BS English

MODERN POETRY
Course Code: 9068
Study Guide

Department of English
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY
 MODERN POETRY

BS

Course Code: 9068 Units: 1-9

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
(FACULTY OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES)
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY, ISLAMABAD

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 (All Rights are Reserved with the Publisher)

Publisher .......................................... Allama Iqbal Open University

Printer .............................................. AIOU Printing Press, H-8, Islamabad

Quantity ........................................... 1000

Price ................................................. Rs.

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 COURSE TEAM

Chairman Course Team: Dr. Malik Ajmal Gulzar

Course Development Coordinator: Dr. Lubna Umar

Writers: Dr. Lubna Umar

Ms. Sarah Ahsan

Reviewers: Dr. Lubna Umar

Ms. Sarah Ahsan

Editor: Humera Ejaz

Print Manager: Dr. Sarmad Iqbal

Layout: Asrar ul Haque Malik

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 FOREWORD
The BS English Programme is being offered by the Department of English of Allama
Iqbal University for the students who are interested in the fields of linguistics and
literature. This programme is exclusive in the sense that it will provide study guides for
all the courses written especially for AIOU students to introduce the concepts in a simple
and an effective manner. This course will help students to have knowledge of both
linguistics and literature. Furthermore, it will be properly effective from the viewpoint of
prospective students and researchers for future implementation in the classroom setting
and/or research setting.

The BS English study guide aims to include all possible queries that students may have
and gently stimulates their intellect to probe into further questions. The areas and ideas
presented in each chapter are covered appropriately and accurately. The text is
comprehensive and accessible to students without even having commendable prior
knowledge of linguistics and literature. This course intends the professional development
of the students in the fields of linguistics and literature using different handy styles
adopted by the different course writers.

The BS English study guides are a powerful tool even for BS English tutors teaching in
various regions focusing upon a uniform scheme of studies. Also, these courses will help
tutors by providing adequate teaching material for responsible and independent teaching.
All study guides strictly follow the standardized nine-unit subdivision of the course
content for optimum understanding. The short introduction at the beginning provides an
overview of the unit followed by achievable learning objectives. The study guides define
difficult terms in the text and guide the students for accessible learning. The units are
finally summed up in summary points and the assessment questions not only guide
teachers and students, but also help to revise the content developed upon previously
formed concepts. Moreover, it provides links and a list of the suggested readings for
further inquiry of students.

In the end, I am happy to extend my gratitude to the course team chairman, course
development coordinator, unit-writer, reviewers, and editors for the development of the
course. Any suggestions for the improvement in the course will be fondly welcomed by
the Department of English.

Prof. Dr. Zia-ul-Qayyum

Vice-Chancellor

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 INTRODUCTION

This study guide is designed to provide a discussion for the BS English Students of
Allama Iqbal Open University to understand the basics of ‘Modern Poetry’ who have had
no prior knowledge of the subject. The style of the book is specially tailored in a way that
talk to the students and gently steers them in a direction that the students are supposed to
take. Following the University format, this study guide comprises a total of nine units that
not only discuss, but also provides assessment questions at the end of each unit.
The first unit is designed to provide an overview of the era in general; comparison from
its predecessor ages (Romantic and Victorian), characteristics of this era, followed by its
impact on literature particularly poetry. The notable authors of this period will also be
discussed in the later units along with their impactful works. Unit 2 will provide an
insight into the works and life of Walt Whitman, a modern-day poet. Students will be
able to develop a general idea about Modern Poetry in Whitman’s style. They’ll briefly
come across his major work Song of Myself. Unit 3 will enlighten the students with the
prolific works of Emily Dickinson. One of the renowned poets of the 19th century,
Modern era is Emily Elizabeth Dickinson. She is known for her creative writings on the
themes of death and immortality.
Unit 4 of this study guide will provide students with an introduction to Ezra Proud, a 20 th
century revolutionary poet. It will explain how he devised techniques liked Imagism,
Cubism and Vorticism; provide an insight in his travelling life that contributed in his
writings; understand the non-traditional style of poetry in The Cantos and In a Station of
the metro and discuss his relation with his followers. The fifth unit bring students across
T.S. Eliot, a modern-day poet, critics, and a prose writer. They will learn about his style;
about the allusiveness in his work The Waste Land. Unit 6 comprises of two modern
American poets E.E. cummings and Robert Frost. Together a combined idea of versatility
will be presented before the students as Cummings was a conventional modern poet
while Frost was a Modern-Romantic poet.
Unit 7 will discuss Rudyard Kipling and W.B. Yeats, their individual writing style; their
comparison and will identify the subliminal political approaches in their writings style.
Unit 8 will discuss life and works of W.H. Auden and William Carlos Williams; explore
their works; writing styles; identify the variety of themes and briefly explore their
religious beliefs and its effects on their literature. Finally, the ninth unit will shed light on
the African American poets of the modern era. It will provide a discussion Harlem
Renaissance and its significance; contribution of Claude McKay and Langston Hughes in
Black Civil Rights.
The simple style adopted for the study guide aims to provide students with complete and
easy understanding to the subject.
Happy Reading!
Dr. Lubna Umar
Lecturer of English/Course Coordinator

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 OBJECTIVES
This study guide provides a basic understanding of ‘Modern Poetry’ to the BS English
students of Allama Iqbal Open University and aims to achieve the following objectives:

1. Provide an overview of Modernism.

2. Explain the difference between modernism and the other ages (Romantic and
Victorian).
3. Understand the causes of Modernism.
4. Analyze modernism in relation to its literature.
5. Familiarize with various trends of Modern Poetry followed by various authors
including:
✓ Walt Whitman
✓ Emily Dickinson
✓ Ezra Pound
✓ T.S. Eliot
✓ E.E. Cummings and Robert Frost
✓ Rudyard Kipling and W.B. Yeats
✓ W.H. Auden and William Carlos Williams
✓ Claude McKay and Langston Hughes

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All praise to ALLAH (SWT), we finally made our way to formulate a long thought
concept into the shape of a book. A number of people were instrumental in making it a
reality for which I would like to express her gratitude to:

▪ Prof. Dr. Zia Ul-Qayyum, Vice Chancellor, Allama Iqbal Open University,
Islamabad for showing his trust and confidence in the faculty of English
Department by allowing us the launch of four-year BS English degree programme
of which the present course is a part.
▪ Prof. Dr. Hassan Raza, Dean of the Faculty of social Sciences and Humanities at
AIOU, Islamabad, for his very kind support and guidelines during the launch of the
programme and the process of developing materials including this coursebook.
▪ The external members of the Committee-of-Courses (CoC) of English Department
including Prof. Dr. Nadeem Haider Bukhari (UoAJK), Prof. Dr. Rafique Ahmed
Memon (UoSindh), Prof. Dr. Saiqa Imtiaz (BZU), and Prof. Dr. Munazza Yaqub
(IIUI) for their suggestions and recommendations.
▪ Dr. Malik Ajmal Gulzar, Chairman, Department of English for his support and
suggestions during the write-up of this course.

Special thanks to my wonderful and committed co-author who gracefully matched the
pace with which this study guide was written and who so magnanimously handled all
relevant administrative suggestions.

My thanks are also due to Dr. Zahid Majeed (Director APCP) and Ms. Humera Ejaz
(Editor at APCP) and the very cooperative staff at PPU, AIOU, Islamabad.

The remaining shortcomings in the coursebook are my own and any suggestions for the
improvement of the course would be wholeheartedly welcomed and the same will be
incorporated in its subsequent revisions.

Dr. Lubna Umar

Lecturer of English/Course Coordinator

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 CONTENTS

Unit 1: Modernism ......................................................................................... 1

Unit 2: Walt Whitman .................................................................................... 9

Unit 3: Emily Dickinson ................................................................................ 19

Unit 4: Ezra Pound ......................................................................................... 27

Unit 5: T.S. Eliot ............................................................................................ 37

Unit 6: E.E. Cummings and Robert Frost ...................................................... 49

Unit 7: Rudyard Kipling and W.B. Yeats ...................................................... 59

Unit 8: W.H. Auden and William Carlos Williams ....................................... 71

Unit 9: African American Poets: Claude McKay & Langston Hughes ......... 81

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UNIT-1

MODERNISM

Written by: Sarah Ahsan

Reviewed by: Dr. Lubna Umar

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 CONTENTS

Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 3
Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.1 Modernism ............................................................................................................. 4
1.2 Difference from Victorian and Romantic Age ....................................................... 5
1.3 Characteristics of Modernism ................................................................................ 6
1.4 Other Relevant Movements in Modernism ............................................................ 6
1.5 Modernism in Literature ........................................................................................ 7
1.6 Notable Authors and their Works .......................................................................... 7
1.7 Summary Points ..................................................................................................... 8
1.8 Self-Assessment Questions .................................................................................... 8
1.9 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................... 8

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Introduction
The period of late 19th century and early 20th century is termed as Modern era, and the
ideology it promotes is referred as Modernism. The followers of this time are called
Modernists. The era of Modernism has its own unique essence. It is a short-lived era for
about thirty to forty years, yet highly condensed in its exceptional movements and traits.
Modernism came into existence as an aftermath of World War I. It was a social cultural
movement in the West that brought forth new experiences of the industrial life. Modernism
was all about experiment with art, philosophy, literature, etc. it was an overall acceptance
of urbanization, and technology at the macrocosmic level. Artists and writers divorced the
traditional patterns of arts and literature; they plunged into this newness for better
outcomes.

Overall, Modernism was a glorified idea that challenged religion, realism, and ideas of
Enlightenment. It promoted abstract art, absurdity, stream of consciousness, existential
questions, and questioning of institutions. It urged people to progress; to adopt a more labor
free lifestyle in various capacities.

This study guide comprises of total nine units to present the journey of Modernism. This
unit provides an overview of the era in general; comparison from its predecessor ages
(Romantic and Victorian), characteristics of this era, followed by its impact on literature
particularly poetry. The notable authors of this period will also be discussed in the later
units along with their impactful works.

Objectives
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Provide an overview of Modernism
2. Explain the difference between Modernism and the other ages (Romantic and
Victorian)
3. Understand the causes of Modernism
4. Understand the various movements of Modernism
5. Analyze Modernism in relation to its literature

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1.1 Modernism
Modernism, a particular mode of thinking lurched the common trends of intellect in the
early 1900s. It was a rebel against the Europeans, their culture, norms, ideology, etc. the
basic notion was to revitalize the thinking the perspective, and employ it to daily functions
of life that includes science, politics, literature, attire, religion, etc. The modern torch
bearers believed that the contemporary (European) way of living was bound by artificiality,
the overall moral principles were corrupt, and the society was suffering from multiple such
ailments.

While revisiting history we see that when steam engines were replaced by mechanical
engines, electricity, bulb, telephone, etc. became normal household commodities; public
transport was revolutionized, in this all hustle bustle a paradigm shift was seen. The new
inventions, discoveries created a utopian environment of a worldly paradise. The
innovations are not restricted to technology only; it paved its way into philosophy and
affected the common man. A new vantage point of perception was offered that made
science the new cult.

Similarly, religion was discarded for obvious reason that was loss in World War I. People
were dejected by the concept of war, the loss of their dear ones resulted in numerous
questioning from the institutions of the system. Religion was equally questioned when
people challenged divinity for not safeguarding their family and lands. The purpose of
serving the Church appeared baseless. This disillusionment resulted in atheism and the
overall landscape of humanity was contoured.

Moreover, at the scientific level Newtonian principles were rejected; of absolute reality.
As human mind was perceived to be the central entity of the universe, thus it shapes reality
in accordance to its perceiving angle. At the psychological front, Sigmund Freud excavated
the human psyche more profoundly. His contemporary Carl Jung together worked on the
unconscious mind- a powerful tool of the human cognitive faculty. According to Freud,
dreams, slip of tongues, unconscious acts, etc. are all manifested in the unconscious
segment of the mind.

Likewise, politics and economy was equally affected by the acceptance of modernity.
Technology replaced manly labor that resulted in a radical change. Individuals suffered
from alienation because they felt useless. This caused fragmentation of their personality
and of the society, as a result the working class associated itself with the elite class and a
new political ideology emerged.

Hence, we see that the new perception to view the regular world improving had an opposite
turn out. Instead of positivity, negativity started budding in terms of depression, alienation,
dejection, nihilism of the foundations of the structure caused decline of moral values.

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1.2 Difference from Victorian and Romantic Age
Victorian and Romantic age were distinguished literary movements that hailed from
respective eras of history. Romanticism reigned in the period of late seventies and early
eighties. Romanticism is the intellectual, artistic, literary movement that began in the mid-
18th century in Europe. It was a reaction to the Industrial Revolution (era in England and
United States when machinery replaced the manual labor). The Romantic period celebrates
Nature, humanity (individualism) and emotions. Its impact is seen embossed in the social,
political, and scientific thinking. In general, Romanticism was developed itself as an artistic
ideology that urged self-consciousness and promoted originality. Romanticism further
spread across the continents targeting reason. Its imaginative manifestation synthesized
history, future, attributes of the Middle Ages, Utopia, nationalism, etc. Romanticism being
a new aesthetic approach also paved its way in paintings. It was the free expressions of the
artist’s emotions. Altogether, its language was borrowed from Nature and serenity.

Contrastingly, Victorian age ruled roughly from 1820s to 1914. The upsurge in the fiscal
landscape in the 19th century resulted in the exposure of poverty crises by the Victorian
authors. The dwindling religious beliefs in Europe were highlighted by the poets and
novelists of the contemporary world. The period was governed by the monarchs and
predominated by the bildungsroman. It was the time when Industrialization was dawning.
The writers penned the dilemmas, living of the working class and also discussed gender in
their general writings. The Victorian era’s thematic approach was about the sexuality of
men and women, and their double standards. In account of religion, Christianity was the
widely practiced religion of Europe, but by the end of the period atheism was gaining
strength. Victorian era also celebrated science and appreciated its developments.

Moving forth, Modernism is the social, cultural movement that ruled in late 19th and early
20th century. It was a complete shift in the thinking perspective of the mankind, and
therefore it differed acutely form its forerunning movements and eras. Modernism assumed
the visualization of the utopian lifestyle of the modern human, who could transgress the
conventional standards of living and progress. It was also believed that the universal facts
established by science and reality must explain the reality.

Furthermore, artists were quick to adopt the newly established age and its norms. Rejection
of history, and worshipping science was the artistic practice. Modern art experimented with
colors, shapes, boundaries, and techniques. Abstract art and absurdity in literature steered
the poets, novelists and artists of the specific age. The traditional values were exchanged
by much more logical explanations of life. The Modern age was skeptical about religion
and quest for more coherent ideas of expression was broadly practiced. Thematically,
modernism talked about urbanization, alienation of mankind, dejection of religious beliefs;
language was more pro scientific, unlike Romantics they discarded the lofty use of Nature’s
imagery. Modern authors profoundly wrote about annihilation, destructions of WWI:
politically, socially, religiously etc. their writings were sheer work of melancholy, and
depression.

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1.3 Characteristics of Modernism
In the light of the aforementioned topics, Modernism holds a significant place in the
universal history. In modern times everything was in chaotic form political place; from
environment to literature, to practical life. Modern era’s focus shifted to Individualism that
promoted to respect humanity (every person is different); common class was discussed as
compared to the higher class of previous ages; reality was subjectively proved.

Further, criticism evolved, grammatical rules and traditional stylistic devices were no
longer employed for analytical purpose. Imaginative effect was involved that promoted
layers of interpretation (reader to reader), and imagism was the prime tool of literature,
followed by symbolism. Through imagism analysis became more lucid, but ambiguities
and technologies were in cooperated that gave some intelligence to the Modern work.

Naturalism was also in cooperated in the Modern regime. Philosophers struggled to equate
reality and general life phenomena from the nature. Unlike, Romantics Naturalist were
more pessimistic, they found hostility in the Nature. Life was melancholic; reality got
absurd and arbitrary. There was no concept of absolute truth. As discussed above,
psychology also played an integral role in the promotion of modernism. Freud presented
the idea of complexities of human mind that govern the concept of good and bad. The
global disruption also ignited the philosophy of existentialism; question the being. In the
20th century turmoil there were obvious reasons of dilemma and existence; the boundless
universe was beyond comprehension for the common man.

Altogether, the chaotic landscape of the universe presented a bleaker image of humanity;
it promoted a multidimensional perspective of life and reality. This all got employed by
the modernist writers in their literary marvels.

1.4 Other Relevant Movements in Modernism

Modernism itself holds the responsibility to initiate other relative movements. Major
philosophical movements are discussed below:
a) Avant-garde
Avant-garde term has been derived from the French language meaning ‘advanced
guard’. This movement was an experimental approach to art, culture, society, but
predominantly art. Referring to the French group of soldiers, it seeped into arts as a
matter of creating social change. Its themes were progressive, and bold. Like a
typical modernist approach this too was a deviation from the conventional norms.
b) Imagism
Imagism was another 20th century movement that affected the writing style of
authors. It was developed in order to present a better and clear picture of the utilized
language. It was not an ideology, instead it was a practice commonly used by some
poets, e.g. Ezra Pound. The imagists practiced free verse style that was disassociated
from the traditional verse style. It was the projection of avant-garde.

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c) Vorticism
Another European movement in 1914 was Vorticism, initiated by the writer Wyndha,
Lewis. It partially reflected Cubism (art movement). It was based on the idea of
abstraction rather than practicing pure geometrical forms. It was also a representation
of modern life.

1.5 Modernism in Literature

As discussed earlier, Modernism was a shift in perspective of reality. Industrialized life
was initiated to bring mankind towards progression. However, things turn topsy-turvy as
rejection of ideas, institutions, and history took place. Indigenous contributors preached
complex ideas in allusive forms. Poets inspired from fragmented nature of the universe
composed their lyrical works in the same fragmented form. This contribution in literature
is referred as Literary Modernism or Modernism in Literature.

Modern literature also comprises novels, and dramas. In all the 20th century a common
practice of melancholic society is foregrounded. Themes like depression, sexual
perversions, economics, growing materialism, spiritual decadence, stream of
consciousness and attempt to find solutions are readily discussed.

In drama, rather than meaning focus was on imitation. Representation of imitation of life
is not commonly found in other genres. The overall structure of the plot got differentiated
from that of the Victorian age, dream world got introduced; amalgamation of conscious
and unconsciousness. This was to liberate man from logic and create a sense of free will.
Antonin Artaud was a famous modern writer, better known for his cruel plays; he called
his theatre ‘theatre of cruelty’. He envisioned blurring of the boundaries between the
audience and the actors. George Bernard Shaw another theatre writer, inspired from Henry
Ibsen wrote plays in naturalistic and realistic techniques. Epic theatre was introduced by
Bertolt Brecht, he rejected the Aristotelian theatre. He discarded the concept of catharsis
and his characters played objectively than subjectively. His theory (does not refer to
theatre) explains the social isolation due to class structure.

Lastly, the common Classical hero has differed. The Modern hero is a common man, who
has no sense of morality; he can be a man of valor or can be a coward. There are no
particular boundaries of protagonist and antagonist; other characters are also drawn from
real life instead of supernatural elements. Following the mentioned characteristics of
Modernism, the similar trends will be probed in Modern poetry (for which this particular
guide is composed).

1.6 Notable Authors and their Works

W.H. Auden The Unknown Citizen,
Samuel Beckett Waiting for Godot,
Joseph Conrad Heart of Darkness,
E.E. Cummings Pity the busy monster-manunkind,

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T.S. Eliot Waste Land,
William Faulkner As I lay Dying
F. Scott Fitzgerald This Side of Paradise
E.M. Foster A Passage to India
Robert Frost The Road not taken
Earnest Hemingway Farewell to Arms
James Joyce Ulysses
Franz Kafka Die Verwandlung" ("The Metamorphosis")
D.H. Lawrence Sons and Lovers
Eugene O’ Neil Lazarus Laughed
Ezra Pound The Cantos
W. B. Yeats The Second Coming

1.7 Summary Points

• Modernism was a literary and artistic movement which began in the late 19th century
and early 20th century
• It was a paradigm shift from the traditional values of thinking and living
• It discarded the conventional norms of reality and the positive aspect of Nature
• Modern writers celebrated modernism in their literary works by deviating from the
writing standards
• In modern literature popular traits were: imagism, symbolism, avant-garde,
absurdity, themes of death and decadence
• In poetry- free verse style, no lyrical stanzas

1.8 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is Modernism?
2. How does Modernism differ from Romantic and Victorian age?
3. What are the common traits of Modernism?
4. How did the Modern writers employ the modern literary characteristics in their
writings?
5. Analyze any piece of Modern literature to get clarity of the mentioned age.

1.9 Suggested Readings

Abrams, M. (1979). The Norton Anthology of English Literature. (1st Ed.). New York:
Norton
Cuddon, J.A. (1991). A Dictionary of Literary Terms and Literary Theory. Oxford:
Blackwell
Ferguson, M. Salter, M.J, Stall worthy, J. (2005). The Norton Anthology of Poetry. New
York: W.W. Norton Company.

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UNIT-2

WALT WHITMAN

Written by: Sarah Ahsan

Reviewed by: Dr. Lubna Umar

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 CONTENTS

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 11
Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 11
2.1 Walt Whitman ...................................................................................................... 12
2.2 Style ................................................................................................................ 12
2.3 Theme ................................................................................................................ 13
2.4 Whitman as Modern-Romantic Poet .................................................................... 13
2.5 Whitman as a Democratic Poet ............................................................................ 13
2.6 Major Work (Leaves of Grass) ............................................................................ 14
2.7 Summary Points ................................................................................................... 17
2.8 Self-Assessment Questions .................................................................................. 17
2.9 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................. 17

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Introduction
This unit will provide an insight into the works and life of Walt Whitman, a modern-day
poet. Students will be able to develop a general idea about Modern Poetry in Whitman’s
style. They’ll briefly come across his major work Song of Myself.

Modern Poetry set off its genre with the rise of Modernism. The modern scholarship got
employed by the authors then. Whitman with his contemporary Emily Dickinson is a
distinguished poet of America. Walt Whitman, a celebrated poet of the century, is also
known as the father of Free-verse style. His unique style of writing was a break-free from
traditional patterns of writing; meter and rhyme scheme. His works echoes the values of
America, other than his tendency to write about the common man, and issues pertaining to
him. His authorship includes number of edition of his poetic collection Leaves of Grass,
which is an inspiration from the tradition literature of Homer and Dante. His collection is
widely known as the American Epic of the century.

Objectives
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Provide an insight into Modern Poetry (that will be continued throughout the book)
2. Familiarize with various trends of Modern Poetry; varies from author to author
3. Explain the concept of Modern Romantic Poet
4. Equip with the concept of humanity and issues relating to it
5. Understand Whitman’s style of writing by analyzing Whitman’s major work

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2.1 Walt Whitman
Walt Whitman is a prominent 19th century American poet. By profession he excelled in
essaying, journalism and poetry. He belonged to a builder family, who comprised nine
siblings. During his teens Whitman developed love for the printed work, he started to
acquaint himself with the literary works of Homer, Shakespeare, Bible and Dante. With
age his rapport for written work mounted up. After experiencing the teaching profession,
he inaugurated himself as an Editor of multiple newspapers of Brooklyn.

His overall personality was of a humanist. He criticized racism and respected human
dignity. This attribute of his is a dominant trait in his literary scholarship. In the outbreak
of the Civil War he undertook an oath to live a more pure life in the future. He became a
self-employed journalist. Later, he served mankind in the New York City hospitals. In 1855
he went to Washington, his stayed turned to be eleven years sojourn. In the capital of the
USA, he got employed as clerk at the Department of Interior. However, the secretary then,
discovered Whitman to be the author of Leaves of Grass, (which was a criticized book of
the time), and eventually fired him.

As a person, Whitman has few exceptional facts about him. He authored a (mysterious)
novel that remained lost for about one sixty-five years. He is the one after whom Bram
Stoker composed his fictional hit Dracula. (Stoker claimed Whitman’s distinctive
masculine nature that guided him to craft the villain of his story.) Whitman as a friend is
also believed to roam undressed in front of his friends. His sexuality is a questionable topic,
since he wrote about man and his sexuality in his wide selling book Leaves of Grass.

Further, his craft was profoundly admired by Ralph Waldo Emerson. Emerson in one of
his essays The Poet poured out his thought of America having a national poet. In response,
Whitman contributed a collection of his works titled, Leave of Grass. It was heavily
appreciated by Emerson; later Whitman produced a variety of its editions. (Ranging from
twelve poems initially, it ended up with four hundred plus poems.)

As a poet, Whitman had a Transcendentalist approach. He praised humanity in relation to

Divinity. His poems have a powerful narrator I, who refers the entire humanity; peasants
to the elite. He also echoes the attributes of the Democratic poet.

2.2 Style
The free-verse style is broadly seen in Whitman’s poetic contributions. Free-verse technique
was the modern-day approach that was adopted in the 19th century. The particular style signifies
a free speech style. It does not conform to the traditional approach of meters, rhythmic
structures, stanzas or strophes. It liberates the author to compose a concept in pro-prose style.

Whitman’s approach to utilize free-verse technique was to make his poetic labor more
understandable by the lay man. His poetic discussions are around the ordinary man, unlike

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the classical poems, where valor and bravery of were the common attributes of the ‘noble
man’. In his poems, a working-class folk are the hero. Further, his extended lines carry the
weight of lucid language that enumerates the daily practices of modern-day life and of the
common man; this shows his praise for the local men (the farmers, daily wagers, etc.) His
technique of using the literary style anapohora (repetition) holds a Biblical reference. It is
also to instill the basic ideas he is referring to. He also cites similes and metaphors drawn
from Nature to draw a connection between man and God. His assistance from these literary
devices substantiates his bodily and spiritual journey. His affection from the rustic
pleasures of Nature explains mundane life.

2.3 Theme
Walt Whitman’s thematic approach is around the ordinary. As a poet he develops the
smartness to voice the others. He literary scholarships revolves around the philosophy of
life, where he cherishes life, apprizes humanity. Nonetheless, being a modern poet, he
draws in the streaks of transcendentalism in his works. For him, man the absolute creation
of God should be utterly respected in all spheres of life. To explain his themes a gist is
provided:
• Individualism
• Relation between man and the Divine
• Nationalism
• Democracy
• Life and death
• Minute details of life

2.4 Whitman as Modern-Romantic poet

Whitman’s poetry while discussing the philosophy of life resonates between Naturalism
and Realism. The very title of his poetic authorship Leaves of Grass illustrates the
resemblance drawn from Nature. Time and again similar to a Romantic poet he employs
Natural imagery to explain the context of self, individualism and other prominent themes
of his works, to prove himself as the Modern-Romantic poet.

Often, poets use connection from Nature to establish clarity, to vent out their ideas, and it’s
simpler to relate life with Nature. Therefore, it is a common tool of explanation. Another
reason that the author qualifies as the Modern poet is his belief in Nature being the dwelling
of mankind. Man is an essential component of Nature, form here evolves and to it he shall
go. Hence, this cycle of life and death is a clear extract of Nature.

2.5 Whitman as a Democratic Poet

Whitman was a believer of equality; he considered the society as one. This made him an
American visionary. Since, America was won by a group of people who were colonists
themselves; they were the ones who strived for independence for a better living. Therefore,

13
the poets picked the foundation of the US establishment and incorporated them in their
literary authorships. Whitman’s poems spoke about the oneness in the system too. Despite
of a variety of public beliefs, he hailed democracy. They share common burdens of life and
run the society together. His concept of democracy also appreciated individualism. He
believed that every man and woman is an individual, who is equally respectable. Together
a variety of individual forms a society that was the most cherished attribute of America.

2.6 Major Work (Leaves of Grass)

Song of Myself
Song of Myself is critically acclaimed poem of the 19th century by Walt Whitman. Despite
its controversial subject matter, it is read and lauded by many scholars of its time. Not even
this, people to this date appreciate his literary skills. The tile of the collection is Leaves of
the Grass where the respective poem first got published by the name of A Poem of Walt
Whitman, an American. Leaves of the Grass is a collection that got multiple revisions.
Since it speaks of ordinary life and organic nature of man and his lifestyle therefore on the
front cover of the book was a man with working class clothes and a hat and arms at his
side. The image was a reflection of Whitman posed as an American proletarian.

Moreover, Song of Myself is a poem that illustrates the conduit of philosophy of life,
humanity and God, while Nature playing as a catalyst. A dominant concept of self is seen
in the poem. The self is Whitman who stands as the mouthpiece of the entire humanity. In
the first section of the poem he refers individuals as ‘atom’, every atom is unique and
together they form a society. Going forth, he speaks of ‘house, rooms and perfumes’, for
him these edifices are universe where perfumes are spread, perfumes refer to individual
beings each with their own fragrance. Like a fragrance their individuality diffuses into the
atmosphere. In section two to five, he enthralls over his senses; he criticizes ‘talkers’ and
‘askers’ who are wasting time in discussing modern day life entities, scientific discoveries,
etc. He urges the readers to believe in soul and body relationship. To him his body and soul
are pure. He believes in the harmony of souls; his and his fellowmen. This brings him
spiritual ecstasy.

In the next few sections, he talks about life and death. A child is introduced who holds
grass in his fist and asks what it is. The poet refers ‘Grass’ as a symbol of rebirth, life
originates from soil, and goes back to the soil, similar to a grass. Its style is of an epic;
American epic that discusses US democracy, civil war and the death of it soldiers. (Here
he develops a Modern-Romantic approach.) He then refers to sexes (men and women), in
every walk of life. He turns the poem into his mystical experience, God is the center of the
universe, so is Nature; a transcendentalist approach.

Further, he refers to himself as ‘the poet of soul, ‘poet of body’; he voices for every
individual; he feels pain and joy of every common man. While referring to ‘sea’; like the
waves, the poet too has moods of good and bad; as he belongs to Nature therefore, he writes
‘I am integral with you, I too am of one phase and of all phases.’ In section twenty-three,
the poet applauds science and their discovery, this is his approach towards reality (a modern

14
touch to the poem). He mentions a chemist, a geologist, etc. as he speaks of the material
world, to him all men are respectable and so are the professions. He glorifies them by
claiming their acceptance and does not raise a question, but he also states that these grounds
are not his cup of tea: ‘I accept Reality and dare not question it, Materialism first and last
imbuing.’

In the next section, he jumps back to the theme of humanism. He calles himself ‘kosmos’-
cosmos. The entire universe is consumed inside him. He is the voice, a reflection of men,
and women. He also admits that there is goodness and evil both in the universe that
maintain a balance in the society. In his keynote pattern, he again contemplates on the
spiritual journey and also comments on the bodily features of men. To him the acceptance
of the physical body will provide purification of the soul. He explains these heavenly
experience as if it’s his duty to let out his emotions, as words are curbing inside him, and
he has the power of the tongue to utter them loud for the masses.

In the upcoming sections, particularly section twenty-six, Whitman draws attention to the
existential approach. He contemplates on the sound of Nature as he becomes the listener.
He calls this experience ‘music’. He talks about self the I. he narrates the workmanship of
each profession, either land or aquatic. He contributes his sight by accounting acute details
of the daily chores; workplace ‘meals’, quarrels in friendships etc. He calls this experience
‘Being’. Moreover, the poet draws our attention towards the tiniest component of the
universe. He sums up the cosmic qualities in the sections thirty-one to thirty-three, where
he aligns insects, animals, and humans in a single universal category. For him this is the
strength of his vision that he has held inside him and in his signature free-verse style his
contemplating his ideas.

Whitman in his poetic contribution sporadically touches American history; dead or living.
Though the element of unifying humanity as a whole is the democratic strength of America
which is captured in his poem. Additionally, Whitman also glorifies the sexual experience
of man, the ecstatic joy one receives his through physical pleasures. The communion of the
two transcends the earth into the realms of spirituality. His transcendental approach
signifies the presence of God in Nature. Human sufferings and despair can be treated by
lodging in Nature

Moving towards the latter sections of the poem, the poet turns the discussion from
mechanical life to religion and brings for the notion of ubermansch. He relates the Divine
in common man, he discards the concept of religion and God; and claims that God is in
every single man and proposes the idea of a universal religion by unifying all religions o
spread harmony.

Taking myself the exact dimensions of Jehovah,

Lithographing Kronos, Zeus his son, and Hercules his grandson,
Buying drafts of Osiris, Isis, Belus, Brahma, Buddha,
In my portfolio placing Manito loose, Allah on a leaf, the crucifix engraved.

15
Whitman equates himself to a healer who rushes to treat the injured. (A profession he had
in his youth). He sums up the idea, by narrating an ancient character often signified as
Christ, who is a humanist, a healer, he is the one who sparkles strength in men. Here, we
can see parallelism between the poet and the ancient figure. This allusive trait sums up the
key points of the poetic argument.

While concluding up, the poet develops a prophetic nature. He transcends the bodily world
because he is the mouthpiece of mankind. He says, ‘I know perfectly well my own
egotism’, yet he embraces all humanity into it. He talks about the corruptions of society,
hidden underneath is the ‘reality’, which is deathless. He is an omniscient speaker who
discusses the good and evil of society, while sketching reality.

In section forty-three to forty-seven, Whitman, once again voices his opinion over religion.
He clarifies his stance of respecting religion ‘ancient and modern’; but his intuitions lead
him to beyond this perception of religion. He speaks of the unseen existing knowledge. He
expresses his desire to bring man and women on a single page to experience the
unexperienced and develop a relationship with immortality; long living knowledge. He
shows his concern over the time that has lapsed ‘We have thus far exhausted trillions of
winters and summers’, he urges the readers to embark a perpetual mystical journey, to
develop passionate rapport with the Divine. Yet he preaches the masses, but he stresses on
maintaining the individual identity. To him I is beyond God, because God’s attributes are
identified in every man’s heart.

Followed by these mystical ideas, he now comments on death. In section forty-nine, he

addresses death as it’s worthless. Death does not scare him, nor does it shatter his belief in
humanity or God. He does not explicitly name the feeling that overshadows death, but he
feels that death comes time and again. It only wears a persona of mortality. ‘It is form,
union, plan – it is eternal life – it is Happiness.’ In the final sections, the poet comments on
his work. He believes his writing is paradoxical, yet he delivers his message through his
allusions drawn from Nature. He feels contented and awaits the readers in the future who
will comprehend his poems. He loves the idea of becoming a part of eternity.

Conclusively, we see that Whitman as a poet has taken the philosophy of life in the entire
poetic narration. He adopts styles of a Romantic poet, Modern poet and of a
Transcendentalist. His ‘grass’ imagery is the core part of his poem, on which the entire
document stands. It denotes a cycle of mortality and immortality and unifies man to Nature.
He urges mankind to respect each other and develop their own respect too. He draws
inclination towards spirituality, he insists on believing in intuition to ace this material
world. However, he does not disregard science and the modern world, he attributes them.
Further, he also discusses common life matters that highlight life. Time and again he
stresses on individualism and its respect in order to promote the democracy of America.
Here, every religion, class, and individual is respected. He guides man to draw energy from
the traits of Nature, contemplate on them and develop an organic relation with the Divine.
To him, his craftsmanship may appear paradoxical, but he believes that someone will be
able to comprehend his eccentric ideas of the modern times.

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2.7 Summary Points
• Walt Whitman’s poetic collection Leaves of Grass is a work of Modern era.
• His poem Song of Myself is a signature styled poem; free-verse style.
• Free-verse style was a breakthrough from traditional poetry, it is a prose styled poem
and discusses common man as the hero.
• Whitman consistently talks about life, death, individualism, etc. in every aspect:
modern day life, religion, past, present, future, micro and macrocosmic entities.
• His poetic scholarship has been read across the ages and it contours the shape of a
sermon.
• From the analysis of the poem we can probe the similar features in today’s world.

2.8 Self-Assessment Questions

1. How does Walt Whitman qualify as Modern Romantic Poet?
2. Why is he termed as the father of free-verse style?
3. What multiple lessons do we learn from the poem Song of Myself?
4. What does the imagery of ‘Grass’ signify?
5. How can we equate modern day American vision to the America envisioned by
Whitman?

2.9 Suggested Readings

Abrams, M. (1979). The Norton Anthology of English Literature. (1st Ed.). New York:
Norton
Whitman, W. (1855). Song of Myself. (1st Ed.).
Greenspan, Ezra, ed. (2005). Walt Whitman’s "Song of Myself": A Sourcebook and Critical
Edition. New York: Routledge.

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18
UNIT-3

EMILY DICKINSON
(Emily Elizabeth Dickinson)

Written by: Sarah Ahsan

Reviewed by: Dr. Lubna Umar

19
 CONTENTS

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 21
Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 21
3.1 Emily Dickinson .................................................................................................. 22
3.2 Style ................................................................................................................ 23
3.3 Theme ................................................................................................................ 24
3.4 Major Works ........................................................................................................ 24
3.5 Summary .............................................................................................................. 26
3.6 Self-Assessment Questions .................................................................................. 26
3.7 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................. 26

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Introduction
This particular unit will enlighten the students with the prolific works of Emily Dickinson.
One of the renowned poets of the 19th century, Modern era is Emily Elizabeth Dickinson.
She is known for her creative writings on the themes of death and immortality. She is one
of the authors whose literary artistries got published after her death, by her sister.
Dickinson’s poems are often considered conventional and packed with emotions. She
followed a traditional lyrical style, where she wrote about missing her brother, her sorrow
over the loss of friendship. Since, most of her work was posthumously published therefore
the pattern of writings is relied upon her existing letters, and literature.

Objectives
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Provide an insight into the varied form of poetry by Emily Dickinson
2. Familiarize with use of Nature in an unconventional style
3. Explain the concept of Modern Romantic Poet particularly Emily Dickinson
4. Equip with the concept of death and immortality
5. Understand Dickinson’s style of writing by analyzing her major works

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3.1 Emily Dickinson
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, United States of America
in 1886. She is one of the leading figures of the American Poetry. Dickinson received her
early education from a school at Amherst, later she went to Mount Holyoke Female
Seminary. By nature, Dickinson was an introvert. Her timid quality appeared odd to the
people. Due to this, she remained in isolation for the most of her life. She opted white color
in dressing; befriended with few people and never got married.

Dickinson’s quite nature let her publish roughly ten poems in her life, the rest of her
eighteen hundred poems were published after her death by her sister. Like her
contemporary Walt Whitman she too sought refuge in Nature, but her poems hover around
the theme of death and immortality and drew a linkage to spirituality. Despite of heavy
editing by her two acquaintance her final available work got published in 1955, The Poems
of Emily Dickinson, which is less edited.

Dickinson belonged to a wealthy and educated family. Her father was a lawyer and so was
her paternal grandfather (also the pioneer of Amherst Academy). He wanted her daughter
to ace in education particularly literature. Throughout her life Dickinson was regarded as
a perfect being, obedient and disciplined. She attended Amherst Academy where she
adored by her teachers. Though she could not go for a stretch of time due to her long-term
illness but she cherished her time there. Later, in 1844 she lost a darling cousin a friend
that wrenched her heart. Similarly, after 1855 she lost another friend Leonard Humphrey
(Amherst Academy Principal). The death of these two closed ones is regarded as an
important factor of her melancholic poetry.

At the age of eighteen Dickinson befriended with her father’s law student Benjamin
Franklin Newton, who served as a catalyst in developing her literary career. He introduced
her to the works of Romantics like William Wordsworth, and Transcendentalist Ralph
Waldo Emerson. Overwhelmed by their literary crafts Dickinson’s friend envisioned her
as a poet. (Though he died before she could officially become a poet.) Likewise, she was
also aware of the popular literature of her times; works of Jane Eyre and Shakespeare.

After the loss of her father (1874), Dickinson’s grief grew and she retired to her bedroom.
She hardly had people visiting her; or she greeted them behind the doors. In early 1875 she
suffered the loss of her mother. Later, Dickinson developed acquaintance with Otis Phillips
Lord, who was an experienced judge. He was a widow and in search of companionship
developed literary ties with the poet. However, their relationship though termed as late-
life-romance did not excel. They had a religious exchange of letters, which ended in 1884
as the lord died. This too left her in great grievance. With a withering family structure,
Dickinson also lost her favourite nephew due to typhoid fever. She too wrote at one of the
instances about the multiple loses she has faced and how they have tormented her soul. In
1886, at the age of fifty-five Emily Dickinson breathe her last due to a long-term ailment
of Bright’s disease.

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3.2 Style
Emily Dickinson’s style reflect the attributes of the Modern poet. Like her fellow poet Walt
Whitman, she too employs natural imagery. However, her imagery elucidates the concept
of death, immortality etc. Her style is referred as a conventional lyrical pattern. Her works
align with the rhythmic pattern of ABCB which can be sung too. She mostly composed
(compact) short stanzas, called quatrains in which the even numbered line second and
fourth had rhyme schemes. In few of her poems, we see couplets, or triple lined stanzas,
and a few poems have much more longer stanzas which are complex in nature.
Dickinson’s prominent style is of writing is her slant style. A slant style refers to a rhythmic
pattern where two words have similar but non-identical sounds (defi. By Master Class).
They are also called, lazy rhymes, half rhyme, near rhyme, etc. Quoted from Emily
Dickinson’s poem “Hope” is the thing with Feathers:
And sweetest - in the Gale - is heard -
And sore must be the storm -
That could abash the little Bird
That kept so many warm -
Her creativity also crowns the use of iambic meters: unstressed syllable is followed by a
stressed syllable. The unconventional poet was aware of her characteristic, yet she
remained loyal to it. She found her meanings to be fully transmitted in such a manner.
Moreover, Dickinson also had a habit of employing excessive dashes, and capitalization of
letters. This gave an aura of utter uniqueness to her work. In addition to this, she also
developed a habit of utilization of eccentric vocabulary and imagery. This altogether made
her poetry to stand out of from the rest of the orthodox poets. A stanza from the above-
mentioned poem:
I’ve heard it in the chillest land -
And on the strangest Sea -
Yet - never - in Extremity,
It asked a crumb - of me.
The deliberate use of dashes and capitalization gave a profound meaning to the poem. Her
apparent simple style is often complex to comprehend. Her wide use of metaphors and
imagery is her trademark. She draws her images from a diverse collection: Nature,
domestic life, social life, economics, etc. Unlike a classical poet she sketches psychological
topography. Other than this, her usage of symbolism and allegory often intersect with each
other in the written literature. Symbolism denotes meaning through a certain signified
object to explain a common/universal idea. Whereas, allegory is in cooperated by her to
clarify her ideas from her vantage point.
Nonetheless, Dickinson’s choice of language is simple, yet powerful. Her thought are lucid
and channelizes the readers’ interest. Another dominant feature in her poetry is the
amalgamation of the basic with the exalted.

23
Further, the narrator of her poems (as per her letter to Higginson) is an anonymous speaker
and does not reflect her, but her words can be anticipated in correlation to her life. The
fictitious narrator often has a shift in the tone; ironic, humor, serious, etc. It is the duty of
the reader to interpret the drafted meaning.

3.3 Theme
A detailed scanning of Dickinson’s work guarantees the usage of following themes:
• Death
• Life
• Nature

The application of these themes is evident extract of events from her life. She personifies
death as a carriage in her poem Because I could not stop for Death; she also hints of her
botanical interests and knowledge; reference to plants especially flowers is prominent in
her poetic verses. Her work is also allusive in nature, she has drawn references from
Gospel; her devotion to religion. During her lifetime she was a practicing Christian. In her
literary scholarships she attracts the poets towards the life of Jesus Christ.

Since, she had imaginative tendency, therefore she painted imaginary landscapes in her
poetic discussions. To them she referred as ‘undiscovered continent’. Altogether,
Dickinson has a brilliant innovative style of writing, which was later inspired by many
poets. She harnesses Nature with the dullness of the ambiance. Her peculiar selection of
vocabulary and writing style gave an essence to her thoughts.

3.4 Major Works

a) “Hope” is the Thing with Feathers
Hope is the things with feathers, is a poetic composition by the American poet Emily
Dickinson originally published in 1861, in fascicle thirteen. After her death, her collection
was found by her sister who republished the edited version in the collection Poems in 1891.

The general idea of the poem is about ‘hope’, how staunch and brawny is its nature. It is
symbolized as a bird, a free-spirited living being, which has feathers that is wings to soar
hither and tither. Apparently, the poem consists of four lined three stanzas, which makes it
simple at first, but the deeper meaning is covertly rooted in the techniques and the lexicon
of the poem. The lyrical ballad styled poem-a poem composed in a traditional style that is
written for the projection of emotions. The opening lines of the poem:

“Hope” is the thing with feathers –

That perches in the soul –

The second line of the poem describes the dwelling of hope that it resides inside every
individual. The very fundamental concept of the poem is the presence of hope inside and

24
out of a person; the only concern is the recognition of it. Hope is a powerful aspect of life.
Its instrumental quality breathes life into a soul. Metaphorically, hope is symbolized as a
bird. Biblically a bird is a ‘dove’, which is a symbol of peace, and hope. Like a bird, hope
too has the strength has to lift a man in his terrible spells. Highs and lows are integral parts
of a human’s life, but one must not lose hope and be a major believer of it.

She extends the metaphor, when she claims hope to sing even in the tough times. The
subliminal meaning of sing is that hope is such an abstract idea that does not abandon a person,
no matter how times are. It has an aura of positivity and it the bird (hope) radiates positivity as
it soars in the skies. Further, the metaphor ‘Gale’ with a capital G, symbolizes the ferocity of a
storm; life has tempestuous nature too, which shakes the steadiness of an individual. Even in
such times, the bird (hope) does not end its singing. The poet ends the positive note by stating
that hope lingers out in the surroundings, we have to adhere this idea. It is always there for our
assistance; to guide us in the bad times, and it does not ask for a tiniest favor in return.

Analytically speaking, the poem employs the art of extended metaphor. Hope is a bird, its
presence is signified as feathers/wings, the storm or Gale reflects hardships of life and Sea
also symbolizes life, its enormous characteristic that is the amalgamated presence of good
and evil. Linguistically, the poem uses clear and lucid language and expression that
describes the narrator’s point of view in the first glance. The punctuation adds impact to
the words to foreground the important words.

Additionally, Dickinson draws the imagery from Nature like a Romantic poet; also, a
Transcendentalist approach (which highlights Dickinson’s childhood inspiration).
Thematically, she illustrates life and relates it to hope. Hope has a tendency to attract people
towards it; she is urging the reader to grasp the idea. Similarly, hope is tangible like a bird;
it is a boundless creation that serves the purpose of an anchor. Nature here acts as a positive
tool of literature; to educate people over the bounties of hope.

b) Because I could not Stop for Death

Because I could not stop for Death is another literary marvel by Emily Dickinson, which
was published posthumously by her sister in the collection Poems in 1890. The poem stands
on the theme of death, and its characteristics. I young woman Dickinson herself narrates
the sojourn the two have together. Another Romantic streak is visible in the poem; the
imagery drawn is dark, grey and gloomy. The starting of the poem Because I could not stop
for Death, appears to be of continuous nature, it seems as the author is providing an answer
to a question. The abrupt start quickly relates the reader to the concept of the poem.

In the text, death is personified as a ‘person’, a gentleman. The psychological topography

can be assumed as a road amidst in the woods, where a lady in a gown is being hitchhiked
by a carriage. This carriage is ridden by a man who is death. Hence, we can say that the
lady has embraced death or vice versa. Jointly, the two embark a long journey; none of
them is in haste. They on look at the perks of life; the basic routines of life while they travel
to the grave. Dickinson’s adherence to religion can be observed here, she speaks of her
Christian belief that is life after death. The travelers travel till the grave ‘the Roof’ which

25
denotes a tombstone. The poem on death is an ode to eternity. The concept of after life is
summed up in the modern styled poem.

Structurally, the poem consists of five stanzas in Dickinson’s signature style. The emphasis
is laid on dashes and capitalization of letters. The diction is simple yet impactful. It
intensifies the poet’s meaning of life, death and immortality;

Since then — 'tis Centuries — and yet

Feels shorter than the Day

The journey seems endless; it’s an ongoing affair that seems shorter than a twenty-four
hours day. The subtle tone glorifies the essence of the poem. The carriage can be interpreted
as a transitory point between life and death; the horses are the carriers who transport them
towards eternity.

Hence, we can compare this poem with the previous; the use of Nature’s imagery is starkly
different. In this poem, death is personified as a person, the imagery is turning grey, and
the setting is of dusk. The day is biding goodbye to the travelers, to life; pastures and fields
pass by a symbol of life and beauty.

3.5 Summary
• Emily Dickinson’s poetic collection is a work of Modern era with a Romantic style
• Her poems have conventional style with a touch of innovative techniques
• She is a follower of slant style, capitalization of words, iambic meters etc.
• Dickinson’s poetic theme discussed life, death, immortality and Nature
• Most of her poetics works were published posthumously
• From the analysis of the poem we can identify the importance of death in relation to
life and can ponder over the concept of eternity.

3.6 Self-Assessment Questions

1. How does Emily Dickinson relate Romantic Poet’s style and Transcendentalist
approach to her poetry?
2. How does she speak on the theme of death?
3. How does the poet draw multiple imagery from Nature in her poetic literature?
4. How does capitalization and dashes add emphasis?
5. How is Dickinson’s poetry relatable today?

3.7 Suggested Readings

Dickinson, E. (1891). Hope is the thing with feathers.
Dickinson, E. (1890). Because I could not stop for Death (Poems)

26
UNIT-4

EZRA POUND
(Ezra Loomis Pound)

Written by: Sarah Ahsan

Reviewed by: Dr. Lubna Umar

27
 CONTENTS

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 29
Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 29
4.1 Ezra Pound (Ezra Loomis Pound)........................................................................ 30
4.2 Style ................................................................................................................ 32
4.3 Theme ................................................................................................................ 33
4.4 Major Works ........................................................................................................ 34
4.5 Summary .............................................................................................................. 36
4.6 Self-Assessment Questions .................................................................................. 36
7.7 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................. 36

28
Introduction
Ezra Loomis Pound is one of the important poets of the 20th century. He is also claimed as
the revolutionary poet of the time, for his innovative style of poetry. He is one of the
expatriate poet of the United States, who spent most of his life in London and worked for
American literary content. Pound indulged in literary endeavor at quite an early age, he did
not break the effort. His literary career is compact as he produced literature in abundance
with minimal annual gaps. He was a writer, a poet, a critic, an alleged fascist and a traitor.
With a shaky academic career Pound outshined in his scholarships.

His frequent trips to Europe let him explore new avenues that formed his writings, met new
people and visited multiple literary salons and centres that led him to the evolution of
Imagism and Vortisim. He was a man with insight into literature, translational studies,
economics, etc. Many of his successors are influenced by him and owe their reputations to
him.

In his lifetime, he authored a variety of intellectual pieces that includes essays, columns,
letters, and poems, out of them is poem The Cantos is the first ever modern American epic.
The epic is a combination of politics, history, biography and multiple events and persons
are recorded by Pound. Dating back then, Pound did not garner much of an audience, some
due to his incomprehensible content and some because of his controversial fascist content.
But years later people developed interest in his intellectual aesthetic. During his tenure in
London as a reason of establishing himself as a notable author, Pound practiced avant-
garde style and coined Imagism, Voriticism and Cubism. With his high-profile intellectual
contacts Pound guided and supported the later writers who hailed his modern literary
techniques and employed in their own literature marvels.

Objectives
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Explain how Ezra Pound became a 20th century revolutionary poet
2. Explain how he devised techniques like Imagism, Cubism and Vorticism
3. Provide an insight in his travelling life that contributed in his writings
4. Understand the non-traditional style of poetry in The Cantos and In a Station of the
Metro
5. Understand the relation of Pound with his followers

29
4.1 Ezra Pound (Ezra Loomis Pound)
Born in 1855 in Hailey, Idaho, Ezra Pound was the only child to his parents. His family
background takes its roots back to England, as Ezra’s ancestors immigrated the United
States in 1650s. His family later moved to Philadelphia, New York where he received his
early education from a local private school. Since the early age, Pound indulged in the
world of literature. At the age of eleven Pound published his first literary craft
a limerick on William Jennings Bryan (a politician who lost elections). (Limerick is a verse
styled composition which follows a traditional rhyme scheme and is satirical in nature.)
His academic career took a twist when he was admitted to a military academy to ace in his
drilling and shooting skills for the American Civil War, but he left the training unfinished.

Ezra Pound had an unlucky academic life. He could not do well in his liberal arts program
at the University of Pennsylvania, and took a degree as a special student, yet he could not
pass with flying colors. Later in 1902 after a voyage to England, his mother admitted him
to Hamilton College in New York, Clinton. It was then he began a fresh start, but it was
also an uncomfortable journey. In 1906 he graduated with his bachelor’s in philosophy, a
self-tailored research degree program. Later the following year he enrolled himself in a
PhD program, after the completion of his master’s on Romance Language. (Romance
languages is a set of languages that were archaic language (between third and eighteenth
century) spoken generally in the Italian region.) During his scholarly tenure, he developed
his life with Hilda Doolittle after whom he has composed several poems; collection titled
as Hilda’s Book.

Later in his PhD program, in order to conduct some research Pound was granted with
Harrison’s scholarship that took him to multiple countries. However, in the next year 1907,
with the end of the grant, and with a rift and constant verbal victimization Pound left his
doctorate program. The rift was an envious deed as Pound excelled in English courses,
even than his head.

Moreover, Pound spent most of his life travelling. In Spain in 1908 he made earning by
becoming a guide for the tourist. In the meantime, he published A Lume Spento a collection
of his forty-four-poetic works. Pound was an admirer of classical works that includes
Dante. His title of the book was borrowed from Dante’s literary work Purgatorio. His work
was a dedication to his artist friend. As a habit, Pound then travelled to England (London)
where he often switched vicinities depending on his financial assets. It should be noted that
the vicinities where he resided made a special appearance in his poetic composition, The
Cantos. The same year, he came up with another poetry collection A Quinzaine for this
Yule, a self-published endeavor.

In his London based literary circle, Pound met the British novelist Olivia Shakespeare,
mother of Pound’ future wife, Dorothy (in 1914). His poems were rooting themselves in
the English environment when authors like Rudyard Kipling wrote Victorian styled
literature. There in London the great poet of the twentieth century, established ties with the
literary wits of London. This rendezvous led him to W.B. Yeats, to whom Pound sent the

30
copy of his first collection, and Yeats positively claimed it. It is believed that Pound settled
his heart in London.

In 1910, his sojourn led him back to United States where he published his prose work The
Spirit of Romance, a collection of his self-taught lectures at the Regent Street Polytechnic
institute back in 1909 in London. Followed by a collection of national essays (US) Patria
Mia. Patria Mia contained Pound’s detestation for the Jews, (which later made him
appreciate Adolf Hitler and qualified him as a fascist.) Carrying the revulsion for the
growing Semitism in New York, he sailed back to England where he spent almost thirty
years before coming back to America again.

In 1911, in Paris (after the trip to England) Pound published another scholarship Canzoni,
a lyrical collection. The same year Pound got the job as a columnist at the journal ‘New
Age’, edited by A. R. Orage. It is significant to mention because Orage also makes an
appearance in a section of Cantos. During his stay in London, Pound frequently visited
the British Museum where he was found consulting books. It was there he was introduced
to the Japanese Art ‘ukiyo-e’ which is believed to be the inspiration behind the imagist
movement.

Within this time, he worked on his collection Ripostes (1912). Ripostes is the collection of
twenty-five poems, which alter in style. They can be referred as the initiation of Pound’s
signature style of imagism. It is then, when Pound first mentioned the word ‘imagiste’ and
it is also the interpretation of the classic The Sea Farer. As per Ezra Pound, he was a
believer of concrete meaning instead of abstract. He composed phrases through imagery to
create a sharp, solid and clear meaning.

Relating to it, the founder of Poetry: A Magazine of Verse hired Pound as a correspondent
of her magazine in 1912. The first edition published Pound’s own poems Middle Aged and
To Whistler American. His poems served as foreign contributions to the newly born
magazine. In 1913 the same magazine published A Few Don'ts by an Imagist. The
following month, Poetry printed another poem by the poet In a Station of the Metro, a
concrete, precise poem based on Pound’s experience of a Paris metro station. The poem is
supposed to have a streak of the Japanese aesthetic haiku-a traditional, short Japanese
poem.

Ezra Pound, had a vast literary career his anthology Des Imagistes, An Anthology got first
published in an American magazine (1914) and the same year it took a shape of a book. It
was a daft based on the foundations of Imagism. It comprised poems by several authors,
including Pound’s. Pound’s efforts were later hired for an advertisement of the magazine
BLAST, where he promised to extend imagism to vorticism and cubism by inculcating in
modern art.

The very next year, in 1915 Pound published a collection of twenty-five Chines translated
poem Cathy. This also marks his contributions as a translator. He has translated several
works of literature written in various languages. His translated works enjoy both positive

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and negative criticism. It was during this time, when World War II had broken, and poets
had no choice than to produce patriotic literature. Here, Pound stood no chance and his
annual income dwindled remarkably.

After resigning from the magazine Poetry, Pound served his majority time to his longest
poem The Cantos, in the time period of 1917 he published three sections of this poem
successfully. 1919 was the year when the poet finally left England and settled in Paris. His
exile journey is criticized by many. However, this did not bring an end to literary devotion,
he kept attending scholarly conventions, producing his work and editing major works of
other prominent figures of literature for example T.S Eliot, Earnest Hemingway, etc.

Meanwhile, in 1927 he inaugurated his own magazine The Exile, from the award money
he earned. During this time and later, Pound developed his fascist attitude. He vocally
criticized the Jews and blamed WWII on them, as a matter of usury. He met politicians like
Benito Mussolini, whom he has narrated in one of the sections of The Cantos. He delivered
hate narrated speeches and lecture. During the war time he also recorded radio podcasts.
Due to his verbal displeasure regarding Jews, he was late captured by the US army and
interrogated by agencies on account of treason. He was then help captive in US army
discipline caps, there too he resisted to his utmost. All his incidents are a poetic record in
his poem The Cantos, which means he continued his literary labor in the prison too.

After his prison he was taken to US psychiatry asylum. Where he had to have a trial but
termed mental too. In 1966 he was finally released from St. Elizabeth’s hospital with the
declaration of bipolar disorder. Later, he suffered from depression for the most part of his
life. In between the time span of two years 1955 to 57 he kept writing anonymous letters
to New Times.

Later, in 1972 Pound breathed his last in Italy. His literary mind influenced many authors
of his age. During his life he met people like James Joyce, T.S Eliot, E.E. Cummings, Allen
Ginsberg, Earnest Hemingway, etc. They respected the figure of sheer literacy and tribute
him in his works.

4.2 Style
The member of 20th century Ezra Pound revolutionized the entire concept of Modern
poetry. Unlike his predecessors, Whitman and Dickinson, employment of Nature and its
imagery curbed and later got replaced by imagism a predominant feature of Ezra Pound’s
poems. His poem adopted a new structure; epic styled poem which covered topics like
history, economics, politics, and personal life, written in the form of elegy, hymn and satire.

a) Imagism in Pound’s Poetry

Imagism a twentieth century literary movement focused on the theory of economy of
language-lucidity in the language created by concise and compact language that creates an
orchestral harmony in the lyrical intellect. Its founder Ezra Pound and his disciples Hilda
Doolittle, Amy Lowell, James Joyce, William Carlos Williams, F. S. Flint, Ford Madox

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Ford, etc. were the practitioners of Imagism. Pound’s poem In a Station of the Metro is the
first most significant work of imagism. Being absolutely non-conventional the poem is one
of the notable works of Ezra Pound.

The use of imagery is justified as a precise of language. It is another dimension to view the
utility of language. Language can be drawn from social, cultural factors; objects, nature,
etc. to produce a cohesive and direct meaning to the reader, instead of lurking around the
language or heavy phrases. In A Few Don'ts by an Imagiste and Imagisme, Pound set the
rules of Imagism and its application:
1. Direct treatment of the "thing," whether subjective or objective.
2. To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation.
3. As regarding rhythm: to compose in sequence of the musical phrase, not in sequence
of the metronome.

b) Vorticism
Vorticim was European aesthetic movement initiated before World War I. It was launched
by artist and author Wyndham Lewis as an art movement for the relevant magazine BLAST.
This was the same magazine where Pound also made his contribution Vortex. Vorticist art
adhered to the philosophy of boldness; it had bold lines and sharp colors that attracted the
viewers instantly. This artistic technique was thought to be manifested in literature. Pound
an acquaintance of Lewis supported the movement.

Dating back to its history, Vorticism was a derivative of another European art movement
Cubism. It was then a revolutionary approach to art initiated by Pablo Picasso and Georges
Braque in the time of 1907-1908. Cubism fused a variety of subjects in one painting
resulting in an abstract and non-bound piece of art. Nonetheless, Vorticism was a short-
lived movement that died in the wake of World War I.

4.3 Themes
Ezra Pound’s artistic labor is no different to comprehend. The themes of his poem conflate
with his writing style. Since imagism was his dominant feature therefore his mere work
adheres to it. In general, Pound’s works are loosely built around the theme of life, Nature,
Love. It includes events from his life, politics, history and economics. Majority of his
thematic selection can be witnessed in his poem The Cantos. Since he had a colorful love
life, until his marriage to Dorothy, his later work highlighted his shared romance with Hilda
Doolittle.

He also borrowed works from various literatures (Roman and Chinese) and translated them.
Regarding imagism, Pound overshadowed other techniques by its usage; because of he was
in search of novelty. He is believed to draw his idea from Japanese cultural poem Haiku
which literally stands for a short poem.

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4.4 Major Works
a) The Cantos I
Ezra Pound’s longest poem that follows a classical style is The Cantos. A canto is referred
to a section in an extensive poem. Pound’s epic has almost one hundred and sixteen cantos
that he composed throughout his life. The poet under discussion was deeply inspired by
Dante and his lyrical work. His work is a mirror image of Dante’s canto Inferno. Pound’s
Canto structurally appears complex and obscure until read. However, linguistically he
speaks of several subjects in the long epic using alliteration and internal rhyme style; he
also attempts to keep the classical lyrical structure intact but the jump from one canto to
another jerk the ready. Either the idea is complex or left unaddressed or unfinished.

The expanded in-cohesive structure denotes the fragmented human life, especially the
modern life. He may have adhered to Joyce’s style of consciousness, but modernity is there.
Secondly, the poem was presented in a bookish form; the later style got varied. Pound
started working on Cantos I in 1915 and published first three cantos in 1917. Several years
of poetic production and a hiatus from Cantos, the poet retreated to the compilation 1922.
It is the longest poem worth eight hundred pages. Despite being a huge piece of literature
and denoting name to Ezra Pound it is not critically acclaimed by many readers. It could
be the fragmented nature of his writing style that did not make it appear cohesive, nor are
the ideas strongly coherent.

The first canto (Canto I), is a translated rendered version of Homer’s The Odyssey. The
first line directly leads the reader towards an answer perhaps, as the line begins with the
word ‘and’. The poem is set on a ship; a night scene is sketched, and people are sailing
towards an undisclosed place. This sailing can be significant in relation to the journey of
life. The ship’s crew is saddened, and the atmosphere is shrouded with grief.

It is in the middle of the stanza when one realizes that it is an allusive work from Odyssey.
The magician Circe is discussed in the initial lines of the poem, and the crew are the people
who were transformed into pigs on an island. The speaker is Odysseus who provides an
insight to the reader. The poem is loaded with the aquatic journey and the imagery drawn
from its surroundings. The sun is low, sky is covered with darkness, and they have sailed
their way into the ‘deepest water’. In relation to life, it can be considered that life is massive
as the sea, where a person sails with a pack of emotions. As Pound progresses with his
lyrical craft he explains the dullness of the sky, there are no stars to emit light. Similarly,
Odysseus talks about the mythical people of the land Kimmerian, who were supposedly at
the edge of the world. They were ignorant people of the land who were covered with
darkness; no glimmer of light was seen.

In the upcoming lines, Odysseus narrates the ritual Circe the sorcerer asked them to do, to
honour the dead; to dig a ‘pitkin’ to pour wine for praising sacrificial power, of bull of
sheep that will bring the soul of ‘Erubus’- Erubus in Greek mythology is the deity of
darkness, evolved from Chaos. The next few lines appear on the theme of death; after the
sacrifice the souls of death surface the earth. Souls of young men and women; Odysseus

34
overwhelmed with the sacrifice slaughter more animals and worships the gods. Further
reference from Greek mythology is drawn as Pluto (a Roman god) and his wife are
mentioned. Odysseus’s act of raising the dead is a gesture of apology as he is sole
responsible of their deaths. This leads to reconciliation with his dead friend (Elpenor),
whom he did not know is deceased. He claims to die on Circe’s island, but he did not
receive a proper burial.

The second stanza continues the narration of his death, in utter stupor due to alcohol;
Elpenor slipped a ladder and broke his skull. He requests to Odysseus to sail back to the
Circe’s island and offer his body a proper burial, else his soul will remain in limbo.
Similarly, Anticlea mother of Odysseus shows up. Tiresias is brought up once again from
the dead, a prophet figure. He shares a prophecy to Odysseus of losing all his dear ones if
he does not sail back. The interesting part is the allusion from the lines of Lie quiet Divus,
the Latin version of The Odyssey.

The journey of Cantos does not end here the eight hundred plus paged poem continues;
however, this chapter only discusses the first canto. In it we can see that Greek mythology
has been excessively liaised by the poet, as it is also the translated work of The Odyessey.

b) In a Station of the Metro

The apparition of these faces in the crowd;
Petals on a wet, black bough.

The mentioned poem is a mere couplet that is concentrated in its meanings. It is heavily
induced with imagism, a signature style of Pound. It is Pound’s first poem that embodies
imagism in his work. It is loosely connected to his experience of a station in Paris. Hence,
we can deduce the theme of life. ‘The apparition’ represents a supernatural element of his
writing; hastily a buzz of unclear facial images runs across the readers’ minds; ‘faces in
the crowd’ is the representation of multiple people and lives in the world, we often come
across. The faces are like petals; ‘petals’ imagery is drawn from Nature, like various shape
and color, people also have similar features. Men regardless of the skin color compose a
community. Likewise, ‘black bough’ is the branch of tree that denotes the perpetual
characteristic of life, it is transitory and ongoing; the station is similar to a tree various
branches lead to multiple pathways, for several people. It is a temporary waiting point. A
modernist streak, with amalgamation of Nature and supernatural can be observed. The poet
has presented his version of reality in a concise and profound method. Pound’s respective
work is also believed to be an inspiration from haiku the Japanese poem style.

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4.5 Summary
• Ezra Pound is a revolutionary poet of the 20th century
• His major part of the life spent travelling
• During his visits to England he developed literary ties and produced great literature
• From his trips he inaugurated the literary movement of Imagism
• He was also a supporter of Vorticism which aided in the creation of ‘imagiste’
• Pound was a multitalented man that can be observed in his biography

4.6 Self-Assessment Questions

1. How does Ezra Pound qualify as revolutionary poet of the 20th century?
2. Why Pound is declared an expatriate American poet? What works as he drafted in
both UK and US?
3. How does the poet justify the employment of Imagism in his work?
4. What is your opinion on the American epic The Canto?
5. Enlist the narrations of Pound and relate it to his life?

4.7 Suggested Readings

Pound, E. (1913). In a Station of the Metro.
Pound, E. (1925). Canto I.

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UNIT-5

T.S. ELIOT
(Thomas Stearns Eliot)

Written by: Sarah Ahsan

Reviewed by: Dr. Lubna Umar

37
 CONTENTS

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 39
Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 39
5.1 T.S. Eliot (Thomas Stearns Eliot) ........................................................................ 40
5.2 Style ................................................................................................................ 42
5.3 Theme ................................................................................................................ 42
5.4 Major Works: The Waste Land............................................................................ 43
5.5 Summary .............................................................................................................. 48
5.6 Self-Assessment Questions .................................................................................. 48
5.7 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................. 48

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Introduction
In this unit the students will come across another great poet of the 20th century T.S. Eliot.
Eliot is a modern-day poet, critic, and a prose writer. He also qualifies as an expatriate poet.
Born in US but spent his adulthood until his death in England. In his entire literary career
Eliot did not have a huge influx of publication, rather he has a very few prominent poetry;
The Waste Land, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock, The Hollow Men, to name a few.
His initial publications were in the form of small books, or pamphlets.

It is believed that he laid the foundations of modern critic. Despite the fact he is a modernist
he gave a lot of attention to tradition. In his works, he laments over the loss of tradition.
His allusiveness is an extension of tradition in his modernist work. This resulted in
experimentation and projected a unique style of Eliot. He did not appreciate modernity; he
was a man of word, he practiced what he preached.

Objectives
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Learn about another influential 20th century poet
2. Learn how is style differed from his predecessors
3. Learn hoe Eliot’s life is of utmost importance to have an impact on his literary
scholarships
4. Understand his allusiveness in his work The Waste Land
5. Understand how modernism is represented in his aforementioned work

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5.1 T.S Eliot (Thomas Stearns Eliot)
T.S. Eliot a major modern poet was born in 1888 in St. Louis, Missouri, United Stated of
America. His family belonged to the upper-class family of Boston. The Eliot family had
their roots in England. Both his parents belonged to a working profession, father was
businessman, whereas mother was a poet and social worker; a new profession in that time
of history.

Eliot was a polymath. In his life two major factors played a significant role in developing
his passion for literature. Firstly, his acute health conditions refrained him from physical
activities. He spent most of his time in isolation that led him to discover literature; and he
was obsessed with Mark Twain’s Adventures of Tom Sawyer. Secondly St. Louis
(Missouri), which nurtured his literary affection. Eliot spent his childhood years at St.
Louis near the Mississippi River which played an integral part in his life.

Eliot received his early education from Smith Academy, where he studied languages Latin,
German, French, and Ancient Greek. At the early age he indulged into Omar Khayyam’s
poetic work translated by Edward Fitzgerald, though Eliot did not consider it a pleasing
experience. However, the reading experience and a school assignment led him to compose
and publish his first poem A Fable for Feasters (1905). The same year he drafted another
poem Song that got printed in Harvard University’s magazine Harvard Advocate. Eliot’s
literary career got a boost with his multiple publications. His passion did not reduce nor his
morale; he published three short stories the same year with the titles: The Man Who Was
King, Birds of Prey, and A Tale of a Whale. His tale The Man Who Was King reflects his
childhood memory of his visit to St. Louis (where he spent his early years), in the World’s
Fair. There he happened to meet the natives of the land which he has recounted in his work.
Later in graduation he opt Anthropology at Harvard College.

During his preparatory year, Eliot met Scofield Thayer at Milton Academy Massachusetts.
(Thayer was a wealthy publisher and a poet who promoted the emerging poets of the time.)
He later published Eliot’s literary canon The Waste Land. In 1909 Eliot earned his
bachelor’s degree (BA) in Comparative Literature. His graduation years comprised three
years because of his preparatory year at Milton Academy. The following year the poet
received a master’s degree in English Literature. Since Eliot had a massive exposure to
literature hence this affected his literary endeavors profoundly. Tristan Corbière’s 0book
Les amours jauns is held as a major indicator that contoured Eliot’s life. 1908 was a
significant year of Eliot’s life due to his discovery of Symbolist Movement- a literary
movement initiated by Arthur Simons; French symbolism was being introduced to Anglo
American author. This movement has a major part to play in Eliot’s life.

After his experience at Harvard, and multiple inaugural publications, in between 1910 and
1911 Eliot then travelled to Paris. At Sorbonne (University of Paris) he received his
education in Philosophy. In the next three years Eliot journeyed back to US, where he
sought admission in Harvard again, and acquired the education of Sanskrit and Philosophy.
(His life resonates with the life of his predecessor Ezra Pound.) While being awarded a

40
scholarship to Merton College, Oxford in 1914, Eliot en-routed through Germany where
he planned to take a summer program, however the idea could not excel as World War I
broke out. It was then he travelled directly to Oxford. It was the time when several
scholarships were awarded to the American students and the English indigenous group
abhorred it.

The similar year (1914) Eliot contacted to his friend Conrad Aiken (a critic and an author)
from Harvard. Eliot complained him about the university life at Oxford and how he was in
search of an escape. With his exodus, he landed in London where he spent the majority of
his time, mainly in producing literature and establishing literary ties with the significant
people of that era. It was then when he met the great man of literature Ezra Pound through
his friend Aiken. Together they attended various literary salons and Pound being an
admirer of Eliot introduced him to the various men of scholarships. In 1915, escaping
Oxford, Eliot established his teaching carrier at an institute at London. Like Pound, Eliot
too enrolled himself in a doctorate program at Harvard; however, he failed to receive the
degree because he did not appear for his viva voce.

In 1985, Eliot embarked the journey of a married man. He did not marry his heart throb
love Helen, instead he wedded Vivienne Haigh-Wood whom Thayer (the publisher)
introduced. However, the marriage did not thrive due to several ailments of Eliot’s wife.
Her illness often kept the couple apart which farther them more. In the year 1933 the couple
officially separated. According to Eliot the marriage did not bring him any romance, nor
could he harbor his anchor in England, but it served as the platform for The Wasteland.

Most part of his life in England, Eliot spent in teaching. For extra income he wrote book
reviews and took additional courses at Oxford and University College London. In 1917 he
also worked as an accountant at an English bank which he left in 1925 to start his job as a
Director at a publishing firm Faber and Gwyer/ Faber and Faber. It should be mentioned
here that during his tenure at Faber and Faber Eliot came to know his secretary well Esmé
Valerie Fletcher who then became his second wife in 1957. After the death of her husband
she maintained her husband’s writings: a duplicate draft of The Waste Land and The Letters
of T. S. Eliot.

Later in 1920, the poet travelled to Paris where he met another notable author James Joyce.
Initially, the two did not appease each other, but later the two developed profound liking
for each other that each trip to Paris meant a visit to James Joyce. It was during one such
trip when Eliot met Wyndham Lewis (founder of Vorticism, editor of the magazine Blast).
The latter two also enhanced the intensity of their relationship that Lewis composed a
famous painting of Eliot. John Davy Hayward share Eliot’s apartment in Carlyle Mansion,
London. He being an attached friend managed Eliot’s documents, including his literary
crafts. One such is the pre-edited version of Prufrock, which was published posthumously
under the collection Poems Written in Early Youth. Until their house separation in 1957,
Hayward guarded the documents of Eliot like his own property, and in 1965 submitted
them to King’s College, Cambridge. A few things to add credit to Eliot’s life is his work

41
as an Editor at Wesleyan University Press, where he got the opportunity to launch new
European poets.

T.S. Eliot breathed his last in 1965 due to respiratory disorder, in Kensington. As per his
wishes he was incinerated, and his ashes were buried in a village in Somerset from where
Eliot’s belonged before migrating to America.

5.2 Style
T.S. Eliot holds an altogether a unique position in Modern Literature due to allusive writing
style. Throughout his life whatever literature, he has come across or acquired has been
referred in his poetic verses. His Sanskrit has given him insight to Upanishad that has a
major role in designing his thought process. Secondly, he was greatly influenced from
French poets Baudelaire to Paul ValéryHe. As per Eliot it was easier for him to express
himself in French than in English.

Since most of Eliot’s poems were devised in his youth therefore the narrator on his poems
are often the middle-aged men. Similarly, The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock is also inter-
textual due to his high amount of referring from Hamlet; relativity to science which was
highly new to the age and remarkably different to the existing Romantic, Georgian age
poetry. Moreover, his work structurally echoed the classical work of Dante. Likewise, The
Waste Land is also deeply allusive, religion, science, mythology, etc. all is in cooperated
in the long poem. The poem is also a tribute to the editor of the poem Ezra Pound. The
poem also has a disoriented structure; sudden shifts in scenes, discussions, narrators, etc.
it reflects the disturbed time of Eliot’s breaking marriage. Altogether the poem got a new
form and structure; it also spoke about the disillusionment of the post war generation,
which marked it as the literary canon of the Modern Literature.

5.3 Theme
Eliot’s modern-day writing is a juxtaposition of tradition and modern. His ongoing quest
for reality is a foregrounded trait of his writing. His expression is highlighted through a
combination of symbolism, imagism and a variety of historical references. His poems are
built on the following foundations:
• human psychology,
• foreign references,
• traditional writings,
• love,
• dejection over the loss of morality,
• loss of religious values,
• social change or issues (materialism, economic depression, sexual perversion)

For The Waste Land in particular he refers to nature and fuses it with the modern day
artifacts. His fragmented poetry fuses topographical elements with his ideas, and allusions.

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5.4 Major Work: The Waste Land
Eliot’s The Waste land comprises all the features of Modernism. It is structurally
experimented work of Eliot. Its fragmentary nature has made it appear more complex poem
of the era; and has received several criticisms from the critics over its thematic structure
and allusiveness. The poet tried his best to explore the modern society and its pertaining
dilemmas. Critically, the structure of the poem reflects the broken modern society. Certain
issues like moral degeneration, sexual perversion, spiritual decadence, etc. are surfacing
the poem (and the modern society). These issues run across the five sections of the poem.

The first section of the poem Burial of the Dead is taken from Anglican Church. The poem
sets off with a Biblical reference; however, the first part merely deals with vegetation as it
is symbolizes regeneration, life and growth-spring season that brings life. But, Eliot writes
‘April is the cruelest month’; here he refers to The Canterbury Tales of Chaucer, where
April is a celebrated month, because it is the time of redemption and salvation, pilgrims
performed pilgrimage a sign of spiritual purity. This entire idea leads to the Greek
mythology of regeneration; effigies of gods Adonis, Osiris and Attis were stuffed with
seeds and buried in winter, in the next spring (growing) season plants would sprout hence
denoting life. Relating it to Eliot, he completely rejects this idea as he does not find any
hope or life in April. The title is self-explanatory Waste land meaning no regeneration. The
poem further expands on melancholic note. ‘Roots and lands’ are dull, ‘lilacs’ used to
sprout but not anymore. Eliot is grieved at the present state of affair that is the dead land;
‘rain’ a symbol of purification has no role. A bleak picture of the modern society is
sketched by the poet. He refers to the winter season which is a representation of harshness
and oblivion, infertility, complete loss of morality and spiritualty. This is the present
condition of the modern man. In the later lines, he shifts his tone and draws attention to the
life of the modern man; restlessness in the human society. People were unbothered about
the loss because they are overwhelmed with the worldly affairs.

Here, Eliot shifts the scene of his discussion. He brings in the Russian language meaning
‘I am not a Russian at all. I came from Lithuania, I’m a real German.’ It was the time of
Russian Revolution Eliot stresses on the fact that people then, were more concerned about
their geographical boundaries and nationalities. Then, Eliot brings in the young girl sitting
in a coffee shop who is a reflection of Countess Marie, a girl with Royal linage. He once
again jumps from one context to another; it is not only a reference to complete decay, rather
routinely activities are too discussed by the poet. Sex for the modern man is a means of
refuge, a means of pleasure, which makes one a sexual pervert. Man keeps the pace of his
life continuous but is restless on account of WW1. People are yearning for relief; they
search serenity in trivial matters. Eliot then draws reference to Ezekiel, ‘Son of a man’;
he’s questioned if there is life the answer is (an emphatic note) no regeneration is out there.

Structurally speaking, The Waste Land is a cluster of images. Layers and layers of allusions
and images are in cooperated, which seemingly are incomprehensible, but their underlying
meanings are coherent and depressing. The growing pessimism of the poet appears out in
his imagery. ‘A heap of broken image’ once again remind of the Modern society,

43
everything is sterile and in utter state of decay. It is the dilemma of the modern man that
the life is halted. Repetition of the word ‘dead’ must be kept into consideration. Eliot then
presents a decayed picture of Nature, unlike his predecessors. The sound of cricket was
once a sign of hope in winters but not anymore; trees seem to be equally passive as they
are static. Since there is no mobility therefore not a hint of life is there in the modern
society. ‘Water’ an image of continuity and regeneration is stagnant too. Eliot brings in the
religious reference of the ‘red rock’ that is the Church. He is preaching the modern man to
return towards religion for redemption, for the betterment of humanity. In the later lines,
Eliot once again puts forth his call for religion, he believes in the fact that man will
metamorphose into dust, this is the ultimate reality. Man has commercialized himself to
the extent that he has forgotten the truth.

Eliot’s deep knowledge into literature can be witness from this poem. He fetches references
from Greek mythology: Tiresias a seer, a prophet is the narrator of the poem (all five
sections). He’s resonates his sexual impotency with that of Kin Fisher. Tristan and Isolde’s
love tale emerges; he waited for her at the shore, his eyes full of hope, he bleeds heavily
but could not sustain and dies. Isolde comes late to know her beloved is no more. This links
to the Greek mythology ‘hyacinths’ sprang from a blood-stained young man- another
relevance of regeneration of life.

Going back to Tristan’s story, the lovers yearend for communication but failed, which
denotes the loss of love, purity, strength from modern man’s life. Unlike Tristan and Isolde
modern love is impure it lacks essential emotions. Reference from Desolate and empty the
sea, is in the context of Tristan and Isolde. Here, lack of live is discussed in the modern
society, whereas in the past it was loss of love. Another indication is to the tarot card reader,
a fortune teller people did not consult Church or Popes instead they are running to fortune
tellers. In Egypt fortune telling was practiced (reference to Jessie Weston’s Tarot Pack of
Cards) the illustrative seventy-eight cards were used in fortune telling. For travelling
purposes people read and interpreted the waves of river Nile. But now it is misused by
people like Madame Sosostres. Madame Sosostres predicts about the upcoming characters
in the remaining four sections of the poem. The ‘Phoenician Sailor’ appears amidst the line
of the poem; his appearance will be made in the next section of the poem. The lady can
foresee him and Belladonna. Belladonna stands for moral decline, and sexuality. She is not
a chaste woman. Madame Sosostres says that she can see and read every card except for
the ‘Hanged man’ that is Jesus Christ, because she does not have the spirituality to show
the card of a pious man. She warns of water. Water is death; people are engrossed in their
worldly affairs and must fear death from water. She asks the narrator to convey her message
to Mrs. Equitone that she would bring the horoscope herself.

Further. ‘Unreal City’ is the reference to London extracted from French poet Baudelaire’s
work The Seven Old Man. London is shrouded with ‘fog’ which exhibits dullness in the
dense society; the tone turns tragic as the crowd does not adhere to the healthy lifestyle. A
complete loss of faith is observed in the modern man due to the destructions of WWI. The
people of London are in perpetual agony- reference rom Dante. ‘Stetson’ is a reference to
Ezra Pound, a simple cowboy hat. ‘Mylae’ refers to war that was between Romans and

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Carthaginians who fought over the usage of Eastern Mediterranean. It echoes with WWI.
Finally, reference to a ‘dog’ that is the greed of the modern society, relating back to the
first Greek gods’ mythology, the greedy god will dig the effigies and seeds, hence no
fertility. If a man behaves like a dog, he would weed out all the positivity from the earth.

In section two, A Game of Chess, this section speaks about the perversion of love.
Repetition of certain structures like motifs, themes, characters is witnessed in this section.
In this section, we see blank verse style, rhyme and variation in metrical structure. Eliot
throws light of the bleakness of relationships they are devoid of sincerity. This section is
too allusive in nature, ‘A game of chess’-title borrowed from Thomas Middleton’s play
‘Women Beware Women’. In it a scene of chess game is seen Bianca is at a place of Duke
with her mother in law. She is in conversation with the Duke and gets seduced by him. On
the other hand, the mother in law is distracted by the game of chess.

This particular scene exhibits sexual perversion and immorality outside the institution of
marriage. The scene draws focus on the women who are victim of their own lust. Eliot is
preoccupied with the dilemma of the modern era. Eliot’s poem hardly has any chaste
women under discussion. He talks about Cleopatra queen of men’s heart. In his luxurious
imagery a vivid picture of a room is painted where a woman is sitting. She is the lady in
position, immoral and unchaste. The ambiance altogether is seductive to attract more
people. As far as the modern woman is concerned, outer embellishments are attractive.
Similarly, Cleopatra had a sense of commitment for her lover Antonio. Women in love
give their honor, even for material purposes. This moral decline criticizes the emergence
of prostitution after the war.

For the aforementioned, reference is drawn from Virgil’s poem Aeneid. Queen of Carthage,
Dido arranged a banquet for Aones there she tried to lure him. Another story is taken from
Ovid’s Metamorphosis. In it King Tereus (married to Procne) goes to etch Philomela,
Procne’s sister. On the way back out of his own lust he rapes her and cuts her tongue.
Philomela still manages to convey the harsh reality to her sister; furious Procne kills one
of the sons of Tereus from another wife, cooks his meat and feeds it to her husband. On the
generosity of gods three of them are transformed into birds and Philomela into a
nightingale-attractive, and beautiful.

According to critics ‘jug jug’ is (noisy) jazz music, people who do not understand her
chastity can also not comprehend her rhythm. He relates this incident to the sexual
perversions of the modern society. The lady in the room, on a noise, gets alert and sets
herself for another guest. Sexual misapplication is recorder at every other incident;
‘savagely ill’ refers to the animalistic instincts of man. The acts of immortality are attached
to the lower self of man. She is seeking solace and wants to have a cathartic effect, but her
lover is ignorant of it. Giving a modern touch, the characters in the poem are able to speak
but are incapable of communication. In the next lines, ‘rat’s alley’ signifies the meaningless
modern man. The spiritually dead society is represented again. Nothingness portrays the
emptiness of their relationships. The stillness in the surroundings is a sign of death, wind
blows which is heard by a woman. Reference to Shakespeare’s The Tempest, the woman

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questions the man that is he alive? People are unheard, decadence hovers over the society,
no taste for the nightingale’s song, hence utter dejection.

The upcoming image is a sexual scene in the institute of marriage. Scene of a restraint, a
café where Lil’s friends are sitting and commenting over domestic issues. Lil’s friend
suggests her to get smart dilemma of a modern woman, she is exhausted for bearing many
children, but she has to please her husband. The man is ignorant of his wife’s health, and
she is only an object to him. Reference to the modern era Lil’s a sign of rebel from the
previous practices; a woman has the right to abort a child. It is a microcosmic picture of a
modern woman. The scene abruptly ends that leaves the readers frustrated too.

The next section three The Fire Sermon, is the continuation of the previous section. Eliot
once again is sheer disbelief regarding the modern society. It is a love less society.
Speaking of modern day sexual life he draws reference from Lord Buddha. A sermon was
given by him with the title The Fire Sermon. In it he asked his believers to refrain from all
the lustful, passionate and sinful deeds. It meant the earthly desires would bring them a
tragic end. The poem begins and ends with the lines from the sermon. From the East Lord
Buddha’s sermon is employed, from West St. Augustine’s sermon Confession is discussed.
It is only through elevation of spirituality that one can seek refuge from the present state
of debase and misery. Eliot promotes religiosity. ‘Typist girl passage, Mr. Eugenides-one
eyed merchant, Mrs. Porter, Thames’ Daughter/Philomela all contribute in the debase,
degeneration of the society as they are immoral and indulged in bodily pleasures.

Structurally, this section is loosely constructed, Eliot applies the collage techniques where
images are followed one after another. He has introduced more references from the past,
musical forms especially Edmund Spencer’s Prothalaimon- a wedding song. Due to this
we have meter, rhythmic structure, in this poem. The poem is not a complete break free
from tradition, thematically it observes things from the past to gather the remains. Moving
forth, Thames’ daughter and Philomela are the victims of lust. Perversion and lust in the
second gender is often discussed. A small interlude is followed in the poem, people of
lower stature are enjoying life (as they’re in Church). A momentarily relief from the waste
land. In the broken images in cooperated; a river side scene where a ‘tent’ is broken
signifies the broken form of shelter, the landscape is polluted. River Thames water is
associated with purity, but it is too toxic. Once again stagnation of relationships is
discussed. Sexual misinterpretation is discussed in the word ‘leman’ which has multiple
interpretation: the people of Israel who were exiled to Babylon they went and lamented
over the loss. Second, the Lake Leman is a French name for Lake Geneva. Last, it is the
water of lust. A remarkable representation of loss of chastity from the society.

The degeneration of society is metaphorically narrated from Andre Marvell’s To His Coy
Mistress. The love here is cold, again reference to Tiresias (narrator) who is fishing in a
dull canal. Dull rusty place, rats collecting the scrapes to eat. Theme of betrayal jumps in
from The Tempest, the king fond of reading is deceived by his brother, connection is to the
mourning of Ferdinand who has lost his father. Tiresias refers to the past that he once
mourned over it. In the past it was deception, and physical death, but now it is spiritual

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death. ‘Gas house’ is symbol of mechanical life, ‘bones’ refer to infertility. Reference from
John Days’ The Parliament of Bees where everyone is engrossed in mechanical occupation,
Smyrna merchant is also associated to this. Other than this, in WWI Mrs. Porter was a
brothel runner for the soldiers, Ms. Sweeny was taken by her for this a sheer criticism on
women who are slaves of their own lust. In the later lines, the word ‘boredom’ is introduced
infused in the modern society. Repeatedly Eliot draws sexual imagery; majority of the
female characters in his poem are victim of lust. Oliver Goldsmith’s The Vicar of Wakefield
the central character gets seduced, yet she continues her routine as if nothing has happened.
Another interlude, people are economically not sound are appreciating life in a Church. An
indication to Queen Elizabeth describes her loveless life, since she did not marry in order
to establish alliances of England, therefore she sacrificed her sexuality. She had once loved
Leicester whom she met on a boat, the boat on the stream that has been polluted by the
modern man. However, the queen gets accused of immortality reference from Dante’s
Canto Five Purgatory. The section ends with the description of the two sermons.

In the next section four Death by Water, Eliot draws connection from Hindu scripture Vaid.
The title is taken from the Vadic ritual. Water in Hinduism is personified as a spiritual
connection. It is a female entity and symbolizes emotions and intuition. In general water
stands for fertility but here it does not. The lines are allusive work of Eliot himself from
the poem In the Restaurant. This section is comparatively shorter than the other sections.
Images are repetitive, fragmentation is there. Phoenician sailor is brought back, he died
and forgot the worldly affairs. He was a man in trade. In the written lines (extracted from
Eliot’s above-mentioned poem) a few lines are uttered by the waiter, at the age of sixteen
a man yearned for sexual pleasure on his way he intertwined with a dog and left. This sailor
too was indulged in the worldly matters, death intervened like the dog. Death is
unstoppable. Man is in a whirlpool of chores reference from St. Paul who preached Gentiles
and condemned materialistic way of life. Eliot here addresses the entire humanity; the
reader has a ‘wheel’ of his fate. He commits actions in the direction of ‘windward’-a
favorable condition. We design and control our own fate. When spirituality is lost the utter
destruction takes place like Phlebas.

In the last section, section five What the Thunder Said, Eliot draws the concept of thunder
from Upanishad the Hindu holy scripture. This section has excessive use of the sound DA.
In Hindu mythology there is a god who had three offspring small gods, demos and men.
They sought wisdom and the god replied DA, on inquiring the three made their own
interpretations. The small gods said to control; demons said to sympathize, and men said
to give. The title thunder is taken from Christianity and Hinduism.

The beginning lines refer to the crucifixion of Jesus Christ. ‘Gethsemane’ is a garden where
Christ went with his followers to offer prayers for resurrection. His followers deceived
him, did not protect him. Later, Christ was arrested. This betrayal led Christ devastated.
‘After’ this he died, this is the death of faith. In Romances, a heroic figure went on a quest
after facing difficulties, King Fisher is the one who went after the Holy Grail. He faces
number of perils. Similarly, Christ during his lifetime face tremendous hardships, but after
death it is serenity. His unfaithful disciples are loathed by others. Homes are not

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comfortable; grasshoppers have eaten crops which has left the dry barren land. ‘Hrmit-
thrush is a reference from Walt Whitman’s elegy When Lilac Last in the dooryard
Bloom’d’ these birds sang in celebration. Now the modern world is wishing to hear this
song. They hope that instead of this grasshopper they could hear the hermit-thrush singing.
Another reference is from Sir Ernest Shackleton. He went on an expedition to Antarctica;
he faced an iceberg and rebuilt his boat. They were three people and one always felt the
presence of the fourth. A similar situation is accounted, the two disciples after Christ’s
crucifixion were going and they did not feel the presence of Christ. St. Luke wrote on them
that these followers were spiritually hollow therefore they did not see Christ.

Since Eliot was highly versed therefore his work is extremely allusive. Brihadaranyaka a
chapter from Upanishad is referred. Eliot sought refuge in religion and asked the people to
find peace in religion, beyond Christianity. He found Christianity ineffective in his region.
He urged to gain spirituality from any possible religion; Eliot highlights the decadence of
the Eastern European in the time of Russian revolution 1917. A sudden shift in imagery is
observed reference to surrealism. Psychology became an integral component, unconscious
fused with the conscious. In this era subjective interpretation became reality as boundaries
got dissolved. The alteration in perception of reality was the crux of the modern era. Eliot
refers to the East (India) for which he received heavy criticism for the spiritual solitude he
painted the imagery of rain in India over the Holy place Himavant that rain with thunder.
A place for spiritual cleanliness.

5.5 Summary
T.S. Eliot is also a product of Modern Era. An influential poet of his times. He was an
expatriate too who wrote on the society and its traumas. His work The Waste Land is work
of his unproductive marriage. Like the fragmented life it is too in fragments. A common
issue of modern man’s dilemma is discussed with multiple references from the literatures
he received from around the world.

5.6 Self-Assessment Questions

1. How does T.S. Eliot promote religiosity despite being a Modern Poet?
2. What is the basic idea of the poem The Waste land?
3. How does Eliot employ the destructive imagery in his writing?
4. How is modern man different from his predecessors?
5. How does Eliot connect modern to the traditional?

5.7 Suggested Readings

Eliot, T.S. (1922). The Waste Land

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UNIT-6

E.E. CUMMINGS AND ROBERT FROST

Written by: Dr. Lubna Umar

Reviewed by: Dr. Malik Ajmal Gulzar

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 CONTENTS

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 51
Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 51
6.1 E.E. Cummings .................................................................................................... 52
6.2 Robert Frost ......................................................................................................... 52
6.3 Style ................................................................................................................ 53
6.4 Themes ................................................................................................................ 54
6.5 Major Works ........................................................................................................ 54
6.6 Summary .............................................................................................................. 58
6.7 Self-Assessment Questions .................................................................................. 58
6.8 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................. 58

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Introduction
This particular unit comprises of two modern American poets E.E. Cummings and Robert
Frost. The most cherished poets of their times. Together a combined idea of versatility will
be presented before the students. Cummings was a conventional modern poet while Frost
was a Modern-Romantic poet.

Objectives
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Read about the varied style of two modern poets E.E. Cummings and Robert Frost
2. Provide an insight to Cummings’ eccentric free verse style
3. Learn about Modern-Romantic poet by reading Frost
4. Understand the relation of their writings to their lives

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6.1 E.E. Cummings
Edward Estlin Cummings also known as E.E. Cummings was born in 1894 in
Massachusetts, United States. He is one of the most celebrated poets of the US. He
belonged to a well-known family. His father was a professor at Harvard, who later became
the Unitarian Minister of Boston. His mother a home maker paid extra attention to her
children and appreciated their creativity either literature or drawing. As a child Cummings
had developed love for literature and composed poems until his adolescence. His life’s
major portion was spent in the company of philosophers.

Cummings like Eliot and Pound too went to Harvard University for Bachelor in Arts and also
for his Master in Arts in 1915. He graduated with a prestigious award of Harvard University.
During his years at Harvard he developed love for unconventional style of poetry that was
devoid of traditional grammatical and poetical rules; modern poetry. In 1917, during the
ongoing war (WWI) time he was sent to the ambulance corps. On his en-route to France he met
William Slater Brown (author). The two in the deferment of their duties established their
relationship and explored Paris. In the war tenure the two emerging writers wrote letters to
home and expressed their grief and dislike for the war. Their letters got intercepted by the
French militia. On this account they spent quite some time in military detention camp. In 1918
returning back to US Cummings joined army for almost eleven months.

Later in 1921, similar to Eliot and Pound, Cummings to went back to Paris. He adored Paris
during his visit in the war times. As far as his publication is concerned Cummings recounted
the detention events in his novel The Enormous Room in 1922. In 1923 he published his work
Tulips and Chimneys; the first book with evident altered syntax and grammar. The publication
being a after edition were published in XLI Poems, with this enormous experimentation
Cummings qualified as an avant-garde poet. Cummings travelled back and forth to Paris and
US; meanwhile he also visited Russia (then Soviet Union) whose experience he has narrated in
his novel Eimi. In 1926, Cummings family faced an accident which left their family into two
members only. The author under discussion recounted those events in various forms; in his six
nonlectures series he delivered at Harvard (1952-1953), he describes the car crash. Likewise,
he paid tribute to his late father in his poetry my father moved through dooms of love. It was
then Cummings shifted his poetic style towards life. Additionally, he married twice but briefly.
Nonetheless, he had a long affair recorded with Marion Morehouse who was a sex worker,
photographer and a fashion model. It was within these relation years when Cummings produced
most of his erotic poetry. Cummings last years were spent in excursions, leisure time at his
summer home and delivering lectures. He breathed his last at the age of sixty-seven due to
cardiac arrest in 1962. He is the second most celebrated poet after Robert Frost.

6.2 Robert Frost

Robert Frost was born in 1874 San Francisco, America. He belonged to a family of
immigrants who sailed to New England in 1634. Frost’s father b profession was teacher
and city tax collector. His mother however, after the death of her husband joined The New

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Church in Lawrence, Massachusetts. Frost received his early education from a local school
in Lawrence under the guardianship of his grandfather. Despite living in the urban vicinity
Frost was more inclined towards the rural life. He first wrote his poems at the school level
which got published in the school magazine. For a living, Frost did multiple odd jobs which
he disliked and found solace in poetry.

With his life progressing Frost sold his first poem for fifteen dollars to New York
Independent in 1894 titled My Butterfly. An Elegy. The following year he married his
beloved. After marriage in 1895, Frost went to Harvard University in 1897 until 1899 for
graduation, which he could not complete due to illness. Yet, the alumni data of Harvard
University reveals that Frost was awarded with nearly forty honorary degrees throughout
his life.

In the next nine years of his life, Frost tended farms gifted b his grandfather. Meanwhile
he also wrote poems which were later hit. However, in 1906 he pursued his literary career
by becoming an English teacher in a secondary school of New Hampshire until 1911 he
continued this teaching journey. After travelling to Great Britain in 1912, Frost published
his two poetic collections: A Boy's Will in 1913 and North of Boston a collection of
seventeen poems in 1914. During this time period Frost developed association with the
prominent authors such as Ezra Pound, who critically acclaimed his work.

In 1915 during the WWI period, Frost returned to US. Since then for the most part of his
life he spent in the education sector; he delivered lectures, taught and wrote poems. His
teaching career was associated with multiple institutes of US. His books Collected
Poems in 1931, New Hampshire: A Poem with Notes and Grace Notes, A Witness Tree in
1943 and A Further Range in 1937 made him won Pulitzer Prizes.

Robert Frost’s personal life was a heap of melancholic events. He lost his father at an early
age which left emotionally and financially broken. He had to strive for earning. Later,
genetically inherited mental illness took away his sister. Out of six children only two
survived, the rest lost their lives to multiple diseases, including depression. Frost himself
died in 1963 by post operation complications.

6.3 Style
E.E. Cummings has scribbled more than a dozen lyrical verses, but none of them follows
the standard patterns of writing. He deliberately played with the writing style; his free verse
style was idiosyncratic in nature, devoid of grammatical rules. He often used verbs in the
place of nouns, and never used capitalization of letters especially for the pronoun I; (unlike
Dickinson who used excessive capital letters to create an impact). His poetry also was free
of punctuations, he believed it gives a shock a sudden moment to ponder.

Cummings was a practitioner of avant-garde style- a modernist style of artistic

composition. It includes culture, literature, art etc. it was an unorthodox method of
composition. Albeit his poems appear in a sonnet form, but with a twist of modernism.

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During his early years in England he got familiar with the imagiste movement under the
influence of Ezra Pound and Amy Lowell. His work does project the work imagism.
Moreover, in his trip to Paris he got the exposure of Surrealism and Dadaism.

a) Dadaism
Dadaism or Dada was a 20th century artistic movement in the reaction of the First World
War. It is an off shoot of avant-garde, its followers rejected logical thinking and reasoning,
condemned capitalism, and bourgeoisie. Artists, and writers (primarily) revolted against
atrocities of war and expressed their pacifism and anger through this particular movement.
The movement spanned until the mid of 1920s.

b) Surrealism
Surrealism was initiated under the influence of Dadaism in Europe, again as a reaction to
WWI. The movement was a cultural based movement which juxtaposed reality with
imagination, or unconscious to the real. It was the abandon of logical reasoning. Artists
and writers sketched illogical topography, images from a variety of everyday objects that
resulted in the projection of their unconscious mind.

Robert Frost’s style is contrastingly different from Cummings. Unlike Cummings he

practiced rhymed verse or like Eliot blank verse. Though both the poets (under discussion)
talk about man and his life in general, but Frost’s take on poetry is more traditional. His
rustic experiences incorporate a lot in hi poetry. His writing style is often claimed as ‘on
the crossroads of 19th and 20th century’. Frost being a great American poet introduced the
concept of dramatic monologue in his poetry. His characters are found speaking their hearts
out. For further assistance, he draws imagery from Nature, a traditional Romantic poet style
that qualifies him as a Modern Romantic Poet. Like, Dickinson he frequently sketches dark
imagery of Nature.

6.4 Themes
Both the poets E.E. Cummings and Robert Frost share a similar platform of themes. The
two poets’ poetic themes resonate with the idea of transcendentalism and existentialism.
They talk about man, Nature, life, existence of being (mortality) and love, but in their own
subtle poetic fashion. Cummings are ideas are more commenting on the facts of life. Frost’s
style is merely gloomy in the relation to man and his life.

6.5 Major works

a) E.E. Cummings
i) Anyone Lived in a Pretty How Town
This poem is a sheer attack on the modern man, his way of living life and his loss of
identity. In his signature style Cummings has referred man as ‘any’ to refer entire mankind
unanimously. The man ‘any’ is a resident of a quaint, beautiful village or a town that is
referred as ‘how’. How is the town that is any place anywhere? The poem does have rhyme

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scheme but lower-case letters, verbs as nouns, images drawn from Nature. The seasonal
imagery refers to the passing of time; days, years, seasons etc. Man, in general is deeply
engrossed in the mundane, trivial routine of life that he has lost the true essence of life.
Towns are occupied with people, they are interconnected too, and yet one neighbor is
ignorant of the other, referred by the word ‘sowed’.

Cummings comments on life and death, a person has died in the town, but it goes unnoticed,
there is no one to ‘kiss his face’. Love relationship is described as ‘no one’ loved ‘anyone’;
someone is married to anyone. In the crux it means that people of a common town lived a
common life, nothing extraordinary is mentioned about the place or the individual. But the
common man in the fast-paced life has forgotten his neighbor; anyone who’s next to him
is invisible to him. Similarly, the seed of negativity that they have implanted is reaping and
growing in their offspring’s minds. Autumn, winter, spring, and summer come and go but
as the children are growing, they are indulging into forgetfulness. ‘No one’ was someone’s
love, at the time he too died, people didn’t stop their lives, and he also got buried next to
‘anyone’.

Generally, modern folk live their lives on their own terms, their life is swiftly passing by,
and they are significantly more indulged into modern day practices than the man before.
They are carrying out their daily chores; sun, moon are coming and passing by; life is
growing so are the little children. In their young age they were in oblivion and believed
that they will be loved ‘more and more’ by their elders, but they were unaware of the
abhorring lifestyle. Due to their naivety they trusted in their adults. Nevertheless, the young
minds are nurtured with this ignorant lifestyle now. Cummings also commented on the
uniqueness of individuals, how different people with their varied characteristics design a
town. Yet no such thing is witnessed in this particular region.

Lastly, his poem is a work of criticism on the modern man, with a traditional lyrical
approach Cummings has crafted an innovative poem in style; new grammar, simple
lexicology with a varied use of meanings, his own sense of punctuations, etc.

ii) Pity this Busy Monster, Manunkind’

Cummings this particular poem is unique in its own sense since it applies scientific jargons,
which were entirely new in the 20th century literature. ‘pity this busy monster’ is an acute
analysis of the modern man. He is referred as the ‘busy monster’; the modern life has kept
a common (modern man) busy. In the poem he appreciates science but criticizes on its
excessive usage; once again poet’s attempt to highlight the negativity of the modern life.

The fifteen lined poem is divorced from stanza division, the anonymous speaker looks like
the poet himself comments on progress. In his unusual style the punctuation is placed at
his own preferred spots, similarly capitalization is done where emphasis is laid. The word
‘Progress’ denotes the theme of the poem, ‘progress is a comfortable disease’; progress is
a beneficial thing, but man has extremely adopted it that has made ‘manunkind’-a word
coined by Cummings himself. Life is revolving around scientific findings and as a reason

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man has distant himself from nature; ‘stars, trees’. etc. He is not against science, but he is
criticizing the novel practice if altering nature and adhering to it.

‘A world of made
is not a world of born – pity poor flesh’

Here in these lines, Cummings is explaining that the world that is man-made is not actually
the world of God; it is not the world that was created for humanity. But the man has
separated the true elements of life, of nature and has equipped himself with science that
has molded these elements. In the line ‘pity poor flesh’ Cummings is expressing his grief
and sorrow over such a massive loss.

b) Robert Frost
i) After Apple-Picking
After Apple Picking by Frost is one of his poems with extended metaphor. In the entire
poem the word Apples stands significant. This could be a Biblical reference to Apple of
Eden or the Golden apple of Norse that can be picked by the Goddess Idun, for eternal life
and beauty. The narrator of the poem is standing on a ‘ladder’ pointing ‘towards heaven’;
he is tired of apple picking and is drowsy with sleep. The setting of the poem illustrates a
winter setting, where a window pane’s sheath if frosted. In a two-way meaning, it is the
winter season and a man is picking apples so he can store, the rotten ones can be saved for
apple cider. On a metaphorical note the poem stands on the theme of life and death; picking
up apples can be meant as perpetual chore of life that is life went on and he has nearly
accomplished every task except for a few that is denoted by;
there may be two or three
Apples I didn't pick upon some bough

He has left few tasks undone, because he is tired now of apple picking; sleepiness has
blurred his mind, as he lay bended on the ladder rung. The ladder metaphorically represents
the transitory state of life and death. He hangs in between life and death, yet he is sleepy-
it could be a long sleep of death, or since it is the winter season things are partially dead, a
long sleep means hibernation, cutoff from reality and life. As the ‘essence of winter’ breeze
is blowing it his making him more tired and dreamy. The barrel next to him is filled with
apples. It could be interpreted as tasks or his deeds that he has accumulated over time, and
the drowsiness he is feeling could be the tiredness from life.

The speaker is in complete lethargic state he picks up a snow sheet and examines the grass
through it which blurs his vision; this could be his hallucinated vision of the world. In the
meantime, before he could regain his senses, and recollect his memory he the sheet of ice
fells from his hand. The dreamy speaker’s slumber shatters; he was about to explain what
dream he had or what dreams he could have. ‘Magnified apples appear and disappear’- in
his sleepy state of mind he can differentiate in the size of the apple, even at far distance.
His eyes are not supporting him, he is extremely exhausted neither can he sharply see, nor
is the ladder supporting his balance. He diverts the readers toward the onomatopoeia of the
apples ‘rumbling sound’ made by the apples in the barrel. He has so keenly picked up the

56
apple that he can process the sound in his head; he’s very careful that no apple should go
wasted. In the concluding lines the poet or the narrator is tired for the day, he is thinking
about his sleep, what kind of sleep it would be, a long undisrupted sleep one with dreams
or a one in portions. The poet has given a picturesque description of apple picking. Since
he has spent most of his life in tending farms therefore his works are fairly close to Nature.

ii) Mending Walls

Mending Walls is a poem of the countryside poet who gives a rustic version to it. It was a
practice among farmers to mend walls during the spring season to demark each farmer’s
land. However, the poem is a commentary on the building of wall. The speaker of the poem
is not in the favor of wall construction, while the neighbor encourages it, ‘Good fences
make good neighbors.’ and quietly the two mend the broken wall.

The poetic analysis gives an insight into the complex human mind. By nature, one does not
have any boundary, nor does he need yet the physical complexities allow one. The poet
believes that each winter the ball is fragmented, either by hunters in search of ‘rabbits’ to
feed their dogs, or by natural calamities, or seasonal changes. But it is the human nature
that the wall has to be mended again (each spring). The two neighbors walk along the
broken wall to fetch the broken haphazard pieces. Quietly they start picking them up and
mend the wall. It is the rough exercise which injures their hands. The poet calls it an
‘outdoor game’.

Further, the poet is inquisitive of its purpose, but the neighbor approvingly keeps the act
going. He points out that he has an apple tree and his neighbor has pineapple tree, the two
starkly different trees cannot intermingle; due to the wall his apple tress is also not allowed
to cross the border.

Similarly, he asks his neighbor is there any cows that can cross the fences, but the answer
is there are no cows that can cross. However, the neighbor is stubborn and mends the wall.
The wall does not only stand for a physical wall it is also a psychological barrier in the
human mind which once created cannot be sabotaged. This can be taken as a criticism on
the modern human who has devised this concept of wall construction. To him, even the
animals’ underground question this act of stupidity. Nonetheless, the final comments
suggest that walls also keep good relationships, we can either have a wall or no wall, but
hearts must not be distanced.

Frost’s work remotely coincides with the Romantic work. His poetry is celebrated across
the globe, yet he is not a pure Modern poet, his imagery, and rustic explanations are unlike
Modern poets. So is his writing style.

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6.6 Summary
• The chapter deals with two Modern poets E.E. Cummings and Robert Frost who
somewhat had similar content of writing but different styles
• Cummings had an entirely new style of writing which lacked cohesion, repeated
sounds, verbs used as nouns, punctuations at odd positions, usage of scientific
jargons, etc.
• Frost was recognized as a Modern Romantic Poet due to his excessive usage of
natural topography
• In this chapter we have also come across avant-garde, Dadaism, and surrealism from
which Cummings was inspired
• The two major works of each poet has been excessively discussed

6.7 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What similarities do the two poets have from their predecessors?
2. How does the work of the two authors coincide with their lives?
3. What is surrealism and Dadaism?
4. How does Robert Frost qualify as a Modern poet?
5. How do the two poets’ comment on the theme of life in their poetry?

6.8 Suggested Readings

Cummings, E.E. (1940). anyone lived in a pretty how town
Cummings, E.E. (1944). pity the busy monster, manunkind
Frost, R. (1914) After Apple Picking
Frost, R. (1914) Mending Walls

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UNIT-7

RUDYARD KIPLING AND W.B. YEATS

Written by: Dr. Lubna Umar

Reviewed by: Dr. Malik Ajmal Gulzar

59
 CONTENTS

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 61
Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 61
7.1 Rudyard Kipling .................................................................................................. 62
7.2 (William Butler Yeats) W.B. Yeats ..................................................................... 63
7.3 Style ................................................................................................................ 65
7.4 Themes ................................................................................................................ 65
7.5 Major Works ........................................................................................................ 66
7.6 Summary .............................................................................................................. 69
7.7 Self-Assessment Questions .................................................................................. 69
7.8 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................. 69

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Introduction
This particular unit will discuss Rudyard Kipling and W.B. Yeats as the 20th century poets
with varied approaches towards poetry. With the progression of modernism new poets
influenced or nor influenced by the previous poets emerged. Their style of writing differed
from the classical poets as well as from their predecessors. Emerging authors adhered more
to their nationalities and reflected it in their writings. Rudyard Kipling was an Anglo-Indian
and wrote mostly about his Indian experiences, including imperialism. On the other hand,
Yeats was an Irish national, who predominantly talked about Irish folklore, fascism,
mysticism and occultism. (Yeats was favorably influenced by Ezra Pound).

These two poets will provide an insight into the other version of modern poetry, as
compared to the previous discussed poets.

Objectives
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Insight into two new poets of the 20th century who belong to different nationalities
2. Understand their writing styles
3. Understand how they differ from their predecessors
4. Explore the similarities between the two poets
5. Identify the subliminal political approaches in their writings

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7.1 Rudyard Kipling
Joseph Rudyard Kipling the English journalist, essayist, poet, novelist, and a short story
writer was born in Bombay, India to Alice and John Lockwood Kipling in 1865. Kipling’s
father was the principal of Jeejebhoy School of Art; an artist and architect himself he was
also the professor of an Architecture College. In 1865 the same year he was born his family
moved to India from England, therefore they called themselves Anglo-Indian. Raised in
the hands of Indian nannies, Kipling familiarized himself with the Indian oral children’s
literature. On the other hand, Kipling spent most of his life in travelling to Great Britain,
South Africa and United States; this complex issue of code switching Indian and English
created identity crises in the works of the author.

At the early age the Kipling parents sent their children to Great Britain boarding house to
receive their early education. In the time span they switched two boarding houses. Kipling
recalls his experience as horrid, as he was often verbally bullied on multiple issues
including religion and science. Kipling’s return to England was a momentarily relief. In
1878 he was admitted to Cadet College. The rough start at the college led him to develop
firm friendships, out of which one is narrated in his 1899 short story Stalky & Co.
Meanwhile, at his sister’s boarding house he met his short-lived love life Florence Garrard
who is the central figure in his short story (1891) The Light that Failed.

For six years 1883 to 1889 Kipling worked as an Editor of the newspaper Civil and Military
Gazette, published in Lahore, British India. In his longtime service he availed the
opportunity to publish his creative works. In between 1886 and 1887 a large score of stories
were published in the Lahore based magazine authored by Rudyard Kipling. It was a trend
back then to visit British India’s summer capital Shimla (Simla) during the summer period.
The Kipling family too (1885-1888) had this habit of resting there for a long span of time.
It had a huge impact on the writings of Kipling which is dominant in his stories that he
published in Gazette.

Kipling later joined The Pioneer a sister newspaper of Gazette. In his adolescence the
author produced his literary scholarship at a rapid pace. His six short story collections were
published in 1888 titled: The Story of the Gadsbys, Soldiers Three, In Black and White,
The Phantom Rickshaw, Under the Deodars, and Wee Willie Winkie. Since Kipling’s major
area was prose writing therefore his contributions to short stories are extensive. Like Ezra
Pound he too served as the special correspondent of Rajputana (a political state of India).
During his tenure at The Pioneer he worked on his sketches, printed them in them in the
same newspaper and were later added into the collection of Letters of Marque, published
in From Sea to Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel. After the end as the
correspondent in 1889 he sold the rights of his six collections for a good amount and
departed for London for a fresh beginning. After s grand tour he settled in London and
published several of his writings. His collection of short stories, a novel The Light That
Failed, coauthored an Indian based novel Naulakha with Wolcott Balestier. Life’s
Handicapped based on British India was published in 1891 in London. In 1892 he got
married to Balestier’s sister amidst the influenza pandemic. Together they moved to

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America and lived for several years in a self-constructed house named Naulakha after
Kipling’s coauthored novel. There they welcomed their two daughters. It was there then
when he composed the master of children’s literature The Jungle Book (1894). It was in
1892 when Kipling firstly produced his poetic verses Barrack-Room Ballads which
includes his well-read poems Mandalay and Gunga Din.

In 1896 after the Anglo-American Crises, due to felt hatred as a British, the Kiplings left
US and moved to (Devon) England. During the course of time Kipling was a well-
established author. Nor just he produced controversial poetry he also started making
political pronouncements. His poems Recessional (1897) and White Man’s Burden (1899)
both were debated due to their imperialistic approach. Before moving to Sussex Kipling
was successful in publishing Just So Stories another work of children’s literature, they were
meant to be the stories for his children. The collection has some famous tales: The Sing-
Song of Old Man Kangaroo, How the Camel Got His Hump, The Elephant’s Child, etc.
With picturesque description and vocabulary Kipling’s last children’ works were Puck of
Poof’s Hill and Rewards and Fairies. As claimed in his posthumously published
autobiography Something of Myself for My Friends Known and Unknown was inspired
from a construction experience in England.

Furthermore, due to his active participation in the Boer’s War, South Africa Kipling started
to lose his audience. Similarly, his contribution in the WWI was pro-Belgium; he defended
UK in the war and wrote anti-German views. His political views were not digested by
people. It was in the war that he lost his son who was pronounced dead after the search of
two years. His political ideologies were also condemned over the fact that he refused to
accept awards from his own country and accepted all the foreign awards and titles. In 1930
Kipling died due to hemorrhage in his intestine. His body was cremated and buried in the
Poet’s Corner, London.

7.2 (William Butler Yeats) W.B. Yeats

W.B. Yeats was born in 1865 in Ireland to Irish parents. He is referred as Anglo-Irish poet
of the 20th century. Yeats hailed from a sound Protestant family; at the time when
Protestants were not dominating the Irish land. In his early years he witnessed home rule
movement a brief nationalist movement that has a profound effect on his poetry. Similarly,
he also a founder of Irish Literary Movement that revived on Irish literature with the
emerging Irish authors. This led to the establishment of Irish theatre, the Abbey Theatre.

In 1877 he attended a local school for the four years. Yeats was an average student who
aced in Latin and had passion for science subjects. In 1881 the family moved to Dublin;
Yeats received his high school education graduation degree from Dublin. It was then in
1855 when his first poem got published in Dublin University Review. It was then when he
got admitted to Dublin Hermetic Order. Later, in 1890 Yeats paved his way into Hermetic
Order of the Golden Dawn. Altogether this experience severely affected his literary career.

Yeats began his poetic career as a teenager; his works were heavily influenced by Percy
Bysche Shelley and Edmund spencer. The Island of Statues is one such fantastic work of

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Yeats that stand on the model of Shelley and Spencer. He also wrote about German knights,
but later he turned to Irish folklore and mythologies, including literature of Oscar Wilde
and William Blake. Yeats wrote few plays too that are readily influenced by Wilde’s work.
A few of them are: Deirdre (1907), The King of the Great Clock Tower (1934) On Baile’s
Strand (1904), and The Player Queen.

After his return to London, Yeats joined a secret society Hermetic Order of the Golden
Dawn. Together with Earnest Rhys he also cofounded a poetry club; a poetic salon where
poets recited their poems and published anthologies. Yeats himself two anthologies in 1892
and 1894 respectively. His indulgence in the secret society nurtured his interest in occult:
mysticism and spiritualism. (To draw a comparison Kipling too was a member of the
Freemason Society.) As a result of Yeats’ growing interest in the supernatural he sought
membership in a paranormal club. This stemmed later into his poetic works: The Countess
Kathleen.

The Wanderings of Oisin and Other Poems (1889) is another collection of the poet which
is heavily influenced by Irish mythologies. It is the longest lyrical work of Yeats that took
almost two years to complete. The theme is the contemplation on life and actions. Yeats’
other lyrical collections: Poems (1895), The Secret Rose (1897), and The Wind Among the
Reeds (1899) are based on the themes of mysticism. Albeit he was conversing about
mysticism, Yeats deepened his roots into occultism. He was greatly influenced by Mohini
Chatterjee (a Hindu) he himself was a Brahmin, conversed about Hinduism and
Christianity, later he adapted Theosophy. Yeats attended his lectures and engrossed in
Theosophy, and hermeticism; his regular visits to the Golden Dawn organization drove him
to the offshoots of occultism. During these sessions, he met Maud Gonne, whom he
proposed thrice in three consecutive years; however, she declined his requests until she
married a journalist. As a result of utter shock and dismay, Yeats wrote poetry that ridiculed
her husband. Following onwards, the marriage turned into a disaster, the two former love
birds rekindled their love, (thought Gonne was granted only separation from her husband).
Years later, the two physically apart communicated via letters, which were more from
Gonne to Yeats. It was years later that Yeats recalled his experience with her in his poetry
A Man Young and Old.

Yeats in 1896 with Lady Gregory launched the movement to revive the Irish literature in
late 19th and early 20th century. He supported the emerging Irish authors. Resultantly,
Abbey Theatre also known as National Theatre of Ireland influenced by French symbolism,
or avant-garde emerged. With the plays being acted out in the theatre Yeats focused back
on poetry. During his acquaintance with Lady Gregory he wrote the preface of two Irish
mythological books authored by her; Cuchulain of Muirthemne (1902), and Gods and
Fighting Men (1904). Additionally, Yeats literary rendezvous were often held at the natural
reserve, the Coole Park. It was the home to Lady Gregory and affected his poetic
contribution The Wild Swans at Coole (1917).

In 1916 as a result of Irish’s struggling against the Britain rule, he composed a poem Easter
1916 which highlights the emotionally torn part of the poet, though his attitude towards the

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Roman Catholic (Easter Rising) leaders was snobbish. After the member of Irish Free State
and Irish Republican Brotherhood (earlier life) Yeats tried to refrain from the intensifying
political stress, including Easter Rising. However, he hailed authoritarianism and was an
elitist. He wrote numerous songs for the Army Comrades in the Irish Free State.

Moving forth, in 1916 Yeats at the age of fifty-one eagerly thought on getting married. He
proposed a girl half of his age, and they married. Though h claimed it was not a hearty
marriage he had two daughters and he continued romancing with other women. With his
political tenure and fascist approach, he witnessed the ups and downs of the world. At the
age of seventy-three in 1939 Yeasts passed away.

7.3 Style
Rudyard Kipling’s style of writing was a work of creative power. He generally wrote in an
imaginative style, while drawing references from nature, from his past experiences that
includes places he visited, politics and the stories he heard as a child. This makes his style
autobiographical in nature. Few common traits in his poetic scholarships are hyperbole,
imagery, and repetition.

W. B. Yeats writing style was starkly different from Kipling’s style, and followed a pet
style of the Modern poets. He was influenced by French Symbolist movement hence he
was Symbolist. Symbolism is the employment of facts, truth to explain through
metaphorical means. With the inspiration from Ezra Pound, he too in cooperated imagism
in his poetry. His poetic works are abandoned from traditional poetic style but adhere to
strict poetic lexicology.

7.4 Themes
Rudyard Kipling’s thematic approach was humanistic in nature. He preferred to talk about
human experiences, and human narratives. His work was a major part of his life and his
indirect narrative approach explained the English readers the stories of India. This gave his
literature the imperialistic touch. Though he was in favor of humanity, yet he spoke about
the greatness and superiority of Britain and considered it their prime responsibility to
educate the underdeveloped countries. This qualified him as an imperialist, racist and
elitist. His pen-ship during war time is the ode to the soldiers and the brave men of the
country.

W.B. Yeats being an Irish national in his early poetry mostly talked about the exoticism of
the Irish lands. With age progressing, he abandoned Christianity and adopted occultism,
diffused with mysticism and theosophy. With the amalgamation of them he commented on
humanity. He also discussed themes of love, atrocity, politics etc. in his poems. He can be
referred as a poet who transited from Romanticism to Modernism.

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7.5 Major Works
a) Rudyard Kipling

i. Mandalay
Kipling’s poem Mandalay as significant from the name is titled after the capital of Burma.
It is an allusion of Kipling’s travel experience during his adolescence years, where he was
overwhelmed by the beauty of Burmese women. The poem narrates the story of a soldier
who is on his way to London from Burma. Apparently, the poem highlights a tale of
romance; the soldier kindled a love affair with a woman for whom he is nostalgic. Under
the theme of romance is the hidden colonial pursuit. The travelogue poem is structurally
divided into six stanzas; it is heavily induced with enjambment, rhyme scheme constructed
in a dialectal pattern. Contemplating on his ‘Moulmein Pagoda’ endearing experience
Kipling’s written language indicates that the soldier is from Eastern London.

In the next two stanzas, the soldier extends the narration of the Burmese woman. In his
Cockney accent he describes her attire, how attractive she appeared to him. Drawing to the
natural imagery when the sun rises, out in the ‘rice-fields’ she would be singing song with
her banjo. With his yearning of reconciliation with his lady love, the solider explains to the
reader that anything you desire is available in the ‘East’; ‘On the Road to Mandalay…’
with ellipses refers to the continuous experience of Mandalay.

The fifth stanza refers to his English experience which the speaker detests. He is stuck in
‘English drizzle’ (it rains a lot in England), the English rain leaves the atmosphere
depressed and gloomy. He says that he is accompanied by ‘ousemaids’ on his route to
Strands, yet they do not comprehend the meaning of ‘love and passion’. The tone of the
specific stanza is intense. Drawing to the last stanza, it’s like a far cry of the soldier/narrator
who is desperate to go back to Mandalay, as in the last stanza it is repeatedly mentioned.
He wants to sail back to the ‘east of Suez’ where freedom prevails, divorced from the
practice of ‘Ten Commandments’. He wishes to lazily lie with his beloved on the
‘Moulmein Pagoda’ where he would look at the sea. The final imagery sketches a peaceful
image of the East. Though the poem also covertly talks about the colonial experience; it
could be the desire of the English men to visit and capture the East, Burma where
colonization can cherish on accounts of primitivism.

ii. The White Man’s Burden

Kipling’s The White Man’s Burden is significantly talking about imperialism, and the act
of colonization. The poem was written in 1897 on the celebration of Queen Victoria’s
completion of fifty years, however two years later it became a political discourse to exhort
the American government to annex Philippine. The poem became a major course of
discussion and was considered the fact of colonization. The poem begins with the poet
addressing a group of unseen whites, he instills the idea in them that is their duty to civilize
the underdeveloped countries by the virtue of their (White) color- ‘best ye breed’. The best
white men will invade a primitive land that is inhabited by uncivilized men, who will be
shepherded by the whites. These men are ‘half devil and ‘half child. The very tone of the

66
poem is extremely disrespectful; he addresses the people as partially developed, who are
devoid of basic ethics of life.

He further claims that whiteness is a gift and whites should feel pride in it. They hold an
upper hand over non-whites; hence it is their duty to educate them. They have to strengthen
themselves with patience and honor. To address the non-whites, they must acquire plain
and honest language to embody their fairness; this is for the betterment of the invaded. In
the next few lines, the speaker addresses the assumed whites that they have to maintain
peace on the ruled lands, since the locals are foolish people and would indulge into cruel
wars. It is the sheer duty of the whites to provide with food in the hours of famine, and to
cure the non-whites from diseases. It is attributed to the colonizers that they will govern
better than any other monarch. It is their imperialistic duty to benefit the locals. Whatsoever
is constructed by the colonizers will later be used by them, it is not beneficial to the whites
but to the colored. They are further impelled that in the battle fields whites will be the one
sacrificing their lives for these colonized lands and their edifices.

Every other next line of the poem begins with ‘take up the White Man’s Burden’ as a
constant hammering to compel the whites to take up their imperial responsibility. He also
warns them that despite of their struggles to enlighten the non-whites, they will be
condemned and blamed. The locals will attempt to retreat to their ‘Egyptian’ life of
darkness. This particular line not only mocks the non-whites but specifically Egyptians and
their lifestyle. Towards the final lines, the poet provokes the audience that they may decline
their imperialistic duty in the name of freedom, either from their duty or freedom of the
non-whites. But the non-whites may judge them for their cowardice and turn skeptical
about their religion and other personal beliefs. ‘Have done with childish days-‘ refers to
the statement made by the speaker as he is fueling the audience with his dutiful speech;
take up the burden to impart knowledge in the non-whites, it is an act of enormous effort
but one should depart from the childish days and act like and adult. Perform the duties so
that he can be referred as an adult with honest and responsible qualities.

This specific poem can be taken as the shift to colonialism in the 20th century poetic style.
Poets before Kipling talked about life, and its struggles after WWI. However, this direct
hit on racism, imperialism and colonization stands new to the readers of the particular time
which is an utter representation of the poet’s political mind.

b. W.B. Yeats

i. The Second Coming

W.B. Yeats most renowned work of the 20th century is the apocalyptic poem is The Second
Coming. It is based on the Christian belief of Second Coming; written after WWI. The
poem is the creation of several traumatic events experienced by Yeats: Eastern Rising,
Russian Revolution, Irish Independence and WW1. The poem inaugurates with a natural
imagery, ‘the falcon cannot hear the falconer’; falcon a sign of wisdom, sharp vision
hunting animal is unable to hear its trainers’ calls. Their smartness is reflected in their
response to their trainers’ sound signals. But in this case the set pattern of the universe has

67
been disturbed, the dutiful birds are not responding to their owners. Yeats attempts to draw
the connection with the existing world; ‘things fall apart, the center cannot hold’- is the
description of the destroyed world that is left after the wars. The idea of massacre are
wrapped up in the lexicology of the poet, ‘anarchy is loosed, upon the world’; the world is
at the verge of annihilation, humanity is shrouded in blood. Historically speaking the world
is no longer in the epicenter, the wars have turned it upside down.

Albeit distancing himself from Christianity, Yeats in the second paragraph talks about the
Christian belief of the second coming ‘The Second Coming is at hand’, he sketches the
images of ‘Spiritus Mundi’ a joint spirit of mankind. There he describes a beast who is a
sphinx which is half lion and half human is the new messiah of humanity. ‘Somewhere in
the sands of the desert’ a beast is emerging ‘A gaze blank and pitiless as the sun’- the beast
is not yet born, it is ‘slouching’ and crawling towards people. Darkness has spread across
the land; the beast is making its way towards ‘Bethlehem’.

Analytically speaking, Yeats presents the concept of a ‘gyre’ two cones weaved into each
other like Ying and Yang. The narrow end of the spiral connects with the wider end of
another spiral. Basically, it is the connection of two ideas; firstly, the mayhem of wars and
loss of hope, secondly the arrival of the Anti-Christ who is prophesized to appear and save
humanity. Historically, the two stanzas simpler poem is the reflection of Yeats’ own
approach towards mysticism and occultism.

ii. The Stolen Child

The poem is based on the theme of childhood innocence and the reality of the adult life.
The poem opens with a natural imagery the leafy island is inhabited by fairies, Herons are
flapping their wings to wake the sleepy rats from their deep slumber, and the exotic land is
full of berries. A ‘faery’ comes and lures a child to the lake side of Sleuth Wood. It is a
description of escapist attitude, the fairy is introducing the child to land of peace and
serenity because the world he lives in is impure, chaotic and mundane.

The next stanza is the extension of the first, the fantastical imagery explains the fairy land
where ‘moonlight’ is the source of light and its luminous quality sparkles the grey sand.
The nocturnal imagery expresses the romantic view of the fairy land; fairies dance at night,
hand in hand, chasing the ‘bubbles’ when the child’s anxious world sleeps at night; even
in their sleep they are not at peace. The fairy narrates this mesmerizing experience to the
child and asks him to join them as he is unaware of the toxic world, he lives in.

‘Come away, O human child!’ is repeatedly used in the entire poem in order to lay emphasis
on leaving this troubled world towards the realm of peace. The fairy speaker once again
describes how they whisper dreams in fish’s ears in the waters from ‘Glen-Car’. The fairies
live amidst ‘dew-drop herbs’ and watery plants which altogether a glamorous experience.
In the last stanza, the poet narrates that the child is ‘solemn-eyed’-serious faced he is
drifting away from the material world, he shall no longer here the hills side noise, nor the
whistle of the steamy ‘kettle’, or witness ‘brown mice’ stealing ‘oatmeal’ from the kitchen.

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The life of the ‘leafy island’ is far more peaceful and devoid of the worldly fearful
experience.

At analytical level, Yeats’ poem contains a Romantic touch and predominantly

Wordsworth’s style of writing. He too believed in the innocence of a child, who is unaware
of the miseries of the world. Similarly, Yeats is contemplating over his Irish apolitical and
pagan land, which was more based on folklores and myths. He expresses his desire to break
free from the distressful world.

7.6 Summary
• This unit deals with the poetic works of Rudyard Kipling and William Butler Yeats
• The two fall under the category of 20th century poets
• Their poems differ in the contextual form, but are loosely based on themes of
humanity
• Kipling’s poems are comparatively narrative and hold racist aspect to it
• Yeats’ poems are based on mysticism, occultism, and childhood experiences
• The analyses of their two major works discussed shed light on their writing styles

7.7 Self-Assessment Question

1. How do the two poets fall under the category of Modern poets?
2. How does Kipling’s style of writing, thematically differs from his predecessors?
3. How does Kipling narrate his Anglo-Indian experience in his poems?
4. How does Yeats in cooperate his mystic belief and occultism in The Second Coming?
5. How does Yeats’ style of writing echo with the Romantic style of writing in The
Stolen Child?

7.8 Suggested Readings

Kipling, R. (1890). Mandalay
Kipling, R. (1899). The White Man’s Burden
Yeats, W.B. (1889). The Stolen Child
Yeats, W.B. (1920). The Second Coming

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70
UNIT-8

W.H. AUDEN AND

WILLIAM CARLOS WILLIAMS

Written by: Dr. Lubna Umar

Reviewed by: Dr. Malik Ajmal Gulzar

71
 CONTENTS

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 73
Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 73
8.1 W.H. Auden (Wystan Hugh Auden) .................................................................... 74
8.2 William Carlos Williams ..................................................................................... 75
8.3 Style ................................................................................................................ 77
8.4 Themes ................................................................................................................ 77
8.5 Major Works ........................................................................................................ 77
8.6 Summary .............................................................................................................. 80
8.7 Self-Assessment Questions .................................................................................. 80
8.8 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................. 80

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Introduction
This particular unit will discuss life and works of W.H. Auden (Wystan Hugh Auden) and
William Carlos Williams. Both the poets are acclaimed poets of the 20th century. The first
was an Anglo American and a versatile poet who produced poetry in multiple arenas. He
was the founder of the Auden Group at Oxford who were vocal about their fascist narrative.
Auden is assumed to be the first homosexual poet who voiced his sexuality.

William Carlos Williams is a born American poet. His poetry had a tremendous struggling
phase, until the decline of his health. He can also be regarded as the democratic poet since
he mostly wrote about American man, humanity or religious secularism. A doctor by
profession but a poet at heart. He is the founder of the Beat Generation, Beat Culture or
Beat Movement which promoted Americanism and novel ideas in literature in the post war
(WWII) era.

Objectives
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Explore the literature of two poets who significantly wrote in or after WWII era
2. Explore the writing styles of these two modern poets
3. Know about the Auden Group and Beat Generation
4. Identify the variety of themes they talked about
5. Briefly explore their religious beliefs and their effects on their literature

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8.1 W.H. Auden (Wystan Hugh Auden)
W.H. Auden was born in 1907 in York, the cathedral city in England. He was an Anglo-
American versatile poet. Despite being an Anglo-American poet he later (1946) became an
American citizen. Auden belonged to a middle-class well-read family. His father a
physician was an expert of mythologies and folklore, whereas his mother was a staunch
Anglican. Together, their practices and teachings affected his poetic style.

Auden acquired his early education from local school. For higher education he went to
Christ Church, Oxford where he enrolled in Biology but later shifted to English. At St.
Edmund’s School he met Christopher Isherwood (1922); the two developed romantic
relations after 1925. The two in mid-thirties also collaborated on plays and a travelogue. It
was in 1922 when he discovered his poetic artistry on a friend’s request. Like his
predecessors Auden too published his initial works in 1923 in the school magazine. It was
at Oxford, where he became a pivotal member of the Auden Group or Auden Generation,
which comprised Stephen Spender, Louis MacNeice, and Cecil Day-Lewis; Irish and
English novelists and poets. The group was pivotal for Marxists approach (economics),
political (anti-fascist) and social aspects.

In 1928 during his trip to Berlin his friend Stephen Spender published a pamphlet of
Auden’s poems under the title Poems in 1928, later a more official version was published
in 1930 by Faber and Faber, with T.S. Eliot’s assistance and it’s the same publishing house
where Eliot’s poems were published too. In 1930a Auden left for United States of America,
there his eroticism grew, and he found his sexuality to be homosexual, he fell in love with
the author Chester Kallman. However, their love life did not progress much, and he signed
a contractual marriage with Erika Mann a lesbian herself (to escape the Nazis).

Referring to Auden’s travel experience, his second half of poetic journey is based on his
experience of Spain. His poem Spain is a historical record of the Spanish Civil War (1936
to1939). With his companionship with Isherwood he produced Journey to War, which had
a poetic piece In Time of War the poem is satire on humanity; divided into two sections,
the first deals with loss of humanity’s rationality and the second is based on the
degeneration of morality and moral values. It was then when Auden termed the thirties era
as ‘Age of Anxiety’

During his stay in the United States of America, Auden wrote several poems including
September 1, 1939, in his collection Another Time. His work also contains elegies to
famous writers including William Yeats Butler, who greatly influenced Auden’s literary
craft. His work also reflects his return to Christianity (Anglicanism) which he abandoned
in his teenage life. During early 1930s to late 1930 Auden worked as a teacher or a lecturer,
which appears to be a common profession of the authors of that time.

Further, he is believed to be an anti-Romantic poet due to his constant criticism to social

life and humanity. His other works echo the disparities created by WWII. He designs
characters in his poems who are the narrators or often the contemplators of situations for

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example The Age of Anxiety: A Baroque Eclogue. For developing a connection between
landscape and psychology Auden wrote In Praise of Limestone. He often commented in
economic style in his poetic verses during the time of Great Depression. Generally, his
poetry dealt with humanitarian content with a variety in lexicology. His other major works
published Other Poems, Epistle to a Godson, City without Walls and Many Other Poems
were chief contributions in his later years. Whereas, Thank You, Fog: Last Poems were
published posthumously. For all his literary marvels Auden received mixed reviews. Auden
breathed his last (due to unknown reasons) in 1973 in Austria. However, many authors
contributed their writing efforts to discuss Auden and his literary interests after his demise.
Isherwood and Kellmen the two sexual partners of Auden put forward their publications
where they discussed the deceased writer’s interest in dramatics, Shakespearean works (as
he taught Shakespeare at a New York college), his psychoanalytical work was deeply
influenced by Sigmund Freud and Soren Kierkegaard.

8.2 William Carlos Williams

William Carlos Williams was born in 1883 in Rutherford, New Jersey to an English Father
and Puerto Rican mother. However, he spent a significant part of his life in Rutherford. In
his childhood he was exposed to literature when his father read him Bible and Dante.
Williams unlike other previously discussed poets was a physician, who later emerged as a
poet, an essayist and a novelist. Williams received his early education from Rutherford,
alter he attended school in France, after his return to New York he joined a local school. In
1902 after a special test he qualified for his primary profession of medicine. Yet, he kindled
love for languages at his high school. His poetic career established parallel to his medical
profession despite having a conflict over it with his family. He practiced medicine in the
day and pursued his literary passion in the night. Williams was also greatly influenced by
John Keats and Walt Whitman. Predominantly his work was in poetry but occasionally he
wrote novels, and short stories. He was also a university fellow of Ezra Pound, who assisted
him in his publication The Tempers (1912); his poetry is lauded as the American
revolutionary poetry. Williams also had a significant role to play in Pound’s imagist
movement. However, later he had differences of ideas therefore he adhered more to the
modernist work of literature.

In 1920 Williams published his second controversial piece of literature Kora in Hell:
Improvisations, few criticized him for being incoherent or commented on his writing as a
failed distorted attempt to recreate his ex’s creativity. Baroness Elsa the author of the
original text once had a romantic relation with Williams. It was a disrupted piece of
literature which was a fusion of reality, dream, philosophy, emotions etc. Around 1923
Spring and All a poetic collection of the poet was published which got overshadowed by
the popularity of T.S. Eliot’s The Waste Land. As a human Williams was highly urbane
despite of being minimalized, he regarded Eliot as a great poet. He praised his knowledge
and allusive style of writing. Altogether his humanistic approach is quite evident in his
literary scholarship. He voiced for the American people which made his work thematically
American oriented, which contoured his work democratic. His work In The American
Grain is the historical account from Columbus to Lincoln; Williams cherished being

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American and lauded its landscape in his poetry. White Mule, In the Money, and The Build-
Up are all American themed novels, based on American families and their struggles.
Nonetheless, roughly for thirty years Williams’ literary contributions went unnoticed. It
was then Paterson a five-book epic (poem) of Williams from 1946 to1958, influenced by
James Joyce’s novel Ulysses. The poetry revolves around a common American man who
on the American lands is striving for a successful life. He categorizes his life for an
effective living by correlating the aesthetic world with the material world. The epic earned
him recognition in the literary world, eventually in 1949 the Library of Congress honored
with a post of a consultant, which he deferred due to his health. Later, when he intended to
accept the offer he was propagated as a Communist due to his poem Russia. Due to this
controversy he lost the offered position. The evidence of this disturbed event and declining
health is found in his book Autobiography.

Unlike other Modern poets Williams had to suffer a great deal to set his foot in the literary
circle. The emerging poets assumed his writing style easy-going that they could produce
poetry too. The senior poets criticized his work in their analytical perspectives. However,
he kept producing literature by experimenting with his writing style. 1940 onward the
doctor’s health started to decline due to multiple cardiac arrests. Still his poetic devotion
did not relinquish. By 1950 Williams retired from the medical practice and cherished his
idle time in contributing to poetry. He did not seek death as freedom from his current state
but an evolvement of emotions and love to the present life. He celebrated ‘renewed love’
with the amalgamation of imagination in his two prominent works Asphodel, That Greeny
Flower and A Dream of Love. The two poems revolve around protagonists who confess
their infidelities to their wives; one is Williams himself, at the verge of death he makes
drastic declaration to seek her forgiveness. In the latter poem, the disloyalty is witnessed
in husband and wife relations when he falls in love with his secretary to rekindle the
married life’s romance.

1950 is also the year of the inaugural of the Beat Movement; a literary movement after
World War II founded by Williams himself. It was the time when the poet entertained and
influenced the young writers; they also referred as Beat Generation celebrated American
culture in their literature. The movement was about the rejection of the set narratives,
generating awareness of religions and spirituality, divorce from materialism, voicing the
human conditions including psychology, sexual exploration and liberation to project in the
society.

With his increasing health ailments his poetic contributions strengthened. The Desert
Music and Journey to Love are the remarkable work of Williams. They bear his humanistic
style of writing; he celebrates humanity above religion. The final years of Williams were
productive than this his entire life. Fast paced poetry deepened his routes in the literature
grounds. Like other poets he too traveled and delivered lectures, amused writers of his age
in the same edifice where Imagist movement initiated. Williams life’s tragedy was the
irony of fate, the doctor by profession succumbed to his multiple heart issues in 1963 in
his sleep.

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8.3 Style
W.H. Auden was a modern poet which is significant in his writing style too. He also wrote
in the similar fashion of already discussed modern poets. Like E.E. Cummings he imparted
scientific knowledge and jargons in his poetry, his poetic verses were ranged from
epigrammatic composition to epic length style. Often declared as an Anti-Romantic poet
Auden explored patterns of human existence. His poetry also reflects Marxist approach.
His innovative style fused with traditional rhymes and meters spoke about morality, social,
psychological, and political issues. His fragmented poetry is also packed with solid
imagery and his colloquial style of writing demonstrates his rheostat of knowledge. He is
no different when he plays with the English grammar in his poetic scholarship.

Similarly, William Carlos Williams writing fashion stands in colloquial American English
but with a profound influence of imagism. He believed in the ideology of show does not
tell, therefore he adhered to Imagist style of writing. He drew images from his medical
experiences and encounters. Later he switched to the modernist style of writing that is
expressionism. Williams too wrote from a short poem to an epic.

8.4 Themes
Like his forerunner T.S. Eliot Auden too mourns over the loss of humanity in the modern
world. He explores the themes of dehumanization, and sufferings of the modern life. He
also negates conformity to governance. Auden also converses on the theme of death in his
poems.

Williams’ thematic approach was fairly democratic. He took help from the British English
to voice the common man of America. Talking his profession into consideration, he was
exceptionally urbane and civilized in his nature. He put humanity first which is the sole
aspect in his poetry. He equated the readers and the poet at a common ground and utilized
American experiences to communicate locals’ perspective in his craftsmanship.

8.5 Major Works

a) W.H. Auden

i. The Unknown Citizen

The Unknown Citizen a major poem of the 20th century composed by W. H. Auden was
after he travelled to US from England. The poem is a satirical elegy on a man who has
passed away. The writing style tells that the man has recently died. He was a modern man
who abided by the laws of the country and conform to the government. The elegy is said
by the ‘Bureau of Statistics’ because he led a perfect (mechanical) life, as everybody else.
The state is cherishing the fact that he led an exemplary life. He paid his dues and did not
commit a crime. The poem is an ironic attack at the state who is celebrating the honesty of
the dead citizen, yet they are unaware of his identity. The state oppresses the citizens’

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desires and does not grant them the freedom to voice their opinion because of its excessive
surveillance. Hence, a successful man is the one who does not break laws.

According to the state, he was an employee at ‘Fudge Motors Inc.’, and solider at the time
of war. He had friends with whom he shared a drink; went to the hospital over an ailment
and returned ‘cured’ after clearing his dues. The state is criticized by Auden of spying over
people’s privacy, the state has tightly knitted to form a ‘Greater Community’. Once again,
a sheer critique on the Modern world, which is no longer great, nor is its community.
Further, the state divulges his personal information he was a married man with ‘five’
children who had the basic necessities of life like the people of his age. He never questioned
the system or its school in their teachings. Similar to a robot he purchased a ‘newspaper’
every day and did not judder over the advertisements printed. But the question arises after
his death whether he was happy or unhappy after earning a living for his life and family.

Analytically, the poem is the work of the modern literature since its aspects are heavily
induced in it. The poem contains scientific or mechanical lexicology ‘phonograph, radio,
car’ which was significant in the 20th century literature. Moreover, the themes of
oppression, modern day man are a sinister truths of today’s modern world. The poem
throughout criticizes the state, aware the readers about its hypocrisy and its spying nature.
Auden urges the audience not to conform to governance. Governments claw away the
happiness from common man’s life, their laws and set standards of living are gnawing
away the basic essence of existence that is humanity and happiness.

ii. Funeral Blues

The title signifies the core idea of the poem ‘death’. The poet is feeling blue over a sudden
demise of his beloved or a friend perhaps. He starts off the (short) poem by ‘Stop all the
clocks’, and also ‘cut off the telephones’. The initial lines suggest the immensity of sadness
over the loss of a loved one. But the entire world is unaware of the fact; he laments over it
and wants to converse his sorrows and grieves to the community. Loneliness and isolation
gnaws a person from inside, particularly a loss of a dear one is unbearable. Similarly, the
poet is mourning the loss of a dearest friend; his choice of vocabulary is persuasive and
indulges the reader into his tale of sadness.

Auden idea of grief can actually be heard in his poetic lexicons; he halts the daily activities
of life to lament, he silences ‘pianos’ ‘telephones’ which metaphorically is the interruption
of parties.

Let aeroplanes circle moaning overhead

Scribbling on the sky the message ‘He is Dead’.

He wants the world to know how much heart wrenched he is. He desires people to join in
the funeral, the airplanes scribble the loss, so the skies also know about his loss. The main
cause of the death is unknown, but the entire idea is about the death of a near and dear one,
elucidated by the melancholic psyche of the poet. He calls the dead his ‘He was my North,
my South, my East and West, this particular line refers to the idea that the dead meant the

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whole world to him. His theme of existentialism is dominant where he calls up the universe
to end life,

Pack up the moon and dismantle the sun,

Pour away the ocean and sweep up the wood

He is extremely dejected and cannot bear the loss. He is in utter shock and dismay and
overwhelmed with his grievance.

b) William Carlos Williams

i. The Red Wheelbarrow

The Red Wheelbarrow is one of the shortest poems by William Carlos Williams. It is highly
significant in its meanings. The one lined poem, written in a stanza format describes a
wheelbarrow. The short poem is a pure embodiment of imagism; show and not tell. The
adjective red is a sign by the poet who perhaps wants to attract the readers. The
wheelbarrow in general is a mechanical object that carries a huge burden. Either it used for
urban chores or rural its function is constant. The poet in his imagist style, creates
vagueness around the mentioned wheelbarrow, nothing else can be deciphered except the
picturesque description of the wheelbarrow. The wheelbarrow itself stands substantial for
agriculture and laborers. The initial says:

‘so much depends

upon
a red wheel
barrow’

The scattered line is an attempt to create pauses to emphasize on the beauty of poetic
literature, and also a moment to ponder over the wheelbarrow. The wheelbarrow denotes
the underprivileged working class of a society. This wheelbarrow is standing in rain,
‘glazed’ with rain drops; metaphorically this could be the sweat drops of a red faced man,
a farmer, or a laborer, who’s face has turned scarlet in the scorching sun that even in the
rain his perspiration is visible. In the last line ‘beside the white chickens’- the word white
arrests the readers’ attention. The writer voices the dependency of masses on agriculture
and farmer that our basic edible necessities are generated from here, without these people
our life is empty. He further sketches the weatherly images that no matter if it’s raining,
these people are working regardless of the ferocity of weathers. Rain is also symbolic for
hardships that these people face for the better production of crops. The crux of the poem is
appreciating humanity especially the subalterns of a society who are not credited for their
regular duties, they are mundane in the eyes of the world. Therefore, Williams with his
humanistic approach projects the under-discussed class with a wheelbarrow.

ii. The Widow’s Lament in Springtime

The poem is an elegy to a husband by a wife. The opening lines say ‘Sorrow is my own
yard’; a woman is mourning the loss of her husband. Like flames the grass leaves stood in

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her farm. The fire of life has doused. ‘thirty-five years’ she lived her husband who has died.
In the next ten lies, the poet in his imagist style describes the somberness in the Nature.
The Nature is in grief, it is mourning with the widow. ‘The plum tree is white today’ it is
loaded with its flowers; similarly, all the bushes and plants are dawdling colorful flowers
as per their routine. But the lady is extremely grieved and dejected that she turns away from
these beauties. These beauties signify life, which the narrator has lost with her husband.

In the final lines of the poem, the speaker refers to her son who tells her of a white flowered
tree nearby. She expresses her desire to rush towards the tree and ‘sink into the marsh near
them’, it means that now the widow is yearning death. She wants to connect to her husband,
and like a flower covered rave she wants to sink into the white flowers. The concluding
lines are explicit in their description as the poet wraps up the free styled poem; he drew
natural imagery to express sorrow and grief of the poor lady.

8.6 Summary Points

• The particular chapter deals with two modern poets who are of two different
nationalities: W.H. Auden and William Carlos Williams
• Auden is the prime figure of the Auden Group whereas Williams is the founder of
Beat Generation
• Auden was a versatile poet and produced diverse poetic literature
• Williams was democratic poet, he mainly talked about humanity and his approach
was humanitarian
• Both the poets have typical modern poetry style of writing: short to long poems, and
imagery
• Williams was deeply influenced by his university fellow Ezra Pound and hence
produced imagist poetry

8.7 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is Auden famous for?
2. What did Beat Generation celebrate?
3. How did Williams’ literary works get recognition?
4. How does Auden’s work echo the style of E.E. Cummings’ poetry?
5. How does Williams’ work resonate with Pound’s?

8.8 Suggested Readings

Auden, H, W. (1940). The Unknown Citizen
Auden, H, W. (1938). Funeral Blues
Williams, C. W. (1923). The Red wheelbarrow
Williams, C. W. (1921). The Widow’s Lament in Springtime

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UNIT-9

AFRICAN, AMERICAN POETS

CLAUDE MCKAY AND LANGSTON HUGHES

Written by: Dr. Lubna Umar

Reviewed by: Dr. Malik Ajmal Gulzar

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 CONTENTS

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 83
Objectives ....................................................................................................................... 83
9.1 Harlem Renaissance ............................................................................................. 84
9.2 Claude McKay ..................................................................................................... 84
9.3 Langston Hughes ................................................................................................. 86
9.4 Style ................................................................................................................ 87
9.5 Themes ................................................................................................................ 87
9.6 Major Works ........................................................................................................ 88
9.7 Summary .............................................................................................................. 90
9.8 Self-Assessment Questions .................................................................................. 91
9.9 Suggested Readings ............................................................................................. 91

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Introduction
This particular unit being the last unit of the study guide will shed light on the African
America Poets of the Modern era. Their contribution has offered a massive role in the
construction of Modern literature because a major part of their writings deals with the
plight of the Black Community. Their ethnic affiliations have set grounds for African
American Literature. Claude McKay and Langston Hughes are the two poets under
discussion in this unit. Claude McKay hailed from a Jamaican lands, whereas Langston
Hughes was a born American national and the inventor of Jazz Poetry. Yet the two voiced
their opinions during Harlem Renaissance and established themselves as the Black
activists.

Objectives
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
1. Learn about African American Poets
2. Understand Harlem Renaissance and its significance in African American Literature
3. Learn about the vital role played by Claude McKay and Langston Hughes in Black
Civil Rights
4. Provide insight into the ever-discussed topic of Racism
5. Relate African American Literature to Modern Literature

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9.1 Harlem Renaissance
Harlem Renaissance is the African American Movement of the 20th century. It reigned
roughly from 1910s to 1930s. Named after a New York vicinity Harlem, the period is
regarded as the golden age of the African Culture. It was the manifestation of Africanism
in music, literature, culture, performances, etc.

As an aftermath of World War I, industrial boom was witnessed. Several economic

opportunities developed in the Northern and Western regions of America, which left the
Southerners empty handed. Resulting in a huge influx of African Americans travelling to
North, especially New York, Philadelphia and Chicago. In search of labor Black travelled
on whatever means of transportation was available: cars, trains, buses, horse carts, etc.

With the population boom employment opportunities were equally difficult; jobs in
factories and other industrial regions were arduous and life threatening. Females
particularly were in more dire situations. Parallel to this was the residential concerns, north
being a pure White majority area did not permit integration of Blacks and Whites. Until
1919 high level of racial prejudice was witnessed across the country. Subsequently, by
1920 the Blacks created their own cities within a city. One such example is Harlem in New
York, which was a White majority area and with a massive incursion of the Blacks, it
became a Black dominant society. Almost 300,000 Blacks migrated to North and African
Culture began to touch the summit.

Prominent figures like W.E.B. Du Bois emerged who was an African American influential
right activist of the 20th century cofounded The National Association for the Advancement
of Colored People (NAACP) a civil right organization and authored ‘The Souls of Black
Folk’ an epoch-making literary work in African American Literature. With him came some
more important names in anthropology, poetry and music such as Langston Hughes, Zora
Neale Hurston, Countee Cullen, Louis Armstrong, etc.

With the widespread of the African culture the emergence of Cotton Club was also
witnessed. In 1927 this club was formed for a separate vibrant life of the Blacks. It was a
musical performance platform for the Blacks, which was lauded by Blacks and Whites
both. This ensued in the greater acceptance of Black culture in America.

9.2 Claude McKay

Festus Claude McKay, relatively known as Claude McKay, was born in 1890 in Sunny
Ville of Jamaica. He belonged to a family of financially stable farmers. McKay was raised
under the influence of a religious father and an educationist brother. Under his influence
he developed his love for English classics like Shakespeare. Resultantly, he too like other
discussed poets began poetry at the age of ten. Due to the strong infusion of African
heritage he published works in African language. It was back in 1907 when he met a clergy
man Walter Jekyll, who was an affectionate of African literature; he mentored McKay to

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adopt Jamaican language for his writings. Songs of Jamaica (1912) is a production of his
mentorship, followed by Jamaican Patois and Constab Ballads based on his brief
experience at the Jamaican police force in 1911.

In his teens McKay left for education, became an apprentice of woodworks, but later he
joined the police force and went to Jamaican capital Kingston; a white dominant society
that resulted in extreme racism. Disgusted by racial prejudice McKay travelled back to
Sunny Ville. Furthermore, with the award money Songs of Jamaica earned him, he left for
America in 1912. To his utter dismay American land (South Carolina) was home to intense
racism; ghettoized public facilities for whites and blacks. He went to Alabama and enrolled
at Tuskegee Institute. After a short term at the institute he transferred to Kansas State
College, where his political emotions stirred, and he quitted the idea to be an agriculturalist.
Once again McKay left his studies incomplete and travelled to New York City, there he
married his childhood love, who went back to Jamaica and gave birth to a girl (whom he
never met); in New York City he performed various menial occupations for a living.

In 1917 The Seven Arts poetic collection contained two poems under the pseudonym Eli
Edwards (somewhat similar to his wife’s name). In 1918 a critic Frank Harris admired his
work and published this two works in his magazine Pearson’s Magazine, one poem is titled
To The White Friends. In 1919 with an encounter with the publishers of The Liberator
Crystal and Max Eastman, McKay produced two most prominent works of his career If We
Must Die and Red Summer (it was the tenure of extreme racism); until 1922 he also served
as the co-executive editor of the publication house.

After the success of mentioned poems McKay set off for a sojourn to Europe; Holland,
Belgium and England. In 191 he worked on Worker’s Dreadnought a periodical. Followed
by a third collection of lyrical verses in 1920 Spring in New Hampshire which contained
another remarkable historic piece Harlem Shadows, based on the predicament of Blacks.
In 1921 McKay flew back to United States of America where he reproduced Harlem
Shadows, an extension of his previous works. He announced himself as the notable leader
of the Harlem Renaissance; struggled for Black rights and also got involved in Universal
Negro Improvement Association and expressed his opinions in Negro World. Meanwhile,
he also visited his communist friend Max Eastman in Russia (then the Soviet Union) to
attend Communist Party’s Fourth Congress.

Moreover, McKay later travelled to Paris where he developed a respiratory ailment, which
lasted for eleven years. After its cure he travelled a major portion of his life, especially in
Europe. During this eleven years he published multiple short storied and three novels.
Home to Harlem in 1928 is a renowned novel by the author. It is a story of a Jamaican
soldier Jake who abandons military and returns to Harlem. His second novel, The Negro
Novel in America has the protagonist who also symbolizes rebellion against the Western
traditions. Banjo: A Story Without a Plot (1929) is another literary contribution by the
Black author who has the similar character Ray who is again a member of the racially
discriminated society. Banana Bottom novel by McKay marked his position as a skillful
writer.

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In 1932 towards the end of his life he published Gingertown a short story collection. All
the tales are thematically constructed on the exploitation of Blacks; however, their settings
are different: Harlem, North Africa and Jamaica. He earned US Nationality in 1940, before
that he was a settler in the US. Once returning to US he composed his autobiography A
Long Way From Home (1937); it narrated his dilemma he faced as a Black man. Harlem:
Negro Metropolis (1940) is an essay collection of McKay which highlights his newly
founded Catholic interests. It is a crux of the sufferings and struggles of the Black
community in 1920s and 1930s. On leaving Harlem, he settled in Chicago for the rest of
his life, there he breathed his last in 1948 due to cardiac arrest.

9.3 Langston Hughes

Born as James Mercer Langston Hughes generally known as Langston Hughes was born
in 1901 in United States. He belonged to a family of African descent; slaves and slave
owners. Langston with his divorced mother was raised in Lawrence Kansas by his
grandmother, while his mother travelled in search of employment. In the guardianship of
his maternal grandmother Hughes learned about the racial prejudice through African
folklore and recounting of the historic events from his grandmother’s life he developed a
soft corner for the downtrodden Blacks. The imbued concept of racism and Black struggles
later became a dominant theme of his literary works.

After his grandmother’s death Hughes reunited with his mother in Illinois (after a brief stay
with family friends); after her remarriage they shifted to Cleveland Ohio where he attended
a local grammar school which resulted in the establishment of his literary career. His high
school period holds his authorship of short stories, plays, and poetry, inclusive of edition
of the yearbook and a contribution for the school newspaper. When Sues Wears Red is his
first jazz poetry published in high school.

Langston Hughes’ relationship with his stepfather was sour. The two hardly spent lives
with each other in 1919 they lived in Mexico, later on his father’s terms he pursued
Engineering career in Hughes opted university Columbia University, but due to extreme
racism by faculty and students he left his studies and drew back to his passion of writing
particularly in the Black centric vicinity Harlem; a culturally vibrant neighborhood.

Similar to the other discussed poets, Hughes too opted travelling to Europe during his
adolescence. He stayed in West Africa and Europe and performed menial jobs (like Claude
McKay). He became a member of the Black Expatriate Community in early 1920s during
his stay in England. On rejoining his mother in 1925 he afforded a white collar job of an
assistant to a historian at Association for the Study of African American Life and History.
Due to increase demand at work Hughes’ literary career suffered negligence therefore he
quitted his job as the assistant and pursued odd jobs again. In 1921 his first collection of
poetry The Crises appeared in the official journal of National Association for the
Advancement of Colored People (NAACP); foremost of poetic verses were printed in this
journal. His lyrical craft The Negro Speaks of Rivers became a historical hit. This particular
poem initially made its appearance in his collection The Weary Blues 1926.

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Hughes became a prominent name in the Harlem Renaissance period, with his
contemporaries like McKay. He also ran the African American (short lived) journal Fire!!
Devoted to Younger Negro Artists in 1926 (New York City). Along with his
contemporaries Hughes’ aim was to manifest the lower life of the Blacks in literature
inclusive of their struggles, juvenile moments, and American identity in fusion of vibrant
varied cultures.

Simultaneously he published his lyrical verses in local magazines which caught attention
of Vachel Lindsay (an American poet) who acclaimed Hughes’ poetry and announced to
the world the discovery of another Black poet. Finally, in 1929 he graduated with a B.A.
degree from a black dominant university Lincoln University. In 1930, Not Without
Laughter is the first novel published by Hughes; its protagonist is the Black who sheds
light on the plight of Blacks. He sporadically travelled to Soviet Union, where he
participated in the production of a Black Soviet film Negro Life in 1932. His trips to Soviet
Union and his poem A New Song highlighted his Communist political interests similar to
McKay’s. He briefly sojourned to Caribbean but preferably lived mostly in Harlem because
of his ethnic roots. In 1934 his first short story publication surfaced titled The Ways of
White Folks. With a lengthy list of narrations and verses Langston Hughes succumbed to
prostate cancer’s affects in 1967.

9.4 Style
Claude McKay traditionally adhered to the sonnet style of poetic composition. A rhythmic
structure of fourteen lines, with a strict theme. His poems mainly have Jamaican
topography. He generally talks about the peasant life of Jamaica, including his personal
relations; death of his mother, and Jamaican people’s affiliation towards their lands. His
poems like Constab Ballads elucidate the bleaker picture of the Blacks, and their
subjugation.

Langston Hughes on the other hand invented Jazz poetry. Jazz itself is a rhythmic pattern
of poetic composition especially practiced in music. His poetry was a fusion of his dialect
and jazz. He also drew imagery from African American traditions, folklore, and other
literary heritage. His poems appeared to be a regular Negro conversation.

9.5 Theme
Claude McKay and Langston Hughes being the most significant member of the Harlem
Renaissance profoundly conversed about Blacks and racism in their works. Their thematic
structures are constructed on Black oriented themes such as:

Racism and Racial discrimination

Black Lives
Black Civil Rights
African Americans’ struggles

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American Dream
Cultural nationalism
Cultural and Social Unity

9.6 Major Works

a) Claude McKay

i) America
McKay’s poetic composition America as significant from that is about the American land,
the American nation, the supreme country America. The fourteen lined sonnet is a compact
poem of poet’s narration of love and hate relationship. He is a member of the American
nation; an American citizen yet his soul does not belong to its soil. The country is generous
enough to feed him, to facilitate him, concurrently it ‘sinks into my throat her tiger’s tooth’;
American tyranny is foregrounded in the words ‘tiger’s tooth’. America if offers the basic
requirements of life like food and shelter, at the same time it is tormenting the narrator and
his (Black) fellowmen; ‘bread of bitterness’ is a sheer critique on the American hatred that
it feeds to its locales.

The satirical love letter to America reflects how the country strengthens him, inspires him
to stand ‘erect against her hate’. Despite being a salad bowl of varied cultures, it is a
‘cultural hell’. American ground is a home to several cultures and traditions, yet the
oxymoron represents the hostility of the American land towards multiculturalism. It is a
suffocating environment due to its discriminated political landscape. Analytically, McKay
has managed to covertly convey his hatred and criticism in semantics. He uses the pronoun
I which stands for his opinions and also expresses the smother of the African Americans.

‘Her vigor flows like tides into my blood’ is a description of the American power and
strength. It flows in its people like a tide of hatred. McKay’s technique to draw natural
imagery adds energy in the poem; it solidifies the hatred the narrator is speaking about.
The propagating lines describe the mightiness of America, the poet shifts his opinion
towards the power of America by employing words like ‘granite’. He stands within this
country despite being subjugated but his ‘dark’ days show him a ray of light. He clings to
the theme of hope that after sufferings and strive he will accomplish a prosperous future
within the American lands, as it is the land of opportunities. The poet envisions America
as a successful place.

The final two lines of America are allusive in nature drawn from Shelley’s work
Ozymandias. Shelly talked about the destruction of a kingdom, and stature. Similarly,
McKay draws a connection by writing lines:

‘Beneath the touch of Time’s unerring hand,

Like priceless treasures sinking in the sand’

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Similar to the fallen kingdom, America too can collapse and crumbled like sand. America
being a superpower exploits with basic rights of the Black people, time can come when
America shall stand no more. The closing lines echo a threat towards the land, a prayer of
the depressed soul, who has devoured the trepidations of living on the American soil.

ii) If We Must Die

The title symbolizes the absolute dismay and depression of the Blacks. The writer’s call to
die is the sacrificial idea; a duty towards their community to earn respect. If We Must Die
is a slogan to urge people to resist the dictatorship of Whites and retaliate towards their
oppression. In order to do so they will sacrifice their lives if it is the demand of time and
situation. But they will not let their blood go in ‘vain’; they will die a martyr’s death that
the tyrant shall praise their bravery and honor their strengths albeit being dead.

Analytically, the poet incorporates simile that illustrates the tone of valor and bravery
induced by the poet. ‘If we must die, let it not be like hogs’ the employment of animal
similarity is to denounce the sheepish act of hiding and whining; the poet urges the Black
folk to die for their rights but not like hogs/pigs, who are hunted down and preyed by
‘dogs’. His reference to ‘mad and hungry dogs’ denotes the criticism towards the White
oppressors. He draws their animalistic instincts of stripping away the basic rights of living.

O kinsmen! we must meet the common foe!

Though far outnumbered let us show us brave,
And for their thousand blows deal one death-blow!

The final lines signify the tone of courage and induce the mood of repulsion in the Black
community. He calls the ‘kinsmen’ to stand united against the common enemy, no matter
if they are outnumbered, or weak in physical strength but their determination binds them
together. This deed represents the act of repulsion towards oppression and their victorious
hope, even if the face the blow of death.

b) Langston Hughes

i) Harlem
In the backdrop of Harlem events Langston Hughes composed a jazz poetic masterpiece.
The poem stands on the theme of sheer hopelessness; analyzed through various
perspectives. The poet or the speaker contemplates over deferred hope, a lingering feeling
of serenity; a situation in limbo. He questions the readers what is it like to experience a
delayed result built upon hope, does it rot away like a fruit in the sun, or does it ooze out
pus like a wound, or like a candy it crystalizes over time.

Titled Harlem is based on Black neighborhood, which was once White vicinity, but later
due to massive immigration it became a densely populated Black area. The poem though
written after years of Harlem riots, but it is loosely weaved around the ideal of American
dream; a dream of equality (ethnic social) and harmony. But as the poem progresses the
poet lays stress on a deferred dream, a dream that is politically sabotaged and is being put

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off. Hughes employs edible lexicons ‘raisin in the sun, rotten meat, or crust and sugar over–
like a syrupy sweet’, here perhaps he wanted to add color to his dream which on decaying
can create a distorted impact. The poet claims that the dream of the dreamers has delayed
excessively that the dreamers are not being socially accepted and they have lost faith in
their dream.

Also written in the aftermath of World War II, where people together stood for the
sovereignty of their lands, yet it is ironic that they stood for the same cause but in
segregated military ranks. Therefore, each mind foresees a dream of equality; however, the
poet voices it as a collective dream; an opportunity to coexist with the fellow human beings
regardless of the virtue of their color. The narrator wraps up the poem with a heavy heart
that a deferred dream collapses as a ‘heavy load’-the dreamer either halts the dreaming
process and agrees to the provided terms and conditions, or he silently builds upon his
dream hoping that one day it will nourish.

ii) I, Too
I, Too was published in 1926 during the Harlem Renaissance period. It is an optimistic
approach towards recognition. The poet on behalf of the Blacks yearns for a day when the
Blacks will be recognized and have an identity of their own. With a positive tone he
foresees a future where he will not be asked to relinquish himself from White gatherings;
instead he too will be an important recognized member of the society.

Allusive of Walt Whitman’s I too Hear America Singing, this particular poem mocks the
hypocrisy of the American nation, despite being a hybrid cultural state it oppresses the
Black community. But the poet is hopeful that one fine day he will too eat at the same table
as the Whites and will not be asked to ‘eat in the kitchen’ an extended act of segregation.
The poet is commenting on Americanism, he too is an American (I, too sing, America) yet
unidentified.

The poem also discusses the strengths of Black man, how he manages to survive in this
bitter environment. He is a ‘darker brother’ who laughs, eats well and grows stronger. No
matter how much brutality and discrimination they face they stand tall against the
American atrocities. The basic human characteristics mentioned by the poet, draws
attention of the Whites to consider Blacks as humans too.

9.7 Summary Points

• This unit explicitly talks about African American Poets in Modernism
• Harlem Renaissance is a turning point in the US history that ensured African
American Literature
• Claude McKay and Langston Hughes are the discussed poets; former a Jamaican
national the other a US national
• The two talked about Black Civil Rights; Blacks’ struggle and Whites’ atrocities,
Racism

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• Their works are the expressions of the Black Community, which are hardly fictitious
• Owing to the style of poetry one followed the traditional sonnet style while the other
is the inventor of Jazz Poetry
• Both authors were prominent members of Harlem Renaissance and their works are
notable works of African American Literature

9.8 Self-Assessment Questions

1. What is African American Literature?
2. What significant role did Great Migration play in Harlem Renaissance?
3. How do you interpret Racism in the literature of the two mentioned poets?
4. How did Claude McKay discuss Blacks’ struggles in comparison to Langston
Hughes’ writing style?
5. What similarities can be drawn from the writing styles of all the discussed poets in
this study guide?

9.9 Suggested Readings

McKay, Claude. (1921). America
McKay, Claude. (1919). If We Must Die
Hughes, Langston. (1951). Harlem
Hughes, Langston. (1926). I, Too

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 Department of English
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities
ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY