingdom controlled extensive territories during
the reign of Emperor Amde-Tsion. The period also witnessed the expansion of trade,
leading to the flow of commodities to the coast. This economic and military
strength contributed much to his success in defeating his opponents and expanding
his kingdom.Following the end of the reign of Yikuno-Amlak in 1285, political
instability caused constant power struggles among his sons and grandsons for
succession. The succession problem seems to have been partly resolved in 1300
during the reign of Widim-Ra'ad (r. 1299-1314) following the establishment of a
‘royal prison’ at Amba-Gishen located in present-day southern Wollo. According to
the rule, all-male members of the royal family were confined at the Amba Gishen.
Loyal soldiers to the reigning monarch guarded the royal prison. When the monarch
died, court dignitaries would send an army to the royal prison to escort the
designated successor and put him on the throne. This practice continued until Amba-
Gishen was destroyed by Imam Ahmad Ibrahim Al-Ghazi's force in 1540. From 1270
until the establishment of Gondar in 1636, the medieval monarchs had no permanent
capital like Aksum or Lalibela. Instead, they ruled over the vast territory through
mobile courts for two centuries. Initially, the centre of the “restored” dynasty
was in today’s South Wollo around Lake Haiq. Then, however, it gradually shifted
southward to the districts of Menz, Tegulet, Bulga in northern Shawa, and finally,
to the regions dominated by the great height of the Yerer and Zequalla in eastern
Shawa. The need to get daily food supplies and firewood for such a great number of
court officials, soldiers and servants necessitated the use of mobile camps.
Initially, military motives prompted the Ethiopian ruling elite to change their
capitals.
States, Principalities, Population Movements and Interactions in Ethiopia, 13th -
Mid-16th C.from fixed to mobile settlements. These mobile capitals were adapted in
several ways:• They moved to food supply areas rather than supplies being moved
to the capital.• They impoverished their current hinterlands.• The political
integration of Ethiopia came eventually to depend on a mobile center of the
polity.stabilisation of capitals difficult. In other words, the very adaptations to
the wandering capitals themselves had a feedback effect on the pattern of movement.
They, therefore, contributed to a continuation of capital movement.The physical
environment of medieval cities was not pleasant. The cities were often dirty and
smelled of animal and human waste. Air pollution was also a fact of life. Even
worse, pollution came from the burning of firewood. Cities were also unable to stop
water pollution, especially from animal slaughtering. Such tradition of the
medieval period brought about deforestation because trees were cut down for daily
requirements of the camp dwellers. As a result, the camp sites and surroundings
were abandoned.These three factors not only represented adaptations to nomadic
capitals but, in turn, made. To effectively administer over this vast territory,
the Christian Kingdom consolidated a feudal system of administration known as the
gult system. Under this system, state officials were guaranteed the right to
collect tribute from the local peasantry (called the gult right). Gult right was a
right given to an official to share the produce of the peasantry. An official given
this right by the state was known as bale-gult or gult owner. Peasants were given
to him based on his rank in the state hierarchy. The bale-gult enjoyed several
political and economic privileges over the peasants under him. He had the right to
collect tributes in kind and use them to maintain himself and his family. He could
also use the labour of peasants under him for different purposes. Moreover, he
could recruit a local army and command them in wars during the period of local or
national crises. In return for all these privileges, the bale-gult was responsible
for maintaining law and order in his area. So, this system immensely helped
simplify administering the vast Christian empire by dividing it into smaller units.
It also enabled the Christian kingdom to maintain a large territorial army, which
the kingdom used to bring Muslims and other states under its control. A rist right
is a claim to the hereditary ownership of land. Rist right was a communal
birthright to land. The state provided them with security, whereas the peasants
were obliged to pay tribute or gibber to the state. Gult right was given to a state
official in return for his service to the state. So, it was a medieval substitute
for salary. It lasted as long as the official remained loyal to the state. It was
not hereditary. For an extended period, the gult system remained a predominant
feature of Ethiopian feudalism.Like the Zagwe rulers, the kings of the new
“Solomonic” dynasty maintained the political and cultural traditions of Aksum. They
continued to expand Christianity in different directions. The rulers exercised both
political and religious powers at the same time. The Church-state relationship
became very strong and almost reached its peak during this period. The Christian
highland rulers also continued Zagwe’s tradition of foreign relations with Egypt
and the Middle East. They also extended these relations to Europe, but closer ties
were established with Portugal and Spain from European countries.
Give me the main points from the above document.

7.2 The Muslim Principalities

The establishment of several Muslim sultanates along the long-distance trade routes
followed the introduction of Islam to Ethiopia and the Horn. Along the Zeila trade
route, which served as the most important gateway of Islam to the interior of
Ethiopia, a series of Muslim states were formed. Some of these Muslim sultanates of
the region were Ifat, Fatigar, Dawaro, Dara, Bali, Hadya, Arbabini, Sharka, and
Adal.Map 7.1 Muslim states and trade routes in the Ethiopian, 14th and 15th
centuries (Source: Church and State)Towards the mid- 13th century, a Muslim
Sultanate of Ifat emerged to the south of Shewa. Its founder was Umar Walasma and
hence the Walasma Dynasty. In 1285AD, it destroyed the older Makhzumite dynasty and
became the strongest Muslim Sultanate in the region. Moreover, Ifat controlled a
vast territory through which the long-distance trade routes of Zeila. Therefore,
most of the profitable Zeila trade came under the control of Ifat. Eventually, Ifat
became the strongest rival of the Christian highland state. 125History Grade 9
Student TextbookSince 1270, the Christian highland state also developed a great
interest in the Zeila trade and trade routes. Therefore, they need to control the
Zeila trade to become the primary source of conflict between the two states.
Frequent skirmishes between the two finally resulted in the defeat of Ifat by the
Christian forces of Amde Seyon in 1332AD.There were several other small Muslim
Sultanates to the south, east and north of the Ifat. The Sultanates of Fatagar
emerged around the middle of the 13th century. The Sultanate was situated south of
the present-day Bulga around Shenkora. Dawaro was located between the middle Awash
River and upper Wabe-Shebele. Further, Bali’s location was in the rich area south
of the Wabe-Shebele. We do not know when Bali emerged as a state. Dara probably
existed between Dawaro and Bali states. Whereas, Arbabini was located between
Dawaro and Hadiya, about which we know very little. Hadiya was located to the west
of the Dawaro and Bali. We do not know when the Sultanate comes to power. However,
the Sultanate was mentioned for the first time during the reign of Amde Seyon.
Sharaka was located in the present territory of Arsi.Similarly, there is no
tangible evidence of when the Sultanate emerged as a state. However, from the 14th
century onwards, it existed as a tributary to the Christian kingdom until the first
quarter of the 16th century. Trade was one of the significant factors that resulted
in the rise and development of those states. Trade served as a significant source
of livelihood. It acted as a major agent that resulted in the formation of Muslim
sultanates. However, it remained a major source of conflict between the Christian
Kingdoms and Muslim sultanates. After its establishment, Ifat conducted a series of
campaigns against its neighbouring sultanates, extending its hegemony over these
areas. It also resisted the expansion of the Christian Kingdom. One branch of the
Walasma family realized that Ifat was becoming an easy target to the Christian
Kingdom due to its location. So, it moved further to the south-eastern lowlands and
established a new and vigorous Muslim Sultanate of Adal in the highland districts
around Harar in 1367. One of the strong Muslim sultanates that emerged along trade
routes and became a centre of resistance against the Christian Kingdom until the
second half of the sixteenth century was the Sultanate of Adal. The first centre of
this extended Walasma Dynasty was at a place called Dakar, located in the southeast
of Harar. The Walasma family consolidated its power in the new centre and began
another phase of military campaigns against the frontiers of the Christian Kingdom.
As a result, in 1520, the centre of Adal was changed to the city of Harar. The
defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543 and the Oromo population movement and expansion forced
the Sultanate to change its capital to Awsa in 1576/7, which is in the present Afar
region.

7.3 Relationship Between the Christian Kingdom and the Sultanate of Adal, 1520s-
1559
The primary source of conflict among peoples and states in Ethiopia and the Horn of
Africa was the desire to monopolize long-distance trade. Long-distance trade was a
source of great wealth. It also served as a link among the peoples of Ethiopia. The
desire for territorial expansion was also another source of rivalry among the
peoples and states of the Ethiopian region. Therefore, the desire for the monopoly
of long-distance trade and territorial expansion proved to be sources for inter-
state conflicts.The revival of long-distance trade caused competition and struggle
for control over the trade routes between the Christian kingdoms and the Muslim
principalities. This was followed by a series of wars, depicted as wars for
religious supremacy in historical accounts of Christian and Muslim clerics. While
maladministration and exploitation of the periphery made military mobilization
possible, religion provided ideological justification for the wars. However, the
interest in controlling trade routes lay at the heart of the conflict that
continued for two centuries. The war culminated in the years from 1529 127History
Grade 9 to 1543. Student TextbookIn the beginning, the Zeila trade route was under
the control of the Muslim states, mainly Ifat. However, in 1332 Ifat was defeated
by the Christian kingdom and lost its independence. Thus monopoly over the route
went to Amde Seyon. To regain their independence and control over the Zeila trade
route Haqadin II and Sa'adadin retreated to the Harar plateau and set up a new
Muslim resistance base in the late fourteenth century.As a prelude to this conflict
among the Muslim Sultanates, internal strife, corruption and anarchy were
intensified, and new leadership was urgently called for. Such leadership came from
Imam Ahmed ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi. The origin of Imam Ahmed, also named as “the left-
handed” is obscure. He was born at Hubet in between Dire Dawa and Jigjiga and
raised by his devout Muslim kin in one of the oases on the route to Zeila. After
Imam Ahmad came to power, the battles were not just fought to control the long-
distance trade route going through Zeila but mainly because there was a demographic
pressure among the Afar and Somali pastoralists pushing to approach Harar and the
Christian Kingdom. It was one of the Imam's remarkable achievements in leadership
that he mobilized the pastoral communities of the Afar, the Argoba, the Somali, the
Harla, Harari and others to a common cause. He convinced them not to fight amongst
them but to unite and expand to the Christian Kingdom. It was to resolve their
pressing material needs while at the same time keeping Islamic beliefs and
practices from the infiltration of any alien religious doctrine. As a result, he
was able to gain an audience as Imam. He consolidated his army to fight the
Christian Kingdom. Meanwhile, Lebne-Dengel was enthroned when he was only eleven.
Nevertheless, assisted by the elderly Elleni and due to internal conflicts in Adal,
the Christian state initially retained its interest and even advanced into Muslim
territory scoring significant victories in the early sixteenth century. As a
result, most Muslim Sultanates, including Adal, were tributaries to the Christian
Kingdom. However, shortly, Adal fell to Imam Ahmed's army. By the time Imam Ahmed
was strong enough for military confrontation in 1520. He refused to pay tribute,
which was followed by a campaign against the Christian Kingdom in 1527. The Imam's
army fought fiercely and controlled the territories including Bali, Dawaro,
Fatagar, Sidama, Hadiya and Kambata, and the Christian Kingdom was at risk. In
1528, realizing the upcoming threat, Lebne-Dengel mobilized a vast force. However,
there was a logistics problem, and the leadership of the army of the Christian
Kingdom failed to adopt a common strategy to defeat Adal’s force. On the other
hand, enthusiastic Imam Ahmed’s army managed 128 Unit 7| States, Principalities,
Population Movements and Interactions in Ethiopia, 13th - Mid-16th C.logistics
problems with its small-sized army. The Imam’s army also had an excellent
leadership characterized by better mobility and flexible tactics with a unified
command. As a result, the larger and well-equipped Christian army was defeated in
one of the most decisive engagements at the battle of Shimbra Kure in 1529, near
present-day Mojo. After the victory, the Imam's army made a large-scale control of
the territories of the Christian Kingdom, including Shewa, Amhara, Lasta, and moved
as far north as Mereb Melash. By 1535, Imam Ahmed's empire stretched from Zeila to
Massawa on the coast, including the Ethiopian interior. As he penetrated deep into
the Christian Kingdom, Imam Ahmed established a civil, administrative bureaucracy
constituted by his men and newly recruited personnel from the Christian
territories.One of the most helpful figures during the war was the wife of the
Imam, Bati Del Wanbara. She was the daughter of a Muslim military commander of Adal
known as Mahfuz. She accompanied her husband throughout his expeditions. She is
said to have marched even in a state of pregnancy during which she was unable to
use mules. Indeed, she delivered her two sons during the campaigns of 1531 and 1533
in Ifat and present-day Tigray, respectively. On the part of the Christian Kingdom,
the military setback forced the reigning king, Lebne Dengel, to retreat, who
finally died in 1540 being fugitive. His son Gelawdewos (r. 1540-1559) ascended to
the throne and continued to face the wars with more intensity.Conflict in the
Ethiopian region began to take an international dimension when two foreign powers
intervened for their advantage. These powers were Portugal and Ottoman Turkey.
Since the twelfth century, Europeans had found the long-distance trade route from
Europe to the Far East blocked by the Ottoman Turks. The Ottoman Turkish Empire was
already in control of Arabia and Egypt. It also occupied areas in parts of the Red
Sea coast and along the eastern coast of the Indian Ocean. Ottoman Turkey was an
established power in the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aden and the Indian Ocean regions.
After Vasco da Gama discovered a direct sea route to India for Europe in 1498, the
Portuguese began to establish trading stations along the eastern coasts of Africa.
They were also interested in getting new ones on the Gulf of Aden and the Red Sea
coasts.Having noticed the movement of diplomatic missions between the Christian
Kingdoms and Portugal, the Turks gave moral and military support to Imam Ahmed.
Imam Ahmed had received Turkish two hundred Muslim musketeers and ten cannons in
1540. In the meantime, based on the earlier request made by Lebne-Dengel in 1535,
about four hundred Portuguese soldiers armed with matchlocks arrived in the
Christian court in 1541. 129History Grade 9 Student TextbookThe army was led by
Christopher da Gama, the youngest son of Vasco da Gama. However, in August 1542,
the Christian army was defeated in Ofla, in today's southern Tigray.In the battle,
about two hundred Portuguese and their leader Christopher da Gama were killed, and
the leader was beheaded. An important anecdote that should be mentioned here is the
role of Lebne-Dengel's wife, Seblewongel. She is said to have participated in the
war against Imam Ahmed in 1542. After the success, Imam Ahmed was confident about
his army's ability to repulse any future attack by the force of the Christian
Kingdom that he sent his allies back home and let his army camp. On the part of the
Christians, preparations were made for the final confrontation under the leadership
of Emperor Gelawdewos. The Queen's mother, Seble-Wongel, advised the reigning
emperor how to prepare and march for the battle of Woyna-Dega. Due to limited
resources, the monarch employed hit and run strategy, which severely affected
Imam's army. Imam Ahmed's army could not use its previous quality of easy mobility
because they did not know where the attacks came from. On February 25, 1543, while
Imam Ahmed was encamped near Lake Tana, he was attacked and killed after fierce
fighting at the battle of Woyna-Dega. Soon after the battle, Gelawdewos was
confident that the nobility and his army were loyal to him. As a result, the king
restored possession of almost all the northern and central plateau. Muslim
communities in the highlands submitted to Gelawdewos. He was tolerant toward them
to promote national conciliation and develop a revival of smooth relations with the
Muslim world. Besides, Gelawdewos restored many of the pre-1520s territories and
tributary regions. The king attempted to reconsolidate the state through campaigns
to different areas and camping Chewa (regiment) in border areas. By the early
1550s, Gelawdewos had established a strong Christian Kingdom. However, controlling
the Muslim-dominated areas was not an easy task. The growing challenge to the
Christian state came from the retreating soldiers of the Sultanate of Adal, the
Ottoman Turks, Jesuit interlude, and Oromo that advanced into the centre. Under the
leadership of Nur Ibn al-Waazir Mujahid, Adal was ready to wage war against the
Christian state for revenge. In 1559, the forces of Emir Nur confronted Gelawdewos
and killed the king himself. Emperor Minas (r.1559-1563), who succeeded Gelawdewos
defeated the Turks' force and reclaimed territories on the coast, including
Dabarwa. However, in the early 1560s, Yishaq revolted and allied with the Turks
against him. Similarly, Sartsa-Dengle (r.1563-1598) had to defend the Turks while
fighting with the Agaw, Gumuz, Bete-Israel, Sidama, Ennarya and the Oromo. The
emperor then marched to the north, defeated Turkish 130. The Muslim-Christian
conflict had resulted in several consequences. One of the most obvious was the huge
human and material cost. It is also evident that both the Muslim Sultanate and the
Christian Kingdom were weakened, thereby
paving the way for easy penetration and success of the Oromo population movement.
On the positive side, it should be restated that the war had arguably resulted in
cultural interaction among the peoples of Ethiopia. Linguistic and religious
interactions accompanied by intermarriages among peoples of the various cultural
groups were one of these manifestations in the long history of Ethiopia and the
Horn. Competition for supremacy over the Red Sea and the Indian Ocean between
Portugal and the Ottoman Turks gave the prolonged conflict between the Christian
Kingdom and the Muslim principalities a global dimension. Apart from the hostile
relations, wider socio-economic and cultural interactions were between the
Christian Kingdoms and Muslim principalities. As in earlier periods, trade
continued to be the major channel of social integration. Also, it had long been the
source of friendship, interaction, interdependence and conflict among the region's
states. The long-distance trade and local markets served as core areas of social
ties. The difference in ecology between the Muslim sultanates and the Christian
Kingdom created economic interdependence, which strengthened socio-economic
bondage. Merchants of the two regions often moved from the highlands to the coast
and vice versa. The social links were strengthened through such caravan merchants,
and religions spread. These interactions and interdependence in economic, social,
cultural and political spheres lay the foundation for modern Ethiopia.
7.4 Political and Socio-Economic Conditions of Southern and Central States in
Ethiopia

This lesson provides an exhaustive detail of societies and states in central and
southern parts of the country in the period. Thus, this section explores the
history of some of the states (as illustrations) in the period under consideration.
Although no one criterion was used to select the states, due regard has been given
to balancing the number of states selected from each region mentioned above. The
selection of states for discussion also considered the availability of sources and
treatment in earlier sections.In central and southern parts of the region, there
were states and peoples with traditional religions. Those were Damot, Kafa,
Ennarya, Bizamo, Walaita, Yem, Kambata, the Gurage chiefdoms, and the Agaw kingdom
of Gojjam. Damot was probably the earliest of these states. It seems to have
existed as early as the Aksumite period over an extensive territory. This territory
includes the areas south of the Blue Nile River. Damot might have possibly extended
to include the areas of Enareya, Bizamo and Walaita. Among the rulers of this
state, the well-known was called Motalami. Motalami was converted to Christianity
by Abune Tekle Haymanot in the late thirteenth century AD. The rulers of the
Solomonic dynasty began attempts to bring this state under their control in the
last quarter of the thirteenth century. Finally, King Amde Seyon annexed it into
the Christian state in 1316. Information on the history of Bizamo is scanty.
Nevertheless, there are pieces of evidence that it had early connections with
Damot. The kingdoms of Enareya, Kafa, and Wolaita also had similar connections with
Damot. 132 Unit 7| States, Principalities, Population Movements and Interactions in
Ethiopia, 13th - Mid-16th C.The Kingdom of Enareya probably existed in the area
north of the Gojeb River. The influence of the highland Christian state into the
area seems to have extended through Damot. Enareya became part of the Christian
highland Kingdom. Its rulers built several Churches. South of Enareya was the
Kingdom of Kafa. Kafa was known at least since the end of the fourteenth century.
However, it was not mentioned in any of the Christian documents. It was an
independent kingdom from the Christian High land state. The state of Wolaita might
have also been part of the Kingdom of Damot since its connection with Damot was
strong. The ruling dynasty of Wolaita was known as Wolaita-Malla. This dynasty had
a strong tradition that recognized Motalami as its first king. Wolaita was
mentioned as one of the areas paying tribute to the Christian king Yeshaq (r. 1413
- 1430). It might have also continued as part of the Christian empire up to the
wars of Ahmad Ibrahim. Several states existed in central Ethiopian highlands. Among
them: Kambata, the Gurage chiefdoms and the Agaw kingdom of Gojjam. These states
seem to have existed for an extended period. Nevertheless, they became more
important in this period. The Gurage chiefdoms, on the other hand, were
concentrated in the area west of Lake Zeway and the highlands of Dawaro. Its local
chiefs used the titles of Azmach, Abegaz and Nigus.The Agaw kingdom of Gojjam was
mentioned in the Christian historical documents. The Agaw are ancient people who
settled in the northern and central Ethiopian Plateau and are associated with
agriculture and animal husbandry development. One of the Agaw inhabiting central
Ethiopian highlands is the Gojjam Agaw. They established the Agwa kingdom of
Gojjam, located to the south of Lake Tana. They were predominantly Agaw speaking.
They exercised strong control over the Lake and its islands. Many Christian kings
made successive attempts to bring it under their control. They advanced to the
hinterlands using the Lake Tana region as a steppingstone. Finally, Amde Tseyon (r.
1314-1344) incorporated Gojjam into the Christian state in the early fourteenth
century. In the reign of Amde Tsiyon, a Christian preacher at one of the island
monasteries at Lake Tana named Abba Za Yohannes marched southwards to the Agaw
inhabited villages and attempted to evangelize the people. However, the Agaw
community of the island and the surrounding was already converted to Christianity
during the Zagwe periods.However, the same people south of the Lake were
predominantly followers of the indigenous religion. Therefore, Abba ZeYohannes’s
attempt to preach the gospel over Tana areas immediately led to open conflict
between Zhan Chuhay and the Christian Kingdom. Zhan Chuhay was then ruler of the
Agaw Kingdom that extended as far southeast as 133History Grade 9 Student
TextbookAmadamit Mountain in what is today Quarit. He ordered his army to arrest
Abba ZeYohannes, and the monk was detained at Amadamit Mountain. Amde Tsiyon, in
his turn, dispatched his forces to the Agaw kingdom. Zhan Chuhay was killed in the
campaign, and Abba ZeYohannes was freed. This marked the incorporation of the
Gojjam Agaw kingdom into the Christian highland Kingdom. However, the title of
“King of Gojjam” was maintained by local rulers under the Christian state. Since
its conquest, Christianity was introduced to Gojjam. Its people were Christianized,
and Churches and monasteries were built in the Kingdom.The economy of peoples and
states of southern and central Ethiopia was based on profits from trade and
agriculture. The main trade items from these areas were enslaved people, civets,
ivory, and other natural products. Enslaved people formed the most important trade
item in this period. There was high demand for enslaved people from this region in
Arabia, Persia, and India. Slaves as captives of war were obtained from the south
and central regions and the highland Christian territories.So far, we have seen the
existence of several peoples with a state tradition in the Ethiopian region and the
Horn. However, other societies were in the same area without highly organised
states. Most of them had inhabited the frontier areas of present-day Ethiopia and
its neighbours. Moreover, less organised communities inhabited the narrow lowland
strip in the west, along the Ethio- Sudanese border. These peoples are mainly
speakers of the Nilo- Saharan language family. The less organised societies
mentioned possessing their local administrative system. They were led by their
chiefs and local elderly councils based on their villages and clan territories.
They were the primary agents of frontier trade and cultural relations between the
Ethiopian interior and its neighbour.

7.5 Population Movements, Expansion, and Integration in Ethiopia

The lowland in Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa is inhabited by Afar, Oromo, Somali,
Saho, and other Cushitic language family speakers. In the late fifteenth and early
sixteenth centuries, the military conflict between the Christian kingdoms and the
Sultanate of Adal was partly responsible for the Argoba, Afar and Somali population
movement. In addition, the demographic pressure on the environment gave the
background for the population movement. Their territories lay in the region where
trade routes passed and were affected by the consequences of the military conflict.
Therefore, these people moved back and forth in response to the ongoing military
conflict. Argoba: The Argoba were major agents of Islamic expansion, trade and
Muslim state formation in the Horn. For instance, the sultanate of Shewa and Ifat
was established by the Makhzumite and Walasma Dynasties, respectively. Towards the
end of the thirteenth century, the sultanate of Shewa moved further to the east due
to the pressure from the 135 History Grade 9 Student TextbookChristian Kingdom. The
sultanate of Ifat, where the Argoba were dominant, became the center of Muslim
resistance. On the eve of the wars of Imam Ahmed al-Ghazi, the Argoba joined the
Afar and the Somali against the Christian Kingdom. The area inhabited by the Argoba
was also a target of the expanding Christian Kingdom. It was the major center of
the conflict. This was because the major caravan trade routes passed through Argoba
territory. As a result, the Christian-Muslim rivalry and the conflicts thereof led
to the destruction of sultanates and dispersion of the people. The enduring effect
of the conflict can be observed from the fragmented settlement patterns of the
people. Afar: Due to drought, the Afar moved towards the east until they reached
the middle Awash. Trade routes linking the ports in the Horn passed through the
Afar's territory. As a result, the region was the centre of competition between the
Christian kingdoms and the Muslim sultanates to control the trade routes. Besides
being actors in the conflict, the conflict inevitably pressurised the Afar to move
in different directions to avoid the risk of disputes. In the sixteenth century,
their pastoral economy helped them survive the destructive effects of the wars.
Somali: Their territory lay in the medieval competition to control trade routes.
Likewise, before the wars of Imam Ahmed al-Ghazi, there was strong demographic
pressure from the Somali. The population movement of the Somali was a strong force
behind the military strength of the Imam. However, the population movement of the
Somali did not last for long as they returned to their home base following the
defeat of Imam Ahmed in 1543.Oromo: The Oromos are an indigenous Cushitic people of
Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa. When Aksum came into history, it was quite clear
that the Oromo also occupied a considerable part of the land in Ethiopia and the
Horn of Africa. According to Oromo oral traditions, the original homeland of the
Oromo before the sixteenth century was the south-central part of Ethiopia's
highlands. The political and religious centre of the Oromo settlement area was
Madda Walabu, located on the Bale- Sidama borderlands.A combination of natural and
manmade factors caused the movement of Oromo population in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries. These are: • demographic pressure and the subsequent need
for land to accommodate the growing human and livestock population. • the
conflict between the Christian Kingdoms and Muslim Sultanates was the other factor
that forced the Oromo to leave the lands they inhabited and move to other areas.
136 Unit 7| States, Principalities, Population Movements and Interactions in
Ethiopia, 13th - Mid-16th C.The combination of these factors resulted in a dramatic
and large-scale population movement of the Oromo people in the sixteenth
century.Map 7.2 The beginning of the 16th century Oromo Population Movement,
Mohammed Hassen, 1994 137History Grade 9 Student TextbookLong before their
expansion, the Oromo people were divided into two major confederacies: the Barentu
and the Borana confederacies. Each confederacy comprised smaller divisions and
clans. The Borana confederacy consisted of Mecha, Tulama, southern Borana and Guji
clans. The Barentu was composed of the Karayu, Marawa, Ittu, Humbana, Akachu, Wollo
and Arsi clans. The movement and expansion took place from around 1522 to 1618. The
movement was set in two major directions in the Ethiopian region. The Barentu moved
out in a northeast direction. The Borana followed a north-westerly direction. They
also moved out in the directions of Kenya and Somalia outside the Ethiopian region.
The movement took place in two stages. The first stage was the period of a small
and slow movement in the first half of the sixteenth century. The second stage
started around the mid-sixteenth century and lasted up to 1618. This was a large-
scale movement carried out using force.In 1522, when the population movement began,
the Oromo were already organised under Borana and Barentu confederacies. The Oromo
forces took northern direction and passed through a corridor between Mount Walabu
and Lake Abaya. When they reached halfway between Lakes Abaya and Hawassa, they
took westward. First, they penetrated across the Bilatte River to the southwest.
Then they headed northwards to the lake's region of the Rift Valley. From 1522 to
1618, the Oromo fought twelve Butta wars. Accordingly,• the first Gadaa, i.e.
Melba (1522-1530), fought and defeated the Christian regiment Batra Amora led by
Fasil and occupied Bali. • Gadaa Mudena (1530-8) reached the edge of Awash
River. • The Kilole Gadaa (1538-46) controlled Dawaro after defeating Christian
regiment Adal Mabraq • Bifole (1546-54) advanced to Waj and Erer. • The
Michille (1554-62) scored a victory over Hamalmal's force at Dago, Jan Amora
forces, and Adal led by Emir Nur Mujahiddin at Mount Hazalo. • The Harmufa
(1562-70) fought Minas (r.1559-63) at Qacina and Wayyata; occupied Angot, Ganzyi,
Sayint etc.• In 1574, Sartsa Dingil's (r.1563-97) cavalry led by Azzaj Halibo
defeated Robale Gadaa (1570-78) at Woyna Daga. However, Robale recovered by
defeating Zara'a Yohannis' force. • The Birmaji (1578-86) controlled Ar'ine in
Waj, crossed Jama to Wolaqa and overwhelmed the Daragoti regiment. • The Mul’ata
(1586-94) seized Damot, Bizamo, Gafat, Dambiya and Tigray. In the 138 Unit 7|
States, Principalities, Population Movements and Interactions in Ethiopia, 13th -
Mid-16th C.early seventeenth century, • the Dulo (1594-1602), • Melba
(1603-10), and • Mudena (1610-18) expanded to the West and Northern parts of the
Horn of Africa while others like the Warday moved to Kenya and Bur Haqaba and
Majertin in Somalia. In addition to the wars between the Christian Kingdoms and
Muslim Sultanates, the organisation of the Oromo under the Gadaa system played a
crucial role in the success of the Oromo population movement. In their movement
into various regions, different Oromo branches established Gadaacentres. These
centers were: • Oda Nabee of Tulama (East Shewa), • Oda Roba of Sikko-Mando
(Arsi), • Oda Bultum of Itu-Humbenna (Hararge), • Oda Bisil of Mecha (West
Shewa) and • Oda Bulluq of Jawwi Mecha (Horro-Guduru).Other places, which
became Gadaa centres, were Gayo of Sabbo-Gona, Me'e Bokko of Guji, Oda Dogi of Ilu,
Oda Hulle of Jimma, Oda Garad of Wallo, etc.Gadaa leaders such as Dawe Gobbo of
Borana, Anna Sorra of Guji, Makko-Bili of Mecha, Babbo Koyye of Jimma and others
established Gadaa centres. They laid down cardinal laws in their respective areas.
However, various Oromo groups kept their relations through the office of Abba Muda
(the father of anointment) seated at Madda Walabu and formed alliances during times
of difficulty. Besides, they obeyed similar culture and law (Seera) by sending
their delegates to Madda-Walabu, the central chaffe, until the pan-Oromo assembly
was forbidden in 1900 due to the political influence Ethiopian state. The Oromo
population movement and expansion was successful for several reasons:- • In
the first place, the Gadaa system provided training and military organisation,
which contributed much to the movement's success. • Besides, almost all members
of society participated in wars. of the horse at the time of the expansion. One
important Oromo institution which seems to have facilitated the expansion was
adaptation. Moreover, the movement took place when the Sultanate of Adal- was
exhausted and weakened due to the wars of the first half of the sixteenth
century.So, it was a large-scale expansion so difficult to stop. The Oromo made
wide and good use 139History Grade 9 Student TextbookThe Oromo population movement
and expansion brought about fundamental changes in the Ethiopian region. Ethnic and
cultural intermixing took place between the Oromo and other peoples of the region.
The expanding Oromo destroyed the old states of the kingdoms of Damot, Bizamo and
Ennarya. The peoples of Damot and Gafat were either assimilated with the Oromo or
forced to move out from the south to the north and intermingle with the Christian
community of the area. The Christian kingdom was greatly disturbed by the Oromo
population movement. The territorial and financial strengths of the kingdom were
highly weakened. It was forced to shift its political centre from Shewa in the
south to the Lake Tana area north and Gondar. The Sultanate of Adal was reduced to
the walled town of Harar as the result of the Oromo expansion. This was mainly
because after the death of Iman Ahmed, the Muslims of Adal was reorganised under
Emir Nur Mujahid. The Emir launched an offensive war against the Christian kingdom.
In 1559 Nur Mujahid defeated and killed Gelawdewos in the Awash valley.
Nevertheless, he could not pursue his victory over the Christian forces
because the Oromo forces had already reached the Harar area at the time. So, he
returned to Adal to defend it from falling to the Oromo. However, since most of
Harar was occupied by the Oromo, he just built a wall around the town of Harar,
which is known as the Jegol Gimb. This led to the end of an age-old conflict
between Adal and the Christian kingdom. Following their movement and expansion, the
Oromo became largely sedentary agriculturists. In time, the great majority of them
also adopted Christianity and Islam. Still, later on, they were able to form
kingdoms of their own in the Ethiopian region.

7.6 Gadaa System of the Oromo

The Gadaa system was based on age- grades. It was an egalitarian system in which an
assembly or a chaffe of the ruling Gadaa class provided leadership for the Oromo
nation. It was developed from knowledge gained by community experience over
generations. The system regulates the community's political, economic, social, and
religious activities dealing with conflict resolution (arara), reparation (Guma),
and protecting women's rights. It serves as a mechanism for enforcing moral
conduct, building social cohesion, and expressing forms of community culture.
Moreover, the Gadaa system was an institution through which the Oromo socially
organised themselves, administered their affairs, defended their territories,
maintained law order, and managed their economies. The Oromo had practiced the
Gadaa system long before the sixteenth-century movement of the Oromo. The Gadaa
system constituted elements of democracy such as periodic succession and power-
sharing to prevent a one-man rule. Other principles of the system included
representation of all lineages, clans and confederacies. The Gadaa system organised
the Oromo society into age grades and generation sets delineating members' social,
political, and economic responsibilities. In the system, ten age grades and five
classes operated in parallel. The system provided a socio-political framework that
institutionalised relationships between seniors and juniors and egalitarian
relations among grade members. The system helped the members of age-sets to develop
a consistent and stable sense of self and others. Sons joined the first grade as
members of Gadaa class (generation class or set) forty years after their fathers
and were initiated into the next higher grade every eight years. In the system,
eight years represented one Gadaa period, five Gadaa periods or 40 years
represented one generation, and nine generations represented an era. The political
philosophy of Gadaa is based on three main values: terms of eight years, balanced
opposition between parties, and power-sharing between higher and lower levels. In
the Gadaa system, generation, age, sex, and class were the guiding criteria in
labour division and the sharing of responsibilities.Gadaa system was interrupted
and revitalised during various eras because of various internal and external
factors. For instance, the Borana-Barentu Gadaa was instituted after an
interruption for nearly two generations. It was revived in 1450 at Madda Walabu,
141History Grade 9 Student Textbookwhich became the central Chaffe (assembly) and
seat of the senior Qallu until 1900. Gumi-Gayo (Assembly of the representatives):
this is the assembly of the representatives of the entire society that mainly serve
as the law-making body. In theory, any individual had a right to attend and
participate in the deliberation and would bring any matter to the attention of the
gumi-gayo. Each class send a delegation of five people to sit at the legislative
body called the Caffe. The new law to be issued and the law to be repealed or
amended were introduced to the Caffe by elders for discussion.The Oromo common
version of age grades and their roles associated with them is discussed as follows:
Dabale (birth-8 years) and Game (9-16 years) are the grades of socialization; Folle
(17-24 years) military training, agriculture etc.; Qondala (25-32 years) military
service; Raba-Dori (33-40 years) candidates for political power; Gadaa (41-48
years) leaders of Gadaa government; Yuba (49 to 80 years) senior advisors,
educators and ritual leaders.The Gadaa assumed power for eight years. In the Gadaa
system, there was peaceful transfer of political power from one Gadaa class to the
other every eight years. The head of the government was known as Abba-Gadaa,
literally “father of the period”, who was assisted by several elected
representatives from among the generation set. These included Abba Bokku (father of
scepter), Abba Chaffe (head of the assembly), Abba-Dula (war leader), Abba Sera
(father of law), Abba Alanga (judge), Abba Sa'a (father of treasury) and other
councillors. The Abba Gadaa or Abba Boku served as the spokesman of the reigning
set. However, he did not have absolute power. The supreme authority rested on the
assembly (chaffe), which consisted of all members of the ruling Gadaa class or
those in the sixth Gadaagrade (41 – 48 years).
The Gadaa assembly takes place under a sycamore.
symbolically representing its emphasis on dialogue and consensus.
In the Gadaa system, the senior Qallu (Abba Muda) played indispensable roles in
power transfer and legitimizing the ruling Gadaa class. Women maintained their
rights by the Sinqe institution, which helped them to form sisterhood and
solidarity. Women from childhood to old age, i.e., guduru (pre-pubescent), qarre
(adolescent, ready for marriage), kalale (wives of Luba and Yuba) and cifire (wives
of Gadaamojji/above 80 years), were believed to have sacred power. They are
involved in power transfer, conflict resolution, thanksgiving, and others. The
kalale were also privileged to support and advise the ruling class. The Gadaa
system functioned by the cyclical power transfer from one Gadaa class to the next
every eight years. With some minor differences in nomenclature in different parts
of Oromo territories, the five Gadaa classes (generation sets) are listed below:
Chart 7.1 The Five Gadaa Classes 143History Grade 9 Student TextbookThe Gadaa
system has the principles of check and balance (through a regular succession of
every eight years), division of power (among executive, legislative, and judicial
branches), balanced opposition (among five parties), and power-sharing among
administrative organs. In addition, it embodies the following principles: • the
rule of laws that stand above all, the principle of accountability, • the role of
confession and impeachment (buqqisu), • the subordination of warriors to
deliberative assemblies, • a period of testing: time gap between elections and
investiture,, the principle of check and balanced.

7.7 Moggasa and Guddifacha

The Oromo integrated non-Oromo people through two adoption mechanisms. One form of
adoption was Guddifacha, a form of parent adopting a child. In this system, the
child enjoyed equal rights and privileges with a biological child. The second form
of adoption is known as Moggasa. Moggasa was a system of adopting non-Oromos
commonly known as Oromsu.Moreover, Moggasa was the practice of incorporating
individuals or groups into a clan through an oath of allegiance. The incorporated
person enjoys all the rights and obligations that such membership entailed. The
Abba Gadaa undertook Moggasa on 144 Unit 7| States, Principalities, Population
Movements and Interactions in Ethiopia, 13th - Mid-16th C.behalf of the clan. The
adopted community or individual shares everything equally with the Oromos and gains
protection and material benefits. The Moggasa and Guddifacha culture allowed other
peoples to mix with the Oromos and live together in peace. So, in their expansion,
the Oromo adopted much of the population they came across and used them in their
wars with the next group. The process significantly contributed to the social
cohesions, national integration, and the revival of long-distance trade. The
interactions also resulted in an exchange of socio-cultural values and
institutions. Several people in the neighbourhood of the Oromo adopted the Gadaa
system and the Oromo language. Likewise, the Oromo adopted the cultures and
traditions of the people with whom they came into contact. A case in point is the
adoption of monarchical systems and the integration of the Oromo to the Christian
and Muslim states. On a larger scale, the Oromo contact with diverse peoples in the
sixteenth century brought far-reaching integrations among peoples across ethnic and
religious backgrounds.
7.8 Egalitarian System of Governance.
SidamaStudent TextbookThe Sidama had an indigenous system of governance led by the
Mote (king). The Moteexercised political and administrative authority in
consultation with the council of elders called Songo. Songo members would raise any
agenda for discussion within the council and submit their decisions to the Mote for
approval. Although there was no written constitution, the rules were known by the
heart through generations and practiced accordingly. Figure 7.2 The Sidama Luwa
system and their assembly, (source: static.dw.com)The Woma was the cultural and
ritual leader in Sidama society. The criteria for his election were his ability as
a peacemaker, bodily perfection, expressive ability, wisdom, and caution. The Woma
could not participate in war or cattle raiding as he was considered a man of peace.
In addition, the Woma handled cultural matters such as offering sacrifices to the
spirits. He also performed other rituals such as circumcision and marriage. The
Sidama were grouped into two major clans called Bushe and Maldea. These are, in
turn, subdivided into different sub-clans. Seniority was closely related to the age
cycles of luwa. The luwa structure had many commonalities with the Oromo Gadaa
system and played a fundamental role in initiation rites and maintaining authority
roles. There are two terms used to refer to the elderly, gercho and cimessiccho.
The first term refers to a person's age- a person with grey hair. The other term
refers to an elder who has undergone the rite of passage, the initiation into the
status of elderhood. The timing of this rite is a function of the luwa age-grade
system. The luwa identity had repeatedly been expressed as a basic traditional
Sidama value. 146 Unit 7| States, Principalities, Population Movements and
Interactions in Ethiopia, 13th - Mid-16th C.The age-grade had an 8-year cycle, and
each of the five luwa generations had its name: Fulasa, Wawasa, Darara, Hirbora and
Mogisa.Chart 7.2 The Five Luwa Classes of the SidamaBoys are assigned to one of
these age groups, primarily by the age cycle each was born. Men of the same luwa,
age-cycle group, have powerful bonding. Each age group selects their Gadaanna,
leader, who will represent their generation throughout eight years. The passage
into elderhood, which gives a man the status of cimessima, takes place during the
rites of his generation, the luwa to which he belongs. A son cannot undergo the
initiation ritual to enter the cimessima, which includes circumcision berchima,
before his father. He has to wait for the successive luwa to be initiated.
According to the halal, an elder is expected to live according to the halale, the
actual concept. Traditionally, this is a moral standard reflecting the truth by
avoiding any form of crime, such as stealing, perjury, corruption, injustice, and
strict adherence to the highest standards of probity, integrity, honesty, and
truthfulness. In this respect, they are the repository of the tribal heritage,
passed on from generation to generation.The daily lives have traditionally been
organised around a social network within the olla, village or mine manni, the
family unit. The murricha (elder) has a leadership role at the village level. In
general, the gerontocracy has traditionally dominated the communal network on all
levels. 147History Grade 9 Student TextbookThe Sidama people comprise some
subtribes, gosa, which are ruled independently by their king, actually a supreme
judge, and the woma. The woma of the different subtribes within the Sidama make up
the woma-songo, the assembly of subtribal kings or judges. It is the highest
traditional authority. In addition, there are differentiated lower songo
assemblies, which have different areas of authority and responsibility. However,
gender and age are limitations to participation. Only the elders and only the men
have a say in these assemblies. The sera are defined as the ruling truth, referred
to as halale. Halale proclaimed by the elders is hard to challenge and is often a
base for “forced” consensus. As opposed to individualism, decision making in the
assemblies is always with one voice, and the consensus is valued over the open
confrontation of opposing ideas.The gare-songo is the next level. This is the
council of the mote, who are the kings of the gare, the maximal lineage segment (a
sub-division of the subtribe). The mote is partly an inherited position, but there
may be a choice between the sons of the former mote. The gare-songo deals with
matters closer to daily life than the woma-songo. It may, for example, be involved
in making a disobedient son obedient to his father. It also deals with matters of
loans and serves as a local court, and can impose penalties. People who do not pay
their penalties in cash, in-kind, or community service obligations may be
excommunicated from the community.Within the smaller agnatic units such as at the
haracha level, there are also songo (assemblies), headed by the muriccha. The
haracha comprises a cluster of agnatic units, olla, villages, sharing sera. There
is a songo at the olla level, and the head of that assembly is also called a
muriccha. At both levels, the haracha and the olla, the murricha are primarily in
charge of administrating the services related to deaths and funerals. However,
because of the high authority associated with these indispensable ceremonies in the
community, the murricha may also be called upon to become involved in other
significant community activities. The principle of seniority and communal
relationship is still strong at the neighbourhood and household level. Observations
confirm that the elders still have a powerful influence on the daily life of
ordinary people. In particular, the murricha was referred to as an authority.
Gender roles are traditionally defined. The sera in the Sidama community have
traditionally ruled a web of relations and interrelations. Sera is a set of local
cultural norms or codes regulating the communal social structure and interaction.
Traditionally, sera are almost an ethical and moral codex. It may be seen as
unwritten law, but it constitutes at the same time the morality and the conscience
of the individual and the community. Sera also provides social security to the
members. It provides the community with a procedure of decision making through 148
Unit 7| States, Principalities, Population Movements and Interactions in Ethiopia,
13th - Mid-16th C.consensus.It obliges the individual to conform to the majority,
to seek harmony and consensus rather than an individual opinion and personalised
justice. The sera mainly relate to domestic, communal life. It traditionally works
at the basis of commonality and consent rather than individualism. The sera law or
rule is advanced regarding the social communal life, particularly on the domestic
level.
Gedeo
Gedeos live in the highlands found to the east of Lake Abaya. They are bordered
north by the Sidama and the Guji on the remaining sides. Tradition indicates that
they are descendants of Derasso. The tradition also suggests that there was a close
relationship between Derasso and the ancestors of neighbouring Oromo groups like
the Guji and Borana. The traditions account for the similarities in the social
organisation of these groups. The area around Haro Walabu, a lake found near Dilla
town, is believed to be the homeland of the Gedeo. Other traditions indicate that
before moving to Haro Walabu, the ancestors of the Gedeo lived at a place called
Harsu and its surroundings. The movement to Haro Walabu is believed to have taken
place before the 16th century. the Gedeo comprised seven clans. The Gedeo
traditional governance system is known as ballee. It is based on an age system and
has similarities with the Gadaa system of the neighbouring Gujji Oromo. The leaders
of the ballee were elected by the general council called Yaa from the ruling age
group. The yaa council was the supreme authority among the Gedeo. All ballee
officials were elected by the yaa. The most important of these officials was the
Abba Gadaa, who would give political, social and ritual leadership to the whole
Gedeo. Each of the three Gedeo territorial units was administered by a roga. These
were responsible for the Abba Gadaa. Konso Konsos live in a largely mountainous
region found to the east of the Rift valley in southwestern Ethiopia. They are
bordered in the south by the Sagan River, north by the Gumayde plains, east by the
Amaro Mountains, and east by the Woito River. They speak an East Highland Cushitic
language spoken by their neighbours, the Burji, Dirashe and Gawada. Konso
traditions have close cultural relations with some of these neighbours. For
example, they used to live in a region called Liban together with the Borana Oromo,
Burji and Dirashe before they departed and settled in their present locations.Konso
economy is dependent on mixed agriculture. They produce grains, the most important
of which is sorghum and millet. The region receives low and erratic rainfall, which
is ideal for the crops. They also cultivate a tree crop locally called shelgeda. It
is like moringa whose leaves are consumed as cabbage. Konsos have also developed an
intensive agriculture system through time. They have terraced their hillsides with
stones. This practice has made Konso agriculture sustainable. Political
organisation among the Konso was non-centralised. Thus, power was shared among
different individuals and groups. One of these individuals was the poqalla who was
a priest. He was responsible for the clan's well-being and mediated in conflicts.
Other groups involved in the administration were the members of the generation set
called tellaand the council of elders.Until the late nineteenth century, the Konso
people lived in walled villages (paletas). There was no central authority who acted
as a sovereign power over the three regions. Instead, each village was ruled by a
council of elders called hayyota, who were selected through the direct
participation of male members of the village. Membership to the council was not
hereditary but rotated every eighteen years. At the core of the socio-political
organisation of the Konso appear to be the clan or lineage group and generation
set, Tselta.
The Konso were divided into nine exogamous clans: C.Toqmaleta, Elayta, Saudata,
Pasanta, Kertita, Ishalayta, Mahaleta, Tikisayta and Argamyta. The Tselta had a
fixed cycle of years starting from birth. However, they varied across villages-
eighteen in Karat, nine in Takati and five in Turo. The primary function of the
generation set was informing the responsibilities expected of each age group.
BurjiThe Burji clans belong to one of two moieties named Dashcha and Jiremalecha.
Dashcha includes Goda, Banbal, Dedebana, Yab, Qedado, Umma, Hirola, etc. At the
same time, Jire Malecha comprises Gammaye, Tamay, Wotesh, Mangodo, Anabura,
Karamana and others. Traditional Burji administration had an elective system known
as basha (shumet). Under the basha system, appointments took place in different
ceremonies in which official titles were conferred. They included officials titled
woma in the womis ceremony, kings in royal coronations, dayna officials in daynoma
ceremonies and masha in other appointment ceremonies. The Burji possessed two types
of woma, each with appropriate womiso or royal coronation ceremonies. One was a
hereditary spiritual woma, while the other was a popular elective political elite
or woma. The latter came to power through a plebiscite based on personal ability
and integrity. The hereditary spiritual woma was known as gan. There were two
types: saganaka gan and banbalinka gan. The former served as a rainmaker while the
latter was believed to possess powers to control and prevent wars, crop pests and
disease.The eldest son succeeded his deceased woma's father. The body of the
deceased woma was taken out of his home via a hole pierced through the walls on the
rear side of the house. The deceased's wrist bracelet was removed and transferred
to the successor. The latter started his reign by performing all appropriate public
duties. The woma was appointed as a king based upon the number of his supporters,
degree of wealth oratory and fulfilment of social criteria contained in the
traditional system of appointments of the basha principle.