12

Plant Science

PRACTICAL BOOK

Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Phone : 5639122/6634373/6635046/6630088
Website : www.moecdc.gov.np
 Feedback Copy

Technical and Vocational Stream

Practical Material

PRACTICAL BOOK
(Grade 12)

Secondary Level
Plant Science

Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur
Publisher : Government of Nepal
Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
Curriculum Development Centre
Sanothimi, Bhaktapur

© Publisher

Layout by Khados Sunuwar

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted, in any other form or by any means for commercial
purpose without the prior permission in writing of Curriculum Development Centre.
 Preface
The curriculum and curricular materials have been developed and revised on a regular
basis with the aim of making education objective-oriented, practical, relevant and job
oriented. It is necessary to instill the feelings of nationalism, national integrity and
democratic spirit in students and equip them with morality, discipline and self-reliance,
creativity and thoughtfulness. It is essential to develop in them the linguistic and
mathematical skills, knowledge of science, information and communication technology,
environment, health and population and life skills. it is also necessary to bring in them
the feeling of preserving and promoting arts and aesthetics, humanistic norms, values
and ideals. It has become the need of the present time to make them aware of respect for
ethnicity, gender, disabilities, languages, religions, cultures, regional diversity, human
rights and social values so as to make them capable of playing the role of responsible
Citizens with applied technical and vocational knowledge and skills. This practical book
for Plant Science has been developed in line with the Secondary Level Plant
ScienceCurriculumso as to facilitate the students in their classroom based practicum and
on the job training by incorporating the recommendations and feedback obtained from
various schools, workshops and seminars, interaction programs attended by teachers,
students and parents.
In Bringing out the practical book in this form, the contribution of the Director General
of CDC Dr. Lekhnath Poudel and Prof. Khemraj Dahal, Lal Prasad Amagain, Arjun
Prakash Poudel, Nalaram Devkota, Shiv Kumar Das, DineshTimalsina is highly
acknowledged. The practical works are written by Mahesh Poudel and the subject matter
of the book was edited by BadrinathTimsina and Khilanath Dhamala. CDC extends
sincere thanks to all those who have contributed to developing this practical book.
This book is a supplimentary practical material for students and teachers. In addition
they have to make use of other relevnt materials to ensure all the learning outcomes
set in the curriculum. The teachers, students and all other stakeholders are expected
to make constructive comments and suggestions to make it a more useful practical
material.

2076 BS Ministry of Education, Science and Technology

Curriculum Development Centre
 Table of Contents
PRACTICAL NO: 1
STUDY OF DIFFERENT FEATURE OF A VEGETABLE FARMING 1
PRACTICAL NO: 2
TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE 6
PRACTICAL NO: 3
NURSERY BED PREPARATION AND RAISING OF DIFFERENT VEGETABLE
CROPS 10
PRACTICAL NO: 4
VARIETAL CHARACTERISTICS AND IDENTIFICATION OF MAJOR VEGETABLE 15
PRACTICAL NO: 5
FIELD PREPARATION FOR VEGETABLE CROPS 45
PRACTICAL NO: 6
METHOD OF SOWING AND TRANSPLANTATION OF VEGETABLE CROPS 48
PRACTICAL NO: 7
METHOD OF IRRIGATION OF VEGETABLE FARMING 53
PRACTICAL NO: 8
INTERCULTURAL OPERATION (THINNING, GAP FILLING , WEEDING ,
MULCHING , EARTHING UP STAKING ) OF VEGETABLE 56
PRACTICAL NO: 9
TRAINING AND PRUNING OF DIFFERENT VEGETABLES 59
PRACTICAL NO: 10
WEEDS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS 65
A PRACTICAL MANUAL ON
COMMERCIAL MUSHROOM PRODUCTION AND MARKETING 72
PRACTICAL NO: 1
CULTIVATION PRACTICES OF BUTTON MUSHROOM 74
PRACTICAL NO : 2
CULTIVATION PRACTICES OF PADDY STRAW MUSHROOM 80
PRACTICAL NO: 3
CULTIVATION PRACTICES OF OYSTER MUSHROOM 88
PRACTICAL NO: 4
CULTIVATION PRACTICES OF GYANODARMA AND SHIITAKE MUSHROOM 93
PRACTICAL NO. : 5
DISEASES AND PEST OF MUSHROOM AND THEIR MANAGEMENT 97
PRACTICAL NO: 1
DEVELOPMENT OF THE IPM MODEL FOR IMPORTANT INSECT PESTS OF
SELECTED CROPS (CEREAL: RICE, MAIZE, WHEAT, VEGETABLES:
CUCURBITACEOUS VEGETABLES, CRUCIFEROUS VEGETABLES, TUBER:
POTATO, LEGUMES: SOYBEAN, BLACK/GREEN GRAM, CHICKPEA, BEANS) AND
THEIR USE IN FIELD 114
PRACTICAL NO: 2
DEVELOPMENT OF THE IPM MODEL FOR IMPORTANT DISEASES OF SELECTED
CROPS (CEREAL: RICE, MAIZE, WHEAT, VEGETABLES: CUCURBITACEOUS
VEGETABLES, CRUCIFEROUS VEGETABLES, TUBER: POTATO, LEGUMES:
SOYBEAN, BLACK/GREEN GRAM, CHICKPEA, BEANS) AND THEIR USE IN FIELD
125
PRACTICAL NO: 3
IDENTIFICATION OF NATURAL ENEMIES, PARASITES, PREDATORS AND THEIR
USE 133
PRACTICAL NO: 4
COLLECTION, PREPARATION AND USE OF LOCALLY AVAILABLE BOTANICALS
FOR MAKING PESTICIDES 140
PRACTICAL NO: 5
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT MODELS FOR
MAJOR CROPS 143
PRACTICAL NO: 6
IDENTIFICATION OF ORGANIC MANURES AND FERTILIZERS 147
PRACTICAL NO: 7
PREPARATION AND USE OF ORGANIC MANURES (E.G. VERMI-COMPOST,
COMPOST, GEETI MAL ETC) 152
PRACTICAL NO: 8
FYM IMPROVEMENT AND USE 157
PRACTICAL NO: 9
CATTLE URINE COLLECTION, IMPROVEMENT AND USE 160
 PRACTICAL NO: 1
STUDY OF DIFFERENT FEATURE OF A VEGETABLE FARMING

OBJECTIVE(S)
- To study about the different features of a vegetable farming.
- To become familiar with different vegetable farming practices.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen
THEORY
Vegetable farming is the growing of vegetables for human consumption.
Traditionally it was done in the soil in small rows or blocks, often primarily for
consumption on the farm, with the excess sold in nearby towns. Later, farms on the
edge of large communities could specialize in vegetable production, with the short
distance allowing the farmer to get his product to market while still fresh. Modern
hydroponic farming produces very high yields in greenhouses without using any soil.
Several economic models exist for vegetable farms: farms may grow large quantities
of a few vegetables and sell them in bulk to major markets or middlemen, which
requires large growing operations; farms may produce for local customers, who
require a larger distribution effort; farms may produce a variety of vegetables for sale
through on-farm stalls, local farmer's markets. This is quite different from
commodity farm products like wheat and maize which do not have the ripeness
problems and are sold off in bulk to the local granary. Large cities often have a
central produce market which handles vegetables in a commodity-like manner, and
manages distribution to most supermarkets and restaurants.
Following points should be considered while planning for vegetable cultivation:-
1. Proper sunlight
Vegetables are sun loving crops and grow their best with 6-8 hours or more of direct
sunlight. Leafy greens can manage to grow under less sun light while lettuce prefers
cool weather and continue to grow through out the summer if shaded by taller plants.

Practical Book : Grade 12 1

2. Assured irrigation facility
Ideal vegetable garden should be close to the source of water. Vegetables need water
at regular intervals. If there is erratic water supply, vegetable crops exhibit various
kinds of problems like poor crop stand, poor growth, fruit cracking, improper fruit
setting or physiological problems like blossom end rot in tomato.
3. Soil with good fertility status:
Soil is the most important factor in any garden and perhaps more so in a vegetable
garden. Vegetables are short duration crops and have very high yield potential. They
complete their entire life cycle by producing flowers and fruits and hence, they are
very heavy feeders. A rich soil not only supports them to grow strong but also protect
them from disease and pest problems. Therefore, the soil in the vegetable garden
should be rich in organic matter and fertility status. Compost and composted manure
can be added to improve fertility of soil.
4. Proper drainage:
Another important consideration while selecting land for vegetable garden is that the
area should have provision of proper drainage and run-off. Vegetables do not sustain
under water logging conditions.
5. Manure pit:
Manure pit is essential to dump the waste plant materials after the harvest of the
produced and converting it to vermin-compost or any other compost. This enables to
supply considerable quantity of organic manure to the farm. The manure pit should
be located in a corner of the vegetable garden.
6. Protection from stray animals:
Proper fencing of the vegetable garden is essentially required to protect the crops
from stray animals and also from theft.
7. Store and packing house:
The store house and packing house should be in the center of the vegetable garden
for easy approach to the workers. The implements, tools or inputs like herbicides,
pesticides, fungicides, fertilizers etc., can be easily carried for the store house to the
field and also bring back the harvested produce to the store house for hydro cooling,

2 Practical Book : Grade 12

sorting and packing to the market. In the storeroom, racks should be provided to keep
the chemicals. Wooden plank (flat piece of timber) is arranged on the floor to keep
fertilizer bags. The garden implements, tools and packing material etc. are arranged
in the rack.
8. Cropping plan:
A comprehensive plan of different vegetables to be grown in the vegetable garden
should be made well in advance keeping in view the principle that early the crop
more shall be the price.
Types of vegetable farming
Kitchen Garden
It is defined as growing of vegetable crop behind the residential house to meet the
requirement of the family all year around. Various vegetable crops are grown
intensively on a small piece of a land year round on the basis of interest and taste of
family. It should be established at the backyard of house fully expose to sunlight and
should be located close to well, tap water or other source of irrigation. The design of
kitchen garden depends upon character of land, its extent and situation.
Truck garden
This is extensive type of gardening where the growers specializes in one or two crop
and produce in large quantity for distant market. In this type of gardening production
site is far from the market or cities where the cost of land and labour are usually
cheap. On large holding mostly mechanized farming is practiced which leads to
reduction of cost of cultivation. Here middle men are also involved in marketing.
Only few vegetables which have longer storage life and can thrive long distance
transportation without any damage are suited for truck garden. For example-potato,
garlic, onion, pumpkin, cabbage, etc.
Peri-urban farming
Cultivation of vegetable crop around the periphery of the city or town to fulfill its
demand is called peri urban farming. It is one of the most intensive types of farming
where most skillfull method of production of vegetable for commercial purpose is
employed. As the land is mostly suited near the city where land and labour is very

Practical Book : Grade 12 3

costly. Thus, it is practiced in small area where each and every part of land is fully
utilized by adopting inter cropping and planting crop in succession to get extra
income from the same piece of land. Here, the farmers are very skill and have
knowledge of cultivation of various vegetable crops. The vegetables are selected for
cultivation on the basis of demand of the market or urban area. The farmer has to
supply vegetable continuously over a long period which is highly demanded by the
urban market.
Organic farming
Cultivation of vegetable crop without utilizing any chemical is termed as organic
farming. In organic farming, only organic residue of plant and animal is used to
manure and to control insect pest and diseases. In these types of farming, chemical
residue/substances like fertilizers, chemical insecticide and fungicide are restricted to
use. Only organic manure like FYM, compost, leaf mould, cakes, bone meal, fish
meal, etc. are used to supplement nutritional requirements. Similarly bio pesticides
like delfin, neem based insecticide, predator insect (crysoperlla, trichoghama, etc.).
Microorganism like NPVs, Bt and other botanical product are used.
Off-season farming
Growing of vegetables out of its normal growing season is termed as off-season
vegetable production or vegetable forcing. The garden of off-season vegetable
farming is located at any place but is preferred in cities and towns where the growers
are more enlightened to handle these complex and highly specialized type of farming
involving special growing structure to regulate micro-climate, light, temperature, and
humidity.
Vegetable seed farming
This type of farming is generally adopted in large area just like in truck garden. The
investment of land is almost equal to that of truck garden but expenditure on labour
is more than any other farming as the crop is left in the field beyond its maturity and
process of seed extraction drying, packing and storage also involve additional labour.
The net return is more than any other farming. This type of farming is very
specialized and required specific skill and knowledge of flowering time, mode of
pollination, isolation distance, selfing (self-pollination/manual pollination).

4 Practical Book : Grade 12

PROCEDURE
- Make a visit near the vegetable farming areas
- Take a survey and interview with vegetable growers
- Record the data available and fill the following observation sheet
OBSERVATION
Vegetable crop Types of vegetable Area of vegetable
S.N Location
grown farming adopted farming

CONCLUSION :
____________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 12 5

 PRACTICAL NO: 2
TOOLS AND IMPLEMENTS USED IN HORTICULTURE
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To be able to identify the horticulture tools and equipment.
- To know the functions and uses of horticulture tools and equipment.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Tools and equipment
THEORY
A garden tool is any one of many tools made for gardens and gardening and overlaps
with the range of tools made for agriculture and horticulture. Although many tools
and implements may be used for a single horticulture operation, use of a right type of
tool for a particular operation to achieve maximum efficiency and quick turnout of
work is indisputable. Therefore selection of suitable tools/implements is essential for
carrying out various horticultural operations. Some of the tools and implements
required for different operations in horticultural crops are described below:
S.N Name Uses
1 Axe For felling the trees
2 Bill hook To cut the bigger stems near the ground surface
3 Budding-cum- For both grafting and budding. It has two sharp blades
grafting knife to give cuts on the stock and scion and the back end
(flap) made up of plastic or brass used to lift or loosen
the bark for inserting the bud.
4 Pick Axe For light digging and loosening the soil
5 Carpenter‟s saw To prune the bigger branches, (more than 8cm
diameter) it is specially useful in crown grafting
6 Crow-bar An iron rod of 4-6 ft in length with one end pointed and
the other end flattened. Used for digging pits and
moving rocks

6 Practical Book : Grade 12

 7 Digging fork To loosen the moist soil or manure pits.
8 Dutch hoe To loosen the surface soil between the rows of plants
for removing small weeds.
9 Drainage hoe To make the drainage channel and to remove silt
deposit in the channels.
10 Dibbler To make small holes on the seed beds in order to place
seeds or transplant seedlings.
11 Forester‟s shear To prune the medium sized branches (4-8cm) which are
at higher height on the trees.
12 Garden hand rake For removing stubbles, small stones, leveling of nursery
beds and formation of small beds
13 Garden For lifting more number of seedlings.
trowel/shovel
14 Grass shear To cut the outgrowth of grasses planted in posts, carpet
beds
15 Hand fork To loosen the soil in seedbeds and to break the clods.
16 Hand guddali For light digging and other intercultural operations.
17 Hand cultivator To loosen the soil, remove clods, pebbles in nursery
beds and mixing of manures and fertilizers.
18 Hatchet To remove or cut down the bigger stems and broken
stems
19 Hedge shear To prune the tender parts of garden shear the plants, it is
specially useful for trimming hedges, borders, topiary
work
20 Hose pipe To irrigate flower beds, lawns etc.
21 Kurpi-Varvari For weeding and stirring the soil in the pots and beds.
22 Lawn mower To cut the grass uniformly in the lawn. It is having a
roller behind to pad the grass to have cushion.
23 Lawn sprinkler

Practical Book : Grade 12 7

 For irrigating lawns.
24 Pruning saw To prune the thicker branches (4-6cm girth) of an acute
crotch (angle).
25 Pruning knife For pruning of thicker branches and it has curved knife.
26 Pruning shear For cutting small sized branches.
27 Rotary weeder For cutting of grasses in lawn, carpet beds, edges etc.
28 Secature To prune the branches, twigs, water suckers etc. of
small plants.
29 Sickle For cutting grasses, vegetables etc.
30 Scythe (Dabba) For cutting lawn grasses, vegetables etc.
31 Spade To loosen the soil, prepare irrigation channels, collect
the soil in heaps and facilitate filling up of soil, manure
etc. in the baskets.
32 Transplanting To lift the young seedlings along with a boll of earth for
trowel transplanting.
33 Tree pruner To cut down the smaller branches of the trees without
climbing.
34 Trenching hoe For light collection of soil, irrigation purposes and
opening of trenches.
35 Tree calipers To measure the girth of trees trunks.
36 Watercan with To water the young seedling in seed beds, potted plants
rose head etc. the rose head facilitates with fine spray of water
which prevents the washing down ofsoil.
37 Weed cutters Special kinds of weed cutter have a serrated double
edged steel blade and handle about 60cm long. It is used
with swinging strokes in two directions.
38 Wheel barrow To transport manures, soil, seedlings, garden waste etc.
Plant Protection equipments
40 Aspee back pak For spraying nursery beds, flowerbeds, potted plants

8 Practical Book : Grade 12

 sprayer etc.
41 Aspee Bolo- For spraying plant protection chemicals on large areas.
power sprayer
42 Aspee knapsack For spraying nursery beds, flower beds, potted plants
sprayer etc.
43 Automizer For spraying nursery beds, potted plants etc.
44 Hand Rotary For dusting the powdery chemicals on plants.
Duster
45 Hand sprayer For spraying potted plants
46 Rocker sprayer For spraying plant protection chemicals particularly in
(Gattar) plantations/orchards
47 Foot Sprayer Requires two labours for operation.
PROCEDURE
- Visit a horticulture laboratory.
- Collect the tools and equipments available in the lab.
- Study and identify the tools and equipments in the laboratory.
- List and fill the following observation table.
OBSERVATION
SN Tools and Equipment Name Function Uses

CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 12 9

 PRACTICAL NO: 3
NURSERY BED PREPARATION AND RAISING OF DIFFERENT
VEGETABLE CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To be able to prepare nursery beds for raising seedlings of different vegetable
crops.
- To know the methods for preparation of nursery seed bed.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary and pen to note down the instructions, different tools for land preparation,
farmyard manure, fertilizers, fungicide, vegetable seed etc.
THEORY
A nursery could be considered as a location where plants are cared for during the
early stages of growth by providing optimum conditions for germination and
subsequent growth until they become strong enough for planting in the open field
conditions. The seeds of solanaceous vegetables, Cole crops, onion etc. are first sown
in the nursery.
Availability of quality nursery has great scope for enhancing the production and
profitability of vegetable crops in the country as non-availability of quality planting
material lead to complete failure, reduction in the quality of vegetable produce, low
yield, fluctuations in production etc. Nursery management is a technical and skill
oriented job which require proper attention at different stages for the production of
quality seedlings. It needs lot of planning, expertise and efficient management.
Errors done during raising a nursery cannot be rectified at later stages which also
reduce the returns along with wastage of time and energy. Therefore, technical
knowledge and careful planning are prerequisite to raise seedlings of vegetable
crops.
Factors to be taken into consideration for raising nursery
Location of the nursery
- Nursery should be situated near the main field for transplanting.
- Nursery area should receive sunlight right from morning till evening i.e. south-

10 Practical Book : Grade 12

 west aspect is most suitable as this aspect is very sunny.
- Area must be free from water stagnation i.e. proper drainage must be provided.
- Well protected from stray animals and strong winds.
- The area should be near the water source for continuous supply of good quality
water
Soil
- Soil should have good organic matter.
- Soil texture should be neither too coarse nor too fine.
- Soil should be sufficiently porous and adequately aerated.
- It should have a fair degree of water holding capacity.
- Soil pH of nursery bed should be in the range of 6 to 7.
- Acidic and alkaline soils are not suitable for raising nursery rather, neutral soils
are suitable.
- Soil should normally be rich in all essential nutrient elements. Preferably soil
testing of nursery area should be done so as to mix additional nutrients
accordingly for improving its soil fertility status.
PROCEDURE
Nursery bed preparation
- The soil of the nursery area should be fine and fertile with good water holding
capacity. For the preparation of beds, the field should be ploughed and leveled
well. Soil should be worked to obtain a fine textured soil free of clods and
debris.
- Prepare raised beds to facilitate proper drainage of excess water. The level of
the bed surface is also made little slanting on the two sides.
- The length of nursery bed should be 3-5 m but it can be increased or decreased
according to the availability of land and requirement of plants but the breadth
of the beds should not be more than 1-1.2 m and the beds should be 15-20 cm
raised from the ground surface.
- The standard size of nursery bed is 3m × 1m × 15 cm.
- A space of 20 - 25 cm should be left between two beds. This space can be
utilized to perform intercultural operations such as weeding, disease and insect-

Practical Book : Grade 12 11

 pest management and also for draining out the excess rain water from the
nursery beds.
- Add 20-25 kg well rotten farmyard manure in each standard size nursery bed
along with 200g single super phosphate and 15-20 g each of fungicides and
insecticides such as mancozeb and dusts like methyl parathion.
- The number of nursery beds depends on the particular crop, season and
growing area of crop for transplanting.
- The beds should be prepared in the east and west direction and lines/rows for
sowing of seeds should be made from north to south direction on the beds.
Raising of Different Vegetable Crops
Seed Sowing
- Treat the seed with fungicides like bavistin or thiram or captan @ 3g/kg of
seed to check the infection of soil borne diseases.
- Make rows at spacing of 5 cm. sow the seeds at 1 cm depth. The general rule
for sowing depth is 2-3 times of the thickness of seed.
- Mix a little of sand in the seed for uniform distribution in the rows and cover it
with soil or farmyard manure.
- Avoid broadcasting seeds in the nursery-bed. Thick sowing or sowing with
broad casting also leads to increase in the incidence of damping off disease.
- If seeds are sown too deep nutrient reserves will be exhausted before the plant
emerges or emerging plants will be weak or liable to die. If sown too shallow
then it is likely to be eaten by birds or washed away by the splash of rains or
irrigation water.
Table : Quantity of seed and nursery area required for raising seedlings for one
hectare area

Crop Seed rate (g/ha) Nursery area required (m2)

Tomato (hybrid) 150-200 75-100
Tomato (open pollinated) 250-300 100-125
Brinjal 300 150

12 Practical Book : Grade 12

 Chillies 500-600 75-100
Bell pepper 400-500 100-150
Early cauliflower 700 150-200
Mid and late cauliflower 400-500 150-200
Cabbage 400-500 100-150
Knolkhol 700-750 200
Onion 8000-10000 500

Application of Mulch
- After sowing, cover the seed bed with a layer of dry grass. Apply water over
the grass so that seed can not come up on the surface of the bed.
- Mulching maintains the soil moisture and temperature for seed germination. It
protects the growing seeds/seedlings from direct sunlight and raindrops as well
as protects seeds against bird damage.
Removal of Mulch
- Due attention is given to remove the covered mulch from the seedbed. After
three days of sowing, observe the seed beds daily.
- As and when the white thread like structure is seen above the ground, remove
the mulch carefully to avoid any damage to emerging plumules.
- Always remove mulch in the evening hours to avoid harmful effect of bright
sun on newly emerging seedlings.
Protecting Young Seedlings from Extreme Weather Conditions
- After seed germination during the seedling growth, if there is very high
temperature (> 30° C), cover the nursery bed with 50% or 60% shedding nets
(green or green + black coloured) about 60 - 90 cm above ground by providing
suitable support.
- During winter season, cover the nursery bed over night with polythene sheet
about 60-90 cm above ground by providing suitable support. Remove the sheet
in the morning before the temperature rises. This technique protects young
seedlings from severe winter frost or low temperature injury.

Practical Book : Grade 12 13

Application of Water
- The nursery beds require light irrigation with the help of rose can till the seeds
germinate. During summers, irrigate the beds twice, once in the morning and
once in the evening. During winters, irrigation once in a day is sufficient.
- Keep beds moist but not wet otherwise “damping-off of seedling” may appear.
Excess rainwater or irrigated water should be drained out from the nursery bed
otherwise plants may die due to excess of water.
- Watering in the beds depends upon the weather condition. If temperature is
high, irrigation is applied whereas irrigation is not needed during rainy days.
Thinning
- It is an important operation to remove weak, unhealthy, diseased, insect-pest
damaged and densely growing plants from the nursery beds keeping distance of
about 0.5 to 1.0 cm from plant to plant.
- The thinning facilitates balanced light and air to each and every plant. It also
helps in monitoring the disease and insect pest infestation. Interculture and
weed management.
- Timely weeding in nursery is very important to get healthy seedlings. If there
are some weeds in the seed bed, remove them manually either by hand or by
hand hoe (thin forked khurpi).
Pest management
- Adoption of plant protection measures in the nursery against the incidence of
insect pest and diseases is very important task to get the healthy seedlings.
- Damping off is a very serious disease affecting seedlings in the nursery.
Timely care for controlling diseases and insect-pests is essential.
- Treat the seed with bavistin or thiram or captan @ 2.5g per kg of seed.
- If the disease appears after the seed emergence, drench the nursery beds with
0.1% solution of brassicol or 0.7% captan or thiram after germination.
- It will be better to remove and dispose off the affected seedlings from the beds
to avoid further spread of pests and diseases.
CONCLUSION :

14 Practical Book : Grade 12

 PRACTICAL NO: 4
VARIETAL CHARACTERISTICS AND IDENTIFICATION OF
MAJOR VEGETABLE
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To be able to identify the varietal characteristics of major vegetable crops
- To know the major characteristic features of different vegetable crops for their
easy identification
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Vegetable crops
THEORY
The vegetable plants differ from each other in their morphological characters. The
vegetative and reproductive parts of plant help in clear identification. Many plants
are very distinct whereas some can be distinguished on the basis of some very
specific characters only. Keen and frequent observations make the identification
easy. It is essential to know the different parts of the plants before undertaking the
identification as these forms the basis of distinguishing characters. Some crops are
very similar in their morphological characters and it is difficult to identify them
especially during early stages of their growth e.g. cole crops.
Major vegetable crops and their cultivars:
A. Cabbage
Recomme
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
nded area
1 Pride of India  Open pollinated variety All areas 1.5-2.5 kg/head
 Round compact head , 1000-1200
 Early variety kg/ropani
 Mature on: 80-85 DAT
2 Golden Acre  Open pollinated variety All areas 1-2 kg/head,
 Round compact head 1000-1200
 Early season variety kg/ropani
 Harvesting: 65-75 DAT
3 Copenhagen  Open pollinated Released: All areas 1.5-2.5
market  Round head 2050 & kg/head, 1200-
 Bluish green leaves Recommen 1500 kg/ropani

Practical Book : Grade 12 15

  Mid season variety ded: 2066
 Ready for market 70-90
DAT
4 Pusa drum  Open pollinated variety All areas 3.5-4 kg/head,
head  Late variety 1800-2500
 Leaf dark green kg/ropani
 Mature at: 110 DAT
 Flat drum head
5 Green  Hybrid variety Registered: MH: 1-4 kg/head
coronet  Flat head 2066 Bhadra -
 Dark green leaves Chaitra,
 Susceptible to black rot
HH:
Baisakh -
Bhadra
6 Super green  Hybrid Registered: Terai, MH 1.5-2.5 kg/head
 Head flat, large and 2066 and HH
green
 Ready for market: 95
DAT
 Susceptible to black &
soft rot
7 Green Top  Hybrid Registered: Terai and 2 kg/head,
 Head semispherical, less 2067 MH 48000 kg/ha
green
 crack resistant & holding
type
8 Nepa Round  Hybrid variety Registered: Terai 2.5 kg /head,
 Plant height: 40-45 cm 2066 75000 kg/ha
 Harvesting: 90 DAT
9 Super  Hybrid Registered: Terai and 1.4-1.6
coronet  Large plant, slightly 2066 MH kg/head
straight
 Harvesting: 75-80 DAT
10 Green Hero  Hybrid Registered: Terai and 2-2.5 kg/head,
 Plant height: 33 cm 2066 MH 45-60 ton/ha
 Harvesting: 55-60 DAT
11 Green Top  Hybrid variety Registered: Terai and 2 kg/ha, 48
 Plant height: 42 cm 2066 MH Mt/ha
 Harvesting: 100 DAT
12 Golden ball  Hybrid variety Registered: Terai and 2-2.5 kg/head,
 Plant height: 24 cm 2066 MH 45-60 Mt/ha
 Harvesting: 48-53 DAT
13 Green stone  Hybrid variety Terai and 1.8-2 kg/head
 Dark green leaves MH
 Harvesting on: 50-55

16 Practical Book : Grade 12

 DAT
14 Snow King  Hybrid variety
15 Snow Queen  Hybrid variety

B. Cauliflower
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Sarlahi Open pollinated, Early Released: Terai 0.5-1 kg/curd,
Deepali variety 2051 18-20 Mt/ha
Curd white as wax, whitish
yellow, round and medium
size
Harvesting: 55-65 DAT
2 Kathmandu Open pollinated local Released: Terai, MH 1-3 kg/curd,
local variety 2070 and HH 25 Mt/ha
Mid season variety with
vigorous vegetative growth
Curd milky white
Harvesting: 110-120 DAT
3 Snow ball 16 Open pollinated Released: Terai, MH 1.5-2.5
Curd: soft, mildly green 2051 and HH kg/curd
Late variety
Harvesting: 120 DAT
4 Silver cup 60 Hybrid variety Released: Terai and 0.6-1 kg/curd
Plant medium size 2066 MH
Curd: white
Harvesting: 60 DAT
5 Milky way Hybrid 2066 MH to HH 0.8-2 kg/curd
Plant medium size
Curd: attractive white
Harvesting: 70-80 DAT
6 Ramy Hybrid 2066 Terai and 0.8-2 kg/curd
Curd: clean white, MH
Plant: large, smooth &
straight
Harvesting: 55-65 DAT
7 Snow crown Hybrid Released: Mid Hill to 1-3 kg/curd
Plant: intermediate 2066 High Hill
Susceptible to downy
mildew
Harvesting:75-90 DAT
8 Snow Hybrid Released: Mid hill to 2-4 kg/curd
Mystique Lately matured, large 2066 high hill

Practical Book : Grade 12 17

 leaves
Required more spacing
Harvesting: 120-135 DAT
9 White Moon Hybrid variety Released: Terai and 48 Mt/ha
Curd: attractive, white 2067 Mid Hill
&round
Harvesting: 125 DAT
10 White Top Hybrid Released: Terai and 42 Mt/ha
Curd: spherical, attractive 2067 MH
and white
Harvesting: 90 DAT
11 Super white Hybrid Released: Terai and 56 Mt/ha
Top Curd: spherical, white, firm 2067 MH
and attractive
Harvesting: 95 DAT
12 Snow Queen Hybrid Registered: Terai and
Straight 2067 MH
Harvesting: 50 DAT
13 Snow Dome Hybrid Released: Terai and
Plant: Straight 2066 MH
Harvesting: 85 DAT
14 White king Hybrid Released: Terai and
Plant medium size 2066 MH
Harvesting: 70 DAT
15 Yukon Hybrid Released: Terai and 56 Mt/ha
Plant height: 40 cm 2066 MH
Harvesting: 75 DAT
C. Brocauli
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Everest Hybrid Registere Terai and 25-30 Mt/ha
green Curd dark green, round d: 2067 MH
and weighty
Plant height: 45 cm
Harvesting: 75-95 DAT
2 Green Open pollinated All areas 600-800
sprouting Early variety kg/ropani
Green color with
sprouting head
Maturity at: 80-90 DAT
3 Calabrese Open pollinated Terai and 1000-1200

18 Practical Book : Grade 12

 Mid season variety MH kg/ropani
Green sprouting head
Mature at: 80-90 DAT
4 Green Piya Hybrid Released: Terai and 16-17 Mt/ha
Plant height: 65 cm 2066 MH
Harvesting: 85 DAT
5 Green Hybrid 2066 All areas 20-24 Mt/ha
Dome 115 Plant height: 20-25 cm
Harvesting: 115 DAT
6 Green Hybrid 2066 All areas 18-24 Mt/ha
Dome 80 Plant height: 20 cm
Harvesting: 80 DAT
7 Sakura Hybrid 2066 Terai and 10-12 Mt/ha
Plant height: 40-45 cm MH
Harvesting: 95 DAT
D. Chinese cabbage
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Spring sum Hybrid Registere Mid Hill 20-25 Mt/ha
60 Plant height: 25-30 cm d: 2067
Harvesting: 75-80 DAT
2 Michil Hybrid Terai and 1-2 kg/head
Late variety MH
Elongated head and light
green leaves
Mature at: 90-95 DAT
3 Asveg No 1 Hybrid variety Mid Hill 1kg/head
Developed by AVRDC and Terai
Early variety
Round head, dark green
leaf
Matures at: 50-60 DAT
4 CR Chum Hybrid 2067 Terai and 45-50 Mt/ha
Dai Gil Plant height: 25 cm MH
Harvesting: 65-70 DAT
5 N7 Hybrid 2067 Terai and 42 Mt/ha

Practical Book : Grade 12 19

 Plant height: 42 cm MH
Harvesting: 95 DAT
E. Cucumber
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Bhaktapur Local Released: Terai and
local Fruits milky white color, 2051 MH
cylindrical, 20-25 cm long
The most attractive fruits
Harvesting: 60-70 DAT
2 Kusle Open pollinated Released: All areas
Fruit light green, 15-25 2051
cm long, White in distal
end
Early variety
Harvesting: 75-80 DAT
3 Ninja 179 Hybrid 2067 Terai and
Fruit: 15-25 cm long MH
Harvesting: 45 DAT
4 Japanese Open pollinated HH and
long green Extra early variety MH
Fruit size: 30-40 cm long
and light green
Maturity at: 45 DAT
5 Sita 888 Hybrid 2066 Terai and 66 Mt/ha
Plant height: 280 -300 cm Mid Hill
Harvesting: 34 DAT
Sahini 1 Hybrid 2066 Terai 68 Mt/ha
Plant height: 280-300 cm
Harvesting: 36 DAT
6 Sahini 2 Hybrid 2066 Terai and 68 Mt/ha
Plant height: 280 -300 cm Mid Hill
Harvesting: 37 DAT
7 Malika 999 Hybrid 2067 Mid Hill 58 Mt/ha
Plant height: 280 cm
Harvesting: 37 DAT

20 Practical Book : Grade 12

 8 Majesty Hybrid 2066 Terai and 50-70 Mt/ha
Plant height: 300 cm Mid Hill
Harvesting: 42 DAT
9 Garima Hybrid 2066 Terai and 55 Mt/ha
Plant height: 300 cm Mid Hill
Harvesting: 45-48 DAT
10 Sanjay Hybrid 2066 Mid Hill 61 Mt/ha
Plant height: 270-300 cm
Harvesting: 35-37 DAT
F. Bottle gourd
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Pusa Open pollinated Terai and 10-15 Mt/ha
summer 45-50 cm long fruit, pale MH
prolific green
long
2 Pusa Open pollinated Terai and 10-12 Mt/ha
summer 30-40 cm long fruit, pale MH
prolific green
round White green and round at
the end
3 Kaveri Hybrid 2066 Terai and 44-56 Mt/ha
Plant height: 150-160 cm MH
Harvesting: 45-50 DAT
4 N. S. 421 Hybrid 2066 Terai and 40-50 Mt/ha
Plant height: 150-160 cm MH
Harvesting: 45-50 DAT
G. Sponge gourd
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Pusachillo Open pollinated Terai and 10-12 Mt/ha
Fruit: smooth, dark green, MH
more or less cylindrical
and 50-60 cm long
Early maturity variety
Harvesting: 45 DAT

Practical Book : Grade 12 21

 2 Kanitpure Open pollinated 2051 Terai and 10-15 Mt/ha
Fruit: light green, 50-75 MH
cm long
Late maturity variety
Harvesting: 100-110 DAT
3 New Hybrid 2066 Terai and 13 Mt/ha
Narayani Plant height: 350-400 cm MH
Harvesting: 45 DAT
4 Gita Hybrid 2066 Terai and 38 Mt/ha
Plant height: 350-400 cm MH
Harvesting: 40 DAT
H. Pumpkin
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Jante Farsi Local variety
White patches appear in
the lamella between vines
Slightly round in shape
2 Madale Local variety
Farsi White patches appear in
the lamella between vines.
Slightly spherical in shape
3 Sonar 022 Hybrid variety 2066 Terai and 55 Mt/ha
Stem length: 400-600 cm MH
I. Squash
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Asare Open pollinated 2051 Terai and
squash Fruit cylindrical, smooth MH
Non-branched stem
Harvesting: 50-60 DAT
2 Zucchini Hybrid variety 2066 Terai and 110 Mt/ha
(Grey and Plant height: 25-30 cm MH
black) Harvesting: 50-55 DAT
3 Long green Hybrid variety 2066 Terai and 25 Mt/ha
Harvesting: 53-58 DAT MH

22 Practical Book : Grade 12

 4 Davinch Hybrid 2066 Terai and 105 Mt/ha
Plant height: 40-50 cm MH
Harvesting: 60-75 DAT
5 Honey Hybrid 2066 Terai and 18 Mt/ha
desert Harvesting: 90-95 DAT MH
6 Anna 101 Hybrid 2066 Terai and 40-50 Mt/ha
Plant height: 36-50 cm MH
Harvesting: 50-60 DAT
J. Snake gourd
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Karnali Hybrid 2066 Terai and 30 Mt/ha
Plant height: 400-500 cm MH
Harvesting: 45 DAT
2 Hariyali Hybrid 2066 Terai and 30 Mt/ha
Plant height: 400-500 cm MH
Harvesting: 50 DAT
K. Bitter gourd
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 PusaDoma Open pollinated variety
usami Fruits dark green, long
and medium thick
2 Hariyokarel Open pollinated 2051 Terai and 20-25 Mt/ha
a Early variety MH
Fruit green, yellow after
ripening, 20-25 cm long,
smooth and ridges
Harvesting: 90-100 DAT
3 NS 433 Hybrid 2066 Terai and 40-50 Mt/ha
Plant height: 155-160 cm MH
Harvesting: 40-50 DAT
4 Ganga Hybrid 2066 Terai and 24 Mt/ha
Plant height: 250-300 cm MH
Harvesting: 40-45 DAT
5 Palee Hybrid 2067 Terai and 50 Mt/ha

Practical Book : Grade 12 23

 Plant height: 700 cm MH
Harvesting: 45 DAT
6 Sambridhi Hybrid 2066 Terai and 35.8 Mt/ha
Plant height: 250-300 cm MH
Harvesting: 40-50 DAT
7 Seti 444 Hybrid 2066 Terai and 27 Mt/ha
Plant height: 250-300 cm MH
Harvesting: 40-50 DAT
8 Komal Hybrid 2066 Terai and 35.6 Mt/ha
Plant height: 250-300 cm MH
Harvesting: 40-50 DAT
9 NS 434 Hybrid 2066 Terai and 40-50 Mt/ha
Plant height: 155-160 cm MH
Harvesting: 40-50 DAT
L. Water melon
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Laxmi 747 Hybrid 2066 Terai 20.5 Mt/ha
Plant height: 400-500 cm
Harvesting: 70-75 DAT
2 Laxmi 767 Hybrid 2066 Terai 20.5 Mt/ha
Plant height: 400-500 cm
Harvesting: 75-80 DAT
3 Asahi Hybrid Japanese variety
Yamato Mid season variety
Produce medium size fruit
Harvesting: 95 DAT
4 Sugar baby Hybrid American variety
Fruit round shape, deep
pink
Harvesting: 85 DAT
1 Laxmi 747 Hybrid 2066 Terai 20.5 Mt/ha
Plant height: 400-500 cm
Harvesting: 70-75 DAT
2 Laxmi 767 Hybrid 2066 Terai 20.5 Mt/ha
Plant height: 400-500 cm

24 Practical Book : Grade 12

 Harvesting: 75-80 DAT
M. Radish
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Chalis dine Open pollinated 2051 Mid Hill 28 Mt/ha
Early variety
Leaves: light green&
straight
Plant height: 35 cm
Harvesting: 35-40 DAT
2 Mino early Open pollinated 2046 All areas 30 Mt/ha
Early-Mid season variety
Leaves: dark green
cerated
Fruit: sweet & tapering
end
Harvesting: 40-45 DAT
3 Pyuthane Open pollinated 2051 Mid Hill 43 Mt/ha
red Late season variety
Leaves: green cerated
with reddish vein
Fruit: reddish white
Harvesting: 70-80 DAT
4 White neck Open pollinated 2051 Terai and
Late season variety MH
Leaves: straight & light
green
Fruit: clean white & mild
pungent
Harvesting: 50-65 DAT
5 Tokinashi Open pollinated 2051 Mid Hill 30 Mt/ha
Late season variety
Leaves: dark green and
long
Fruit: white long with
pungent

Practical Book : Grade 12 25

 Harvesting: 50-55 DAT
6 All season Hybrid 2066 All areas 20-30 Mt/ha
white Plant height: 12-15 cm
Harvesting: 70 DAT
7 Mino early Hybrid 2066 All areas 20-30 Mt/ha
long white Plant height: 12-15 cm
Harvesting: 55-60 DAT
8 Green neck Hybrid 2067 Terai and 50-70 Mt/ha
Plant height: 12-15 cm MH
Harvesting: 40-45 DAT
9 Long white Hybrid 2066 Terai and 40-60 Mt/ha
minong Plant height: 12-15 cm MH
Harvesting: 60 DAT
10 Sinjin Hybrid 2067 Mid Hill 40-45 Mt/ha
Plant height: 10-12 cm
Harvesting: 65 DAT
11 Tropical Hybrid 2066 Terai and 40-60 Mt/ha
cross Plant height: 40 cm MH
Harvesting: 40-60 DAT
N. Carrot
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Nantes Open pollinated 2046 Terai and
Forto Stumpy end MH
Sweet taste and orange
color
Harvesting: 100-120 DAS
2 Chantany Open pollinated 2046 Terai and
Tapering end MH
Red color with sweet taste
Harvesting: 100-120 DAS
3 Kuroda Hybrid 2067 Terai and 15-20 Mt/ha
Mark II Plant height: 10 cm MH
Harvesting: 50-60 DAS
4 New Hybrid 2066 Terai and 50-60 Mt/ha
Kuroda Plant height: 12-15 cm MH

26 Practical Book : Grade 12

 Harvesting: 100 DAS
5 Sigma Hybrid 2066 Terai and 25 Mt/ha
Plant height: 15-20 cm MH
Harvesting: 120 DAS
O. Turnip
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Purple Top Open pollinated 2046 All areas
White Leaves dark green
Globe Root: globe shaped with
purple
Harvesting: 60-70 DAS
2 Fuyunosho Hybrid 2066 Terai and 15-18 Mt/ha
Plant height: 12-15 cm MH
Harvesting: 50-60 DAS
P. Onion
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Nuwakote Open pollinated
local Short day type
Bulb red, flattish round,
chocolate color
Low yield with good
keeping quality
2 Pusa red Short day type
Bulb: red, flat, less
pungent,
Good keeping quality
3 Red Creole Open pollinated 2046 Terai and 175 gm/bulb
Bulb: flat dark red and MH
medium
Harvesting: 160-180 DAT
4 NS 53 Hybrid 2067 Terai and 20 Mt/ha
Bulb: medium, flattish MH
spherical, red color with
pungent taste

Practical Book : Grade 12 27

 Plant height: 40-50 cm
Harvesting: 60-65 DAT
5 Cass Hybrid 2066 Terai and 60 Mt/ha
Plant height: 50-55 cm MH
Harvesting: 250 DAT
6 Venus Hybrid 2066 Terai and 45 Mt/ha
Plant height: 80-85 cm MH
Harvesting: 300 DAT
7 Winter Hybrid 2066 Terai and 45 Mt/ha
silver Plant height: 80-85 cm MH
Harvesting: 300 DAT
8 Agrifound
Dark Red
9 Agrifound
Light Red
10 Nasik Red
Q. Cow pea
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Malepatan Open pollinated 2067 Mid Hill Fresh pod:
Less fibrous, pole type 5.8-10 T/ha
Pod: 25 cm long & light
green Seed: 1 T/ha
Brown seed
2 Kathmandu Open pollinated, pole type Terai and 5-8 Mt/ha
local Pod length: 45-60 cm, light MH Seed: 800-
green and seeds red color 1000 kg/ha
First pickling: 60-70 DAS
3 Sarlahi Open pollinated, pole type Terai and 5-8 Mt/ha
local Pod length: 25-30 cm, light MH Seed: 800-
green and seeds black color 1000 kg/ha
Harvesting: 50-60 DAS
4 Prakash Open pollinated, bush type Terai 1500 kg
Early, high yielding variety grains/ha
Plant height: 40-50 cm
Bean mosaic virus resistant

28 Practical Book : Grade 12

 5 Akash Open pollinated, bush type Terai 900-1000 kg
High yielding variety grains/ha
Plant height: 40-50 cm
Mosaic virus resistant
R. French bean
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Trisulghiusimi Open pollinated 2051 All areas Fresh pod: 6-
Mid type vine 8 Mt/ha,
Pod: 20-25 cm, green, S Seed: 40-50
shape, kg/ropani
Seed: coffee brown, eye
ring is purple color
2 Kentucky Open pollinated 2051 All areas Fresh pod:
wonder Pole type vine 10-12 Mt/ha,
(Ghiusimi) Leaves: green to dark Seed: 60-70
green kg/ropani
Pod: 20-25 cm, large,
thick
Seed: coffee brown
First picking: 70-75 DAS
3 Jhangesimi Plant: bushy type 2051 All areas Fresh pod: 5-
Pod: dark green, 15 cm 6 Mt/ha
long
First picking: 50 DAS
4 Four- season 
Bean (Chaum-
asesimi)
S. Asparagus Bean
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Khumal Open pollinated 2051 All areas Fresh pod: 6-
Red Late variety 8 Mt/ha,
Pod: 30-40 cm, light green
Seed: reddish color
2 Sarlahi Open pollinated early variety 2051 All areas

Practical Book : Grade 12 29

 Black Pod: 25-30 cm, green
Seed: yellowish white later
black color
First picking: 70-75 DAS
3 Yard long Hybrid 2067 All areas Fresh pod:
bean Plant height: 700 cm 50 Mt/ha
Harvesting: 45 DAS
T. Pea
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 SarlahiArkel Open pollinated 2051 All areas Fresh pod: 5-7
Pod: pointed in both side, 7-8 Mt/ha
seed per pod
Harvesting: 60-65 DAS
2 New line Open pollinated 2051 All areas Fresh pod: 6-7
perfection Pod: straight and green color Mt/ha
Mid to late variety
Harvesting: 85-90 DAS
3 Sikkim local Open pollinated 2051 All areas Fresh pod: 8-
Pod: light green color 10 Mt/ha
Harvesting: 105 -110 DAS
U. Tomato
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Pusa ruby Open pollinated 2046 All areas 50-75
Indeterminate and early gm/fruit
variety
High yielding variety 20-25 Mt/ha
Fruit: slight medium, furrows
found, red color
Harvesting: 60-65 DAT
2 Roma Open pollinated 2051 All areas 60-80
Determinate type gm/fruit
Fruit: egg shaped, smooth
and less seeds 20-25 Mt/ha
Harvesting: 60-75 DAT

30 Practical Book : Grade 12

 3 Monopre- Open pollinated 2046 All areas 75-100
scos Medium maturity, popular in gm/fruit
Nepal, indeterminate
High yielding variety 30-35 Mt/ha
Fruit: globe like uniformly
red color and firm with less
seeds
Harvesting: 80-90 DAT
4 NCL-1 Open pollinated 2046 All areas 60-75
Fruit: peach like, slightly gm/fruit
round, thick skin, mildly red
Harvesting: 65-75 DAT 20-25 Mt/ha
5 Coimbatore Open pollinated variety
1 Determinate type
Fruit: round with yellow
color
Released from TNU, India
6 Srijana First hybrid variety in Nepal 2066 Terai and 60-80
Fruit: heart shape, red MH gm/fruit
pointed tip,
Plant height: 4.5-5 m 105-110
Resistant to bacterial wilt Mt/ha
7 Dalila Hybrid 2067 All areas 30 Mt/ha
Plant height: 120 cm
Harvesting: 60-70 DAT
8 Swuraksha Hybrid 2067 Terai and 80-90 Mt/ha
Plant height: 40-50 cm MH
Harvesting: 75-80 DAT
9 Madhuri Hybrid 2067 Terai and 120 Mt/ha
Plant height: 115 cm MH
Fruit: egg shape, attractive
red
Harvesting: 80 DAT
10 NS 2535 Hybrid 2067 Terai and 140-150
Plant height: 35-40 cm MH Mt/ha
Harvesting: 75-80 DAT
11 Jamuna Hybrid 2067 Terai and 120 Mt/ha

Practical Book : Grade 12 31

 Fruit: attractive red, MH
100/plant,
Plant height: 115 cm
Harvesting: 85 DAT
12 NS 719 Hybrid 2066 Terai and 90 Mt/ha
Plant height: 48-55 cm MH
Harvesting: 75-80 DAT
13 Nova Hybrid 2066 Terai and 152 Mt/ha
Plant height: 140 cm MH
Harvesting: 110 DAT
14 Marina Hybrid 2066 Terai and 113 Mt/ha
Plant height: 150 cm MH
Harvesting: 105 DAT
15 Eureka Hybrid 2066 Mid Hill 94 Mt/ha
Plant height: 160 cm and Terai
Harvesting: 102 DAT
16 VL 443 Hybrid 2066 Terai and 140 Mt/ha
Plant height: 135 cm MH
Harvesting:104 DAT
17 Opel Hybrid 2066 All areas 56 Mt/ha
Plant height: 180 cm
Harvesting: 50-90 DAT
18 NS 53 Hybrid 2066 Terai and 90-100
Plant height: 35-40 cm MH Mt/ha
Harvesting: 80-85 DAT
19 Sens Hybrid 2066 Terai and 115 Mt/ha
Plant height: 165 cm MH
Harvesting: 107 DAT
20 Other Gaurav, CL cross, BL, CL
varieties 1131,
V. Chilly (Hot peeper)
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 PusaJwala Open pollinated 2051 All areas
Fruit slender
Fruit: first green and red after

32 Practical Book : Grade 12

 ripening
Early maturity
Harvesting: 60-70 DAT
2 Kathmandu Open pollinated
local Late variety, tall spreading
Fruit long, dark green when
immature and dark red when
ripens
Resistant to heavy moisture
3 Karma 747 Hybrid 2066 Terai and 40 Mt/ha
Plant height: 80 cm MH
Harvesting: 70 DAT
4 Karma Hybrid 2066 Terai and 60 Mt/ha
Plant height: 80 cm MH
Harvesting: 65 DAT
5 Nepa hot Hybrid 2066 Terai and 40 Mt/ha
Plant height: 100 cm MH
Harvesting: 120 DAT
6 NS 1701 Hybrid 2066 All areas 80-90 Mt/ha
Plant height: 90-100 cm
Harvesting: 70 DAT
7 Super Tara Hybrid 2066 Terai and 40 Mt/ha
Plant height: 160 cm MH
Harvesting: 118 DAT
8 Akash Hybrid 2066 Terai and 50-60 Mt/ha
Plant height: 90-100 cm MH
Harvesting: 75-85 DAT
9 Marshal Hybrid 2066 Terai and 35 Mt/ha
Plant height: 150 cm MH
Harvesting: 115 DAT
10 Goli Hybrid 2066 Terai and 70-75 Mt/ha
Plant height: 100 cm MH
Harvesting: 70-80 DAT
11 Anna No 3 Hybrid 2066 All areas 40-44 Mt/ha
Plant height: 20-28 cm
Harvesting: 70-75 DAT

Practical Book : Grade 12 33

W. Sweet pepper
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 California Open pollinated 2051 All areas 200 gm/fruit
wonder Fruit: dark green, uniform 12 Mt/ha
Plant height: 30 cm
Harvesting: 60 DAT
2 Sagar Hybrid variety 2066 Terai and 76.8 Mt/ha
Plant height: 100 cm MH
Harvesting: 65-75 DAT
3 NS 632 Hybrid variety 2066 Terai and 200 g/fruit,
Plant height: 90-100 cm MH 44-50 Mt/ha
Fruit: dark green, uniform
Harvesting: 65 DAT
4 Bharat F1 hybrid variety 150 gm/fruit
Fruit: bell shaped, thick
walled,
Average length and diameter:
8-10 cm
Resistant to tobacco mosaic
virus
5 Chinese Hybrid variety
giant Plants vigorous and prolific
bearer
Fruit: smooth, thick, sweet
flesh and skin is dark green
X. Egg plant
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal Character Year Production
ded area
1 Nurki Mid type plant stem 2066 All areas
Leaf: out spiny
Fruit: 15-20 cm long, soft, 4-5
fruit/bunch,
Harvesting: 60-65 DAS
2 Pusa purple Early variety 2066
long Fruit: purple color, 20-25 cm

34 Practical Book : Grade 12

 long, cylindrical
Harvesting: 70-80 DAS
3 Sarlahi Late season variety
green Fruit: 25-30 cm long, light
green color,
High yielding variety
Harvesting: 80-90 DAS
4 NS 797 Hybrid variety 2066 Terai and 20-24 Mt/ha
Plant height: 50-60 cm MH
Harvesting: 70-75 DAS
5 Arkakeshav Hybrid variety 2066 Terai and 20-24 Mt/ha
Plant height: 50-60 cm MH
Harvesting: 55-60 DAS
6 Anna 806 Hybrid variety 2066 Terai and 30-40 Mt/ha
Plant height: 50-55 cm MH
Harvesting: 75-80 DAS
7 Runako Hybrid variety 2066 All areas 10 Mt/ha
Plant height: 30-40 cm
Harvesting: 60-70 DAS
Y. Okra
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Parbati Early open pollinated 2051 All areas 2o Mt/ha
High yielding variety
Fruit: mid green and fleshy
Plant height: 50-60 cm
Harvesting: 50-60 DAS
2 Arkaanami Open pollinated 2067 All areas
ka
3 Red bhindi Open pollinated
Fruits: red color, long, slender
type, and less seeds
Harvesting: 50-55 DAS
4 Pusa swami Open pollinated
Fruits: dark green, 10-12 cm
long,

Practical Book : Grade 12 35

 Purple pigmentation in the
stem and heavy leaves
Harvesting: 60 DAS
Z. Broad Leaf Mustard
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Khumal Open pollinated 2046 All areas 6 Mt/ha
broad leaf Leaf: broad, dark green, late
bolting,
Harvesting: 50-55 DAS
2 Marpha Open pollinated 2051 All areas 25-30 Mt/ha
Broad Leaf Leaf: broad, light green, no
spiny, late bolting
Harvesting: 50-65 DAS
3 Khumal Open pollinated 2051 All areas 25-30 Mt/ha
Red Leaf Leaf: purple red pigment, light
green without spiny
Harvesting: 60-70 DAS

4 TankhwaR Open pollinated 2051 Mid Hill

ayo Leaf: light green, veins creamy
in color,
Late variety and late bolting
Harvesting: 33 DAS
5 Red giant Hybrid 2046 Mid Hill 1-2 Mt/ha
Plant height: 15-20 cm,
Harvesting: 30-40 DAS
6 Mike Hybrid 2046 Mid Hill 1-2 Mt/ha
Purple Plant height: 15-20 cm,
Giant No bolting in high temperature
Harvesting: 30-45 DAS
A1. Lettuce
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Green span Open pollinated 2066 All areas 4.5 Mt/ha
Plant height: 8-10 cm

36 Practical Book : Grade 12

 Harvesting: 50-55 DAT
2 Green wave Open pollinated 2066 All areas
Early variety
Mid type plant height
Harvesting: 50 DAT
B1. Swiss Chard
SN Variety Varietal character Year Recommen Production
ded area
1 Susag Open pollinated 2051 All areas
Leaf: dark green, firm
Harvesting: 60-80 DAS
C1. Coriander
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Lotus Open pollinated 2066 All areas 5-10 Qntl/ha
Plant height: 15 -25 cm
Harvesting: 25-35 DAS
2 Suravi Open pollinated 2066 All areas 16-20
Plant height: 20-25 cm Qntl/ha
Harvesting: 35 DAS
D1. Asparagus
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 Marry Open pollinated 2066 All areas
Washingto Plant height: 35-40 cm
n 500 W Harvesting: 210 DAT
E1. Potato
Recommen
SN Variety Varietal character Year Production
ded area
1 KufriJyoti Open pollinated All areas 20-25 Mt/ha
Introduced from Simla, India
Egg shaped, slightly white,
pulp slightly yellow
Resistant to blight
2 KufriSindu Open pollinated Terai and 20-30 Mt/ha

Practical Book : Grade 12 37

 ri Introduced from Simla, India MH
Round, red bark, yellow pulp
Resistant to blight and wart
3 Dejire Open pollinated Terai and 15-20 Mt/ha
Introduced from Simla, India MH
Egg shaped with long, bark
red, pulp yellow
Resistant to blight and virus
4 Janakdev Open pollinated All areas 25 Mt/ha
Introduced from IPRC, Lima,
Peru
Medium to large size
Long shaped, bark red and
yellow pulp
5 Khumal Open pollinated All areas 25 Mt/ha
seto-1 Introduced from IPRC, Lima
Peru
Round shaped, bark white and
pulp also white
6 Khumal Open pollinated Terai 20-25 Mt/ha
red-2 Introduced from IPRC, Lima
Peru
Round shaped, bark red and
pulp white
7 Cardinal Open pollinated Terai and 20-25 Mt/ha
Long shaped, bark red and MH
pulp white
Khumalujw 
al

PROCEDURE
Step1
Critically observe the different morphological characters of different crops such as
stem, leaf, flower, fruit etc.
I) root system
- Adventitious

38 Practical Book : Grade 12

 - Tap root system
ii) Stem characteristics
- Hollow or pithy
- Number and length of internodes
- Branched or single stem
- Smooth or ridged
- Leaf arrangement on the stem- alternate or paired
- Presence or absence of any specific characters like tendrils, spines etc.
iii) Leaf characteristics:
- Shape of leaf- long narrow or ovate or lanceolate
- Presence or absence of pubescenc
- Type of leaf – simple or compound leaf, petiolated or sessile
- Presence or absence of leaf sheath
- Leaf margins: serrated or smooth
- Texture of leaf- smooth or rough.
iv) Inflorescence
Fruiting vegetables such as melons, squash, beans, tomatoes, eggplants and peppers
produce flowers followed by fruits.
- Colour of flowers
- Type of inflorescence.
v) Economic part such as colour, size and shape
Step 2
Draw the sketch of each plant.
Step 3
Record the observations with respect to stem, leaf, inflorescence and fruit
characteristics in the data sheet.

Practical Book : Grade 12 39

Step 4
Identify the vegetable crop on the basis of morphological characters and fill the
following observation table.
OBSERVATION
Leaf Stem Flower/inflorescence Fruit
Crop
characteristics characteristics characteristics characteristics
Summer Season vegetables
Tomato
Brinjal
Okra
Chilli
Bell pepper
Cow pea
French bean
Winter season vegetables
Garden pea
Cauliflower
Cabbage
Broccoli
Spinach
Radish
Carrot
Turnip

CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

40 Practical Book : Grade 12

 PRACTICAL NO: 5
FIELD PREPARATION FOR VEGETABLE CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To acquire knowledge about importance of land preparation for vegetable
cultivation.
- To know the method of land preparation.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, different tools for land preparation, farmyard manure, fertilizers,
bavistin, herbicide, insecticide
THEORY
Vegetable are short duration crops. The field operations are specific and time bound.
In order to raise a healthy and disease free crop, one has to be very specific regarding
preparation of field so that the sowing is taken up timely. The fields where
vegetables have to be cultivated should be well worked out to ensure their better
growth and development. Soil preparation consists of drainage, ploughing, disking,
harrowing, changing and rolling. Most of the vegetable crops have small to medium
sized seeds and consequently, proper land preparation by making plots/beds is
important. The optimum seed plots should have mellow soils (smooth and soft)
comprised of fine sized particles, free of clods, weeds and previous crop residues.
Such seed plots enable good contact between soil and seed surface which is required
for uniform water absorption and proper aeration for seed germination and further
plant growth.
PROCEDURE
- The first step is deep mould-board ploughing. A field which is not under
cultivation should be ploughed to a depth of 30 cm or more e.g. a field of native
vegetation or pasture grasses must be ploughed deeply to grow vegetables. Deep
ploughing promotes complete decomposition of plant material. If there is
excessive plant residue in the field, then go for deep ploughing in the fall season.
This allows sufficient time for the decomposition of plant residue prior to spring
planting.

Practical Book : Grade 12 41

- Deep ploughing or turning of the soil in the alternate years is sufficient in the
fields with continuous cropping unless a large amount of crop residue has been
ploughed/turned under.
- Deep chisel point ploughing done in the off years can improve the physical
condition of soil by penetrating and breaking compact soil. This is desirable to
prevent the formation of a compact soil layer at the depth of the plough blade
otherwise it obstruct downward water percolation and normal root development.
Sowing of seed directly over chisel marks permits melons, pumpkin and tomato
roots to penetrate deeply into the soil profile.
- It is important to avoid ploughing or disking in water saturated soils. To test the
proper moisture condition of the soil, compress the soil together in your hand
and if the slice disintegrates readily then that indicates the condition to take up
land preparation. Therefore, it is important to drain the wet soils before taking up
land preparation operation. Taking up operations in wet soils leads to clod
development. Clods do not provide well pulverized seed bed.
- After deep ploughing, disking in two directions should be done for which
tandem and/or offset harrows can be used efficiently. If the field has to be
furrow irrigated, make rough raised beds using bed lifters. Best height of bed is
determined by soil type, intended crop and irrigation method. Raised beds 15-20
cm high ensure good drainage of excessive water, early soil warming, rapid
drying of soil surface, improved soil aeration and less chances of soil borne
diseases especially in case of heavy soils. Mix farmyard manure or other
composts in the field during this operation for proper mixing in the soil.
- Heavy soils often break up in clods and lumps with any type of harrow. By use
of a heavy drag or roller, the lumps/clods may be crushed with comparative ease.
The main use of the drag or roller on heavy soils is to crush the lumps, but on
light soils both are often used to pack and smoothen the soil.
- If soil moisture is insufficient for planting after bed preparation, pre-plant
irrigation is necessary to replenish moisture to field capacity. Once the soil
sufficiently dries, the rough beds should be reworked using a rolling cultivator or
a power rotavator. Do not bring soil to powder form.

42 Practical Book : Grade 12

- Final seed bed preparation can be done with a bed roller or a sled type shaper. It
may be done manually by using spade or hand hoe etc. Seed beds are similar to
the foundation provided for a building. So, field preparation should be done
carefully to harvest good crop. In all these operations greater grower skill comes
with experience and working through trials and errors.
- Traditionally, the land preparation is done by using local plough along with
leveler driven by the bullocks. For raising vegetables at small scale, spade or any
other local implements/tools can be used.
EXERCISE
Prepare a small area for raising vegetable crops. Write the steps in your practical note
book as per data sheet along with your experience.
Name of the crop
Season
Aspect of the garden
Date of pre-sown irrigation, if needed
Plot size
Size of drainage channel
Tools/Implements used
Seed treatment (mention the fungicide and rate)
Fertilizers used and quantity applied
Spacing
Weedicide applied and its rate
Any other operation
State your experience

CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 12 43

 PRACTICAL NO: 6
METHOD OF SOWING AND TRANSPLANTATION OF
VEGETABLE CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To study the methods of seed sowing and transplanting of different vegetable
crops.
- To know the methods and practices of seed sowing and transplanting in the field.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Seeds, Seedling, Khurpi, prepared field bed
THEORY
Vegetables crops are propagated by seeds, except a few like sweet potatoes,
asparagus, garlic, potato and pointed gourd which are propagated vegetatively.
Among the vegetable crops which are propagated by seeds, vegetables like cabbage,
cauliflower, tomato, onion, chilli etc. are first sown in nursery-beds where seedlings
are raised and then transplanted. Both direct seeding as well as transplanting are
practiced in most of the cucurbits, like gourds, cucumber, muskmelon, watermelon,
pumpkin etc. Vegetables which prefer to be planted directly in the ground in their
final growing place include:
- Peas and beans.
- Root vegetables such as beet, carrots, carrots, parsnips and turnips.
- Sweet corn, okra, leafy vegetables.
Transplanting is a most important operation in vegetable crops production especially
in those crops of which seeds are first sown in the nursery bed and later on the
seedlings are transplanted. The knowledge of various aspects like crops suitable for
transplanting, successfully transplanted crops, difficult to transplant crops, when to
transplant, how to transplant, care during transplanting and care after transplanting is
very important for success on transplanting.
The sowing method is determined by the crop to be sown. There are 4 sowing

44 Practical Book : Grade 12

methods in vegetables. Those are:
1. Broad casting
2. Line sowing
3. Transplanting
4. Planting
1. Broad casting
It is the scattering of seeds by hand all over the prepared field followed by covering
with wooden plank or harrow for contact of seed with soil. Crops like, fenugreek,
coriander, root crops, leafy vegetables etc. are sown by this method.
2. Line sowing
It is the dropping of seeds into the soil with the help of implement such as khurpi
and then the seeds are covered by wooden plank or harrow to have contact between
seed & soil. Root vegetables, leafy vegetables, legumes, okra etc. are sown by this
method. It is always preferred over broadcasting method of seed sowing.
3. Transplanting
It is the raising of seedlings on nursery beds and transplanting of seedlings in the
laid out field. For this, seedlings are allowed to grow on nursery beds for about 3-5
weeks. Tomato, brinjal, chilli, capsicum, cabbage, cauliflower are grown by
transplanting.
4. Planting
It is the placing of vegetative part of crops, which are vegetative propagated in the
laid out field. E.g.: Tubers of potato, mother sets of ginger & turmeric, cuttings of
sweet potato.
PROCEDURE
Seed Sowing
- Make shallow furrows 5 cm apart in the field with the help of spade.
- Sow the seeds in furrows with a spacing of 1-2 cm apart to the required depth.
- Cover the seeds with fine sand or leaf mould.

Practical Book : Grade 12 45

- Compact the seed by hand or soil leveler.
- Water the bed lightly with watering can.
PRECAUTIONS
- Quality seeds should be used for sowing.
- The seed should be planted sufficiently near the surface to get the benefit of
the heat of the sun, and deep enough that the root system be in contact with
the moist earth.
- In general seeds should be sown at a depth of four times its diameter.
- The seed bed must be sufficiently firm that the rootlets come immediately in
contact with the soil particles, yet open enough that they readily penetrate.
- Seed treatment should be done before sowing.
- Transplanting of seedling:
- Transplanting should be done as soon as seedlings are about 3 to 5 weeks old,
10 to 15 cm tall and have formed about 3 to 4 true leaves. The seedling for
transplanting should be:
a) Stocky and sturdy.
b) Should have good root system.
c) Should be free from any insect pests and disease infections.
- Hardening of seedlings is done 7-10 days prior to transplanting by holding
water to the plants, exposure of seedlings to partial to full sunlight and
removing the shed nets or polythene sheets.
- The nursery bed should be watered 24 hours before uprooting the seedling for
transplanting so that they may not suffer from desiccation and minimize root
damage.
- Dug up the seedlings. Don’t pulled up.
- The cucurbitaceous vegetables like pumpkin, bottle gourd, ridge gourd etc.
are also transplanted with the seedlings which are uprooted along with a ball
of soil without disturbing or exposing the roots. Other vegetables are planted
with bare roots.
- Treat the seedling with chemicals/ bio-fertilizers.

46 Practical Book : Grade 12

- Plant seedlings in the main field. Crops such as beets, lettuce and artichokes
like their roots to sit right below the soil's surface - just up to the crown (the
place where they begin to grow). Watermelon and cucumbers should be
planted deep enough so that the soil comes up to the base of their first leaves.
While vegetables such as tomatoes, peppers, and eggplant like to be planted
quite deep; the stem and the entire first set of leaves should be buried under
the soil.
- Apply water to plants immediately after transplanting to withstand
transplanting shock.
- Gap filling of dead seedlings with new one is required within one week.
- Irrigate the field regularly till the seedlings establish in the field. Don’t apply
water if the soil is still wet.
- Mulch the crop when seedlings are established in the main field.
PRECAUTIONS
- Always transplant under cool conditions or in the evening so that plants may
establish themselves in the cool weather in the night and may recover from the
shock of transplanting before sunrise.
- Avoid seedlings that have grown too tall. Such seedlings become weak and may
start flowering very early.
EXERCISE
Table : Each student will sow vegetable seeds in a plot of 3m x 2m and observe the
following :
S.No. Vegetable Number Number of seed Total Germination remarks
seed sown of seed germinated on Number of %
sown different days seeds
germinated
5th 10th 15th 20th

Practical Book : Grade 12 47

Table : Each student will transplant vegetable seedling in a plot of 3m x 2m and
observe the following :
S. No. Name of vegetable No. of No. of seedlings Survival % Remarks
seedling seedling dead survived

CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

48 Practical Book : Grade 12

 PRACTICAL NO: 7
METHOD OF IRRIGATION OF VEGETABLE FARMING
A. OBJECTIVE(S)
- To study about the different features of vegetable farming.
- To become familiar with different vegetable farming practices.
B. MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Plants
THEORY
Good irrigation management of vegetable crops is essential to a successful and
profitable harvest. Under watering causes stress with subsequent poor growth and
reduces yield. Over watering can lead to the root and stem disease and leaches
fertilizer away from plant roots. An efficient irrigation system saves time and money
and increase yields. Good irrigation management relies on:
- System design
- Irrigation schedules that suit the crop
- Soil moisture monitoring to ensure application volumes and frequency, match
crop needs and soil water characteristic.
Methods of Applying Irrigation Water
- Choosing the most suitable method of applying irrigation water depends on soil
texture, topography, water supply and the crop.
- Irrigation water is applied to vegetable crops through following different
methods.
C. Overhead irrigation
In this method, water is applied in the form of spray or artificial rain. In non
mechanized farming, this is done by using watering can. The nozzle of the watering
can consists of a perforated tip. The size of the perforation is small when watering is
done in seed beds and bigger as the plant grows.

Practical Book : Grade 12 49

Rotating sprinklers
Rotating sprinklers are the most common among artificial rain devices for vegetable
crops because it is the most flexible. It is capable of applying water at relatively slow
rate while using relatively small nozzle. Application rates less than 2.5 mm/hr are
possible with these sprinkler irrigation.
Requirement of intake rates for overhead irrigation in different soils
SN Soil texture Intake rate (mm/hr)
1 Clay 1-5
2 Clay loam 6-8
3 Silt loam 7-10
4 Sandy loam 8-12
5 Sandy 10-25

D. Surface irrigation
It can be applied to vegetable crops raised on the furrow and flooding methods.
1. Furrow irrigation
This irrigation is done by running water through channels while it moves down or
across the slope of the field. It is applicable only for new crops in the plain fields
with varying size of designed furrows. The irrigation water is placed to wet the
different sized furrows in the plain lands.
2. The flooding method
The flooding method is applicable in areas which have flat to uniform and gentle
slopes with rich and inexpensive irrigation water.
3. Border strip flooding
This is one way of controlling flood irrigation to achieve better water distribution and
economy. It is used only in fields with smooth uniform slopes preferably not greater
than 3%. It is not desirable on fine textured soils with low water intake rate.
4. Drip irrigation
It is also known as tickle irrigation. This method refers to the application of water to

50 Practical Book : Grade 12

the soil through small tubes which are designed to discharge water at rates of 1-8 liter
per hours. Drip irrigation causes enormous saving of water and with increase in
yield.
C. Sub-surface irrigation
It is the least common method of irrigation because of its high initial cost and limited
land suitable for it.
PROCEDURE
- Collect the materials and equipment required for surface irrigation
- Searching the source of irrigation e.g. River, ponds, Borings, tube well etc.
- Make a canal for irrigation from source to irrigated field
- Practice a different method of surface irrigation in the field
EXERCISE
1. What does the good irrigation system relies on?
2. Write down the different method of irrigation in vegetable crops.
3. What are the differences between sprinkle and drip irrigation system?
CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 12 51

 PRACTICAL NO: 8
INTERCULTURAL OPERATION (THINNING, GAP FILLING , WEEDING ,
MULCHING , EARTHING UP STAKING ) OF VEGETABLE
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To study about the different interculture operation practices in vegetable farming
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Plants, Interculture operation equipments
THEORY
Thinning
Removal of excess plants after germination from the crop field or seed bed is called
thinning. Excess plants in a crop field reduce crop yield due to intra crop
competition. As a result there occurs shortage of space, nutrients, light, air and
moisture for individual crop plant which ultimately reduce yield. So, if required,
excess seedlings are removed leaving the strongest ones.
Gap filling
Several frugivorous and granivorous animals and birds feed on many seeds after they
are sown in the field. Moreover, after transplanting many seedlings fail to establish
them in the new environment and dies. Then, Gap filling with seeds staggers the
period of germination and emergence. As a result, ripening periods extend over time
and affect the harvesting which is scheduled once for most crops; and this seriously
impairs the quality of produce.
Weeding
Removal of weeds is known as weeding. Weed is a plant grown where it is not
desired
Objectives of weeding
- To reduce the competition of weeds to crop plants for light, space, water and
nutrients.
- To get expected output (yield) from crop cultivation.

52 Practical Book : Grade 12

- Weeding in dry condition fulfills the objective of natural mulching.
Mulching
Mulch is any material applied to the soil surface of a plant bed to modifying the
microclimate just above or below the soil surface. Depending upon the material used
and the time of the year, mulches can successfully suppress weed growth, reduce soil
moisture loss, reduce fertilizer leaching, overcome unfavorable soil temperature,
manipulate insect populations and/or manage disease problems. Mulching increases
yields, induces earliness, and improves quality of most vegetable crops.
Earthing up
Earthing up consists of lifting up or shifting the soil from the central portion of the
space between rows towards the base of plants so as to cover the plant base or certain
plant organs grown from below or at the soil surface. Earthing up may be done both
under wet and dry conditions of soil.
Staking
Staking and pruning was the earliest method of training tomatoes. With this method,
all suckers (small shoots which grow out of the point of leaf attached to the stem) are
removed with the possible exception of one or two. Normally only one central vine is
allowed to develop from which 4 to 5 clusters of fruit are harvested. Shortly after
field setting, a stake approximately 6 feet in length is driven into the soil near the
plant (within 3 to 4 inches). The plant is then loosely tied to the stake. Tying is
generally repeated 3 to 4 times. The major advantage of staking is an early
concentration of large fruit. However, total fruit yield is usually reduced.

Fig : Staking, tying and pruning tomatoes.

Practical Book : Grade 12 53

PROCEDURE
- Select a suitable vegetable crop for growing according to season
- Practice a method of interculture operation in selected vegetable crops

CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

54 Practical Book : Grade 12

 PRACTICAL NO: 9
TRAINING AND PRUNING OF DIFFERENT VEGETABLES

OBJECTIVE(S)
- To study about the different features of vegetable farming.
- To become familiar with different vegetable farming practices.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Plants
THEORY
Training and Pruning technique deserve attention in yield and quality enhancement
of vegetable crops. Through its effect on improved photosynthetic efficiency, plant
growth, and optimization of vegetative and reproductive balance. Training is defined
as an operation done to a plant by which it is made to develop an orderly frame work
or structure and this is achieved by staking, typing supporting, propping, trellising or
spreading on pergola with or without pruning of plant parts and training is usually
done when the plants/shrubs/vines are young. The training is normally achieved by
pruning.
Crop training can alleviate crop stress of some crops. Vining vegetables such as
bean, tomato, and cucumber prostrate stems along the bed surface. When fruits of
these plants that contact the soil surface they are prone to attack from soil borne
pathogens. Vining plants foliage stay wet longer when exposed to dews, rainfall
and/or irrigation. Foliage diseases are more of a problem. Similarly, weed control
with cultivation can be difficult if herbicides are not used or fail to give control. By
training vines of these crops to grow upward off of the bed surface, these and other
problems can be managed more effectively. Tomato, pole bean and cucumber are the
most commonly trained vegetables.
Pruning is one of the major horticultural practices, which may be defined as “an art
or a science of cutting away a portion of a plant”. The parts more commonly
removed are branches, leaves or both. Obviously, pruning is a subtraction process.

Practical Book : Grade 12 55

Methods of pruning
1. Thinning out
This refers to the removal of the branches entirely from its base leaving no stubs.
2. Heading back
This refers to pruning or cutting of main stem or all of few of the branches leaving a
basal portion. This method is often followed for hedges, ornamental shrub and fore
pruning in grapes.
3. Disbudding or rubbing off
Here the young buds are nipped without giving them the chance to sprout. The buds
may be either vegetative or reproductive. This is practiced regularly in flowering
plants to make the terminal bud to give a bigger flower. Thinning of the flower buds
from the crowded one is essential to get large size quality blooms, as the lesser the
number healthier and bigger the flowers. Generally, disbudding is done mainly for
annuals, herbaceous perennials and roses. This is followed in large flowered cultivars
such as carnation, chrysanthemum, dahlia, marigold and zinnia. Generally one bud
per shoot is retained.
4. Pinching and topping
This refers to the removal of the tip of the shoot alone with a view to stimulate
mainly the lateral growth. This is practiced regularly in „coffee‟ to remove the apical
dominance and to allow the side branches to grow vigorously.
TYPES OF PRUNING
1. Plant Training
Plant training is done during the initial stage. After three years this method
is not applicable.
a) Tying With Stakes
During the windy times, seedlings swing. Therefore to avoid this stick of 10 mm
thickness and 3 feet height is anchored near the seedling and tied to it.
b) Removal of Lower Branches
For apical growth domination, the primary branches of 1 ½ feet height from the

56 Practical Book : Grade 12

ground level are removed.
c) Panthal Training System
To help the vine to climb the panthal with sticks.
d) Training of Timber Yielding Trees
The lower branches are chopped off to help the plants to gain more height.
2. De-Suckering
De – Suckering is generally done as when necessary (atleast twice in a year).
a) Topping
The plant height is maintained thereby the intercultural operations can be practiced
easily. Topping helps in arresting apical growth.
b) Removal of water shoot suckers
Water shoot suckers on removal helps the lateral growth. The plant gets a good
appearance due to removal of water shoot suckers.
3) Handling
It should be done every year.
a) Dead Woods Removal
The dead woods and leaves, which are liable to invite unwanted pathogens, must be
removed.
b) Thinning of Unwanted Branches
Unwanted branches mean unproductive and unself sustainable branches. The leaf
area of such branches will not be enough to satisfy the photosynthetic need of the
branches.
c) Removal of Dead Leaves
This method of pruning is applicable only to Multi – Tier system. The dead leaves of
higher plants can be removed. This will enhance good light harvest by the plants of
lower height in the multi – tier system.
d) Removal of Water Shoot Suckers
This can be done upto 7 years. After seventh year the water shoots are trained to

Practical Book : Grade 12 57

develop into a secondary or tertiary branch.
4. Pruning with Knife
Pruning with knife is generally done once in three years. It is done during summer
showers and after a harvest. It is done only on below pencil thickness branches.
a. Removal of Crisscross Branches
Crisscross branches are those arriving from a lateral branch and growing towards the
center.
b. Removal of Dead woods
All dead woods, which invite unwanted pathogens, must be removed.
c. Give a “Skirt Type” Appearance
The plants should get free aeration from below. Hence a gap of 1 foot is very much
necessary in between soil surface and lower parts of plant. This gives the plant a skirt
like appearance.
d. Center Clearing
The center clearing helps the light penetration inside the stem through the branches.
This helps in maximum light harvesting that in turn leads to maximum
photosynthetic activity and hence good yield.
5. Heavy Pruning
It is otherwise called as parrot – pole pruning. In this method of pruning all unwanted
things above pencil thickness are removed and plant size is ultimately reduced. It is
important to analyze whether heavy pruning is needed or not. Practical experience is
parampunt in deciding the necessity of heavy pruning. Pruning should be carried
only when there is a rich source of carbohydrate. If enough carbohydrate is not
present, two follar nutrient sprays at the interval of 21 days is recommended. This
spray will indicate the pruning site and unit. This is generally done twenty days prior
to rainfall. If there is no rain, then it is essential to irrigate heavy pruned plants. This
type of pruning is done only three times in the entire life span of the plant. A well-
maintained plantation does not require such type of pruning. It’s recovery percentage
is 96-98 only.

58 Practical Book : Grade 12

6. Back Pruning
This is similar to heavy pruning. It is otherwise known as “heading back”. Terminal
portions of all branches are removed leaving their basal portions intact.
7. Collar Pruning (1/2 Foot Cutting)
Carbohydrate resource and rainfall are must in the case of ½ foot cuttings. Also it is a
very sensitive method of pruning. There are only 70 to 80% successes in this type of
pruning. It is done only during the end of the life span of the plant.
a. Purpose of Regeneration
In older plantation we cut the old stem to the height of ½ foot from the ground level
in such a way that it is 45º towards north and swab 1% bordo mixture is must. We
allow the suckers to grow upto pencil thickness graft the buds with good varietal
characters to develop. This method helps in regenerating the entire field with uniform
desirable new material and save 2 years.
b. Purpose of Replanting
When plants have reduced carbohydrate resource, it is not advisable for regeneration
and hence we go for replanting for which pits are taken along the sides of the
previously existing crops and replanting is taken up.
c. Multiple Stem System
If there is a dilemma between taking up either regeneration or replanting, then
multiple stem system is taken up. In this method 2 to 3 suckers or shoots with
different heights and directions are allowed and nearly 2 to 3 crops is obtained.
Generally quick replanting is recommended within this period.
8. Root Pruning
a. Ploughing
Ploughing is generally practiced on farm to remove the inactive feeder roots. This
practice would activate the roots therefore new activate feeder roots are produced
and increase nutrient uptake. It also would help in improving aeration to the plant
root system.

Practical Book : Grade 12 59

b. Forking
When the plants are not responding to the regular course of nutrition and irrigation
management, then we use this type of pruning. We use a fork for digging the soil
upto one – foot depth. Primary roots are cut as a result. Cow dung, nutrients and
water are added to the soil. It helps the plant in forming a new root system. Hence
fresh leaves are formed. It is also done only once in the life span. The soil must be
free of nematode and fungal infection.
PROCEDURE
- Take any material required for training and pruning operation.
- Select a vegetable crop to be pruned.
- Carry out the operation for selected crops.
- After well pruning on selected crop paint the cutting portion with the Bordeaux
paste to avoid the contamination.
PRECAUTIONS
Care should be given during operation to avoid the cracking or hanging of branches.
Appropriate shape of cutting should be given in branches to avoid death.
CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

60 Practical Book : Grade 12

 PRACTICAL NO: 10
WEEDS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT IN VEGETABLE CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To study about the different features of a vegetable farming.
- To become familiar with different vegetable farming practices.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Plants
THEORY
Weed is a plant growing out of place and time. They are unwanted not useful,
persistent and prolific, effectively competing with the beneficial and desirable crop
plants for space, nutrients, sunlight and water, interfere with agricultural operations
and thereby reducing the yield and quality of product.
Characteristics of weeds
- Weeds have rapid seedling growth and ability to reproduce when young e.g.
Redroot Pigweed
- Weeds have quick maturation period or take only a short time in the vegetative
phase e.g. Canada thistle can produce mature seeds in two weeks after flowering.
- Weeds may have dual mode of reproduction. Most weeds are angiosperms &
reproduced by seeds and vegetatively too.
- Weeds have environmental plasticity. Many weeds are capable of tolerating and
growing under a wide range of climatic and edaphic conditions.
- Weeds are often self-compatible but self-pollination is not obligatory.
- Weed seeds exhibit several kinds of dormancy and escape the rigors of
environment and germinate when conditions are more favorable for their
survival. Many weeds have no special environment requirements for
germination.
- Weeds often produce seeds of same size and shape as the crop seeds, making
physical separation difficult and facilitating spread by men.

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- Weeds have great competitive ability for nutrients, light and water and can
compete by special means (e.g. Rosette formation, climbing growth
and allelopathy)
- Weeds are ubiquitous (present everywhere). They exist everywhere, where we
practice agriculture.
- Weeds resist control, including herbicides.
Weed management practices can be separated into five categories: prevention,
cultural, mechanical, biological, and chemical. The most successful weed
management programs will incorporate more than one type of weed control.
Preventative
The first step is site selection. Select a field with low weed populations and treat
problem areas such as poor drainage prior to crop establishment. Control or mow the
weeds at the edges of fields or irrigation furrows to prevent seed formation. Seeds
can move on equipment, wind, animals, and in water and may spread throughout the
field. Weed seed can also move between fields on tractors, blades of cultivators,
heads of harvest equipment, and other methods. All equipment should be cleaned
after completing a task in a field with high weed population. In addition, when
possible limit travel in the field to periods when weed seeds are not mature and when
possible work your cleanest fields first and move towards the ones with the greatest
weed populations. Purchase crop and cover crop seed from reputable sources to limit
the amount of weed seed contamination.
Cultural
A healthy crop is important for competing against weeds. Use healthy transplants or
seed with excellent germination to insure quick canopy closure. Plants stressed by
improper watering (too wet or too dry) or diseases/nematodes are less competitive
(Figure 3). Proper nutrition is important and minimize fertilizer in the row middles
where crops won’t benefit but weeds will. Select the proper row spacing that will
allow for quicker canopy closure.
Crop and variety selection has an impact on weed growth. Crops that are tall or have
large leaves shade the soil surface and prevent weed seed germination. Crops such as

62 Practical Book : Grade 12

cabbage, bean, and corn are very competitive crops. Whereas onions and carrots
allow more light to the soil surface and are less competitive. The same principal of
light penetration to the soil surface can be applied to crop varieties, a variety with
compact or smaller in growth are less competitive compared to other varieties.
Multiple vegetable crops are grown with polyethylene mulch as part of the cultural
practices. The horticultural benefits of plasticulture are reduced water loss, better
nutrient management, and a barrier for fumigation. The weed management advantage
is the control of grass and broadleaf weeds. The plastic mulch prevents light
penetration to the soil surface and inhibits weed germination. White plastic allows
light so select a mulch that has a black underside to prevent light penetration. Grass
and broadleaf weeds still grow in the crop hole and yellow and purple nutsedge can
pierce through the plastic mulch.
Repeating the same crop for multiple years with the same weed management control
will select for certain weed species. Crop rotation allows for different weed control
options to be used in the field. Choose a rotation based on crop competitiveness, use
of mulch or cultivation, and different herbicide mode of actions. Observe plant back
restrictions of herbicide or injury may occur in the crop that follows.
Mechanical
Mechanical weed control includes plows, cultivators, mowers, hoes, and hand-
weeding. Chisel and moldboard plows are used at the beginning of the season and
cultivate deep into the soil profile. This process buries the weed seeds below the
germination zone. Light cultivation with a field cultivator controls small weeds by
cutting the weeds and is shallow to prevent weed seeds from being brought to the soil
surface. A single cultivation provides excellent control of annual weeds; however,
cultivation may break apart pieces of perennial weeds and cause the weed to spread.
Repeat cultivation is important to encourage continuous growth and reduce the
carbohydrates in the storage structure of the weed.
Basket, tine, or finger cultivators lightly disturb the soil surface and control small
weeds by breaking roots or foliage. Basket cultivars will provide control in the row
middles; however, weed control in the crop row will be minimal (Figure 4). Tine or
finger cultivators may provide better weed control in the crop row.

Practical Book : Grade 12 63

Biological
Biological control relies on biological agent to damage a weed species. This method
uses insects, plant pathogens, or animals. Several control agents are host specific
controlling certain weed species (i.e., tropical soda apple leaf beetle and tropical soda
apple, Pakistani hydrilla tuber weevil and hydrilla). The biological agent consumes
several species (i.e., goats, grass carp). Because of the narrow feeding habits this
method is typically used in natural and aquatic areas for a single invasive species.
Biological control is not used in vegetable production due to the multiple weed
species in the field, however, research is being conducted and new techniques may
emerge in the future.
Chemical
Proper herbicide selection can be an effective weed control tool. Herbicides are
classified by their mode of action, which is how they affect plant growth. Herbicides
are separated by application placement, selectivity, and translocation.
Application placement includes foliar-applied or soil applied herbicides. Foliar-
applied herbicides control the weeds after emergence above the soil surface
(postemergence). Proper coverage of the foliage is important for foliar applied
herbicides and a surfactant is often required for proper absorption of the herbicide.
Soil-applied herbicides control the weeds before emergence above the soil surface
(preemergence). Soil-applied herbicides are applied to the soil surface or require
incorporation into the soil surface. Incorporation reduces vaporization of certain
herbicides or places the herbicide closer to the weed seed. Incorporation includes
irrigation, rainfall, or light cultivation. Poor incorporation will result in reduced
efficacy.
Herbicide selectivity results in control of a specific type of weed such as broadleaf or
grass weeds only. Auxin herbicides (2,4-D, clopyralid) control broadleaf weeds only
and are common in grass crops or turfgrass. Carfentrazone and certain sulfonylureas
have excellent control of broadleaf weeds and low to no injury to grass crops. Grass
only/Gramineae herbicides/ACCase herbicides (clethodim, sethoxydim, fluaziflop)
control only grass weeds and can be applied over the top of broadleaf weeds.

64 Practical Book : Grade 12

 Treatment
Herbicide Dose kg a.i./ha Weeds (2) Crops(3)
moment (1)
Herbicide Dose kg a.i./ha Treatment Weeds (2) Crops(3)
moment (1)
Alachlor 2.4 Post Gd Brassica crops, onion
Benfluralin 1.17-1.71 PPI Gd Lettuce, garlic
Bensulide 5.5-7.2 Pre Gd Cucurbits
Bentazon 0.75-1 Post D Green peas, green beans
Chlorthal-dimetil 5.25-9.00 PP/Pre/Post Gd Onion, lettuce, cole,
(DCPA) tomato, green beans
Clomazone 0.18-0.54 PP/Post Gd Pepper, green peas
Clomazone 0.18-0.27 Pre Gd D.s. pepper, cucumber,
squash, pumpkin
Clopyralid 0.70-0.92 Post D Asparagus
Diuron 0.4-2.4 Post Dg Asparagus
Ethalfluralin 0.8-1.7 PP Gd Tomato, pepper, beans,
squash
Halosulfuron 24-48 (g) Pre/Post Dg Squash, cucumber
Ioxinil 0.36-0.60 Post D Onion, leek, garlic
Isoxaben 0.1-0.12 PPI D Onion, garlic
Linuron 0.50-1.25 Pre Dg Carrot, artichoke,
asparagus, faba bean
Metabenztiazuron 1.75-2.45 Pre/Post Dg Onion, garlic, faba bean,
peas
Metribuzin 0.35-0.52 PP/Post GD Tomato, asparagus
Metribuzin 0.10-0.35 Pre/Post GD D.s. tomato, carrots, peas
Napropamide 1.57-2.02 PP/Post Gd Tomato, pepper, artichoke
Naptalam-Na 2.16-2.88 Pre Dg Melon and cucurbits
Oxifluorfen 0.36-0.48 Pre/Post Dg Onion, garlic, cole crops
Oxifluorfen 0.24-0.48 PP Dg Tomato, pepper
Pendimethalin 1.32-1.65 PP/PPI GD Artichoke, cole, lettuce,
leek, pepper, tomato,
onion, green peas
Pendimethalin 0.66-0.99 Pre Gd D.s. onion
Pendimethalin 0.66-1.65 Post GD Onion
Phenmedipham 0.55-1 Pre/Post Dg Beets, spinach

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Piridate 0.22-0.33 Post D Brassica crops
Prometryne 0.50-1.50 Pre/Post Dg Artichoke, celery peas,
pepper, tomato, carrot
Pronamide 0.70-1.50 Pre/Post Gd Chicory, lettuce, endive
Propachlor 4.5 Pre Gd Brassica crops, onion
Rimsulfuron 7.5-15(g) Post GD Tomato
Trifluralin 0.59-1.44 PPI Gd Beans, carrots, celery, cole
crops, artichoke, onion,
pepper, tomato

PROCEDURE
- Grow a vegetable crop.
- Study about the weed infestation on vegetable crops.
- Select a suitable measure of weed control methods.
CONCLUSION
REFERENCE
Singh, K.P. and R.R. Bhandari .2015 Vegetable crops production
Technology.Samiksha Publication, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Arya, P.R. and SantPrakash .2002.Vegetable growing in India.Kalyani Publication,
India.
Thompson ,H.C and Williom C. K. 1978. Vegetable Crops. Tata McGRAW-Hill
Publishing company Ltd. New Delhi.
Bishwajit Choudhary .2000. Vegetables. National Book Trust. India
Intercultural operation. https://cststudy.blogspot.com/

66 Practical Book : Grade 12

 A PRACTICAL MANUAL ON
COMMERCIAL MUSHROOM PRODUCTION AND MARKETING

Practical
Activities Period Remarks
Number
A Cultivation Practices of Button Mushroom 10
1 Selection and Preparation of Strains
2 Spawn Production
3 Method of Compost Preparation
4 Beds Preparation for Mushroom Cultivation
5 Spawning Method
6 Casing Method
7 Handling the Crop
8 Harvesting Method
9 Grading, Packaging and Storage
10 Marketing of Mushroom
11 Processing of Mushroom
B Cultivation Practices of Paddy Straw 8
Mushroom
12 Spawn Production
13 Substrate Selection
14 Growing
15 Cultivation Methods
16 Method of Harvesting
17 Grading, Packaging, Storage of Mushroom
18 Marketing of Mushroom
19 Processing the Mushroom

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 C Cultivation Practices of Oyster Mushroom 8
20 Spawn Production
21 Substrate Selection
22 Selection of Growing Site
23 Spawning
24 Filling
25 Handling of Crop
26 Harvesting Methods
27 Grading, Packaging, Storage and Marketing
28 Processing
D Cultivation Practices of Gyanodarma and 10
Shiitake Mushroom
29 Spawn Production
30 Substrate Selection and Preparation
31 Spawning
32 Handling of Crop
33 Harvesting Methods
34 Grading, Packaging, Storage and Marketing
35 Processing
E Diseases and Pest of Mushroom and their 4
Management

68 Practical Book : Grade 12

 PRACTICAL NO: 1
CULTIVATION PRACTICES OF BUTTON MUSHROOM

OBJECTIVE(S)
- To be able to grow buttom mushroom
THEORY
Button Mushroom (Agaricus spp.) is the most popular mushroom variety grown and
consumed the world over. In Nepal, ts production earlier was limited to the winter
season, but with technology development, these are produced almost throughout the
year in small, medium and large farms, adopting different levels of technology. The
species being grown in most farms is the white button mushroom (Agaricus
bisporus) belonging to Class Basidiomycetes and Family Agaricaceae.
1. Selection and preparation of strains
The first stage in any mushroom cultivation process is to obtain a puremycelial
culture of the specific mushroom strain. Such cultures are now readily purchased
from mushroom specialists; mushroom enterprises or mushroom institutes. Such
cultures have originally been derived from single or multi spore cultures or by tissue
culture from a mushroom of a high yielding and vigorous strain. Many strains have
been developed by considerable genetic breeding programmes. Each type of
mushroom culture generally requires unique substrate formulation for propagation
and maintenance of purity.
2. Spawn production
Spawn is produced from fruiting culture / stocks of selected strains of mushrooms
under sterile conditions. Stock culture may be produced in the lab or may be obtained
from other reputed sources. Fruiting culture is mainly imported from various places
including foreign sources which give higher yield than Indian strains and the spawn
is produced in the lab. The spawn should be of good quality in terms of flavour,
texture and size apart from having potential for high yield and longer shelf life.

Practical Book : Grade 12 69

3. Method of Compost Preparation
The substrate on which button mushroom grows is mainly prepared from a mixture
of plant wastes (cereal straw/ sugarcane bagasses etc.), salts (urea, superphosphate /
gypsum etc), supplements (rice bran/ wheat bran) and water. In order to produce 1
kg.of mushroom, 220 g. of dry substrate materials are required. It is recommended
that each ton of compost should contain 6.6 kg. nitrogen, 2.0 kg. Phosphate and 5.0
kg. of potassium (N:P:K- 33: 10:25) which would get converted into 1.98% N,
0.62% P and 1.5% K on a dry weight basis. The ratio of C: N in a good substrate
should be 25-30: 1 at the time of staking and 16-17: 1 in the case of final compost.
a. Short Method of Composting
During the first phase of compost preparation, paddy straw is placed in layers and
sufficient water is added to the stack along with fertilizers, wheat bran, molasses etc.
The whole thing is mixed thoroughly with the straw and made into a stack (almost 5
feet high, 5 feet wide and of any length can be made with the help of wooden
boards). The stack is turned and again watered on the second day. On the fourth day
the stack is again turned for the second time by adding gypsum and water. The third
and final turning is given on 12th day when the colour of the compost changes into
dark brown and it starts emitting a strong smell of ammonia.
The second phase is the pasteurization phase. The compost prepared as a result of
microbe mediated fermentation process needs to be pasteurized in order to kill
undesirable microbes and competitors and to convert ammonia into microbial
protein. The whole process is carried out inside a steaming room where air
temperature of 60°C is maintained for 4 hours. The compost finally obtained should
be granular in structure with 70% moisture content and pH 7.5. It should have a dark
brown colour, sweet unobnoxious smell and free from ammonia, insects and
nematodes. After the process is complete, the substrate is cooled down to 25°C.
b. Long Method of Composting
The long method of composting is usually practiced in areas where a facility for
steam pasteurization is not available. In this method, the first turning is given about
six days after preparation of the substrate for composting. The second turning is
given on the tenth day followed by third one on the thirteenth day when gypsum is

70 Practical Book : Grade 12

added. The fourth, fifth and sixth turnings are given on the sixteenth, nineteenth and
twenty-second day. On the twenty-fifth day the seventh turning is given by adding
10-15 ml of malathine and the eighth turning is given on the twenty-eighth day after
which it is checked whether there is any smell of ammonia present in the compost.
The compost is ready for spawning only if it doesn’t have any smell of ammonia;
otherwise a few more turnings are given at an interval of three days till there is no
smell of ammonia.
4. Spawning Method
The process of mixing spawn with compost is called spawning. The different
methods followed for spawning are given below:
1. Spot Spawning
Lumps of spawn are planted in 5 cm. deep holes made in the compost at a distance of
20-25 cm. The holes are later covered with compost.
2. Surface Spawning
The spawn is evenly spread in the top layer of the compost and then mixed to a depth
of 3-5 cm. The top portion is covered with a thin layer of compost.
3. Layer Spawning
About 3-4 layers of spawn mixed with compost are prepared which is again covered
with a thin layer of compost like in surface spawning.
5. Casing Method
The compost beds after complete spawn run should be covered with a layer of soil
(casing) about 3-4 cm. thick to induce fruiting. The casing material should be having
high porosity, water holding capacity and the pH should range between 7-7.5. Peat
moss which is considered to be the best casing material is not available in India, as
such the mixtures like garden loam soil and sand (4:1); decomposed cowdung and
loam soil (1:1) and spent compost (2-3 years old); sand and lime are commonly used.
The casing soil before application should be either pasteurized (at 66-70°C for 7-8
hours), treated with formaldehyde (2%) and bavistin (75 ppm.) or steam sterilized.
The treatment needs to be done at least 15 days before the material is used for casing.
After casing is done the temperature of the room is again maintained at 23-28°C and

Practical Book : Grade 12 71

relative humidity of 85-90% for another 8-10 days. Low CO2 concentration is
favorable for reproductive growth at this stage.
6. Handling the Crop
After completion of case run, the cooling of the room is enhanced to bring the air
temperature down to 15-17°C in the room within 2-3 days’ time. Simultaneously, the
fresh air vent is opened to 30% and rest of the air is re-circulated (70%). This brings
down the CO2 conc. in the room to 300 ppm to 1000 ppm, desired for pinhead
formation. Likewise, the RH is also reduced to 85% from 95%. This facilitates
pinhead formation on the casing within a week’s time. The pinheads grow into full
button sized mushrooms in another 3-4 days. The environment parameters are
maintained as above during entire period of cropping. Temperature has influence on
RH and CO2 conc. and hence should be maintained/manipulated, keeping in mind its
effect on other two factors. All the three parameters work in synergy with each other
to induce pinning on casing surface.
7. Harvesting Method
Harvesting is done at button stage and caps measuring 2.5 to 4 cm. across and closed
are ideal for the purpose. The first crop appears about three weeks after casing.
Mushrooms need to be harvested by light twisting without disturbing the casing soil.
Once the harvesting is complete, the gaps in the beds should be filled with fresh
sterilized casing material and then watered.
8. Grading, Packaging and Storage
Grading
Soon after harvest, mushrooms have to be cleaned and graded before sending to the
market or storage in a cool atmosphere. The grading and sorting is done according to
their colour (pure white, slightly brown, damaged), size, stage of the cap or partial
veil (Intact, slightly open, open),length of the stem etc. Grading is generally done on
the basis of size of the button, shape of pileus and opening of gills, also known as
buttons, cups and umbrellas, respectively.
Packaging
The mushrooms for fresh market are packed in plastic containers, perforated

72 Practical Book : Grade 12

polythene bags of 100 gauge thickness or loose bags at varying packages.
9. Storage
a. Short Term Storage
Button mushrooms are highly perishable. Harvested mushrooms are cut at the soil
line and washed in a solution of 5g. KMS in 10L.of water for removing the soil
particles as well as to induce whiteness. After removing excess water these are
packed in perforated poly bags each containing around 250-500 g. of mushrooms.
They can be stored in polythene bags at 4-5°C for a short period of 3-4 days.
The mushrooms are usually packed in unlabelled simple polythene or polypropylene
for retail sale. Bulk packaging does not exist. In developed countries, modified
atmosphere packaging (MAP) and controlled atmosphere packaging (CAP) are in
vogue.
b. Long Term Storage
White button mushrooms are not usually dried by common procedures used in case
of oyster, paddy and shitake mushrooms. Canning is the most popular method of
preserving the white button mushrooms and sizeable quantity of canned produce are
exported to international markets. Besides that, freeze drying, IQF and pickling are
also practiced by some units.
10. Marketing of Mushroom
Mushrooms are highly proteinaceous and are used as food. The white button
mushroom is sold as fresh mushroom or is canned and made into soups, sauces and
other food products. Protein in mushrooms have 60-70 % digestibility and contains
all the essential amino acids. It has medicinal properties also. A high amount of
retene is present in the button mushroom which is supposed to have an antagonistic
effect on some forms of tumours.
Marketing of mushrooms in Nepal is not yet organized. It is the simple system of
producers selling directly to retailer or even to the consumer. Wholesale distributor
is mostly missing. However, trade in the processed (canned and dried) is sizeable and
organized.

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11. Processing of Mushroom
Sun-drying of mushrooms is one of the simplest and oldest methods followed by the
growers from the time immemorial. Due to the difficulties in drying of some of the
mushrooms, new preservation technologies like cabinet drying, canning, pickling,
freeze-drying and irradiation treatment of mushrooms have developed to improve the
shelf life and consumption of mushrooms. A variety of products are being prepared
from mushrooms. These are mushroom pickle, mushroom powder for preparing
mushroom soup, mushroom sauce, mushroom candy etc. Farmers can prepare these
products when there is surplus.
PROCEDURE
- Collect all the required materials for buttom mushroom production and cultivate
a buttom mushroom practically by following above instruction.
CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

74 Practical Book : Grade 12

 PRACTICAL NO : 2
CULTIVATION PRACTICES OF PADDY STRAW MUSHROOM
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To acquire a knowledge about the cultivation practices of paddy straw
mushroom.
THEORY
Paddy straw mushroom (Volvariella volvacea) also known as Chinese mushroom
ranks sixth among the cultivated mushrooms of the world. This mushroom has
several advantages like requirement of the tropical or sub-tropical climate, fast
growth rate, easy cultivation technology and good acceptability at consumers’ level.
The raw materials required for its cultivation are also available in abundance in
country at very nominal rates. The high temperature requirement for its cultivation
also makes it a good choice for adoption in round the year cultivation of mushrooms.
Paddy straw mushroom contains good amount of protein, crude fibres and ash, all
make it a healthy diet along with superior composition of various elements and
essential amino acids.
Spawn Production
Spawn is the mycelium of mushrooms growing in its substratum and prepared for the
purpose of propagating mushroom production. In a more simple language, it is
defined as a medium impregnated with mushroom mycelium that serves as the
“seed” for mushroom cultivation. The different stages of spawn production are as
follows:
1. Starting culture
The starting culture can be obtained from any authorized agency or can be raised by
any of the following three methods:-
- Single spore culture Technique
- Multi spore culture Technique
- Tissue culture Technique

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2. Culture Media
There are several media on which the mushroom cultures can grow, the compositions
of which are given below:
- PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar)medium
- Malt Extract Agar
Substrate Selection
A number of materials, alone or in different combinations are popular as spawn
substrates. The most common substrates are rice straw cuttings, sorghum, wheat &
rye grains, cotton waste, used tea leaves etc.
Cultivation Methods
A variety of waste materials have been used for cultivation of the paddy straw
mushroom, which include: paddy straw, water hyacinth, oil palmbunch, oil palm
pericarp waste, banana leaves & saw dust, cotton waste. Paddy straw mushroom
prefers high cellulose, low lignin containing substrate and produces a family of
cellulolyticenzymes. The cultivation of Volvariella is less sophisticated, less
extensive and can be rewarding in tropical & subtropical climates. The common
method semployed for paddy straw mushroom cultivation are given below:
1. Conventional Method
The different steps involved in this method are as follows:
- Preparation of paddy straw bundles of 0.75 – 1.0 kg (80-95cm long & 12.16cm
wide) preferably from hand threshed paddy.
- Immersing of bundles in clean water for 12-18 hours in a cemented water tank.
- Draining out of excess water by placing bundles on raised bamboo platform.
- Making bed by placing 4 bundles side by side and another four bundles similarly
but from the opposite side, forming one layer of eight bundles. The open ends of
bundles from opposite sides should overlap in the middle.
- Forming of second, third &fourth layer by intermittent spawning between first
and second, second and third and third and fourth layers.
- Spawning on entire surface of the layers of the beds at a space of 5cm apart

76 Practical Book : Grade 12

 leaving margin of 12-15cm from edges.
- Sprinkling of red gram powder over the spawned surface.
- Using 500 gm spawn and 150 gm of red gram powder for abed of 30-40 kg of
dried paddy straw.
- Pressing of bed from the top and covering with clean plastic sheet for
maintaining required humidity (80-85%) and temperature (30-35°C).
- Removing of plastic sheet after 7-8 days of spawning and maintaining
temperature of 28-32°C and relative humidity about 80%.
- Mushroom will start appearing after 4-5 days of sheet removal and will continue
for next 20 days.
- After crop harvest the substrate can be used for manure in the field.
2. Improved cage cultivation
a. Material Required
1. Paddy straw bundles 60/Cage
2. Spawn bottle 2/Cage
3. Wooden cage 1 No. (1 m x 50 cm x 25 cm)
4. Drum 1 No. (100 liters cap.)
5. Polythene sheet 4 meters
6. Binding thread 3 meters
7. Sprayer/Rose can 1 No.
8. Dithane Z-78/Bavistin 1 Pkt.
9. Malathion 1 bottle (250 ml)
10. Dettol/Formalin 1 bottle (1/2 liter)
11. Dao (Hand chopper) 1 No.
12. Thermometer 1 No.
b. Methodology
- Select dry, fresh and hand-threshed paddy straw free from moulds and leafy

Practical Book : Grade 12 77

 portion. Make 25 cm long and 10 cm thick bundles @ 60 bundles for eachcage
(Bed).
- Soak the bundles in boiling water for 20-30 minutes followed by cooling and
draining off excess water.
- Disinfect the cage and polythene sheet with 2% formaline or Dettol solution.
- Arrange ten straw bundles uniformly in the cage as the bottom layer and put
some spawn grains over and inside the bundles. Put up a second layer of ten
bundles over the first and spawn as before. Repeat this till six layers of bundles
are achieved or till the entire cage is filled.
- Spray 0.1% Malathion and 0.2% Dithane Z-78 solutions all over the bed. Cover
with polythene sheet and bind securely with a binding thread.
- Keep the spawned cages in a room or under a shed for spawn run. A warm place
with temperature around 300C is helpful for better spawn run.
- Remove the polythene sheet after the spawn run is complete. Maintain high
humidity in the bed and room till pinheads appear.
- Pinheads appear within 10-15 days after spawning. Harvest mushrooms at the
egg stage.
- Continue water spray for the next flush of mushrooms to appear within a week
or so.
3. Outdoor Method
The best place to cultivate paddy straw mushroom outdoor is under shade created by
trees or creepers. The steps involved are as follows
- Prepare a raised platform either from sand or bamboo poles or wooden planks or
bricks.
- Prepare bundles of 45 cm length and 10 cm width.
- Soak the bundles in running water or in 2% CaCO3 solution.
- Prepare a layer of bundles (5 bundles four layers) followed by spot spawning
and covering spawn with gram dal powder.

78 Practical Book : Grade 12

- Lay 4 layers of bundles during summer months & 7 layers during rainy season.
- Topping of bed with 20 cm deep layer of rice straw followed by covering with
polythene sheet.
- Remove polythene sheet after 4 days & sprinkle water carefully on 6th day.
Water spray can be avoided during rainy season.
- Water should not be sprayed after appearance of mushroom pinheads.
4. Indoor Method
The indoor method can be divided into following 5 steps:
a. Substrate
Cotton waste is the preferred substrate for cultivation of paddy straw mushroom by
this method. However, paddy straw can also be used. Cotton waste is preferred over
paddy straw as it contains more cellulose and hemi-cellulose and the fine texture of
cotton waste helps in retention of moisture, which minimize the water requirement at
later stages of cropping and thus helps in avoiding damage to fruiting primordia.
b. Compost Preparation
Substrate (cotton ginning mill waste or paddy straw + cotton ginning mill waste in
1:1, w/w ratio) is wetted for first 2 days with sufficient treading of the cotton waste
so that it absorbs sufficient water. After 2 days of substrate wetting, poultry manure
is added @ 5.0% to the wetted substrate and pile (1.5 m high x 1.5m wide) is raised.
However, nothing is added in cotton waste substrate. First 2 turnings are given at an
interval of one day each and calcium carbonate @ 1.5%(dry wt. basis) is added at
third turning and the substrate is left for fermentation for next 2 days.
c. Bedding and Pasteurization
After 4 days of outdoor composting, the compost is spread on shelves and the
thickness of the substrate varies in different season from 5 cm to 10 cm. During
summer months lesser thickness is needed, while higher in winter top reserve
moisture & heat. The compost surface is made even by pressing it lightly. After 8-12
hours of compost filling live steam is introduced in the room. A temperature of 60-
62°C is maintained for 4-5 hours for cotton waste compost & 65°C for 6 hrs for
paddy straw compost. After pasteurization, the compost is kept at a temperature of

Practical Book : Grade 12 79

50°C for next 24-36 hrs & followed by its natural cooling. The compost is spawned
when substrate temperature reaches 35°C.
d. Spawning
The compost is spawned with fresh spawn @ 1.5% (dry weight) or 0.4% (wet
weight) basis of the compost. The pieces of broken spawn are inserted at a depth of 2
to 2.5 cm at a distance of 12 to 15 cm apart. The spawn is covered with displaced
compost & the bed is covered with thin plastic sheet. The room temperature is
maintained at 32 to 34°C during spawn run & at this temperature the compost will be
colonized with in next 4-5 days in cotton waste based compost & 5- 6days in paddy
straw compost.
e. Fructification & Crop Management
During spawn running water & light are not needed but a little ventilation is required.
By the end of 3-4 days fluorescent light along with little more ventilation is provided
in the rooms. The plastic sheets are removed on 4-5th day, followed by little water
spray on the beds. The pinhead will start appearing on 5th- 6th day of spawning.
After another 4 to 5 days, the first flush of mushroom is ready for harvest. The
desired conditions needed for better fructification are temperature 30°C, relative
humidity 80%, fluorescent light & intermittent fresh air. The quick growth rate of
this mushroom demands ample supply of water &oxygen. However, watering of the
compost is not quite recommended as it lowers the temperature & suffocates the tiny
primordia, which reduces the yield. Crop management to achieve the best possible
combination of light, temperature, ventilation, relative humidity & compost moisture
is in fact an art of judgement, experience & effort.
Method of Harvesting
The straw mushroom is harvested before the volva breaks or just after it srupture.
These stages are called as the button & egg stages. This mushroom grows at high
temperature with high moisture so it grows very fast and hence it has to be harvested
twice or thrice in a day (morning, noon and evening). This mushroom usually takes
9-10 days from spawning to harvest of first crop and the first flush normally keeps on
for 3 days, which constitutes about 70 to 90% of the expected mushroom yield. The
intervening period of 3 to 5 days require thorough watering and maintenance of

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optimum conditions inside the rooms. The next flush again remains for 2-3 days and
yields less mushroom than the first flush. The second flush adds only 10 to 30% of
the total crop.
Fruit bodies ready to harvest should be carefully separated from the beds/substrate
base by lifting & shaking slightly left or right and then twisting them off. The
mushrooms should not be cut off by knives or scissors from the base of the stalk, as
stalks left behind on the bed/substrate will rot and may be attacked by pests and
moulds leading to decrease in yield in subsequent flushes.
Grading, Packaging and Storage
Grading
Soon after harvest, mushrooms have to be cleaned and graded before sending to the
market or storage in a cool atmosphere. The grading and sorting is done according to
their colour (pure white, slightly brown, damaged), size, stage of the cap or partial
veil ( Intact , slightly open , open ),length of the stem etc. Grading is generally done
on the basis of size of the button, shape of pileus and opening of gills, also known as
buttons, cups and umbrellas, respectively.
Packaging
The mushrooms for fresh market are packed in plastic containers, perforated
polythene bags of 100 gauge thickness or loose bags at varying packages.
Storage
Straw mushroom is more perishable than other edible mushrooms and cannot be
stored at 4°C as it undergoes autolysis at this temperature. This mushroom can be
stored at a temperature of 10 to 15°C for 3 days and little more at 20°C or under
controlled atmosphere storage. The loss of moisture in 4days stored mushroom could
beas high as 40-50% in un packed mushroom, while it can be reduced to 10% on
packaging in perforated polythene begs.
Marketing of Mushroom
Mushrooms are highly proteinaceous and are used as food. The straw mushroom is
sold as fresh mushroom or is canned and made into soups, sauces and other food
products. Protein in mushrooms have 60-70 % digestibility and contains all the

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essential amino acids. Marketing of mushrooms in Nepal is not yet organized. It is
the simple system of producers selling directly to retailer or even to the consumer.
Wholesale distributor is mostly missing. However, trade in the processed (canned
and dried) is sizeable and organized.
Processing of mushroom
Straw mushroom can be processed by canning; pickling and drying. Sun-drying of
mushrooms is one of the simplest and oldest methods followed by the growers from
the time immemorial. Due to the difficulties in drying of some of the mushrooms,
new preservation technologies like cabinet drying, canning, pickling, freeze-drying
and irradiation treatment of mushrooms have developed to improve the shelf life and
consumption of mushrooms. A variety of products are being prepared from
mushrooms. These are mushroom pickle, mushroom powder for preparing
mushroom soup, mushroom sauce, mushroom candy etc. Farmers can prepare these
products when there is surplus.
PROCEDURE
- Collect all the required materials for straw mushroom production and cultivate a
straw mushroom practically by following above instruction.
CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

82 Practical Book : Grade 12

 PRACTICAL NO: 3
CULTIVATION PRACTICES OF OYSTER MUSHROOM
OBJECTIVE(S)

- To acquire a knowledge about the cultivation practices of paddy straw

mushroom.
THEORY
Oyster mushroom (Pleurotus sp.) belonging to Class Basidiomycetes and Family
Agaricaceae and grows naturally in the temperate and tropical forests on dead and
decaying wooden logs or sometimes on dying trunks of deciduous or coniferous
woods. It may also grow on decaying organic matter. The fruit bodies of this
mushroom are distinctly shell or spatula shaped with different shades of white,
cream, grey, yellow, pink or light brown depending upon the species. It is one of the
most suitable fungal organisms for producing protein rich food from various agro-
wastes or forest wastes without composting.
Spawn Production
A pure culture of Pleurotus sp. is needed for inoculation on sterilized substrate. It
takes 10-15 days for mycelial growth on cereal grains. It has been reported that jowar
and bajra grains are superior over wheat grains.
Substrate Selection
Oyster mushroom can be cultivated on a large number of agro-wastes having
cellulose and lignin which helps in more enzyme production of cellulose that is
correlated with more yield. These include straw of paddy, wheat and ragi, stalk and
leaves of maize, millets and cotton, used citronella leaf, sugarcane bagasse, saw dust,
jute and cotton waste, dehulled corncobs, pea nut shells, dried grasses, sunflower
stalks, used tea leaf waste, discarded waste paper and synthetic compost of button
mushrooms etc. It can also be cultivated by using industrial wastes like paper mill
sludges, coffee byproducts, tobacco waste, apple pomace etc.
The popular methods of substrate preparation are:

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- Steam Pasteurization
- Hot Water Treatment
- Sterile Technique (Till method)
- Fermentation or Composting and
- Chemical Sterilization.
Selection of Growing site
Oyster mushroom can be cultivated under local conditions using simple production
techniques. It does well in a wide range of substrate, has a unique taste and high
nutritive value. The incubation room must be dark, cool and dry with temperatures of
between 25 to 28°C. During fruiting the room should be kept humid with
temperatures of between 18 and 23°C and humidity between 65 and 95%. We can
achieve this by spraying clean water on the floor at least three times a day or by
placing water filled pots in the growing room.
The size of the house depends on the number of bags we want to handle. Place your
windows on the upper side of the room. The windows should not be very large. E.g.
it is recommended that for a 10 ft x 10 ft house, the windows be 1 x 1” in opposite
directions. This is to allow fresh air and light into the growing room. Construct
wooden shelves for placing the bags or racks for hanging tubes. Remember, 45 cm
from the ground, 45 cm between shelves and 45 cm from the roof.
Spawning
Freshly prepared (20-30 days old) grain spawn is best for spawning. Old spawn (3-6
months) stored at room temperature (at 20-30°C) forms a very thick mat like
structure due to mycelium aggregation and sometimes young pinheads and fruit
bodies start developing in the spawn bottle itself. The spawning should be done in a
pre-fumigated room (48hrs.with 2% formaldehyde).
Handling of Crop
Handling of crop requires the maintenance of good climatic condition for crop
growth. The following aspect should be maintained properly,

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Light
Oyster mushrooms require light to grow. Place your Oyster kit in a well-lit area to
grow, but not in direct sun light. Regular strong reading light is sufficient. Constant
light is not necessary. It is fine to leave your kit in the dark over night.
Temperature
Your kit will grow mushrooms best at temperatures between 65 - 68 degrees F. You
may have to check around your house with a thermometer to find such a location.
Your kit can also produce mushrooms between 55 - 74 degrees, but it will do better if
kept in the 65-68 degree range.
Water
Water your kit by sprinkling or spray misting water on to the kit’s surface once a
day. In this case you would be watering the black plastic bag with the ¼ inch holes in
it. When the small oyster mushrooms being to force themselves out of the bag holes
in 3-7 days, increase watering to 2-3 times a day. Leave the top of the box liner
pulled up and open to allow air circulation. Air circulation is necessary for normal
mushroom growth. The lack of fresh air will prevent mushrooms from growing and
produce long stringy mushrooms. The liner will help keep some humidity around the
fruiting mushrooms. Be careful not to over water your kit before the baby
mushrooms are formed. Standing water in the bottom of your kit will encourage rot
and contaminants to grow.
Harvesting Methods
The right shape for picking can be judged by the shape and size of the fruit body.
The fruit bodies should be harvested before spore release, by twisting so that the
stubs are not left on the beds (straw). It is advisable to pick all the mushrooms at one
time from a cube and the next flush will appear at one time. More than 500 kg of
fresh mushrooms per ton of dry wheat or straw can be obtained in case of crop
produced in 45-60 days.
Grading, Packaging, Storage and Marketing
Grading
Soon after harvest, mushrooms have to be cleaned and graded before sending to the

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market or storage in a cool atmosphere. The grading and sorting is done according to
their colour (pure white, slightly brown, damaged), size, stage of the cap or partial
veil (Intact, slightly open, open) ,length of the stem etc. Grading is generally done on
the basis of size of the button, shape of pileus and opening of gills, also known as
buttons, cups and umbrellas, respectively.
Packing and Transportation
Fresh mushrooms are packed in perforated polythene bags. Poly pouches containing
crushed ice and overwrapped in paper are put in trays/baskets which are then covered
with thin polythene sheet with sufficient perforation for proper aeration. The pre-
packed pouches (250 or 500 g.) can be transported by roadways in trucks, buses
depending upon the quantity to be transported.
Storage
Short-term Storage
Fresh mushrooms are packed in perforated polythene bags which are directly sent to
the local market situated nearby. Freshly harvested mushrooms can be stored at low
temperature (0-5°C) for 1-2 weeks without loss in quality in case it is to be sent to
the distant markets.
Long-term Storage
Dried mushroom with 2-4% moisture can be stored for 3-4 months in sealed pouches
without any change in taste. The dried produce can be rehydrated in luke warm water
(40-50°C) within 20-30 minutes giving 80-90% of original weight.
Marketing
Domestic marketing does not pose a problem at present because only small quantities
are being traded. As production develops, marketing promotion measures will need
to be undertaken to bolster the demand. Export potential exists and needs to be taken
advantage of by organizing cooperatives of producers linked to commercial units for
processing fresh mushroom into dehydrated powder for export.
Processing of Mushroom
Straw mushroom can be processed by canning, pickling and drying. Sun-drying of

86 Practical Book : Grade 12

mushrooms is one of the simplest and oldest methods followed by the growers from
the time immemorial. Due to the difficulties in drying of some of the mushrooms,
new preservation technologies like cabinet drying, canning, pickling, freeze-drying
and irradiation treatment of mushrooms have developed to improve the shelf life and
consumption of mushrooms. A variety of products are being prepared from
mushrooms. These are mushroom pickle, mushroom powder for preparing
mushroom soup, mushroom sauce, mushroom candy etc. Farmers can prepare these
products when there is surplus.
PROCEDURE
- Collect all the required materials for straw mushroom production and cultivate a
straw mushroom practically by following above instruction.
CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 12 87

 PRACTICAL NO: 4
CULTIVATION PRACTICES OF GYANODARMA AND SHIITAKE
MUSHROOM
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To acquire the proper knowledge about the cultivation practices of gynodarma
and shitake mushroom
THEORY
Spawn production
The shiitake fungus is introduced into logs by inserting the mycelium in the form of
spawn, a process known as inoculation.
Substrate selection and preparation
In their natural environment, shiitake mushrooms grow on dead hardwood tree logs
in a warm, moist environment. The combination of warm temperatures and high
rainfall promotes rapid growth of the shiitake mycelium, the mass of thread-like
structures from which the mushroom grows. A sudden change in temperature or
moisture triggers the fruiting response, resulting in mushroom production.
Because shiitake mushrooms grow on logs, many growers make mushroom
production part of their wood lot management plan. If logs must be purchased, care
should be taken that the proper tree species are selected, only healthy trees are cut,
and the logs are handled properly. Shiitake mushrooms will grow on a wide range of
tree species, with varying degrees of success. In North Carolina, oaks (red, white,
and chestnut) and sweet gum are excellent mushroom producers. Shiitake
mushrooms grow best on logs with a high wood density, a high ratio of sapwood to
heartwood, and bark that is strong but not too thick. Growers are advised to
experiment with the logs available to them. Logs from different tree species re-quire
different management strategies. For example, thin-barked logs must be handled
carefully to prevent damage to the bark. Logs with thin bark also lose moisture faster
than logs with thick bark; therefore, log moisture content must be monitored closely.
Trees should be cut while they are dormant, preferably in the late winter or early
spring before bud break, for two important reasons. First, the shiitake mycelium

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requires carbohydrates for growth, and carbohydrates in the wood are at their highest
levels when the tree is dormant. Second, the bark of the logs must be intact and must
adhere to the logs well. If the trees are cut after the sap begins to flow in the spring,
the bark will have a tendency to “slip” and can be damaged easily. Some growers
have reported success with trees cut in late fall.
Once the trees have been cut, it is important to keep the moisture content of the wood
high and the bark dry until the logs are inoculated with the shiitake fungus. Trees cut
in late winter (November to January) should lie for 10 days with branches intact
before being cut into logs; logs should be inoculated within 90 days of cutting. Trees
cut in early spring (February to March) should also be allowed to lie for 10 days with
branches intact before being cut into logs, but they should be inoculated within one
month, to prevent the establishment of contaminating fungi. If the trees must be cut
into logs at the time of felling, they should be inoculated within two weeks. Growers
should also take measures to prevent moisture loss. If the weather is dry and windy,
store the logs in a bulk pile and cover them loosely with burlap, muslin, or other
porous material. If the weather is rainy, stack the logs loosely to permit good air
circulation, and cover them loosely with plastic sheeting
Spawning
Spawning is carried out by removing the cotton plugs. Grain spawn is introduced @
3% (dry wt. basis) under aseptic conditions. After inoculation bags are placed in
cropping rooms where these are incubated in a 4 h/20 h light/ dark cycles at 22-26°C.
Spawn run may take 60-80 days or more depending upon the strain and
environmental conditions. During the period it goes through mycelial growth,
mycelail coat, mycelial bump, pigmentation/browning and coat hardening phase.
Handling of Crop
For induction of fruiting suitable temperature, high RH, good ventilation and cold
water/ shock treatment are required. After 5-8 days of cold-water (4-6°C) treatment
for 10-20 minutes, initiation of primordia begin. The fruit bodies further develop and
become ready to harvest in next 5-7 days.

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Harvesting Methods
Daily harvesting is required during fruiting periods. Mushrooms should be picked
while there is still a small curl at the edge of the cap, usually five to seven days after
the mushroom first appears. Mushrooms should be cut or twisted off at the base of
the stem. Then they should be gently placed into smooth-sided, clean, vented
containers. Do not stack the mushrooms more than six inches high, to prevent
bruising.
Grading, Packaging, Storage and Marketing
Grading
Soon after harvest, mushrooms have to be cleaned and graded before sending to the
market or storage in a cool atmosphere. The grading and sorting is done according to
their colour (pure white, slightly brown, damaged), size, stage of the cap or partial
veil (Intact, slightly open, open),length of the stem etc. Grading is generally done on
the basis of size of the button, shape of pileus and opening of gills, also known as
buttons, cups and umbrellas, respectively.
Packaging
Bulk shiitake mushrooms are commonly sold in vented, waxed cardboard boxes in
amounts of 3 to 5 pounds. They are also sold in small 2- to 4-ounce retail packages
consist-ing of trays wrapped in a gas-permeable plastic film.
Storages
Cool the mushrooms to a temperature between 32°F and 36°F as soon after harvest
as possible, and maintain the relative humidity at about 85%. Under these conditions,
the mushrooms will store well for at least two weeks. They can also be dried very
successfully. The simplest way to dry them is to place them in a forced-air drier at
about 120°F.
Marketing
Many people can grow shiitake mushrooms. The successful producers, however, are
those who can also market them. If production is small and seasonal, marketing
efforts should be concentrated in the local area. Marketing opportunities include
high-quality restaurants, health-food stores, local supermarkets, farmers’ markets,

90 Practical Book : Grade 12

tailgate markets, newspaper ads, and direct sales. Before large-scale production is
initiated, start negotiations with food service and produce brokers, or negotiate
directly with large-scale buyers of fresh produce. .
Processing
Drying can preserve mushrooms for 6 months to a year. Shiitake are usually air dried
to a moisture content of about 13 percent and have a 7 to 1reduction in weight. This
means that 7 pounds of shiitake mushrooms dried to 13 percent moisture will yield 1
pound of dried mushrooms. Before drying, separate mushrooms by size and grade.
Remove stems completely, as they harden when they dry. Place mushrooms on trays
with gills down. Avoid allowing the mushrooms to touch each other. Mushrooms can
be dried in the sun but the quality is usually lower than it is for those dried in a
controlled-air dryer. Convection or forced-air dryers can be used for air-drying.
Forced-air dryers use fans to move the air. The high temperatures reached during air-
drying denature enzymes and kill bacteria. Home food dryers can be used to dry 2 to
3 pounds of fresh mushrooms at a time.
PROCEDURE
- Collect all the required materials for gynodarma and shiitake mushroom
production and cultivate a straw mushroom practically by following above
instruction.
CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 12 91

 PRACTICAL NO. : 5
DISEASES AND PEST OF MUSHROOM AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To be able to identify the disease appears in mushroom cultivation.
- To be familiar with appropriate control measures of pest and diseases.
THEORY
In mushroom cultivation, one commonly comes across certain undesirable
microorganisms which appear in spawn bags, spawned composts and cropping beds
resulting into spoilage of spawn, hinderance in spread of mycelium during spawn-
run period as well as the fruit body formation during cropping period causing
reduction in yield and sometimes crop failures. These are also known as
contaminants because they are undesirable ones. The contaminants can be divided
into three well defined groups:
1. Insects, mites, nematodes and animal pests: Majority of these contaminants are
big enough to be seen with naked eyes, whereas some like nematodes are
microscopic also.
2. Pathogens: These are the microscopic contaminants that directly attack
mushroom fruit bodies and cause economic damage like viruses, bacteria (
Pseudomonas tolassii , P. spp. ), and fungi ( Verticillium fungicola , Mycogone
perniciosa, Dactylium dendroides, Trichoderma viride).
3. Competitor or indicator moulds: Those contaminants, mostly fungi, which
compete for food in the substratum along with the mushrooms.
Following are some of the established vectors or the sources of contamination:
- Air
- The mycelium or spawn
- The substrate or the compost
- Casing materials
- Grower or workers.
- Equipment, containers and tools.

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- Water
- Insects and animals.
Familiarization with the Insect-Pests, Nematodes and Animal Pests of
Mushrooms
1. MUSHROOM FLIES
Mushroom flies and midges are present in nature wherever fungi are found. Attracted
by the odour of the decomposing manure and vegetable matter as well as smell of the
growing mycelium, the adult female enters the composting yard or the mushroom
farm and lay eggs on the compost, near the mycelium or fruiting bodies. Mainly
three types of flies are known to infest mushroom beds:
1. Phorid fly or dung fly (Megaselianigra , M. halterata)
2. Sciarid fly or big fly (Lycoriellasolani , L. mali , L. auripila)
3. Cecids or gall midges (Heteropezapygmiae , Mycophilaspeyeri )
Nature of Damage
The larvae of flies that emerge from the eggs laid in the mushroom beds, mainly
cause the damage as they directly feed on the white mycelium spread in the compost
and casing layer and also feed on the mushroom fruit bodies making tunnels through
the stems. Mushrooms from the infested mushroom beds are found blackened from
inside and infested with white larvae. Mushrooms infested at the pinhead stage
become brown and remain stunted. Infested oyster mushrooms remain stunted,
wrinkled and bent downwards with a large number of larvae and pupae lying
embedded inside the tissues. Adult flies are the carriers of mites and mushroom
pathogens such as spores of Verticillium, Trichoderma, Mycogone etc. attached to
their hairy body parts.
Lifecycle
The adult female fly lays about 150-170 eggs in the compost or mushroom beds
which hatch into larvae. After feeding for some time, each larva secretes from the
mouth and forms a pupa. As a result of the metamorphological changes inside, larva
turns into an adult fly and comes out of the pupal cell for causing further damage and
breeding. In case of cecid flies, the reproduction takes place paedogenetically. Here a

Practical Book : Grade 12 93

larva becomes mother larva and instead of forming a pupa, a mother larva carries
about 14 – 16 larvae in its body which hatch out after few days. Thus they multiply
in a very rapid manner and so the damage also increases.
Control Measures
- Strict hygiene in the mushroom house.
- Proper turnings during composting process.
- All the doors, windows, exhaust vents and fresh air intake openings should be
fitted with fine wire mesh / mosquito netting.
- All the implements and tools should be cleaned and disinfected.
- Proper pasteurization of the compost at Phase –II with aerated steam at 58-59 ºC
for 3-4 hours and the conditioning at 50-55º C till ammonia is eliminated.
- Dry mixing of the casing materials, proper pre wetting and its sterilization with
steam at 65± 1ºC for3-4 hours or with 5 % formalin solution.
- Use of light traps and sticking bands.
- Storage of raw materials in dry and ventilated rooms.
- The spent compost, after the end of the crop, should always be thrown away at a
distant place.
- Growing rooms, all containers and equipments / implements should be cleaned
with water and disinfected every time before and after the crop is over.
- Spraying beds with safe insecticides like malathion ( 0.05 % ) or DDVP ( 0.025
% ) one week before harvest .
1. MUSHROOM MITES
Mites are very small, spider like in appearance that live and breed in decomposing
vegetable matter feeding on moulds present therein. They differ from the insects in
that the mites have four pair of legs instead of three pairs. The environmental factors
like moist and warm atmosphere (20 – 30 ºC) and closed area support their
exponential growth and a rapid succession of generation. Under adverse conditions,
certain mites have the ability to change into an intermediate stage called a “Hypopus”
which have flattened body, short stubby legs and a sucker plate with which they

94 Practical Book : Grade 12

become attached to moving objects and thus are dispersed or carried away to distant
places, mainly through the mushroom flies and human beings.
Nature of Damage
Mites have the chewing type of mouth part with which they eat mycelia and the
mushrooms. They devalue the crop causing certain spots on the surface and crawl
into the pickers’ body causing discomfort.
Life Cycle
The mites complete their life cycle within 13 days at 75 º F and 36 days at 60 º F as
the high temperature facilitates rapid reproduction. They lay eggs which hatch into
larva, protonymph and trironymph stages before reaching the adult reproductive
stage
Control Measures
- Complete hygiene and sanitation.
- Proper pasteurization of compost and casing materials.
- Drenching mushroom houses and premises with endosulfan, diazinon or dicofol(
0.1% ) .
- Use of fresh polythene bags and chemical sterilization of empty trays and
trolleys.
- Burning sulphur in the empty rooms @ 2-3 lbs /1000 cu.ft.
- Cook out of the exhausted compost with live steam at 71ºC for 8–10 hours.
- Disposal of spent compost at a distant place.
- Spraying beds with safe insecticides like chlorfenvinphos, fenitrothion( 1ga.i /
m² bed area ) or malathion ( 0.05 % ) .
1. SPRINGTAILS
Adults are silver grey to ground colour with light violet band along the sides of the
body and black cellular fields present on the head. Body length is 0.7 to 2.25 mm and
abdomen 4-6segmented. Antennae are 3-6 segmented. Lepidocyrtus sp., L. cyaneus,
Seirairicolor, Achorutesarmatus etc.are the main species damaging mushrooms.

Practical Book : Grade 12 95

Nature of Damage
Springtails cause damage to the oyster, button and shiitake mushrooms. Staying in
groups in the dark, they feed on mycelium in the compost resulting in disappearance
of mycelium from spawn – run compost. Fruiting bodies of button mushrooms are
also attacked causing slight pitting or browning at feeding sites. In oyster and
shiitake, they feed on gills destroying the linings and also eat out the mycelial strands
at base of the stipes.
Life cycle
Springtails enter the mushroom house mainly through organic matter. A female lays
about 10-40 eggs which are smooth, spherical, white and measure 0.19 mm .The
eggs hatch in 30 days at 30 ºC. Life cycle ranges from 70 – 78 days at 26 ºC.
Control methods
- Preventive measures like clean cultivation, proper pasteurization of compost and
casing materials, proper disposal of spent compost, raising the crop above floor
level etc; should be followed.
- Use of 0.05 % malathion as spray for disinfection, mixing diazinon 30 ppm in
compost at the time of filling and spray of insecticides like malathion or
dichlorovos at 0.025 – 0.05 % conc. during spawn run and cropping have been
recommended for their control.
1. BEETLES
Some beetles (Staphylinu ssp., Scaphisomanigro fasciatum) have also been found to
cause serious damage to the oyster mushroom crop. These tiny insects are dark
brown in colour with short elytraand large membranous hindwing and tip of the back
culled over its body. The beetle Scaphisomanigro fasciatum is deep amber coloured,
with its head hypognatus and top of the abdomennot fully covered with elytra.
Nature of Damage
The grubs are found to feed voraciously on the mycelium and spawn, making tunnels
in the stipe, pileus and gills of mushrooms. The infested fruiting bodies turn into
abnormal shape and rotten masses. Grubs are seen hiding in between the gills of
oyster mushrooms. The insect has been found to complete its life cycle within three

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weeks.
Control Methods
- Strict hygiene
- Proper pasteurization of straw.
- Application of chlorinated water or bleaching powder on cropping beds .
1. MUSHROOM NEMATODES
Nematodes, especially the myceliophagous nematodes are the most numerous and
harmful creatures. Also known as eelworms, these are microscopic, thread like round
worms which live in soil, decomposing organic matter, fresh or salt water, also living
on host plants, fungi, insects and animals.
Sources of Infestation
Compost ingredients like wheat straw, chicken manure, horse manure, saw dust, pig
manure, cotton cake; farm soil, air, water; casing materials like FYM, spent compost,
moss pea, forest soi; wooden trays, shelves and other containers etc; can be the
primary source of infestation.
Spread
Once these nematodes get entry into the mushroom house, they further spread
through air, faulty spray of water, workers’ hands, implements, mushroom flies,
mites etc.
Types of Mematodes
The mushroom nematodes are of following two types:
1. Mycophagous or myceliophagous naematodes
2. Saprophagous nematodes
Symptoms of Nematode Infestation
- The compost surface sinks
- Mycelium grows sparsely in patches and turns stingy
- The white mycelium starts disappearing from the infected mushroom compost
leaving only the coarse strands showing black compost mass.

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- Because of the build -up of high population of bacteria, compost becomes soggy
and foul smelling.
- The pinheads turn brown, watery and remain stunted.
- The fruit bodies appear in patches in the beds
- Due to reduction in flush pattern and crop duration, the yield is drastically
reduced.
Nature of Damage
With their tube like mouthparts, they are structurally incapable of causing any direct
damage to mushroom mycelium. Due to their faecal materials, the Rhabditids not
only spoil the structure and quality of composts in cropping beds emitting foul smell,
but also cause inhibition of mycelia growth, reduction in yield due to disturbed flush
pattern, reduction in crop duration and quantitative loss of the sporophores etc.
Life Cycle
The female generally lays eggs which hatch into small larvae. These larvae feed on
the substratum and change into L-1, L-2, L-3 stages until they become adults and
enter the reproductive stage. These have a life span of 7 – 12 days or more which
again depends on the prevailing temperature.
Control Measures
- Complete hygiene
- Proper pasteurization of compost and casing materials
- Drenching mushroom houses and premises with some disinfectants
- Use of fresh polythene bags and sterilization of empty trays or trolleys with
formalin or other disinfectants
- Use of nematode free spray water
- Workers should wear clean overalls, including hand gloves and first harvest the
healthy sporophores carefully and only then the older infected ones
- Cook out of the exhausted compost at 71± 1 º C for 8 – 10 hours
- Disposal of spent compost at a distant place

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- Growing resistant mushroom varieties like Agaricusbitorquis, Pleurotussajor-
caju, Strophariarugoso-annulataetc.
- Nematode trapping fungi like Arthrobotrysoligospora, A. superba , A. robusta
and several species of Pleurotus can be used as bio- control agents against
mushroom nematodes .
- Mixing of plant extracts of neem, castor, groundnu, karanj etc. in compost at the
time of spawning or cropping.
ANIMAL PESTS
1. Rats
Apart from the insect-pests and nematodes, some animal pests like rats also cause the
damage. In fact they feed on the cereal grains used as substratum for spawn
production, but they disturb and damage the beds a lot.
Control Measures
- The rooms should be rat proof and
- Mouse traps should be used
Diseases and Mould Problems in Mushroom Cultivation
While some fungi, bacteria and viruses directly attack mushroom fruit bodies causing
pathogenic diseases, a large number of harmful fungi are encountered in compost and
casing which may not be directly pathogenic , but may cause harm to the crop during
spawn run and cropping stages. These are known as competitor moulds as they
compete for food with mushroom mycelium or " Indicator moulds " as presence of
each mould indicates some deficiency or fault in compost or casing and also called as
" Weed fungi " because of their undesirable occurrence.
A. Fungal Disease
1. GREEN MOULD
It is the most common mould and found in beds of every type of mushroom
cultivated. Mainly three types of fungi Trichoderma ,Penicillium and Aspergillus
have been found to be associated.

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Symptomatology
Green patches appear in compost, spawn , on casing surface and also sometime on
the mushroom surface, engulfing the fruit bodies with its white and greenish
mycelium causing Trichoderma blotch disease.. The pathogenic species of
Trichoderma like Trichoderma harzianum, infect the fruit body, otherwise green
moulds try to spread rapidly and cover entire compost structure depending upon the
quality of compost and environmental conditions .The appearance of green mould
indicates poor quality compost, unhygienic cropping conditions and low compost
pH.
Causal Organism
The most common species of Trichoderma appearing in mushroom beds are
Trichoderma viride , T. koningi , T. harzianum . T. hamatum and several species of
Aspergillus and Penicillium. Rifai in 1969 revised and has proposed nine different
species of Trichoderma . Trichoderma viride is the most commonly occurring weed
mould whereas ,T. koningi and T. harzianum have been reported to be competitors as
well as pathogenic to button mushroom producing blotch symptoms on fruit
Epidemiology
The fungus mainly enters spawn laboratory or the cropping room through air, dust
particles, contaminated overall or hands, infected spawn, contaminated equipments
and machinery; vectors like mites , mushroom flies etc. The compost quality mainly
determines the establishment and growth of this mould. Poor quality compost
prepared under unhygienic conditions, high moisture content, use of straw having
short texture for composting, highly pressed compost heap during composting, low
pH of compost, high humidity etc; are the predisposing factors for the growth and
development of the fungus.
Control Measures
There should be complete hygiene inside and around the mushroom farm, compost
ingredients should never come in contact with the soil particles; proper turnings,
conditioning and pasteurization of compost is a must, use of foot dips at the doors of
cropping rooms, lesser use of formalin sprays, proper cleaning of equipments and

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tools, use of clean and washed clothes, early removal of infected bags etc; are some
of the recommended methods of control.Spray of some fungicides like 0.1 %
carbendazim, thiabendazole ,mancozeb ( 0.2 % ) etc. on cropping beds have been
found effective in controlling the mould.
2. OLIVE GREEN MOULD
During spawn run stage, small military green coloured cockle burrs appear
sometimes in the compost which is easily recognizable and that affect the yield.
Symptoms
The initial signs of fungus consist of appearance of greyish - white aerial mycelial
growth in the compost just after spawning confused with the growth of mushroom
mycelium. These mycelialstructures later on give rise to small, round, military green
or grey green cockle burr (1/16 inch diameter) structure in the compost strictly
adhering to the straw.
Causal Organism
Mainly two fungi Chaetomiumolivaceum and C. globosum have been observed
occurring inmushroom beds.
Epidemiology
The spores of Chaetomiumare already present in the compost or they may come
through air and casing materials. It has been found that during compost
pasteurization process , mainly at peak heator kill stage ( 59-60 º c ) , it should never
be processed in the absence of fresh air or Oxygen. Absence of aeration during peak
heat or kill may lead to compost damage which favours the appearance and
development of these fungi.
Control Measures
In case of pasteurization process, the peak heat or kill should be done at 58 – 59 ºC
for 3-4 hours in the presence of fresh air or aerated steam. Carbendazim ( 0,05 % )
and Dithane Z-78 (.2 % ) have been found to be effective in controlling the mould
only in case of minor damage of the compost.

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1. BROWN PLASTER MOULD
The mould appears as white mycelial growth on the surface of compost during spawn
run stage and also on the casing surface slowly changing colour from white to light
brown to cinnamon brown and finally changed to rusty in appearance.
Causal Organism
Papulosporabyssina is the fungus responsible for causing brown plaster mould. The
mycelium isinitially white which later turns brownish ,septate , producing clusters of
brown coloured , sphericalbulbils.
Epidemiology
The fungus mainly enters through air, spent compost, casing material or the
containers as well as the workers’ hands. But wet, soggy and improperly pasteurized,
bad quality compost favours its rapid growth. It commonly occurs on compost
prepared by long method of composting .A greasy and wet compost is vulnerable to
infection.
Control Measures
Good hygiene and preparation of good quality compost removes the chances of its
appearance and further development. Addition of good quality gypsum is
recommended and proper turning of compost with attentive pasteurization
procedures help in preventing this mould. Sometimes spray of some fungicides like
carbendazim, TPM , TBZ ( 0.05 % ) and Dithane Z-78 or Dithane M-45 ( .025 % )
have been recommended for its control .
1. WHITE PLASTER MOULD
The mould appears as white patches in between or on the compost surface during
spawn run stage or also in the casing layer. It inhibits the growth of mushroom
mycelium causing yield loss to the extent of 5 – 30 per cent.
Causal Organism
Scopulariopsis fimicola is the fungus responsible for the contamination.
Favourable Factors
Under or over-composted conditions having high pH (above 8.0) favour the growth

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of this mould.
Control Measure
Mixing of compost ingredients in recommended quantities, proper wetting and
turning of compost under hygienic conditions have been highly recommended.
Removal of mould from the compost layer and spray of benomyl or carbendazim(
0.05 % ) are recommended for its control . In case of high pH and moisture content
of compost, delayed turning or conditioning and addition of gypsum is
recommended.
1. YELLOW MOULD (CONFETTI, VERT-DE-GRIS, MAT DISEASE)
Since a number of fungi produce yellow mycelial growth in the compost ( yellow
Mould ) or beneath the compost in the form of yellow layer ( mat ) or in the form of
circular colonies (confetti ) or distributed all over the compost ( Vert – de – gris ) ,
these are known by different names .
Causal Organism
The mycelium of Chrysosporium luteumis white at the initial stage that turns yellow
to dark tan with dull white sporulation
Epidemiology
The sources of inoculum are mainly the compost ingredients, chicken manure, air,
spent compost and wooden trays. It further spreads through workers’ hands or
clothes, mushroom flies, mites, faulty technique of water spray (splash) and the
picking tools.
Control Measures
Proper hygiene, removal and burial of mould affected spent compost at a distant
place, proper turning and pasteurization of the compost and casing mixture, use of
light and misty water spray technique, covering the windows and ventilators with
fine wiremesh, use of filtered air and spray of Benomyl (400- 500 ppm ) and Blitox (
0.25 % ) have been found effective in controlling the disease.
1. SEPEDONIUM YELLOW MOULD
This mould is found growing in between the compost layer or at the bottom layer.

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The fungus is initially white but turns yellow or tan coloured at maturity.
Causal Organism
Sepedonium chrysospermum Bull (Fries) and S. Mahesh warianum Muker.have been
found mainly responsible for the occurrence of the mould.
Epidemiology
Spent compost, soil, air, improperly pasteurized compost / casing soil, wooden trays
etc; are the primary sources of inoculum as the thick walled chlamydospores are
resistant to peak heat temperature, if not pasteurized properly. The compost prepared
by long method of composting have more chances to have this mould.
Control Measures
Strict hygiene followed by proper pasteurization of compost at 59 – 60 º C for
minimum four hours is recommended. Uses of filtered air with high efficiency filters
in the cropping rooms and cook out of compost at the end of the crop with steam at
70 º C for 10 – 12 hours are recommended. Sterilization of chicken manure with 2 %
formalin and 0.5 % Carbendazim prior to composting has been found to give good
result.
1. FALSE TRUFFLE
It is the most serious competitor mould found during Abisporus cultivation apart
from its appearancein A. bitorquisbeds. It is commonly found occurring in compost
prepared by long method of composting, especially during summer months.
Symptoms
The mycelial colour is initially white at the start and hence difficult to differentiate
with the growth of the mushroom mycelium, but soon turns creamy yellow at later
stage. It appears as small, white cream coloured mycelium in compost and casing
soil, mainly below the casing. The mycelium becomes thick and develops into
whitish, solid, round to irregular, wrinkled fungal masses resembling calve’s brain
which are the ascocarps of the fungus.
Causal Organism
The ascocarps of Diehliomyces microsporus are fleshy white initially which turn
brown and reddish brown at a later stage.

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Epidemiology
The fungus enters the cropping room through spent compost, chicken manure, casing
material, old infected wooden trays and already infected rooms as the as cocarps can
survive for a period of five years in soil and spent compost and for six months in the
form of mycelium.
Control Measures
The compost should never come in contact with the soil; hence it is always better to
have a cemented composting yard, covered with a roof with slight gradient. Proper
pasteurization of compost (59 º C for 3-4 hours), systematic turning and conditioning
is very much essential for complete elimination of the fungus. The casing soil should
be sterilized at 65±1º C for 6-8 hours. The bed temperature during spawn run and
cropping should be maintained below 18 º C as it is a very critical situation. Cook out
at 70 º C for 10-12 hours will eradicate the fungus as the thermal death point of the
fungush as been reported to be 70 º C for 1 hour (ascospore )and 45 º C for 30
minutes ( mycelium ).
A. Bacterial Diseases
1. Bacterial Blotch and Bacterial pit Diseases ofWwhite Button Mushroom
Symptoms
Circular but irregular, yellowish spots appear superficially on or near margin of the
cap of a wet mushroom which enlarge rapidly under high humidity conditions and
coalesce to form bigger rich chocolate brown spots that are slightly depressed and
slimy.
Causal Organism
The pathogen Pseudomonas tolaasii can devastate the crop of button mushroom and
Psilocybesp. The bacterium has cylindrical (Bacilli) and spherical forms (Cocci) with
its cells measuring 0.4-0.5x1.0-1.7 µ in size, with either one or more flagella (motile
hairs) attached at one or both the ends for locomotion. The bacterium is gram
negative in character.
Epidemiology
The casing ingredients and air borne dust particles are the primary sources of

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infection .Under high humidity and damp conditions, bacterial population increases
on cap surfaces and cause the disease. The bacterium remains suppressed in the
compost, casing, tools and debris under dry conditions, butit becomes active under
high humidity conditions and further spreads through worker’s hands, tools,
mushroom spores, debris, water splash, flies, mites etc.
Control Measures
Avoid heavy water sprays during rainy season, introduce fresh air immediately for
about one hour after water spray and ensure that water droplets do not remain on the
cap surface, remove all the diseased fruit bodies and spray bleaching powder
(0.015%) on the cropping beds at 7 days interval.
1. Yellow Blotch
The yellow blotch disease of Pleurotus spp. is caused by Pseudomonas agarici.
Symptoms
Disease appears as blotches of various sizes in pilei, yellow hazel brown or organic
in colour. The infected fruit bodies turn yellow and remain stunted, turn slimy and
start giving foul smell.
Control Measures
Same as suggested for controlling bacterial blotch disease of button mushroom.
B. Viral Disease
Diseases due to mushroom viruses are also known as La France, Die back disease
and Mummy disease.
Symptoms
The viral diseases are not detectable during spawn – run stage; the initiation of
pinheads is inhibited and vigour of mycelium severely reduced; yield is drastically
reduced, mushrooms appear with distorted shape, delay occurs in appearance of first
flush, sporophores with elongated stem and small caps giving drum stick like
appearance and tilted towards one side appear, mushrooms appear inpatches,
prematrure opening of veils, watery stipe and streaking in the stipe. In case of
oystermushroom, dwarfing or elongation of stem has been observed whereas, no
detectable symptoms appear in infected Volvariella sp.

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Sources of Infection
Infected mycelium and spores released from infected mushrooms are the primary
sources of infection. These viruses further disseminate through worker’s hands,
equipments, infected spawn /mycelium present in the trays / bags and spent compost
etc.
Control methods
Complete hygiene, use of disease free spawn, frequent disinfection with
formaldehyde, aeration strictly through high efficiency filters, cook out of exhausted
compost at the end of the crop with live steam at 70-71 º C for 10-12 hours, regular
disinfection of equipments, wearing clean and changed clothes everytime while
entering a mushroom house, harvesting of mushrooms before opening when the veil
is intact, visitors to be discouraged, wooden trays and shelves to be washed regularly
with 4% sodium pentachlorophenate solution, growing of resistant strains like A.
arvensis and A. bitorquis have been recommended.
PROCEDURE
- Make a visit to mushroom cultivation areas.
- Notice the disease appears and identify the pest and disease.
- Suggest an appropriate control measures to growers.
CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________
Reference
Chang, S-T.and Miles, P.G. 1989. Edible mushrooms and their Cultivations.CRC
Press Inc., BocaRaton, Florida.
Kapoor, J.N.1999.Mushroom Cultivation. Publication and information division,
Indian council of Agricultural Research, Pusa, New Delhi, India .
mailto:info@agrimoon.com
Przbylowicz, P. and Donoghue, J. 1989. Shiitake Growing Handbook: The Art and
Science ofMushroom Cultivation. Kendal Hunt, Dubuque, Iowa.
Yamanake, K. 1997. Production of cultivated mushrooms. Food Review
International 13, 327-333.

Practical Book : Grade 12 107

 A PRACTICAL MANUAL ON
SUSTAINABLE INTEGRATED NUTRIENT AND PEST
MANAGEMENT
Practical Activities Period Remarks
Number
1 Development of the IPM model for important 10
insect pests of selected crops (cereal: rice, maize,
wheat, vegetables: cucurbitaceous vegetables,
cruciferous vegetables, tuber: potato, legumes:
soybean, black/green gram, chickpea, beans) and
their use in field
2 Development of the IPM model for important 10
diseases of selected crops (cereal: rice, maize,
wheat, vegetables: cucurbitaceous vegetables,
cruciferous vegetables, tuber: potato, legumes:
soybean, black/green gram, chickpea, beans) and
their use in field
3 Identification of natural enemies, parasites, 6
predators and their use
4 Collection, preparation and use of locally 5
available botanicals for making pesticides
5 Development of the integrated nutrient 5
management models for major crops.
6 Identification of organic manures and fertilizers 6
7 Preparation and use of organic manures (e.g. 5
vermi-compost, compost, geetimaletc)
8 FYM improvement and use 6
9 Cattle urine collection, improvement and use 6

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 PRACTICAL NO: 1
DEVELOPMENT OF THE IPM MODEL FOR IMPORTANT INSECT PESTS
OF SELECTED CROPS (CEREAL: RICE, MAIZE, WHEAT,
VEGETABLES: CUCURBITACEOUS VEGETABLES, CRUCIFEROUS
VEGETABLES, TUBER: POTATO, LEGUMES: SOYBEAN,
BLACK/GREEN GRAM, CHICKPEA, BEANS) AND THEIR USE IN FIELD
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To study and develop the proper pest management model for important
agricultural crops.
- To know the technique of insect pest management in different agricultural crops.
MATERIAL REQUIRED
Plant protection tools and equipment
THEORY
Pest management decisions represent a compromise between the value of the
product, the extent of the pest damage, the relative effectiveness and cost of the
control measures, and the impact on the environment.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is an ecological approach to pest management. In
general, pest elimination is not a goal of IPM. Rather, IPM seeks to use all
appropriate tools and tactics to keep pest populations below economically damaging
levels while avoiding adverse effects to humans, wildlife and the environment. Based
on information gathered about the pest problem and the crop, management decisions
are made using a combination of control measures that best suit the problem.
Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is the science of combining different options and
practices to achieve long-lasting control of pests. The approach frequently blends
technologies from research with traditional farming practices, to reduce crop losses
in a sustainable manner. The success of IPM depends largely on farmers’ knowledge
and understanding of biological and ecological processes that affect pest status. The
extent to which farmers use that knowledge in the choice of introduced options to
blend with their farming practices also affects how well IPM works. Implementing
IPM causes minimum damage to humans and the environment, and helps to increase

Practical Book : Grade 12 109

the food and income value at harvest. Participatory research and learning approaches,
facilitated, help to increase farm-level literacy in IPM and promote utilization of IPM
to solve pest problems. The rest of this guide is devoted to the need to provide
agricultural workers with knowledge and skills required to plan and promote IPM in
vegetable production. The key areas covered are:
- Field diagnosis to detect and monitor pests and natural enemies, assess crop
damage severity, and develop vegetable pest lists
- Field and laboratory techniques to collect, preserve, and send pest and natural
enemy specimens to experts for identification.
- Pest facts sheets that assist extension workers and farmers to rapidly identify and
understand pests.
- IPM options including guidelines on appropriate use and handling of pesticides
- Experiential learning and dissemination of IPM.
The components of IPM are
- Monitoring (scouting).
- Forecasting.
- Thresholds.
- Choosing management methods.
- Evaluation.
Management Methods of Integrated Pest Management
The following components may be included in integrated method of pest
management
- Ecology based pest management and habitat diversification
- Use of resistant varieties
- Wide hybridization
- Physical methods of pest management
- Mechanical methods of pest management
- Use of plant products / botanicals

110 Practical Book : Grade 12

- Use of insect pheromones
- Biological control of pests
- Use of synthetic organics permissible for use in organic agriculture
- Using farmers wisdom in organic farming
1. Ecology Based Pest Management and Habitat Diversification
Various eco-friendly tactics of pest management have to be integrated so as to avoid
the use of chemical pesticides. The knowledge of interaction among plant, pest,
natural enemies and environment is essential for effective pest management. When
the balance of nature is disturbed by man-made interventions, nature strikes back in
the form of pest outbreaks. Some examples of pest outbreaks are as follows;
White flies in brinjal
Helicoverpa armigera in bhendi
Slug caterpillar in coconut
Eriophyid mite on coconut
Habitat Diversification
Habitat diversification makes the agricultural environment unfavourable for growth,
multiplication and establishment of insect pest populations. The following are some
approaches by which the pest population can be brought down.
- Intercropping system
- Trap cropping
- Fertilizer management
- Planting dates and crop duration
- Planting density
- Destruction of alternate host plants
- Water management
- Crop rotation
- Organic manure
2. Use of Resistant Varieties
Host plant resistance forms an important component of non-chemical method of pest

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management. Several resistant varieties of crops have been evolved against major
pests, through intensive breeding programmes. Development of varieties with
multiple resistances to several pests / diseases is essential.
3. Wide Hybridization
Hybridization between the wide varieties, species or genera results in the
development of new resistance varieties. This process involves the transferring the
resistance gene from resistance to susceptible plant.
4. Physical Methods of Pest Management
The following are some examples of the use of physical methods of insect control
- Use of activated clay at one per cent or vegetable oil at one per cent has been
found to effectively control damage by Callosobruchus chinensis in stored
pulses.
- Solar heat treatment of sorghum seeds for 60 seconds using solar drier kills rice
weevil and red flour beetle without affecting germination of seeds.
- Biogas fumigation for 5 days period caused mortality of eggs, grubs, adults of
pulse beetle C.chinensis (Mohan et al., 1987; 1989)
- Drying seeds (below 10% moisture level) prevents insect development.
- Cold storage of fruits and vegetables to kill fruit flies (1-2° C for 12-20 days).
5. Mechanical Methods of Pest Management
Mechanical Destruction
- Hand picking of caterpillars
- Hooking of rhinoceros beetle adult with iron hook
- Sieving and winnowing for stored product insect control
- Shaking plants- to dislodge caseworm in rice -to dislodge June beetles from
neem trees
Mechanical Exclusion
- Wrapping of fruits against pomegranate fruit borer.
- Banding with grease - against mango mealy bug

112 Practical Book : Grade 12

- Trenching - for larvae of red hairy caterpillar
- Tin barrier - around coconut tree trunk to prevent rat damage
- Rat proof structure in storage go downs
Appliances Based on Mechanical Control Method
- Light trap
- Yellow sticky traps - for attracting aphids and jassids
- Bait trap - fish meal trap for sorghum shootfly
- methyl eugenol trap - for fruit flies
- Probe trap - for stored product insects
- Pheromone trap - for various adult insects
5. Use of Plant Products/botanicals
- Grainge and Ahmed (1988) listed about 2400 plant species with pesticidal
properties (insecticide, acaricide, nematicide, fungicide etc. which are
distributed in 189 plant families).
- Neem oil at 2% and neem seed kernel extract (NSKE) at 5% with liquid soap
0.05% have been proven effective against major pests of rice, sucking pests of
cotton and vegetable.
- Neem cake applied at 250 kg/ha at last ploughing before sowing has been found
effective against cotton stem weevil and soil insects of many other crops.
- Neem seeds contain more than 100 compounds among which azadirachtin has
been found to be biologically most active. The biological effects of neem
products are insect growth regulation, feeding deterrent and oviposition deterrent
effect.
- Commercial Neem formulations are available in market which contain varying
levels of azadirachtin (from 0.03% to a maximum of 5%). In India more than 50
firms are manufacturing neem formulations which are available in different
brand names.

Practical Book : Grade 12 113

 A few examples are given below
Sl. No. Brand name Azadirachtin content
1. Nimbecidine
2. Neem guard
3. Bioneem
4. Jaineem
5. Neem gold
6. Fortune-aza
7. Econeem
8. Achook
9. Neemazal TS
10. Neemazal F

6. Use of Insect Pheromones

Pheromones are chemical substances released by insects which attract other
individuals of the same species. Sex pheromones have been used in pest management
in the following ways
- Monitoring
- Mating disruption
- Mass trapping
These methods can be successfully included in intergated method of pest
management. Sex pheromones of the following insects are commercially available in
market.
Table : Commercially available sex pheromones for insects
Sl. No. Common Name Scientific name
1. American bollworm Helicoverpa armigera
2. Pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella
3. Spotted bollworm Earia svitella

114 Practical Book : Grade 12

 4. Spiny bollworm Earia sinsulana
5. Tobacco cutworm Spodoptera litura
6. Early shoot borer of sugarcane Chilo infuscatellus
7. Yellow stem borer of rice Scirpo phagaincertulas
8. Diamond back moth Plutellax ylostella
9. Mango fruit fly Bactrocera dorsalis
10. Melon fruitfly Bactrocera cucurbitae
C

1. Biological Control of Pests

Management of pests and disease causing agents utilizing, parasitoids, predators and
microbial agents like viruses, bacteria and fungi is termed as biological control. It is
an important component of IPM. The three important approaches in biological
control are
a. Importation
Importation is also called classical method of biological control where bio-control
agents are imported to control a pests of exotic origin.
b. Conservation
This is a method of manipulating the environment to protect the bio-control agents
c. Augmentation
Augmentation aims at mass production of natural enemies / microbial agents and
field release. Genetic improvement of bio-control agents to have superior traits also
comes under this category.
Table : Bio-control agents commercially used in agriculture
S.N. Biocontrol agents Pests managed
I. Parasitoids number
Egg parasitoids
1. Trichogramma sp. Borers, bollworms
2 Telenomusremus Spodopteralitura
Egg larval parasitoid

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 3 Chelonusblackburni Cotton bollworms
Larval parasitoids
4. Braconbrevicornis Coconut black headed caterpillar
5. Goniozusnephantidis Coconut black headed caterpillar
6. Elamusnephantidis Coconut black headed caterpillar
7. Braconkirkpatrici Cotton bollworms
8. B.hebetor Cotton bollworms
Pupal parasitoids
9 Brachymeria spp. Coconut black headed caterpillar
10 Tetrastychus Israeli Coconut black headed caterpillar
11. Trichospiluspupivora Coconut black headed caterpillar
II. Predators
12. Chrysoperlacarnea (Green lacewing) Soft bodied homopteran insects
Cryptolaemusmontrouzieri(Australian Mealy bugs
lady bird beetle)
III Insect Pathogens
13. NPV of Helicoverpaarmigera(Virus) H. armigera
14. NPV of S.litura (Virus) S.litura
15. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bacteria) Lepidopteran insects
16. Beauveriabassiana (Fungus) Many insect pests
IV. Fungal Antagonists
17. Trichodermaviride Root rot and wilt causing fungi
(Rhizoctoniasolani,
Macrophominaphaseolina, Fusarium sp.)
in pulses, cotton, oilseeds, vegetables
18. Trichodermaharzianum
19. Pseudomonas fluorescence Root rot causing fungi in various crops
V. Weed killers
20. Neochetinabruchi and Water hyacinth (Aquatic weed)
Neochetinaeichhornae (beetles)
21. Zygogrammabicolorata (beetle) Parthenium weed
15. Bacillus thuringiensis (Bacteria) Lepidopteran insects

116 Practical Book : Grade 12

Table : Crop wise pest management practices using bio-agents/ botanicals
S.N. Crop Pest Bio-agent
1. Rice Stem borer Trichogrammajaponicum
5 cc/ha/release on 30 and 37 DAT
2. Leaf folder T.chilonis 5 cc/ha/release on 58, 65 and 72
DAT
Neem seed kernel extract 5% spray
3. Gall midge Platygasteroryzae 1 parasitised gall/ 10 m2
4. Sorghum H. armigera HaNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
5. Pulses H. armigera HaNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
NSKE 5% spray Bacillus thuringiensis-
kurstaki 1.5 l/ha
6. Groundnut S. litura SlNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
7 Red hairy caterpillar AaNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
8. Gingelly Shoot webber NSKE 5% spray
9. Coconut Rhinoceros beetle Metarhiziumanisopliae fungus incorporated
in manure pits Oryctesbaculovirus infected
adults may be released
Neem seed kernel powder + sand (1:1) in the
base of three inner most leaves
10. Black headed Release of Goniozusnephantidis 3000 adults/
caterpillar ha under the coconut tree
Release braconid, bethylid, eulophid and
ichneumonid parasitoids from January.
11. Termites Neem oil 5% spray upto 2m height of trunk
12 Mealybugs Neem oil 3% spray on leaves
13. Cotton S. litura SlNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
14. H.armigera HaNPV spray at 3.0 x 1012 POB/ha at 7 and
12th week after sowing
Trichogramma spp. egg parasitoid @ 6.25
cc/ha thrice at 15 days interval from 45 DAS
Chelonusblackburnii (egg larval parasitoid)
and Chrysoperla (predator) @ 1,00,000 /ha at
6,13 and 14th week after sowing

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 15. Sugarcane Early shoot borer Release 125 gravid female of
Sturmiopsisinferens
Granulosis virus on 25 and 50 DAP 1.1 x 105
IBS/ml
16. Internode borer T. chilonis egg parasitoid 2.5 cc/release, 6
releases at fortnightly interval from 4th
month
17 Tobacco S. litura SlNPV spray at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
NSKE 5% spray
18. Citrus Leafminer NSKE 5% spray
19. Grapes Mealybug Cryptolaemusmontrouzieri (beetles) 10 per
vine
Fish oil insecticidal soap 25g/lit
20. Sapota Budworm NSKE 5% spray
21. Tomato S.litura and H. SlNPV and HaNPV at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
armigera (Fruit borers) B.t. 2 g/lit T. chilonis 50000/ha/release
22. Brinjal Shoot and fruit borer NSKE 5% spray
Aphids Chrysoperlacarnea Ist instar larva 10,000 /ha
23 Bhendi Fruitborer Trichogramma 1,00,000 /ha
Chrysoperlacarnea Ist instar larva 10,000 /ha
B.t. 2 g/lit
24. Chillies S.litura and H. SlNPV and HaNPV at 1.5 x 1012 POB/ha
armigera (Fruit borers) B.t. 2 g/lit T. chilonis 50000/ha/release
25. Cabbage, Diamond back moth B.t. 2 g/lit, NSKE 5% Diadegmasemiclausum
Cauliflower (parasitoid) 50,000/ha

PROCEDURE
Collect the required material for IPM practices.
Select the crop for IPM practices.
Conduct the IPM practices in the selected field.

CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

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 PRACTICAL NO: 2
DEVELOPMENT OF THE IPM MODEL FOR IMPORTANT DISEASES OF
SELECTED CROPS (CEREAL: RICE, MAIZE, WHEAT, VEGETABLES:
CUCURBITACEOUS VEGETABLES, CRUCIFEROUS VEGETABLES,
TUBER: POTATO, LEGUMES: SOYBEAN, BLACK/GREEN GRAM,
CHICKPEA, BEANS) AND THEIR USE IN FIELD
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To study and develop the proper disease management model for important
agricultural crops.
- To know the technique of insect disease management in different agricultural
crops.
MATERIAL REQUIRED
Plant protection tools and equipment
THEORY
Integrated Disease Management
Integrated disease management (IDM) came under focus in 1960’s when chemicals
especially, fungicides and insecticides came under the attack from environmentalists
due to the overuse of chemicals that created the problems of environmental pollution,
chemical residues in food stuff, land, water and air, and the associated health
hazards. It focused on the other methods of disease control. It involved cultural,
biological, epidemiological and alternative means to achieve the disease control.
Nowadays, there is an emphasis on disease “management” rather than on “Control”.
“Disease management system that in the context of associated environment and
population dynamics of micro organisms, utilizes all suitable techniques and methods
in a manner as compatible as possible and maintains the disease below economic
level”.
In general, it is the integration of all possible and suitable management techniques
for the control of diseases. The practices which need to be avoided in IDM are
indiscriminate use of fungicides, monoculture and growing of susceptible cultivars.
Integrated disease management ensures the proper management of soil health, use of

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healthy seeds and planting material, application of fungicides when required, field
sanitation, cultural practices which suppress the disease , use of bio-control agents
and growing resistant plant genotypes .
Fundamental Principles of Disease Management
1. Avoidance
Geographical area, selection of a proper field, planting time and disease escaping
varieties, avoidance of insect vectors and wed hosts
2. Exclusion
Quarantine, inspection & certification, seed treatment
3. Eradication
Crop rotation, sanitation, rogouing, soil treatment, heat and chemical treatment to
diseased plant material, use of antagonists
4. Protection
Chemical treatment
5. Immunization
Resistant varieties, induced systemic resistance
6. Therapy
Chemotherapy, thermotherapy
Different Approaches of Integrated Disease Management System
1. The combined control approach
It is a combination of control methods like adjustment in sowing time, seed
treatment, use of resistant variety, chemical spray schedule etc. This type of IDM is
widely practiced as a package of practice where the occurrence of disease is certain
and sure.
2. The surveillance based approach
It is an advanced IDM approach based on crop health monitoring and surveillance,
and takes into account the economic threshold levels or economic damage levels.
3. Advanced integrated disease management system
It involves the high input technology like computer supported forecasting, remote
sensing, scouting, multiple pathogen thresholds, information on life cycle of

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pathogens, epidemiology of diseases, environmental factor and knowledge based
decision making.
Main Components of Integrated Disease Management (IDM)
- Host resistance
- Induced systemic resistance
- Genetically improved plants
- Cultural practices
- Physical methods
- Plant nutrition
- Biological control
- Use of pesticides of plant origin
- Judicious use of chemicals
1. Host resistance
Resistant varieties can be the simple, practical, effective and economical method of
plant disease control. Apart from ensuring protection from diseases, they can also
save time, money and energy spent on other methods of control and avoids
environmental pollution with chemicals. They are the only practical method of
controlling such diseases as wilts, rusts and others caused by viruses in which
chemical control is very expensive and impractical.
In low value crops, where other methods are often too expensive, development of
varieties resistant to common and important diseases can be an acceptable
recommendation for the farmers. Disease resistance in plants is also governed by
their genetic constitution and can be monogenic, oligogenic or polygenic.
Advantages of Host Plant Resistance
- No adverse effect on environment and man, rather the resistant cultivars put a
constant and cumulative effect on pathogen.
- Host plant involves no extra cost to the farmers and does not require inputs and
application skills.
Disadvantages of Host Plant Resistance
- The development of pathogen resistant variety takes 5-10 years.

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- Host plant resistance can put a selection pressure on pathogen to the extent that
it may lead to the evolution of new biotypes of pathogen.
- Introduction of varieties with resistance to one pathogen leads to the emergence
of new pathogen problem because of the absence of competition from the key
pathogen.
2. Induction of Host Resistance
Plants actively respond to a variety of environmental stimuli, including gravity, light,
temperature, physical stress, water and nutrient availability. Plants also respond to a
variety of chemical stimuli produced by soil- and plant-associated microbes. Such
stimuli can either induce or condition plant host defence through biochemical
changes that enhance resistance against subsequent infection by a variety of
pathogens. Induction of host defence can be local and/or systemic in nature
depending on the type, source, and amount of stimuli.
The systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is mediated by salicylic acid (SA), a
compound which is frequently produced following pathogen infection and typically
leads to the expression of pathogenesis-related (PR) proteins. These PR proteins
include a variety of enzymes, some of which may act directly to lyse the invading
cells, reinforce cell wall boundaries to resist infections, or induce localized cell
death.
Whereas, the induced systemic resistance (ISR) is mediated by jasmonic acid (JA)
and/or ethylene, which are produced following applications of some non-pathogenic
rhizobacteria.Interestingly, the SA- and JA- dependent defense pathways can be
mutually antagonistic, and some bacterial pathogens take advantage of this to
overcome the SAR. Pathogenic strains of Pseudomonas syringae produce coronatine,
which is similar to JA, to overcome the SA-mediated pathway.
Because various host-resistance pathways can be activated to varying degrees by
different microbes and insect feeding, it is plausible that multiple stimuli are
constantly being received and processed by the plant. Thus, the magnitude and
duration of host defence induction will likely vary over time.
3. Genetically Improved Plants
Genes from plants, microbes and animals can be combined and introduced into the

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living cells of other organisms, and the organisms that have genes from other species
inserted into their genome are called transgenics.
Production of disease resistant transgenic plants has been achieved by this method;
certain genes are inserted into plant genome that confers resistance to pathogens such
as viruses, fungi and insects. These transgenic plants reduce the pesticide use and
thereby provide environmental benefits while reducing farmers cost. Genetically
modified plants are generally used to control the viral diseases, e.g., a transgenic
papaya cultivar ‘Rainbow’ has been developed which is resistant to papaya ring spot
virus in the US.
4. Integration of Different Cultural Practices
Different cultural practices like crop rotation, mulching, tillage, different soil
amendments, soil solarization, soil sterilization, change in date of sowing, plant
spacing etc. when applied alone are able to control diseases up to some extent; but
when these cultural practices are combined with each other, they not only control the
diseases but also increase the yield of crops.
- The inter-cropping of maize and sorghum with peppers serves as barriers against
the aphid vectors of pepper veinal mottle virus and reduces the virus spread.
- Soil solarization for 40 days along with the addition of cabbage, cauliflower,
broccoli and sarson leaf residues controlled the gladiolus wilt (Fusarium
oxysporum, F. gladioli) by 74.6% whereas soil solarization (for 40 days) alone
reduced the gladiolus wilt by 67.3% compared to the un-solarized control.
5. Physical Methods of Disease Control
Solar heat treatment of the water soaked wheat seed in May-June for 5-6 hours
provides good control of loose smut of wheat. Most of the post-harvest diseases can
be avoided by irradiation, refrigeration, Controlled Atmosphere Storage etc.
- Soil solarization has been used to control soil borne diseases caused by
otherwise difficult to control fungi, e.g., Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium spp.,
Sclerotium etc.
- In this the soil beds are first irrigated and then covered with thin (20 µm)
transparent mulch in the months of April, May and June.

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- It raised the soil temperatures in some cases up to 50°C, which is deleterious to
many plant pathogens in the soil.
- It has been used in raising disease free nursery in tropical and subtropical
climatic areas. It also provides excellent weed control.
- Hot water treatment of cabbage seed at 52°C for 15-20 minutes controls black
rot disease (caused by Xanthomonas campestri spv. campestris).
6. Plant Nutrition
The nutrition of crop plants has direct effect on the diseases, and is an important
component of integrated disease management (IDM). Both deficient and over-
nourished plants invite high incidence of diseases as well as loss in yield and quality
of produce and products. The amount, proportion, time and method of application of
fertilizers affect the metabolism of plants and thus occurrence and severity of
diseases. Fertilization with both P and K significantly reduces the leaf rust damage
and powdery mildew infection in wheat.
The deficiency of macronutrients may also affect the incidence of many diseases.
- Potassium (K) plays an important role in survival of crop plants under
environmental stress conditions.
- Potassium also affects the reaction of plants to pests or diseases by having direct
effect on the pathogen number, development, multiplication, survival, vigour
and length of life cycle.
7. Biological Control
Biocontrol agents are used as a core component of integrated disease management
system. The science and art of using living organisms as bio control agents is an
important component of environment friendly disease management procedures.
These biocontrol agents are of enormous value in integrated diseases management
for sustainable agriculture where they often replace the need of fungicides. The
biocontrol agents either suppress the pathogen growth either by the antibiotic
production, hyperparasitism or by competition.
Various biocontrol agents used in control of various diseases are Bacillus subtilis,
Pseudomonas fluorescens, Gliocladium spp., Trichoderma spp., Chaetomium

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globosum, Pseudomonas cepacia, Bacillus cereus, Agrobacterium radiobacter etc.
- Trichoderma viride is the most important and versatile biocontrol agent used for
the control of a number of plant pathogens like Rhizoctonia solani and
Sclerotium rolfsii which are otherwise difficult to control by other methods.
- Similarly, Fusarium lateriticum has been used to cover primary wounds of
apricot for avoiding the canker disease caused by Euty paarmeniacae.
- Application of Peniophora giganteaoidia paste on pine stumps provided
effective control of Hetero basidionannosus root rot disease which spreads
through unprotected stumps left over after felling.
- Ampelomyces quisqualis and Darluca spp. hyperparasitize powdery mildew and
rust fungi, respectively, and therefore exploited for their biological control.
- Agrobacterium radiobacter K-84 strain has been used against crown gall disease
world over.
8. Use of Pesticides of Plant Origin
Pesticides of plant origin are derived from plant parts and their genes are also used to
transform crops to express resistance to insect, fungal and viral attack. The plant
parts and their extracts with antifungal properties play an important role in plant
disease management. Plants with pest killing properties have been recorded as early
as
- Garlic (Allium sativum) has a long history of reputed value and actual use for its
medicinal, antimicrobial and pesticidal properties.
- The growth of Rhizoctonia solani can be reduced with ethanolic extracts of
Eucalyptus sp., Chenopodium ambrosioides, Lippiaalba, Aeglemarmelos and
Cestrum diurnum leaves.
- The seed extract of Piper nigrum was found to be effective against R. bataticola.
8. Judicious Use of Fungicides
Chemicals have been used successfully to combat the ravages of these diseases for
many years. Fungicides with different modes of action like protective (broad
spectrum fungicides), post infection activity (EBI), pre- symptom and post symptom
(benzimidazoles and triazoles) may be used for controlling a wide array of plant

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diseases ravaging various crops.
The over-use of these chemicals resulted in water pollution, residues on food and
fruit crops, effect on non- target organisms and development of resistance in
pathogens against the chemicals have drawn the attention toward the rational use of
fungicides by including monitored control strategies and cultural practices.
Types of Integrated Disease Management
i) Integration of Cultural and Chemical Control
The integration of chemicals and cultural practices (including improved cultivars)
has resulted in a continuous supply of fresh watermelons, reduced diseases caused by
Colletotrichum lagenarium, Pseudomonas syringaepv. lachrymansand
Pseudoperonosporacubensis. The covering the tomato nursery seedlings with nylon
net for 25-30 days plus 4 sprays of monocrotophos at 10-days intervals after
transplanting, delayed the spread of Tomato leaf curl virus for 3-5 weeks and
increased tomato yields.
ii) Integration of Chemical and Biological Control
Bio-control agents such as Pseudomonas fluorescens, Trichoderma viride, T.
harzianum, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas putida, P. cepacia, Talaromyces flavus,
and Agrobacterium radiobacter strain K 84 etc. can be used with integration of
chemicals for the effective control of certain diseases.
iii) Integration of Resistance, Cultural, Biological and Chemical Control
The integration of cultural practices (crop rotation, good farm hygiene procedures,
quarantine), fertilizers, soil fumigation and solarization, pesticides (fungicide
transplant dips, soil drench, soil incorporations, seed treatments, trace elements and
surfactants), resistant cultivars and biocontrol agents are used for the control of club
root (Plasmodiophorabrassicae) of vegetables.
PROCEDURE
- Collect the required material for IDM practices.
- Select the crop for IDM practices.
- Conduct the IDM practices in the selected field.
CONCLUSION

126 Practical Book : Grade 12

 PRACTICAL NO: 3
IDENTIFICATION OF NATURAL ENEMIES, PARASITES, PREDATORS
AND THEIR USE
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To be able to identify the natural enemies, parasite, predators and their uses in
agriculture
- To acquire knowledge about the habit and behavior of natural enemies, parasite,
predators
MATERIAL REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Natural enemies, Parasite, Predators
THEORY
Use of natural enemies to suppress pest species. The natural enemies are predators,
parasitoids and Pathogens. Classical biological control is cottony cushion scale
Icerya purchase in 1889 with Roaoli acardinalis beetle (Miracle of Entomology).
The steps involved in biological control are
- Conservation and encouragement of indigenous natural enemies.
- Importation of exotic natural enemies.
- Augmentation (mass rearing and release).
Qualities of an Effective Natural Enemy
- Good host searching capacity.
- Host specificity.
- Wider adaptability
- High dispersal ability
- Amenability to culturing.
- Ability to withstand competition.
- Ability to outnumber the pest.
- High survival capacity.

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Insect predators
A predator is a free living organism throughout its life, it kills the prey, usually larger
than the prey and requires more than one prey to complete its development.
Table : Insect predators of agricultural importance
Insects Order and
Name Prey insect
Family
1. Coleoptera
Coccinellidae- Coccinelia septumpunctata - Aphids
(Lady bird beetle) C. rependa - Aphids
Scymnus coccivora Menochilus - Grape vine mealy bug
sexmaculata - Mealy bugs and scales
Rodolia cardinalis - Cottony cushion scale
Chilocorus nigritus - Tapioca scales
Cryptolaemus montrouzieri - Grape vine mealy bug
ii)Carabidae (ground Parenal acticincta - Coconut black headed
beetle) Ophionea sp. caterpillar
Paederus fuscipes - Rice BPH
- Rice leaf folder
iii) Cicindellidae
(Tiger beetle)
2. Hemiptera
i. Reduviidae Rhino corisfuscipes - H.armigera
(Reduviid bug) Platymerislae vicollis - Coconut rhinoceros beetle
i. Miridae (Mirid bug) Cyrtohimus lividipennis - Rice hoppers
ii.Velidae (Riffle bug) Microvelia atrolineata -Rice leaf and plant hoppers
3. Neuroptera
i.Chrysopidae (Lace Chryso perlacarnea -Aphids, scales bollworms
wing fly) mealy bug
i.Chrysopidae (Lace Chryso perlacarnea -Aphids scales bollworms
wing fly) mealy bug
ii.Myrmeliontidae
(Antlion)
4.General predators
i.Dragon flies Naiads and adults On small insect, butterflies
ii. Damsel flies Naiads and adults On small insects,
caterpillars
iii. Preying mantids Naidas and adults Grasshoppers, caterpillars,
butterflies
iv. Giant water bug Adults Small aquatic insects
v.Robber flies Adult Small insects
vi.Hover flies Larva Aphids

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(Syrphids)
vii.Wasps Adult Caterpillars
Other
i.Arachmids Spiders scorpions and mites On insects and mites
ii.Fishes Gambusia offinis, Fundulus On mosquito larvae
iii.Amphibians Frogs and toads On small insects
iv.Birds Ducks, Owls Rice BPH
King crow, Mynah, On rats
Wood pecker Caterpillar
v.Reptiles Lizards,Snakes Small insects, Rats

Parasite
An animal species, which lives on or in a larger animal, the host, feeding upon it, and
frequently destroying it. A parasite needs only one or part of host to reach maturity.
Parasitoid
An insect parasite of an arthropod; parasitic only in its immature stages, destroying
its host in the process of its development, and free living as an adult.
Types of Parasitoids
1. Based on the Developmental Site in the Host
a. Ectoparasitoid
An insect parasite which develops externally on its arthropod host. E.g.
Braconbre vicornis on coconut black headed caterpillars.
b. Endoparasitoid
An insect parasitoid which develops within the body of its arthropod
host. E.g. Eriborius trochanteratus on coconut black headed caterpillar.
2. Based on Host Specificity
a. Monophagous Parasitoid
Highly host specific attacking a single host species. E.g. Parasierolan
ephantidis (Goniozus) (Bethylidoe) on Opisina arenosella (coconut black
headed caterpillars).
b. Oligophagous Parasitoid (Stenophagous)
Attacking a group of related host species.

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 c. Polyphagous parasitoid
Attack a wide variety of host species. E.g. Trichogramma Spp.
(Trichogram matidae) on eggs ofmany Lepidopteran species.
3. Based on the host
a. Primary parasitoid
A parasitoid parasitizing a pest. It is beneficial E.g.Trichogramma sp.
b. Seconday parasitoids
A parasitoid attacking another parasitoid. It is harmful E.g. Opisina
arenosella (pest) Bracon brevicornis (Primary parasitoid) – Pleurotropis
sp. (secondary parasitoid).
c. Tertiary parasitoid
A parasitoid attacking secondary parasitoid. It is beneficial. E.g.
Trichospilus coerulescens
All parasitoids whose hosts are parasitoids are called as hyperparasitoids (Parasitoids
of Parasitoids).
4. Based on the number of parasitoids developing from a single host insect
a. Solitary parasitoid
One progeny alone is capable of completing its development in or on its
host E.g. Eriborus trochanteratus.
b. Gregarious parasitoid
Several progeny are capable of completing its development in or on a
single host. E.g. Bracon breviconis. A further extension of gregaiousness
is Polyembryony in which several individuals develop from a single egg.
E.g. Platygaster.
5. Based on the stage of host insect attacked
Order : Hymenoptera (90% of parasitoid coming under this order)
I. Egg parasitoid
a. Trichogram machilonis: Trichogrammatidae – Eggs of sugarcane

130 Practical Book : Grade 12

 internode borer, cotton bollworm, rice leaf folder.
b. T. japonicum: Trichogrammatidae – Eggs of rice stem borer
c. Telenomus rowani :Scelonidae – Eggs or rice stem borer
d. T. remus :Scelonidae – Eggs of tobacco caterpillar
II. Egg-Larval parasitoid
a. Chelonus blackburni: Braconidae– Eggs of cotton spotted bollworm.
III. Larval parasitoid
a. Braconhebetor: Braconidae– Larvae of coconut black headed
caterpillar
b. B.brevicornis :Braconidae– Larvae of coconut black headed
caterpillar
c. Compoletischloridae: Ichneumonidae– Larvae of H. armigera
d. Cotesiaplutella : Braconidae– Larvae of diamondback moth
e. Eriborustrochanteratus: Ichneumonidae– Larvae of coconut black
headed caterpillar
f. Goniozusnephantidis : Bethylidae– Larvae of coconut black headed
caterpillar
g. Platygasteroryzae: Platygasteridae– Larvae of rice gall midge.
IV. Larval – Pupal parasitoid
a. Isotimajavensis: Ichneumonidae–Pre–pupal parasite of top shoot
borer of sugarcane.
V. Pupal parasitoid
a. Brachymerian ephantidis; Chalcidae– Pupae of coconut black
headed caterpillar.
b. Tetrasti chusisraeli: Eulophidae– Pupae of coconut black headed
caterpillar.
c. Trichospilus pupivora: Eulophidae– Pupae of coconut black headed
caterpillar.

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 d. Xanthopim plapunctata : Ichneumonidae
VI. Nymphal and adult parasitoid
a. Aphelinus mali :Aphelinidae – Aphids
b. Encarsia formosa: Aphelinidae – Cotton whitefly
Order : Diptera (10% of parasitoid coming under this order)
I. Larval parasitoid
a. Sturmiospsis inferens: Tachinidae: Larvae of sugarcane early shoot
borer.
b. Spaggossia bassiana: Tachinide: Larvae of coconut black headed
caterpillar.
II. Larval – pupal parasitoid
a. Eucelatoria bryani: Tachinidae : Larvae of H.armigera
Parasitoids of Agricultural Importance
Trichogramma sp. – egg parasitoid of sugarcane intermode borer.
Chelonus balckburni – egg larval parasitoid of potato tuber moth
Bracon brevicornis – Larva parasitoid of coconut blackheaded caterpillar (BHC)
Parasierolan ephantidis – Larva parasitoid of coconut BHC
Eriborus trochanteratus – Larva parasitoid of coconut BHC
Eucelatoria bryani – Larval parasitoid of American bollowormHelicoverpaarmigera
Sturmiopsis inference – Larval parasitoid of sugarcane shoot borer
Eucarcelia illota – Larval pupal parasitoid of H.armigera
Trichospilus pupivora – Pupal parasitoid of coconut BHC
Tetrastichus israeli – Pupal parasitoid of coconut BHC
PROCEDURE
Take a field visit to agriculture fields.
Collect the insect available in the fields.
Study the natural enemies available in the surroundings.

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Make a list of natural enemies available in the surrounding.
OBSERVATION
Common Scientific Kind of
S.N Insect Habitat
Name Name enemies

CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

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 PRACTICAL NO: 4
COLLECTION, PREPARATION AND USE OF LOCALLY AVAILABLE
BOTANICALS FOR MAKING PESTICIDES
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To know about the method of collection, preparation and use of locally available
botanicals pesticides
- To be familiar with the different local resources being used in pest management
MATERIAL REQUIRED
Locally available botanical plants, preparing instrument
THEORY
Traditional farming system is an ecologically based age old farming system
developed by ancient farmers through generations of their interaction with nature and
natural resources for food, fodder and fiber. It is an indigenous method of cultivating
crops using self-reliance locally available resources without external inputs.
Different types of pesticides are in use to control the damage made by different pest
and disease. The principle of natural enemy has been already being practiced in
Nepal as well among different pesticides. The botanical / bio-pesticides means the
pesticide prepared from natural ingredients for controlling pests.
The advantages of Bio pesticides / Botanical pesticides are as follows:
- Use of bio pesticide is safer for users, as it has less harm in human health.
- It is environment friendly and sustainable method of crop conservation.
- It helps in protection of friendly insects (Predators).
Preparation of Bio pesticides/Botanical pesticides
1. Plants and herbs of "HamalJhol - 1" and their quantity for the management of
underground insects
a) Leaves, shoots of marigold flower/mug wart/Asuro (justicia)/Neem- 500
grams
b) Mustard cake (mustard or Neem)- 1 kg

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 c) Ash - 500 grams
d) Red chili (fresh or powder) - 50 grams
e) Onion - 200 grams
f) Garlic - 200 grams
g) Kerosene - 20 ml
h) Water - 7 liters
Crush or chop the above mentioned materials to pieces, and mix in water. These bio-
pesticide / botanical pesticides can be stored for three days if it is kept in air-tight
container, or it should be sprayed within 24 hours. The kerosene should be mixed at
time of spray.
2. Plants and herbs of "HamalJhol - 2" and their quantity for the management of
insects on plants
a) Justicia (Asuro) leaves - 1 kg
b) Mug wart - 1 kg
c) Crofton weed - 1 kg
d) Tallow tree - 1 kg
e) Screw pine - 1 kg
f) Nettle - 1 kg
g) Cattle urine - 5 liter
h) Water - 15 liter
Chop the materials mentioned above into small pieces. Pour about 15 liters of water
in a plastic drum, and dip the materials into the drum with water. Then, mix 5 liters
of cattle urine and keep the drum air tight. Keep the drum out in the sun during day,
and it can also be kept back in room at night. If the colour of the pesticide is dark
brown and smells pungent when the lid of drum is opened, the pesticide is ready for
spray. Then, the bio pesticide can be sprayed mixing 1 part of it to 3 - 4 parts of
water filtering it through cotton cloth. It may take 20-35 days to be ready for spray
according to the month and weather.

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Hamal Jhol-2 should be prepared at least 15 – 20 days earlier of cultivation so that
the bio pesticide can be used at crop developing stage or at time when there is more
pests attack on crop. If HamalJhol is urgently to be used, the above mentioned
materials can be boiled in water, then cooled down and used immediately.
PROCEDURE
Collect the local resource available in the local area.
Make a local pesticide or chemical agent to control Insect pest and disease.
Prepare a botanical pesticide or any other material for controlling pest and disease in
the field.
OBSERVATION :
Indigenous method of Material
S.N Pest or Disease Doses
pest control Used

CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

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 PRACTICAL NO: 5
DEVELOPMENT OF THE INTEGRATED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT
MODELS FOR MAJOR CROPS
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To acquire the knowledge about the integrated nutrient management for major
crops
- To know the technique for development of integrated nutrient management
models for major crops
MATERIAL REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Fertilizer, Manure, Irrigation Pipe etc.
THEORY
IPNM is the intelligent and combined use of inorganic, organic and biological
resources so as to sustain optimum yields improve or maintain the soil chemical and
physical properties and provide crop nutrition packages which are technically sound,
economically attractive, practically feasible and environmentally safe. The principal
aim of the integrated approach is to utilize all the possible sources of plant nutrition
in a judicious and efficient manner.
Main objectives of INM
- To reduce the dependence on chemical fertilizers.
- To maintain productivity on sustainable basis without affecting soil health.
- To conserve locally available resources & utilize them judiciously.
- To reduce the gap between nutrients used & nutrients harvested by the crop.
- To improve physical, chemical & biological properties of soil.
- To make soil healthy by providing balanced nutrients through different nutrient
sources.
- To overcome or reduce the ill effects of continuous use of only inorganic
chemical fertilizers.
- To improve economical status of farmers.
- To increase the fertilizer use efficiency (FUE).

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Components of IPNM
IPNM mainly emphasizes the integrated use of all the essential nutrients from
different sources like chemical fertilizers, organic manures, green manures, bio-
fertilizers, legume crops, locally available plant resources in a balanced proportion
for sustainable soil health and productivity.
- Use of inorganic fertilizers
- Use of organic manures/ materials
- Use of biological sources/biofertilizers
- Maintaining the physical properties of soil
- Management of problematic soils
- Better/Judicious water management practices
1. Use of Inorganic Fertilizers
They are very important for sustaining and increasing food production. Different
kinds of fertilizers are commercially available in the market for all the major and
micronutrients. However, they are costly inputs and their excessive use may
deteriorate the soil quality and food quality. Hence, there is a need to improve their
use efficiency through efficient and balanced fertilizer management and essentially
follow the four R’s formula for judicious and effective nutrient/fertilizer
management. They are
- Right Type of fertilizers.
- Right Dose of fertilizers.
- Right Method of application.
- Right Time of application.
2. Use of Organic Manures/materials
Due to intensive cultivation of soil and less organic manure application, the soils are
low in organic matter status. A decrease in soil organic matter results in compact
soil, poor aeration and low infiltration and water holding capacity and also low
fertility status. The organic matter status in soils can be improved and maintained by
constant addition of organic manures such as FYM. compost, green manures, poultry

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manures, vermicompost, oilcakes etc., Organic matter is good source of macro and
micro nutrients, and more over improves physical, chemical and biological properties
soil.
3. Use of Biological Sources/bio Fertilizers
Bio fertilizers are cultures of microorganisms (bacteria, fungi, algae). Their use
benefits the soil and plants growth by providing N & P and also brings about the
rapid mineralization of organic materials in soils. They are capable fixing N,
solubilizing and mobilizing the phosphorus and mineralizing organic matter in soil.
Their incorporation improves the physical and biological properties of soils.
4. Maintaining the Physical Properties of Soil
Physical properties such as soil aggregation, soil texture, structure, aeration, water
holding capacity (WHC), infiltration rate, etc., should be maintained regularly
through better cultivation practices and organic manure applications to maintain soil
fertility & nutrient availability.
5. Management of Problematic Soils
Problematic soils such as acid soils, saline and alkaline soils, water logged soils are
known to decrease the productivity of the soil. Acid soil having the problems like
toxicities of Iron, Mn, Al, deficiency of P & Mo. Similarly, saline and alkali soils
showing the deficiency of Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu and also toxicities of Mo. These soils
should be regularly managed and reclaimed through the application of soil
amendments such as lime for acid soil, gypsum for alkali soils and other organic and
inorganic materials based on soil test results. It helps to improve soil fertility and
productivity and sustain the yield.
7. Better/Judicious Water Management Practices
Plants absorb the nutrients from the soil only in a dissolved state and sufficient
moisture is therefore required for utilizing the nutrients of the soil. Management of
moisture in the soil by improved and modern irrigation techniques like drip or
sprinkler or basin where the rainfall is low and draining the soil where it is subjected
to stagnation of water helps to increase water and nutrient availability to the crops.

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PROCEDURE
- Better understanding about the principle and components of integrated nutrient
management practices.
- Follow the integrated nutrient management in major one of the crop selected.
- Allow the good practice of integrated nutrient management in selected crops.
EXERCISE
1. What do you mean by integrated nutrient management practices?
2. What are the major objectives of integrated nutrient management?
3. List out the components of integrated nutrient management.
CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

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 PRACTICAL NO: 6
IDENTIFICATION OF ORGANIC MANURES AND FERTILIZERS
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To be able to identify the different manure and fertilizer used in agriculture.
- To be familiar with different manure and fertilizer with their chemical
composition.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
Manures, Fertilizer (Urea, DAP, MOP, Ammonium sulphate etc.)
THEORY
Manures are the organic materials derived from animal, human and plant residues
which contain plant nutrients in complex organic form. They are bulky in nature
having low analytical value and having no definite composition. Fertilizer is a
material containing one or more of commonly accepted essential elements for plant
in available form or a form which will be transformed into a readily available form to
the plant in the soil. They have high analytical value and having a definite
composition and mostly are industrial products.
Plant contains almost 90 elements and out of them only 16 elements viz., N, P, K, S,
Mg, Ca, Zn, Mn, Cu, Mo, B, Fe, CI, C, H, O are considered essential for growth and
development . Sodium, Silicon, Cobalt and vanadium are beneficial for some plants
but have not been established as essential for all higher plants. The uptake of N, P
and K by crop plants from the soil is much higher than that of other elements.
Therefore, much emphasis is to be paid in the application of N,P and K or in
combination of two or three of them. Soils, if found lacking with other nutrients,
should also be enriched with other essential nutrients although the amounts to be
applied and their frequency of application are lower than N, P and K.
Criteria of Essentiality of Nutrients
Arnon and Stout (1939) stated three criteria of essentiality of elements for plant
growth.
1. Those elements are called essential in absence of which plant cannot complete

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 its life.
2. The function of essential elements must be specific, i.e., the deficiency
symptoms of one cannot be corrected by others and
3. They are responsible to take part in the metabolic activities of the plants.
Classification of Fertilizers
Fertilizers are classified on the basis of type of elements present in the fertilizers.
They may be mono or straight or compound. The examples are given below:
a. Nitrogenous- such as ammonium sulphate, urea, ammonium nitrate, anhydrous
ammonia, ammonia chloride etc.
b. Phosphatic- such as single super phosphate, double super phosphate, triple super
phosphate etc.
c. Potassic- such as murate of potash (potassium chloride), potassium sulphate etc.
d. Compound- such as complex salt, complete salt, diammonium phosphate etc.
e. Micro nutrients- such as zinc sulphate, borax, magnesium sulphate, agromin etc.
Table : Common fertilizers with the nutrient contents
Nutrient content in percentage
Source
Nitrogen Phosphorous Potash
Ammonium sulphate 20.5
Urea 46.0
Anhydrous ammonia 82.0
Ammonium nitrate 32.5
Ammonium chloride 28.0
Sodium nitrate 16.0
Calcium ammonium nitrate 25.0
Single super phosphate 16.0
Double super phosphate 32.0
Triple super phosphate 48.0
Potassium chloride (MOP) 60.0
Potassium sulfate 48.0

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 Potassium nitrate 13.0 44.0
Ammonium phosphate 20.0 20.0
(complexal)
Complete salt 15.0 15.0 15.0
Diammonium phosphate (DAP) 18.0 46.0

Organic Manures
Organic manure is of two types: bulky and concentrated. Bulky organic manures are
bulky in nature but supply plants nutrients in small amount. For e.g: FYM, Compost,
Night soil and Green manures. Concentrate organic manure contains higher
percentage of major plants nutrients like NPK as oil cakes, blood and meat meals,
fish meals, poultry manures. The nutrient contents of each class of manure can be
depicted in below table.
Table : Organic sources of fertilizers with nutrient contents
Manures Nitrogen (%) Phosphorus (%) Potash (%)
Bulky organic manure
FYM 0.5-1.5 0.4-0.8 0.5-1.9
Farm compost 1.0-2.0 1.0 1.5
Town compost 1.5 1.0 1.5
Green manures 0.5-0.7 0.1-0.2 0.6-0.8
Concentrated Concentrated Concentrated Concentrated
manures manures manures manures
Neem cake Neem cake Neem cake Neem cake
Sunflower cake Sunflower cake Sunflower cake Sunflower cake
Cotton seed cake Cotton seed cake Cotton seed cake Cotton seed cake
Groundnut cake Groundnut cake Groundnut cake Groundnut cake
Rapeseed cake Rapeseed cake Rapeseed cake Rapeseed cake
Sesame cake Sesame cake Sesame cake Sesame cake
Dried blood Dried blood Dried blood Dried blood
Bone meal(raw) Bone meal(raw) Bone meal(raw) Bone meal(raw)
Night soil 1.2-1.3 0.8-1.0 0.4-0.5
Human urine 1.0-1.2 0.1-0.2 0.2-0.3

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Green Manuring
Green manuring is an old practice adopted to improve the productivity of soil. The
crops used for this purpose are legumes. Green manuring crops are grown and buried
in the same field either as a pure crop or as an intercrop. The commonly grown green
manuring crops are dhaincha, sun hemp, cow pea, clover and lucern. Green
manuring have beneficial effect to the organic matter and also it supplies good
amount of nitrogen.
PROCEDURE
- Select the available manures and fertilizer.
- Identify the manures and fertilizer based on its chemical composition.
- Differentiate the manure and fertilizer based on their composition.
OBSERVATION
Observe the available fertilizer and manures in the laboratory carefully and complete
following table.
Name of the
Class Characteristics % Content Color
fertilizer/manure

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EXERCISE
1. Define manures and fertilizer.
2. Write down the criteria of essentiality of nutrients.
3. What do you mean by Green Manuring ? List out the green manuring crop.

CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 12 145

 PRACTICAL NO: 7
PREPARATION AND USE OF ORGANIC MANURES (E.G. VERMI-
COMPOST, COMPOST, GEETI MAL ETC)
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To be able to know the method of organic manures preparation.
- To be familiar with the materials used in organic manure preparation.
MATERIAL REQUIRED
Spade, Shovel, Measuring tape, Pegs, Decomposable plant materials, Starters
THEORY
VERMI-COMPOST
Vermicomposting is a simple biotechnological process of composting, in which
certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of waste conversion
and produce a better end product.
Commonly Used Species
Eiseniafoetida, Perionyxexcavatus, Eudriluseugeniae, Lumbricusrubellus, L.
terrestris.
Eudriluseugenia – African night crawler
Eiseniafoetida – Tiger worm
Perionyxexcavatus – Indian blue
Benefits of Vermicompost
- It contains NPK (0.8 : 1.1 : 0.5%).
- It contains micronutrients (Mg, Fe, Bo, Mo, Zn), growth regulators and
beneficial MO.
- It increases WHC of soil.
- It increases aeration in soil.
- Decreases salinity and increases availability of nutrients.
- Reduces soil erosion.
- Decreases cost of cultivation.

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- Reduction in incidence of diseases and pests.
- Increases yield.
- Methods of Vermicomposting
- Indoor (small scale production)
- Outdoor (large scale production)
- Pit system
- Heap system
- Brick system
- Kadapa slab method
Preparation of Vermicompost
- Pit size: 10 m x 1 m x 0.3 m
- In irrigated area and heavy rainfall areas – above ground.
- Drench with chloropyriphos @ 2 ml/lit of H2O. Leave for one week and then go
for filling the pit in the following manner.
- Apply water @ 30 to 60 litres for 16 days. Leave 1000 to 2000 worms of
suitable species (E. eugeniae) at about 10 cm depth.
- Worm multiplication and compost production will be higher if sugarcane trash,
sunflower or bajra residues are used.
- Keep the pit always moist (30-60% moisture) by daily watering (@ 50 lit)
during summer or twice a week during rainy season. Provide shade to the pit.
- Vermicompost production is seen after 45 days of leaving worms to the pit. It
will be complete in 80-90 days. Residue will be converted to vermicompost
(75%).
- To collect / take vermicompost from the pit, leave the pit without watering for
about 3 days. Worm will move to deeper layer due to lack of moisture in the
upper layer. Take out the compost from the upper layer and sieve the compost
and store it in a gunny bag under shade.
- About 2 to 4 t vermicompost will be produced from one gunta area in 3 months
and 6 to 12 t vermicompost will be produced from one gunta in one year.
- Earthworm complete their life cycle within 90 days by which time they multiply

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 about 40 to 50 times. In vermicompost, eggs, nymphs and adults (all forms/
stages) are found.
COMPOST
Composting is a process by which organic wastes are converted into organic
fertilizers by means of biological activity under controlled conditions. It is an
important technique for recycling organic (agricultural and industrial) wastes and for
improving the quality and quantity of organic fertilizers. Composting is a self-
heating, thermophilic and aerobic biological process occurs naturally in heaps of
biodegradable process and is carried out by different kinds of heterophyllic
microorganisms, bacteria, fungi, actinomyctes and protozoa, which derive their
energy and carbon requirements from the decomposition of carbonaceous materials.
- Principles of Composting
- Compost making includes three important principles
- Narrowing down of C: N ratio to a satisfactory level (10:1 to 2:1).
- Total destruction of harmful pathogens.
- Destruction of weed seeds by high temperature (60-65o C).
Organic Resources Available for Composting
- Livestock and human wastes.
- Crop residues, tree litter and weeds.
- Green manure.
- Urban and rural wastes.
- Agro industrial by-products.
- Marine wastes.
Essential Requirements for Composting
Bulky Organic Refuse: stubbles, cotton stalks, tur stalks, ground nut shell, weeds,
leaves, dust bin refuse etc.
Starter Material: Cattle dung, urine, night soil, sewage, urea, rock phosphate or any
other readily available nitrogenous substance and microbial cultures.
Water: to keep the moisture content of the material at a level of 50%.

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Air: especially in initial stages of decomposition.
Preparation of Compost
Generally there are two methods of compost making. They are pit method and heap
method.
Pit Method
- Dig a compost pit of desirable size, size depends on the quantity of materials to
be composted but the desirable size is 1 m deep × 3m long × 1.8m breadth.
- Put the composting materials and starter in layers. The layer should not be thick.
- The pit should not be completely filled at one time so as to make turning easy.
- Moisture is essential for the decomposition of the materials puts in the pit. For
this add water to every layer.
- When decomposition starts the temperature increases up to 60-90° C.
- After one month of filling the pit, the materials should be turn using the
remaining part of the pit.
- While turning materials, the top should go down and viceversa.
- Second turning after one month of first turning and last turning after one month
of second turning is needed.
- In every turning starter and water should be put in each layer.
- Completely decomposed organic matters when pressed with fingers become
friable.
Heap Method
- This method is useful in the high hills. In this method the composting materials
are put in a heap in the open field.
- The method of putting the composting materials is similar to the pit method.
- When the heap becomes the height of a human, the top should be covered with a
layer of soil.
- Turning is also similar to the pit method.
EXERCISE
- Practice the pit method of compost making.

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- Write down the benefits of vermicompost in agriculture.
- Practice a heap method of compost making.
CONLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

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 PRACTICAL NO: 8
FYM IMPROVEMENT AND USE
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To be familiar with the FYM used in agriculture
- To know the technique of FYM improvement and its uses
MATERIAL REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, FYM, Equipments etc.
THEORY
Farmyard manure means a varying mixture of animal manure, urine, bedding
material, fodder residues, and other components. It is the most common form of
organic manure applied in the midhills of Nepal. Farmyard manure has a high
proportion of organic material which nurtures soil organisms and is essential in
maintaining an active soil life. Only about half of the nutrient content of farmyard
manure becomes available for crop growth during the first year after it has been
applied to the soil. The rest is channeled through soil biotic processes and the
nutrients are released in the following years. The high organic matter content and the
active soil life improve or maintain friable soil structures, increase the cation
exchange capacity, water holding capacity, and infiltration rate, and reducing the risk
of soil pests building up.
Indigenous methods of preparing and using farmyard manure vary widely depending
on the ecological zone, access to bedding material from crop or forest land, access to
crop residues and fodder, labour availability, and other factors. A prerequisite for the
manure having a positive impact on soil fertility is that it is properly decomposed.
The application of partially decomposed manure can increase the number of white
grubs, red ants and other soil pests.
Decomposition is enhanced and the time it takes to happen is reduced if the manure
is kept warm and moist (but not wet) at all times. Heaping the manure up or storing it
in a pit helps. Whether it is best to heap up the manure or put it in a pit depends on
the local climate. Heaping has the advantage of being less costly, while the pit
method reduces runoff and the loss of nutrient rich fluids. Adding nitrogen in the

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form of urine (N) improves the carbon to nitrogen ratio.Farm yard Manure is
prepared basically using cow dung, cow urine, waste straw and other Diary wastes. It
is highly useful and some of its properties are given below:
- FYM is rich in nutrients
- A small portion of N is directly available to the plants while a larger portion is
made available as and when the FYM decomposes
- When cow dung and urine are mixed, a balanced nutrition is made available to
the plants
- Availability of Potassium and Phosphorus from FYM is similar to that from
inorganic sources
- Application of FYM improves soil fertility.
Table : Nutritional status of FYM (%)
Nitrogen 0.50
Phosphorus 0.25
Potassium 0.4
Calcium 0.08
Sulfur 0.02
Zinc 0.0040
Copper 0.0003
Manganese 0.0070
Iron 0.45

Methods of FYM Improvement

a) Heap method
b) Pit method
c) Semi-pit method
The method should be chosen that is most convenient and provides the most
favourable environment for decomposition of the manure. Generally heaps and pits
are about 1 to 2m in diameter depending on the amount of manure produced and

152 Practical Book : Grade 12

required.
PROCEDURE
Pit Methods
Establishment activities
- Dig a 1m deep and 2m diameter pit using a shovel or spade.
- Put dung mixed with leaf litter, bedding material and fodder residues in the pit
until it is full.
- Apply urine directly over the manure heap using a plastic pipe or jug.
- Cover the heap with a fine layer of straw, mud, soil or plastic sheet or any other
suitable local materials to protect it from direct sunlight and excessive water.
Maintenance/Recurrent Activities
- About one month after beginning to collect and pile up the material, turn the
heap over manually using a spade or shovel.
- Depending on the location, it takes about 3-4 months to prepare fully
decomposed farmyard manure.
CONCLUSION
____________________________________________________________________

Practical Book : Grade 12 153

 PRACTICAL NO: 9
CATTLE URINE COLLECTION, IMPROVEMENT AND USE
OBJECTIVE(S)
- To know the methods of cattle urine collection, improvement and uses in
agriculture
MATERIAL REQUIRED
Diary, Pen, Cattle urine, Equipments
THEORY
Collection of cattle urine in improved cattle sheds for use as liquid manure and
organic pesticide. Cattle urine, which is a viable alternative to mineral fertilizer, is
collected in a pit or drum and protected from rain and runoff. Where urine is
collected for incorporation with farmyard manure, the pit may be directly connected
to the manure pit or heap. Urine that is used as liquid manure or organic pesticide is
stored in a drum for fermentation.
Cattle urine is a viable alternative to mineral fertilizer. Of the nitrogen excreted by
cattle, 60% is found in the urine and only 40% in dung. In traditional sheds, urine is
left to be absorbed in the bedding material, while excess urine is channeled out of the
shed and disposed. The technology described here are improved cattle sheds which
are designed for collecting the urine in a pit or drum. This pit is generally located in
the shed itself or just outside connected to the drainage channel through a pipe and
protected from rain and runoff. Where urine is collected for incorporation in
farmyard manure, the pit may be directly connected to the manure pit or heap. Urine
that is going to be used as liquid manure or organic pesticide has to be stored in a
drum for fermentation.A household with two cattle can save the equivalent of
purchasing about 100 kg of urea over one year by applying urine either directly as
liquid fertilizer or as a component in improved farmyard manure.
Benefits of Urine Collection
1. Production and socioeconomic benefits
- Reduces expenses for agrochemicals (fertilisers, pesticides)
- Easier shed management and cleaning

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 - Improves animal health
- Allows organic crop production
2. Socio-cultural benefits
- Social prestige as seen as progressive farmer
3. Ecological benefits
- Reduced application of agrochemicals (fertilizers, pesticides), reduced
eutrophication and nitrification of water bodies due to controlled outflow
of urine
4. Off-site benefit
- Reduction of dependence on outside inputs
- Reduction of nutrient influx into water bodies
Methods of Urine Collection
a) Urine collection and direct incorporation in covered farmyard manure pit.
b) Urine collection for later application as liquid manure or organic pesticide.
PROCEDURE
Establishment activities
- Provide slight slope to the cattle shed floor
- Dig a draining ditch and a collection pit, if possible at the lowest point inside the
shed. If this is not possible, an outside pit should be dug, protected from rain and
runoff, and connected with the draining ditch through a pipe or a channel.
- Make the floor as impermeable as possible; e.g. with cement (expensive and
durable), stone slabs, soil compaction, or clay (cheap but not durable). The more
impermeable the floor, the more urine can be collected.
- Provide a jug/’decapitated’ plastic bottle/cup/etc. to scoop the urine out of the
collection pit into the fermentation drum.
- Maintenance/recurrent activities
- When the collection pit is full, the collected urine has to be removed from the pit
and stored in a plastic drum for fermentation.
- The urine is applied as liquid fertilizer by jug or through drip irrigation.
CONCLUSION

Practical Book : Grade 12 155

REFERENCE
Neupane, F.P. 2058. Balibiruwakasatruharuratinkoroktham, 4th ed. SajhaPrakashan,
Kathmandu, Nepal
Plant Protection Directorate.2068.IPM an introduction (in Nepali). MOAC,
Kathmandu
Rajbhandari, B.P. 2008. Bio-intensive farming system, Kathmandu, WOREC.
Rajbhandari, B.P. 2008. Model demonstration farm and farmer’s field school
management: a manual, WOREC.
Rajbhandari, B.P. 2010. Grain legumes of Nepal, HICAST
SSMP and STSD. 2002. Integrated plant nutrient management. Sustainable Soil
Management Project and Soil Testing and Service Division, Kathmandu.

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