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UNEARTHING SHAKESPEARE

What can the Globe Theatre tell us about performing Shakespeare?

Unearthing Shakespeare is the first book to consider what the Globe, today’s
replica of Shakespeare’s theatre, can contribute to a practical understand-
ing of Shakespeare’s plays. Valerie Clayman Pye reconsiders the material
evidence of Early Modern theatre-making, presenting clear, accessible dis-
cussions of historical theatre practice; stages and staging; and the relationship
between actor and audience. She relays this into a series of training exercises
for actors at all levels.
From “Shakesball” and “Telescoping” to Elliptical Energy Training and
The Radiating Box, this is a rich set of resources for anyone looking to tackle
Shakespeare with authenticity and confidence.

Valerie Clayman Pye is an Assistant Professor of Theatre in the Department

of Theatre, Dance, and Arts Management in the School of Performing Arts
at LIU Post, USA.
UNEARTHING
SHAKESPEARE
Embodied Performance and
the Globe

Valerie Clayman Pye

First published 2017
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2017 Valerie Clayman Pye
The right of Valerie Clayman Pye to be identified as author of this
work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78
of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Names: Pye,Valerie Clayman, author.
Title: Unearthing Shakespeare : embodied performance and the
Globe / Valerie Clayman Pye.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York : Routledge, 2017.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016032192| ISBN 9781138670259 (hardback)
| ISBN 9781138670273 (pbk.) | ISBN 9781315617718 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Shakespeare, William, 1564-1616—Dramatic
production. | Shakespeare, William, 1564-1616—Study and
teaching (Elementary) | Shakespeare, William, 1564-1616—
Study and teaching (Secondary) | Globe Theatre (London,
England : 1599-1644) | Theater—England—London—History.
Classification: LCC PR3091 .P88 2017 | DDC 792.9/5—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016032192

ISBN: 978-1-138-67025-9 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-138-67027-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-61771-8 (ebk)

Typeset in Bembo
by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK
For Thomas, Jolie, and Owen:
“my all the world.”
(Constance, The Life and Death of
King John, 3.4.104)
CONTENTS

List of illustrations ix
Preface x
Acknowledgments xv

PART I
Excavating the foundation 1

1 Shakespeare’s theatrical culture 3

2 Examining the Globe 16

3 Understanding the text 40

4 Creating character 85

PART II
Actuating practice 103

5 Activating the body 105

6 Awakening the listener 120

viii Contents

7 Energizing the language 130

8 Expanding the fiction 138

9 Developing and playing the Shakespeare score 153

10 Rehearsing the part 183

Afterword 207
Appendix A: Exercises for the classroom 208
Appendix B: Exercises for rehearsal 210
Appendix C: Exercises for solo practice 212
Index 214
ILLUSTRATIONS

Figures
1.1 Johannes DeWitt, illustration of The Swan, 1595 8
2.1 Stage at Shakespeare’s Globe 19
2.2 Heavens at Shakespeare’s Globe 19
2.3 Depth of stage perspective, Shakespeare’s Globe 23
2.4 Illustration of elliptical energy 34
5.1 Radiating Box: initiation 110
5.2 Radiating Box: formation begins 110
5.3 Radiating Box: formation complete 110
8.1 Primary and secondary energy in a fourth wall paradigm 139
8.2 Illustration of elliptical energy 139
8.3 Elliptical Energy Training Part I 141
10.1 Prompt cards 185

Tables
10.1 Initials-only index card 185
10.2 Full-text index card 185
10.3 Initials-only index card for dialogue 186
10.4 Full-text index card for dialogue 186
PREFACE

If you have never been to the replica of Shakespeare’s Globe, I can tell you,
that just like Othello’s handkerchief: “there’s magic in the web of it.” If
you have been there . . . you know whereof I speak. And if you have never
been to Shakespeare’s Globe, and you have never seen one of Shakespeare’s
plays performed there, you must. I’m not kidding. (I’m not paid to tell you
this. I promise, you have my word.)
There is magic in the web of Shakespeare’s Globe. Like gossamer fila-
ment, intricately woven, it is, and it is not. We see, and we do not see.
We are not “caught” in the web’s magic, but we are suspended: poised
willingly within its dynamic possibilities. The replica is a replication, and
it is also a unique, contemporary site for performance. It shows us what
performance might have been like, yet we experience the space and perfor-
mance there within our own cultural expectations. As modern people, we
straddle both worlds and enter into a hybrid mode of performance that looks
to the past, but is entirely modern and meaningful to us today. The theatre
itself is alive; it functions like a character in the performance. It is a vehi-
cle for performance rather than a receptacle of performance. Shakespeare’s
Globe is “magical” because it serves as a catalyst: for performance choices, for
relationships—both within and without Shakespeare’s texts, and for com-
munity. I have been ensnared in that web, and it’s radically changed the way
I view and create performance.
Oh boy . . . am I gushing? It’s possible, and I promise I’ll keep it short
lest this turn to Bardolatry. It’s not though. Architecture-philia, perhaps?
 Preface xi

Building-olatry? Definitely. What is it about that space that makes one want
to wax poetic? Okay, makes me want to wax poetic? Why does it deserve
to be the pilgrimage that Sam Wanamaker hoped it would be? And why
should that matter to practitioners specifically? Later in this book I will dis-
cuss in detail what the space looks like and why we ought to pay attention
to its unique qualities—that magical web. I will also show you how—just
by paying attention to those qualities—you can cultivate a more intimate
connection to Shakespeare’s texts, regardless of where you perform them.
You will understand how to “get into” Shakespeare like you’ve never done
before, and how to let Shakespeare emerge through you.
Every one of us who is in the practice of speaking, performing, directing,
or teaching Shakespeare must find ways of forging a personalized connection
to Shakespeare’s texts; one that makes our work meaningful for those with
whom we share it. The actor longs to embody the text with integrity; the
director longs to orchestrate a precise execution of artistic vision; the teacher
or coach longs to facilitate these very moments of connection. Looking at
the performance conditions at Shakespeare’s Globe will help us do just that.
Whether you are a novice trying to find a tangible system for approach-
ing and rehearsing Shakespeare’s work, an established performer looking for
a jolt to vitalize your current practice, a director or teacher hoping to inspire
and galvanize your ensemble, or someone who simply loves and appreciates
Shakespeare’s language, I can relate to what you are going through. I have
been through nearly every stage imaginable as a practitioner of Shakespeare’s
work. I have been a terrified young actor with no idea about how to approach
the text; I have understood the mechanics of performing verse, but desired
a way to bring more of myself to the material in order to work with greater
honesty and spontaneity. I have experienced the exhilaration that comes
from performing in that zone where you become one with heightened
text and act as freely as you would with contemporary material. My own
transformative journey moved me to uncover ways to inspire, support, and
activate other actors to deepen their relationships to Shakespeare and, ulti-
mately, to engage audiences in vibrant performances of Shakespeare’s plays.

The archaeology of performance: “unearthing

Shakespeare”
As craftsmen of performance, I consider the work we do akin to the work of
archaeologists: to dig beneath the surface and brush aside the superficial lay-
ers in order to reveal and understand the underlying foundation, the world
in which we study. Archaeologists uncover clues, details that teach us how
xii Preface

to appreciate the past. They provide us with a wealth of information with

which we can formulate a comprehensive understanding of a given period
of time. Although we cannot unearth artifacts that demonstrate the sen-
tient, shared, ephemeral experience of performance, we can transform the
“fossils” that can be recovered into fuel for creative, communal, embodied
performances of our own.
As archaeologists of performance we will excavate the material evidence
that can teach us about Shakespeare’s theatrical culture. We will research
the context from which Shakespeare’s plays emerge, consider the clues
present within the text, and enter into a relationship with those elements in
and through practice. We will create a three-dimensional embodiment of
the text that springs from a historically informed, spatially influenced muse:
Shakespeare’s theatre and his theatrical culture.
When we work as archaeologists of performance we empower ourselves
to examine the vast scope of evidence and decide for ourselves those elements
that ignite our creativity. I won’t prescribe to you a singular way of working,
an absolute set of rules you must adhere to. I also won’t presume to tell you
that we know exactly how Shakespeare was first performed—we don’t know
that with any certainty. What I will do is highlight the practical performance
elements that formulate our foundation—our archeological “finds”—so that
you can interpret how those components can help you to formulate your own
personal connection to Shakespeare’s text. My goal is to empower you with
the tools you’ll need to excavate the bones of the material you’re exploring.

Becoming empowered
I need to be honest with you: I didn’t always love Shakespeare. I know
that may seem shocking—blasphemous—but it is true. I wanted to love it.
I felt as though I should love it. How could I be a serious actor if I didn’t
love it? As a teenager, though, I just couldn’t find my way “in” to the text;
it felt completely inaccessible to me. I enjoyed reading it out loud in class,
but most of the time I really didn’t know what the text meant. I washed it
with emotion to the best of my ability and waited with my classmates for the
teacher to help us translate and comprehend it all. I longed to understand
it for myself, but I had absolutely no tools to bring me any closer to that
understanding. So I continued to read aloud, to try and grasp the content for
myself, but it seemed only to instigate bigger feelings of failure when I didn’t
seize immediately the complexities inherent within Shakespeare’s text. And
then I began to fear that, perhaps, I couldn’t do it on my own. What was I
supposed to do with all of that language?
 Preface xiii

When I began to approach Shakespeare as an actor, those insecurities

reared their ugly heads and roared like a mythological beast. I was filled with
fear: Do I understand it? How do I speak it? Can I memorize it perfectly?
How can I apply my actor skills to this text? Will the audience understand it?
Will the audience be as bored as I sometimes was in English class? How can I
be a living human being behind all of this poetry? Will I be too “big”? Am I
too American? Will I just fake my way through it? Am I an imposter? Will it
all just sound really nice and mean nothing?

Am I enough?
At the beginning of my work with a new group of actors, I ask them to write
down their own fears about performing Shakespeare and then I collect them.
I gather up all of their fears, and they are nearly identical to the ones I faced. I
read them aloud to the group and everyone laughs. They laugh because they
recognize themselves in those confessions and they realize that they are not
alone. There is nothing unique about feeling somewhat removed from speak-
ing Shakespeare’s verse. We live in a very different world, and we use language
differently than Shakespeare did. Our theatres are completely different from his.
Our actor training is different. In fact, there are far more differences between
Shakespeare and us than there are similarities. At our core, Shakespeare reso-
nates with us because his work captures something profoundly honest about
human nature—and that similarity is absolutely thrilling to be immersed in.

Embodied performance
The methodology laid out in this book synthesizes the historical and theoreti-
cal concepts surrounding Shakespeare in performance into a systematic way of
approaching Shakespeare’s plays that is meaningful today. Through a deliber-
ate series of training, we will locate within the body-instrument elements that
increase our connections to the text, to other actors, and to our audience. This
awakens in us the presence we desire and grounds our creative impulses in a
historically rich playground. Through this training, actors will gain a sense of
what the reconstruction of Shakespeare’s theatre can teach us about performing
Shakespeare elsewhere today. Embodied performance is inspired performance.

How this book works

This book is divided into two parts. Part I does two things: it contextualizes
the history surrounding theatre-making and theatre-going over the course
xiv Preface

of Shakespeare’s career, and it also introduces the theories that underlie the
practice you will encounter in Part II. Part I is the skeletal foundation, your
archaeological “finds.” Part II focuses on studio practice: the nuts and bolts
of creating and developing performances. The structure of this book follows
the parallel to archaeology: first, we will excavate the details of the past and
consider the implications of their meaning, and then we will allow that infor-
mation to inspire our imaginations in performance.
Throughout this book I will refer to the actor as single-gendered male
for two reasons: Shakespeare’s company was comprised only of male
actors, and, many other vocational titles are used universally across gen-
der—an individual is a doctor, a writer, a painter, an engineer, a teacher,
an officer, a director. There is no reason why the same single-gendered
usage ought not to be applied to the title “actor.” By referring to an actor
with the corresponding male pronoun, I hope to simplify any comparison
to Shakespeare’s company, and hope that readers of all genders, including
transgendered and gender fluid readers, will identify with the actor’s process
under investigation. I hope that in future editions of this book, we will have
an agreed upon inclusive single person pronoun that encompasses everyone.
At the moment “an actor” and the plural pronoun “they” remain challeng-
ing grammatically. If only we had Shakespeare to coin the term for us . . .
Although Part I (the foundation) leads directly to Part II (the practice),
you can certainly jump into a specific part of the practice if you have imme-
diate questions that need answers. You can conduct your own excavation of
the material as you see fit. However, the background provided in Part I will
enhance and contextualize your experience with Part II.
Dig in!
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I consider my approach to performance one that is informed historically,

and rooted in the body’s somatic and kinesthetic awareness. I have spent
the last 30 years in acting studios: for many of those years, as a facilitator and
leader, for many others as a participant. I continue to train as an actor, and I
keep at the ready a list of master teachers with whom I’d like to study next.
My work is a creative imagining of possibilities. When I reflect back on my
Shakespeare fears, I recognize that I was afraid because I was forced to face
the differences between the text and me and I didn’t have a way to process
those dissimilarities. In many ways, the friction between what I believed I
was capable of and what I was actually doing felt like I was trying to fit the
proverbial square peg in the round hole. First, you exhaust the immediate
possibilities that are readily accessible, and then an altogether different strat-
egy emerges: a completely different tactic is needed to make this intersection
and integration possible. I stopped trying to make Shakespeare conform to
fit me, and began to transform my way of working with Shakespeare to fit
myself to it.
Stanislavski talks of the “magic if”—the thing that enables the actor to
unlock the circumstances of the play. My approach to performing Shakespeare
is like an all-encompassing “magic if”—the key to unlocking, or in our case,
unearthing Shakespeare in performance is to ask this important question: If
I perform differently than I have been trained to do, what might I discover?
If I look more deeply into all of the elements that could have been available
when these plays were performed originally, could I unearth a whole new
way of working that makes these circumstances come alive?
xvi Acknowledgments

I have had some brilliant teachers. I have also had some not so brilliant
teachers who have equally taught me how I approach the art and craft of
teaching. I am undoubtedly influenced by the years of studio practice that
I have engaged in—both by my instructors and my fellow explorers. I am
incredibly grateful to Patsy Rodenburg, Kate Wilson, and Judylee Vivier for
encouraging me to embrace how my voice lives throughout my body, and
for helping to put me more in touch with my body-instrument. My voice
is free, resonant, and lives within me on a daily basis because of the work
we have done together. I am also especially grateful to Charlotte Fleck, for
helping me to understand the absolute beauty of a well-placed vowel and a
crisp, clear consonant.
The roots of my work with Shakespeare are in the First Folio approach,
although I am not a staunch enthusiast of the method above all else. I am
keenly interested in how modern editors have interfered with what is on the
page for the same reason that I am keenly aware that our current regimes for
actor training have often impeded our ability to engage with Shakespeare’s
text rather than facilitated that engagement. Christine Ozanne first opened
my eyes at LAMDA, and her partner, Patrick Tucker and his protégée, John
Basil, have influenced me greatly. I have gone on to refine my own defini-
tions and ways of looking at the text, but their work, along with Neil
Freeman’s, inspired me to look more closely—particularly with regard to
punctuation, capitalization, titles, and adjoining sounds. They have built
upon the scholarship of Richard Flatter, whose work in the mid-twentieth
century preceded theirs. They all have books of their own, and I encourage
you to look to them if you’d like an in-depth examination of their methods.
Some of the brilliant Shakespeareans who have shaped my work immeas-
urably are John Barton, Rodney Cottier, the late Tony Church, and the dear
Peter Thomson, who always made me promise that I would write simply,
with the reader in mind and for the reader’s benefit. His books are the great-
est example of his ideology.
I am indebted to the University of Exeter Drama Department, especially
to Christopher McCullough and Lesley Wade, my doctoral supervisors,
and to Jane Milling, Jon Primrose, and Gayatri Simons for their support
and encouragement. I am equally indebted to the Globe Education staff:
to Patrick Spottiswoode, and especially to Alexandra Massey and Madeline
Knights for their support.
Although I have not worked with her directly, I am incredibly grate-
ful for the legacy of Cicely Berry’s work, which I believe has—without a
doubt—informed in one way or another nearly all of what we practice in
the Shakespeare studio.
 Acknowledgments xvii

Catherine Weidner left an indelible mark when she put me in the hot
seat in an improvisatory exercise involving snippets of Shakespeare’s text
(which, I must confess, I don’t fully remember) that inspired me to pair
improvisation and iambic pentameter. Joseph Olivieri’s “Iambic Fairytale”
led me to explore this idea further.
I am grateful to John Cameron and Deborah Mayo for the foundation
they laid with Sanford Meisner’s work, and especially to Deb for her encour-
agement and friendship over the past 25 years.
I have a deep appreciation for my colleagues at LIU Post, especially to
Cara Gargano, Maria Porter, Jon Fraser, and David Hugo for their enthusi-
astic support.
I would also like to thank Ben Piggott and Kate Edwards at Routledge for
their guidance and for making this book into a material artifact in its own right.
Rose Burnett Bonczek has been my mentor and dear friend, whose
wisdom has guided me for the past fifteen years. Her year-long study in
improvisation changed how I function as an actor, director, and teacher. I’m
certain that I am not only a better artist and teacher, but I am a better person
for having known her.
Actor training has always been a practical pursuit. I could not have devel-
oped new modes of training without the foundation of intellectual and creative
curiosity I’ve cultivated throughout my career as a theatre-maker. I have done
my best to acknowledge when I have been influenced and inspired by the
work of others. I can assure you that any lapses in acknowledgement are
“something of my negligence, nothing of my purpose” (Twelfth Night 3.4.125).
While I am quoting Twelfth Night, I must also say, “I can no other answer
make but thanks, / And thanks; and ever thanks” (3.3.14–15) to the actors
with whom I’ve worked, who have helped me to refine my teaching and
my methodology over the years I’ve been developing it. Thank you for your
willingness to play, to explore with me, and to push me to be even more
articulate and specific about why—and how—we work as we do.
A huge “ever thanks” to my family—the ultimate cheerleaders—
(especially to RoseAnn and Robert Clarke, Maxine and Jonathan
Ferencz, and Shari and James Kerr); you have listened to me prattle on
about this book for far too long. Your encouragement means every-
thing, and I am so grateful for your support.
Finally, to my husband, Thomas, and my children, Jolie and Owen: “I
thank you, good my Lord, and thank you all” (Richard III 3.1.19). This book
simply would not exist without your unwavering sustenance. “I humbly
thank you” (All’s Well That Ends Well 3.5.69 ) for providing the context
within which I appreciate the magnitude of Shakespeare’s depth.
PART I

Excavating the foundation

1
SHAKESPEARE’S THEATRICAL
CULTURE

While a lot has been said about Shakespeare being “of all time,” “universal,”
and “timeless,” the plays he wrote are the particular products of a very specific
cultural landscape and reflect a time when theatre-making was undergoing
radical changes. This panorama of theatre practice bears little resemblance to
those practices we engage today—even in those companies dedicated exclu-
sively to performing Shakespeare’s plays in repertory. Shakespeare wrote his
plays within a very specific moment of theatre history, and understanding
this context and the differences between his practices and ours will help
us to better understand the plays and how to explore and engage them in
performance.
Before we begin to look at the texts of Shakespeare’s plays, I’d like to
examine with you the practice of making theatre in Shakespeare’s time so
we can understand the circumstances from which his plays emerged. At the
time Shakespeare was writing, there was a seismic shift underway in theatre
practices. Theatre was not yet the commercial enterprise it would eventu-
ally become. Early in Shakespeare’s career, theatre companies depended on
the support of wealthy patrons who commissioned performances at court,
and these companies bore the names of those patrons. Shakespeare’s own
company was first known as the Lord Chamberlain’s Men. They would later
become The King’s Men when King James I became their patron in 1603.
These patrons provided the money for companies to develop their plays,
and once these plays had been performed privately for an invited audience at
court, they toured to the provinces where they were performed for the pub-
lic at inn yards and other public spaces, like bear baiting arenas: spaces that
4 Excavating the foundation

were not dedicated exclusively to theatre performances. It is believed that

Shakespeare would have been exposed to such a troupe of traveling players
in his hometown of Stratford, where his father, John, was at one time the
town bailiff, and the person responsible for organizing such performances.
Comprised only of men, these companies contained a dozen actors: eight
or nine company members (depending on the year), along with three or four
additional “hired men” as needed. That core group of eight or nine adult
players was diverse, and was able to cover the basic “stock” characters you
might encounter in any of the plays. Like any trade at that time, company
members went through an apprentice system, where experienced mentors
trained them on the job. Since each “player” (they weren’t called “actors” at
that time) played a particular type of role, it is safe to assume that apprentices
were trained for that particular “line” in the repertory, each assigned to a spe-
cific senior company member. In fact, the relationship between players and
their apprentices was an important one: players often made specific mention
of their apprentices in their wills (like bequeathing them the musical instru-
ments and costumes they would need) and apprentices were even known to
have married their mentors’ widows (OK, that part may not necessarily be
relevant to theatre practices, but talk about commitment to the ensemble!).
That roster of boy apprentices would also have played the female parts.
Like all budding enterprises, consumer demand for theatre “products” must
have been great enough to prompt the building of spaces dedicated just for
performing theatre. This is a pretty radical idea when you think about it. Up
until this point, plays were developed for patrons, not for the public. They
were shared with the public after the fact, but is it possible that the public was
so hungry for more that playing companies could justify setting up shop in
London where they could collect entry fees—and create for themselves a new
model for generating revenue? Yes, apparently, and what ensued was a sig-
nificant development of Elizabethan playhouses where there once were none.
One of the most important of these playhouses is known simply as The
Theatre (1576). Built by James Burbage and his brother-in-law John Brayne,
The Theatre is often recognized as the first permanent theatre, although this
isn’t entirely accurate. John Brayne had an earlier, albeit less successful, ven-
ture called The Red Lion (1567), which is often overlooked, perhaps due to
its lack of financial success, perhaps because it lacked a permanent company
of players, or perhaps because it lacked a connection to a particular player by
the name of William Shakespeare. Who knows? James Burbage had a son,
Richard, who was a member of the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, and the lead-
ing man for whom Shakespeare wrote the first Romeo, the first Hamlet, the
first Othello, the first Lear.
 Shakespeare’s theatrical culture 5

There was a little squabble with the landlord of The Theatre, as the story
goes, and in the winter of 1599 The Theatre was dismantled; its timbers
were pushed across the frozen Thames River and reassembled in Southwark
as The Globe. Since this was a Burbage venture, and Richard Burbage was
the leading man and a shareholder in a playing company, The Globe became
the home of that company, The Lord Chamberlain’s Men. The Lord
Chamberlain (Henry Carey) was a member of the Queen’s Privy Council
and one of Queen Elizabeth’s inner advisors, as well as her first cousin. The
Privy Council was the governing body in charge of public entertainment,
which helped to position The Lord Chamberlain’s Men for prosperity. Oh,
and of course, they had that great playwright, which also helped.
We don’t know how Shakespeare came to London, or how he acquired
the capital to become a shareholder in The Lord Chamberlain’s Men.
Playing companies operated on a profit-sharing system, where each share-
holder received a portion of the earnings, and the shareholders of The Lord
Chamberlain’s Men became very wealthy as a result of their venture at The
Globe. This is a turning point, really. Up until this point, theatre is connected
strongly to religion—first emerging (in the Western world) in conjunction
with religious festivals (in ancient Greece and Rome) and religious pageantry
(in Europe). For the first time, theatre is no longer used to relay religious
dogma, as it was in the mystery and morality plays of the Middle Ages, but it
emerges as popular entertainment, and this is truly remarkable. With its own
dedicated venues, theatre is no longer connected to any larger governing
body, like the Church—hence the need for the Privy Council to keep things
respectable. Individuals of all classes could pay their hard earned money to
be entertained—nearly every day of the week. THIS is the environment for
which Shakespeare wrote.
While court audiences are fairly homogenous, audiences in the public
playhouse are not. This newfound diversity is reflected in this new (and
rather lofty) name: The Globe, and we can imagine the playwright in resi-
dence is writing in a way that reflects this fact. Furthermore, as someone
whose financial success is directly dependent on that of the company, we
might also imagine him writing in a way that keeps audiences coming back
for more.
The Lord Chamberlain’s Men were not the only company in town,
though; they shared a duopoly with The Admiral’s Men (whose patron,
Charles Howard, was a member of the same Privy Council alongside Henry
Carey), whose residence was the nearby playhouse run by Philip Henslowe,
The Rose (1587). Henslowe was a meticulous record keeper, and his sur-
viving diary provides us with a great deal of what we know about the
6 Excavating the foundation

practices of the time. The Admiral’s Men were known to have performed
a repertoire of plays that we could only consider absolutely absurd today—
it’s a body of work so vast that it is “such stuff that dreams are made on”
except those dreams are closer to practitioners’ nightmares. On average, we
are talking about a different play every day, six days a week (Sunday was
reserved for Church). Six plays a week. Just to compare, the average union
contract today allows for eight performances of one play in a week. There
were, of course, more than six plays in their repertoire; some plays were
new, some plays recur more frequently than others, but by our standards this
schedule is nearly unimaginable.
Even if we consider those few theatre companies with resident ensem-
bles that are dedicated to performing Shakespeare (and his contemporaries)
today, a company of actors may perform a handful of different texts over
an extended period of time; that handful certainly doesn’t keep shifting
throughout the commercial season, as it did for The Admiral’s Men. It’s
clear that the Elizabethans couldn’t have worked the way that we do, and
in fact, they didn’t. Today it’s pretty standard practice (when working with
scripted drama) for actors to receive their scripts and to do their own analysis
and homework on that script before getting together with the director and
ensemble of actors to rehearse. Usually, the rehearsal period will begin with
a presentation by the creative team of directors and designers to introduce
their vision of the play and the world of the production. This may also
include dramaturgical presentations where historical and other research is
shared, followed by “table work”: a period of intense reading to analyze
details in the text. After this, actors will begin to investigate the play in
practice under the director’s guidance.
Given the amount of time and money available, this practice can vary, but
this framework is fairly standard whether it takes place over a short period of
time (days or weeks) or a longer one. In the Elizabethan playing company none
of these practices would have occurred. First of all, scribes wrote the plays out
by hand and as we all know time is money, so there would not have been
multiple copies of each text to distribute. Instead, there was one full copy of the
text, which belonged to the company itself. Each actor would only receive his
own “part” of the play, hence our modern use of the term “part” to indicate
the role or character in a play. In fact, “role” is another term we borrow from
our Elizabethan predecessors. When players received their part of the play,
they did so in a scroll: a rolled up piece of parchment that contained only the
players’ lines and the cues that prompt them. So the scroll was a “roll” with the
part on it, and over time the “roll” containing the part transformed into what
we now understand to mean the “part” itself: the “role.”
 Shakespeare’s theatrical culture 7

Second, “directors” and “designers” had not yet become a part of exist-
ing theatrical practices. The director is a relatively modern invention. The
Elizabethans had an “actor-manager” who helped to oversee things, but cer-
tainly not in the same capacity that a modern director would today. Given
what we know about the rotation of plays, there would not have been any
sort of scenic or production “design” as we might expect today; that would
not come into play until the Italian development of perspective painting,
and even then it was limited to only three locations: one for tragedy, one
for comedy, and another for pastoral. So even when we begin to get a visual
sense of place, it was not a design specific to a particular production, but was
a standardized location according to the dramaturgical genre of the play.
It’s also important to consider that plays were performed outdoors, and
at midday (2:00pm) so that there was sufficient sunlight; this was before the
use of deliberate lighting so everyone in the playhouse would have shared
the same light. So, we have a non-descript, or neutral, stage with no focused
lighting, and no purpose-built sets or costumes. Actors would have worn
their own contemporary clothes with specialty pieces, such as those reserved
for nobility, when needed. Henslowe’s diary lists a detailed catalogue of
pieces that The Admiral’s Men owned and used for such purposes. This dif-
fers from our current practices, where the transformation of space and attire
is chosen deliberately to suit a particular artistic vision and interpretation of a
given piece of work. Without a director, there was no unifying artistic vision
to adhere to. Given the volume of plays in rotation, changing the space to
accommodate each one would have been prohibitive for many reasons.
Instead, Shakespeare’s theatre was representative of all Elizabethan
playhouses at the time, and also of their material performance conditions.
For many years, until the excavation of the actual archaeological remains
in 1989, the closest thing we had to piece together what the inside of an
Elizabethan theatre looked like was the 1595 illustration of The Swan by
Johannes DeWitt (see Figure 1.1), a Dutch tourist who visited the playhouse
and documented his experience.
Open to the elements, Elizabethan playhouses were polygonal in shape:
not quite round, but close to it; The Globe is believed to have been a
twenty-sided polygon. At the time, playhouses featured a “neutral” plat-
form thrust stage that featured a tiring house at the back, with two to
three doors or openings, a place where the musicians would have played,
the Lords’ Rooms (where the wealthiest could see and be seen), and
a roof that covers part of the stage. The flag, which is flying overhead,
would have flown on performance days and it would have been accom-
panied by a trumpeted announcement close to the start of performance.
8 Excavating the foundation

FIGURE 1.1 Johannes DeWitt, illustration of The Swan, 1595

You can see from DeWitt’s illustration that performances were nearly in
the round, with playgoers surrounding the stage at least three-quarters of
the way around. There was a yard where audience members stood on three
sides of the platform stage. Known as “groundlings,” they would have paid
a penny: the lowest price of admission, equivalent to the price of a loaf of
bread. For a penny more, there were three galleries with bench seating.
Since theatre was now a capitalist venture, cushions were available for an
additional penny. The “Lords’ Rooms” would have been the most exclu-
sive seats in the house, and the most expensive at six pence. Playhouses held
 Shakespeare’s theatrical culture 9

about 3,000 people for a performance, and with performances six of the
seven days of the week, that was a lot of theatre, and a lot of money for the
shareholders.
With an assembly that reached into the thousands, crammed with mobile
bodies in the pit, in the shared light of day, just off a major thoroughfare for
trade (the River Thames), you can imagine that the theatre was a bustling
place to be. It was far more social than what we’d expect; it more closely
resembled a sporting event than today’s theatre. Business was conducted;
tradesmen took an afternoon break from their trades to attend (perhaps to
create a marketing presence and generate more business), and overall the
theatre was a rowdy and dirty place to be (remember, this was before the
advent of indoor plumbing and dedicated toilets). It could also be a dan-
gerous place: ripe with cutpurses and with so many people in such close
proximity, it could be downright dangerous to your health, which is why
the theatres were closed during outbreaks of the plague in order to halt the
spread of disease. Not quite what you think of when we go to the theatre
today, is it? You wouldn’t expect the person beside you today to arrive
straight from work: the butcher covered in blood, the tanner with the prod-
uct of his work with animal hides, the fishmonger stinking of fish. These
were very different times, indeed.
How might these circumstances have affected the performances?
Companies didn’t operate as they do today, actors weren’t trained as they
are today, plays weren’t rehearsed as they are today, and theatres didn’t look
the way they do today. Yet today, we hardly think about this at all. As
an archaeologist compiles the evidence surrounding a culture in order to
study and understand it, we must begin to do the same with the evidence of
Shakespeare’s theatrical culture in order for us to really understand it.
How might it have been different for an actor in an Elizabethan playing
company? I’ve told you about the absence of a single director, but was there
a period of rehearsal? Given the fact that they were working within the con-
fines of natural daylight and that there were performances at midday, could
there have been? There certainly wasn’t a period of rehearsal that would look
familiar to us, but we assume that there would have been some time set aside
to organize the key things that would need to happen in the performance,
the tricky bits of staging, like swordplay or combat. How would the actors
have kept their focus on a different play each day, especially when there
could have been long periods in between the rotation of the plays? Some
plays were new, some old, but the time between those older plays could
have varied between just a few days to weeks or months. That is a long time
to hold the framework of a performance in your head, even for the most
10 Excavating the foundation

seasoned player. There would have been an outline for each play, a “platt,”
which hung backstage. The players could have checked the “platt” between
scenes to see what came next in the story. Over time the “platt,” which
contained the key details of the play and the order of the play’s events, came
to be known as the “plot” we recognize today.
It wasn’t simply a matter of finding time for the company to rehearse
daily. An actor would have needed time to learn his part, to memorize his
dialogue and cues for each play. From dawn to dusk an actor would have
divided his time between learning and reviewing his lines, going over the
outline of the platt, and of course, the “traffic of our stage”: time spent in
performance. How could they have done this on a regular basis?
It would probably be safe to assume that these performances were not as pol-
ished as our performances are today. How could they have been? When we
examine the parameters under which the companies worked, and the sheer
volume of material they covered, it would not have been possible. The players
must have needed some help recalling all of those lines, particularly with newer or
lesser produced plays. Indeed, they had the support of a “book-keeper” or “book-
holder,” who served the company like a modern stage manager: to prompt major
mishaps and keep the platt on track and the lines relatively in order.
Another thing to consider is that a resident playwright like Shakespeare
would have been writing his plays with his company of players in mind.
Remember that players apprenticed for particular acting “lines” within the
company. That means that they were accustomed to playing a particular
function in the drama, with similar types of roles. We know that Shakespeare
wrote for particular players because there is evidence of changes in his writ-
ing that coincide with changes in the acting company. For many years the
Lord Chamberlain’s Men had a particular clown or fool named Will Kemp
(sometimes known as Kempe). Kemp was known to be very physical and
may have improvised a lot, much to Shakespeare’s dismay if we look at
Hamlet’s advice to the players, which states, “let those that play your clowns
speak no more than is set down for them.” Kemp left the company to dance
his way across England (well, from London to Norwich) over nine days and
write about it in his book, Nine Days Wonder (1600). Kemp was replaced by
another player, Robert Armin, who was known to have been much more
of an intellectual than Kemp was. Armin’s fools were less physical than the
ones that originated during Kemp’s residency. We have fools like Feste in
Twelfth Night and the fool in King Lear as evidence of this shift. So, even
though there were many new plays, players would have been in the practice
of playing similar roles and creating familiar characters, which might have
helped them to adapt readily to new scripts.
 Shakespeare’s theatrical culture 11

It is also important to recognize that we understand the notion of “charac-

ter” differently than the Elizabethans would have. While we see “character”
as the embodiment of personality traits and circumstances given to us by the
playwright, the Elizabethans would have understood “character” to mean
the printed marks upon the page. Upon the reading of a letter in Hamlet
(4.7), there is an exchange between Laertes and Claudius in which Laertes
asks, “Know you the hand?” and Claudius replies, “Tis Hamlets character.”
“Character” is also understood to mean “to write” as a form of marking,
as Orlando states in As You Like It (3.2), “O Rosalind! These trees shall be
my books / And in their barks my thoughts I’ll character.” Over time, we
have adopted the idea that a “character” is a particular person in the fiction,
but character was originally the marks by which we recognize that particu-
lar person on stage. As a result, the character on the page (the playwright’s
marks) has transformed literally to mean the embodiment of those marks on
the stage. This is pretty amazing, when you think about it.
For all of these reasons, it is clear that Elizabethan players didn’t work as
we do today, and that the performance conditions in the Elizabethan theatre
were simply not like ours. Elizabethan audiences did not come to the theatre
with the same expectations that we do today. Most of the expectations we
bring to the theatre are twentieth-century inventions, and to be blunt, they
just don’t serve these plays. Many of our modern practices can be traced to
that other great man of the theatre, Constantin Stanislavski. Stanislavski was
an actor and director at the turn of the twentieth century who transformed
the way we approach performance as a result of his work at the Moscow
Art Theatre. Stanislavski aimed to codify the actor’s process of developing a
performance, and Western acting training has been forever transformed by
his teachings. Stanislavski identified and published a systematic method from
which actors could work. In the West, these titles are translated as An Actor
Prepares, Building a Character, and Creating a Role, which both indicate and
perpetuate the ways in which we have adopted the terminology of earlier
theatre practices.
Stanislavski was working in a theatrical paradigm that was influenced
greatly by psychological realism as well as by naturalism, two forms that
focused on bringing “real life” qualities to the stage. Audiences were con-
tained to one location in the theatre with a single vantage point, and receded
into anonymity with the dimming of the house lights. This paralleled devel-
opments occurring earlier in fiction, with the rise of the novel. Unlike what
was happening in the Elizabethan theatre where everyone’s actions were on
display and the event was communal in nature, in realistic and naturalistic
theatre the theatrical event could unfold on stage and the audience could
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cent télés. Panicaut (liai don aux ânes. Caussida Chardon à
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Cheville. Cavilha. Cheville (lu pied. id Cheville petite. Cavilheta.
Cheville grosse. Cavilhassa. Cheville servant de bouton Tacloua.
Cheville des traits. Tari udouira. Cheville de jardinier Cavilha. Cheville
de l'essieu. Rejola. Chevillé , ée. Cavilhat, ada Cheviller. Cavilhar.
Chèvre. Cobra. Chèvre , maciiinc. Cabri. Chtvi e d'un an à deux
Jiiina. Chèvre jeune. liimoun. Chèvres, en gênerai. les Cabraira.
Chèvres, troupeau dt .Cabrât. Chèvre petite. Chiot t morte. Cabrinet.
Chevreau. Cabrit. Chevreau p'tit. Cubritoun. Chevreau châtré.
Caslroun. Chèvre-feuille ordinaire. Sabatoun. Chèvre- feuille
d'Allemagne. iluire siouva. Chèvre feuille sauvage. id. Chèvre- feuille
Xdosleum. Kscoubù r . Chevrette de mer. Caramt/ut Chevreuil.
Cabroou. Chevrier. Cabrier . Chevron. Cabiion. Chevroler. Chez.
Cabridar Aquol , Encot Chiasse. Chicane. Chicaner. Chicanerie.
Chicaneur, euse. ( 'hic gavotteChic jaune. Chic moustache. Chic des
roseaux. Chiche. Chichement. Chicon. Chicorée. Chicorée sauvage.
Cillent. Chicot d'aibre. Cbicoter. Chie- en-lit. Chien. Chien jeune.
Chien tiès-jeune. Chien gros quoique jeune. Chien petit. Chii n gros.
Cluen de mer. Chien de mer mâle. Chiendent. Chiendent, champ ut
feclé de. Chienne. Chienne petite. Chienne grosse. Chienne jeune.
Chienner. Chier. Chieur, euse. Chiffon. Chiffonné , ée. Chiffonner.
Chiffonnier, icre. Chiffre. Chiffré . ée! Ch-ffier. Chili eur. Chignon.
Chimère. Chimère arctique. médilt < i an t'en ne. Chimérique.
Chimie. Chim que. Chimiste. Chine. Chiné, ec. Chiner. Chinois, oise.
Chiourme. Chipoter. Chipolier . icre. Chique. Chiquenaude. Chiquer.
Chiquet. Chiragre. Chirographaire. Cagas. Chicana. Chicana r.
Chicanaria. Chicjnur , usa. Chic gavouel. Chic jaune. Chic gavouet.
Chic deis paluns. Chichou. Primament. Chicoun. Cicori id. Chicot.
Hue. Chicotar. Cagaulieeh. Chui , Can. Cadeou. Cadeloun. Cadclas. .
Chinoun. Chinas. Agulhal. Cuta row/uiita. G rame. Gramenier. China.
Chineta Chinass i Cadi 1 1 Cadelar. Ca g a r. Cagaire, arela.
Panourha. Chaupinat , ada. Chaupinar. Eslrassaire, arela. Chiffra.
Chiffrai .ada. Chiffrar. Chijfioi • Chimei a. Cal. ci. id ,'i. Chimeriqi <
Chimia. ■ ■ . ica. ■ China. Chinai, ada. Chinar. Chinois, oisa.
Chiourma. Chipoular. Chipoutur, usa. Chiea. Chica. Chicar. Chiquet.
Chiragra. I.'liii ogrnpkei o. Chiromancie. Chiromancia. Chiron le
entaurc. Chiroun. Chirone maritime. Ilerba de la cran. Chirurgie.
Cirurgia. Chirurgien. Cirurgicn. Chirurgien mauvais Charculiuire.
Chisle marneux dur. Blancassa. Chiure. Cagadura. CKL Chlore.
Chloro. Chlore per foliée. Tara. Chlorure a" antimoine
Hurid'anlimuino. Chlorure de sodium. Sau. CHO Choc. Chocolat.
Chocolatier. Chocolatière. Chœur. Chœur, enfant de. Choir. Choisi .
ie. Choisir. Choix. Cholera-morljus. Chômer. Chondrille effilée.
Chopine. Chopiner. Choquant , ante. Choquart. Choqué , ée.
Choquer. Chorégraphie. Choriste. Chorographie. Chorus. Chose.
Chose petite. Chou. Chou gros. Chou, petit, plant de Chou d: i
champs. Chou vert. Chou cabus Chou jieur. Chou rare. . plant de.
Chou, effeuiller un. Choux , rejetons de. ' 'hou • i hou i (un planléde.
Choucas des Alpes. Choucas noir. Chouetlc. ( houetle hulotte
Chouette petite. Chouquet. Chourette. Choyer un enfant. Choc, Turt.
Chocolat. Chocolatier. Chocoluticru. Chuer. Ctcrsoun. Toumbar.
Choousit, ida. Choousir. Chois, Coousida, Choiera. Chaumar.
Sauloulama. Miegea . Pichouna. Flasquegear. Choquant, anla. Grailla
à becj lum. Chocat , ada. Chocar , Turtar Chorégraphia. Chouristo.
Chorégraphia. Chorus. Causa. Causela. Caulet. Cauletas. l 'auii toun,
Pan-blanc. Caulet bi ut. Caulet cabus. l 'autet (lori. (iiuttt raba.
Caulal. Caulegear, Caulilhas. Chaulât. Chauriera. t' lin a an. ('•rallia à
bec jaune. Agralhoun. Ma eh ota Cabrareou. Machola pichola.
Chouquet Courrenlilha . ipoupounir. Chrême. Chrétien ii an ■
Chrétiennement. Chrelii : Chrema. Chreslian . ana. Chreslianament.
Chrestianlat. ■i
 34 Christ. Christianisme. Christine, n. pr. Christophe.
Chrome. Chronique. Id. adj. Chronographie. Chronologie.
Chronologiste. Chronomètre. Chrysomeles dorées. Chrysomeles du
peu plier. Chrvsostome. Chuchoter. Chuchoterie. Chnchoteur. euse.
Chut. Chute. Christ. Christianisme. Chrislina. Chrisloou. Chromo.
Chronica. Chronique , iea. Chronog raphia. Chronologia.
Chronologislo. Chronomelro. Calarinela daurada. Tora. Chrysostomo.
Chuehoular. Chuchounaria. Ckuchuniaire, aira. Chut. Chuta. Ch}le.
Chyle. Cible. Sibla. Ciboire. Ciboiro. Ciboule. Ciboula. Ciboule grande.
Civeta. Ciboule sauvage. Cibourlat. Ciboulette. Civeta. CIC Cieadclte.
Cigaloun. Cicatrice. Cieatriça , Ci ela Cicatrisé, ce. Cicatrisât adu .
Cicatriser. Cicalrisar Cicéro. Cieero. CID Cidre. Cidre. Ciel. Ciel. Ciel-
ouvert. Ciel- ouvert. Cierge. Cicrgi. Cierge paschal. Ciergi pascha
Cierge , plante. CIG Cigale. ' i ;nla. Cigale du frêne. Cigau. Cigale
grosse. Cigalassa. t'igale petite. Cigaloun. Cigale femelle. Cigau
Cigale mâle. Cignlaslre. Cigogne blanche. Cigougna. Cigogne brune
et cigogne noire. Ganta, Ciguë grand». Ci g u a. Cilice. Ciller. Cime.
Ciliée. Parpeliar. Ciment. Ciment fait avec de la brique. Ciment,
enlever le. Cimenté, ée. Cimenter. Cimeterre. Cimetière. Cimier.
Cimolée. Cima. Ciment. Balum. Decimenlar . Cémentât, ada.
Cimentar. Jinjarra. Cémenter i. Mola, Cimier. Moulada. C;nabre.
Cinèle. Cinéraire maritime. Cinips de l'olivier. Cinq. Cinquantaine.
Cinquante. Cinquantième. Cinquième. Cinquième, classe.
Cinquièmement. Cintre. Cintré , ée. Cintrer. Cirage. Cucc'e de Paris.
Circoncire. Circoncis . ise. Circoncision. Circonférence. Circonflexe.
Ciiconlocution. Circonscription. Circonscrire. Circonscrit, lie.
Circonspect, ecte. Circonspection. Circonstance. Circonstancié , ée.
Circonstanciée Circuit. Circulaire. Circulairement. Circulation. Circuler.
Cire. Cire d'Espagne. Cinobre. Merle d'aigua. H ci lia de nostra Dama.
Cairuun. Cinq. Cm
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r, Clair elle. Clairière. Clairon. Clairvoyance. Clameur.

Clandestin, ine. Clandestinement. Clapier. Claque. Claque sur les
fesses Claque, chapeau. Claquement. Claquei Clarilicalion. Clarilié ,
éc. Clarifier. Clarinette. Clarté. Classe. Classement. Classer. Classes.
Classification. Classique. Clatir. Claude , n. pr. Claudine . n. pr.
Claudication. Clause. Clavaire. Claveau. Clavecin. Clavelade.
Clavelée. Clavette. Clavicule Clavier. Clavier à ehàineUe. c ayon.
Clayon porte. Clarela. Clariera. Cleroun l'enetralion. Clamour.
Clandestin, ina. Clandestinamcnt. Clapier. Claca-Tapa . Paulada.
Ancada. Claca. Clacament. Claear. Clarification. clarifiai , ada.
Clarifiar. Clarinela. Clartal. Classa . Classament. Classar. Classas.
Classification. Classique , ica. Glatir. Glauduu. Claudina. Claudicalio ,
vl. Clausa. Barba. Picola. Clavecin. Clavelada. Picola. Clavcta.
Clavicula. Clavier. Crochet. Canissa. Escaras. Clef. Clef faune. Clef de
Garangeot. Clématite. Clématite odorante. Clémence Clément , ente.
•iiiif , n. pr. Clepsydre. Clerc' Clergé Cféricature. Clicher. C ii ni, ente.
Clientèle. Cliloire. Clignement. Cligne-musette, c igi er. Clignollr
ment. Clignoter. Climal. C'imatérique. c . icjeil. Clinique. CLE Clau.
Clau-faussa. Clau de Garangeot. Entrevadis. Jnussemin d'ase.
Clemcnca. Clément , enta. Clémentine. Clepsidre, Subher. Clerc.
Clergé. CUrtcalura. CLI Cliekar. inta. I lunlela. Espouscaire.
Guinchamenl. Eicoundalhas. Clignar. Guinchoulin. Guinchoular.
Climat. Climalerique , ica. ( lin-d'uelh. Clinica. Clinquant. Cliqueter.
Cliquetis. Cliquette. Cloaque Coche. Clochement. Cloche-pied.
Clocher. Clocher , vetb. Clochette. Cloison. Cloître. Cluilre, ce.
Cloîtrer. Cloilrier. Clopin-clopant. Clopiner. Cloporte. Clore. Clorinde ,
n. pr. Clos, ose. Clos. Clos petit. Clossement. Closser. Clôture.
Clotilde, n. pr. Clou. Clou de poids. Clou de rue. Clou gros. Clou petit.
Clou de girofle. Clou, petit furoncle Cloué .ce. Clouer. Clovière.
Clouterie. Cloutrier. ('lavis . n. pr. Clin-clànt. Claquetar. Clic-clac.
Cliquetas. CLO Suctha. Clocha, Cumpana. Bouilument. Ped-couquel.
Cluchier. Panardegear. Campanela. Bujct. Cloilre. Cloilrat , ada.
Cloilrar. Claustrier. Cloupin-cloupan. Panardegear. Pourquet de crota.
Baragnar , Clausurar. Clorinda. Claus , ausa. Claus. Clauset. Cascal,
clussir , /ou. Clussir. Clausure. Clolilda. Clavel , Claveou. Agus,
senepa. Cabocha. Clavelas. Claveloun. Claveou 'le girofle. H > /y 1-
Í. Cluvelat , ada. Clavelar. Clavii 1 a Clavelun. Clauti U 1 Clovit. club.
CLU Club. ( lypeole maritime. Cl»-w,ir. Clyslère. Clysiériser. Clgstci
isalion. Coaclion. Coadjuteur. Coagis. Coagulé . ée Coaguler. Coaliser
se. Coalition. Cobalt. Cubes. l'an blanc. Cljssoir. Clyleri >sur.
Clysterizacio, \i. , \ I . Coadjulour . Couagis. /lion. Coagulât, ada
Coagutar, Calltar. Coalitar se. Coalisalion. Cobalt. Embrolh. coc
Cocagne. Cocarde. Coccinelle. Coccyx. Coche. Coche de fuseau.
Coche , voiture. Cochenille. Cocher. Cocher , parlant du coq. Cochet.
Cocbevis. Cochevis Cochon. Cochon petit. Cochon gros. Cochon
marin. Cochon d'Inda. Cochons, troupeau de Cochon de l'année.
Cochonnée. Cochonner. Cochonnerie. Cochonnet. Coco. Cocon
Cocotier. Cocrile. Cocu. Cocu . Cornard. Cocgte. Cocagna. Cocarda.
Beslia doou Bondiou, Catarineta . Os-bertrand. Osca. Crouchet.
Mouscla. Cochou. Cochenilha. Couchier. Jalar. Galar. Galet.
Bedouvida. Couquilhada. Porc, Pouerc. Parquet. Porcas. Porc marin
Lapin de Barbaria. Porcada Charnouge. Porcada. Porcelar ,
Tcstounar. Porcaria. Lel, Bochoun. Coco. Coucoun. Cocotier.
Tarlarieya. Couguou. Couguou. Cm nard. Cocylo. COD Code Code,
Codou. Codicille. Codicilo. Codicille, faire un. Codiciliar. Ciectim. Cœur
de bœuf mouton , etc. ■ ■ ''"lin pi Ut. Cuff,c moucheté Coffre
trigonc. Coffre i/rand. Coffre fort. Coll'rer. Coffret. Coffricr. Cognasse.
Cognée. rfi CŒC Bout doou moundc. COE Coeternel. cœu Cor ,
Couei Couret COF Coff.e. Coffret. | Coffre. Arclia. Coffre fort. Coffrar.
Coffret. Cojfrier. COG Coudoun fit Désira u.
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36 Cogne , ce. Cogner. Cognassier Cogne-felu. Cohabita

lion. Cohabiter. Cohérance. Cohéritier, ière. Cohue. Cougnat, ada.
Cougnar. Coudounier Jlcsuquet. Cohabitation. Cohabilar. Coherança.
Cohéritier , e. Jutaria. coi Coi, oite. Couet . cta. Coiffe. Couiffa. Coiffe
pour retenir les cheveux Coiffe petite. Coiffe des nouveaux ne s.
Coiffé, ée. Coiffer. Coiffeur, euse. Coiffure. Coin. Coin petit. Coin gros
Cabelliicr. Couiffeta. Crespina. Couiffat, ada. Couijfar. Couiffar, usa.
('nui jf ara. Cougnet Cougnetoun. Cougnetas. Coin pour marquer la
vaisselle. Pownçown. Coin des scieurs de long. linndiou. Coin de rue.
Cantounada Coïncider. Coincidar. Coing. Coudoun. Coïon. Coulhoun.
Coil. Coil , vl. COL Col. Colchique. Colère. Colère , adj Colère,
enflammé de. Colérique. Colifichet. Colimaçon Colin maillard.
Colique. Colis. Collaborateur. Collatéral, aie. Collalrur. Collation.
Collation, confrontation. Collalionncr. Colle. Colle forte. Colle de
poisson. Colle, ée. , parlant delà laine. Collecte. Collecteur. Collci lif,
i'c. Colli i liv< ment. Collège. Collégial, aie. Col, Couel. lit ama-vacca.
Coulera. Couler ous. Encoulerit. Couler ique , tca. Babiola. Lima ça.
Alcm-mou-ai. Coulica. Cutis Collabouratour . Collatéral, ala Collalour.
Coula tion. Collation. Colliiliounar Colla. Colla forla. Colla de peissoun
Collai, Coulât. Agapil, ida. Coulccla, Culheta. Tresourier , Couléetour.
Couleelif, ira. Couleclivament. Coulegi. Coule gial, aie. Collègue.
Coller. Coller se. Collerette. Collet. Collet de mouton Colette , n. pr.
Colleter. Collier. Collier de bois portant une sonnaille. Cambis. Collier
d'attelage. Coulariva. Collier de deffense des Coulcgn. Collar .
Empegar. Collar se. Collere'a. Coulet. flcscoucl. Coleta . Gouletar.
Coulier , Coulas. bâtiments. Colliger. Colline. Colline petite. Collision.
Coilocation. Colloque. Colloque, ée. Colioquer. Colioquer se. Collyre.
Colombage. Colombaude. Colombier. Colombin. Colombin.
Colombine Colon. Colonel. Colonial , aie Colonie. Coloniser.
Colonnade. Colonne. Colonne petite. Colophane. Coloquinte. Coloré ,
ce. Colorer. Co orer se. Colorié, ée. Coloiier. Coloriste. Colossal, aie.
Colosse. Coloslrum. Colportage. Colporter. Colporteur. Colure. Colza.
Colymbe à crête. Mourrau. Coltegir. Coulet, Cvulina. Coulela.
Collision. Coilocation. Cotloquo. Coulloucat, ada. Coulluucar.
Coulloucar se. Aiguaperltsuclhs. Couruundage , Couroundat.
Coulournbauda. Couloumbier. Couloumbin. Pigeoun sauva gi.
Couloumbina. Couloun. Colonel. Coulouniul , ala. Coulouma.
Coulounisar . Coulounada. Coulouna. Couroundoun. Colophana.
Coloquinta. Coulourat , ada. Coulourar. Coulourar se. Coulouriat ,
ada. Coulouriar. Coulouristo. Colossal , ala. Colosso. Bet , Boulada.
Culporlagi. Colportar . Colportui . Coluro. Colzat. Fumut , Frauca.
COM Combat Combat a coups de purin.. Combattant. ' 'omi illant de
mer . Comballanlvulgaire. Combattant à plaííi lu Combattre.
Combattu , ne. Combe, n. pr. Coinb in. Combien , jeu de. Coumbat.
Agueirada. Coumbatant. Souida. Pescheirola. Pied-nrgre. Coumbatre.
Coumbolu, uda , ua. Coumba. (Juant , Coumbcn. Cavalela poila.
Combinaison. Combiné, ée. Combiner. Comble. Comble, adj. Comblé
, ée. Combler. Combrièrc. Combugé, ée. Combuger. Combuger se.
Combustible. Combustion. Comédie. Comédien, enne. Comestible.
Comète. Comique. Comité. Comité. Commandant Commande.
Commandement. Commandé, ée. Commander. Commanderie.
Commandeur. Commanditaire. Commandite. Comme.
Commémoraison. Commémoration. Commençant, ante.
Commencement. Commencé , ée. Commencer. Comment.
Commentaire. Commentateur. Commenté , ée. Commenter.
Commérage. Commercable. Commerçant, anle. Commerce.
Commercer. Commercial Commère. Commetlant. Commettre.
Commis, ise. Commis. CommisérationCommissaire. Commission.
Commissionnaire. Commissionné. Commissionner. Commode.
Coumode, adj. Commodément. Commodité. aie. Coumbinesoun.
Coumbinat , ada. Coumbmar. Comble. Coume, ma, Coumoul
Coumblat, ada. Coumblar. Couloumbriera . Embugal , ada. Embugar
. Embugar se. Coumbustiblc, ibla. Coumbuslion. Coumedia.
Coumedicn, cna. Coume slible , ibla. Comela. Coumique , ica. Corne.
Coumitat. Coumandant. Coumanda. Coumandament. Commandât ,
ada. Coumandar. Coumandaria. Coumandour. Coumanditari .
Coumandila. Coumo. Coummemouresoun. Coummemouration .
Coumençant , anta. Coumençamenl. Coumençal, ada. Coumençar.
Coumo. Coumentari. Coumenlatour. Coumcnlat, ada. Coumcnlar.
Coumairagi. Coumerçable, abla. Coumerçanl, anta. Coumerço.
t'oumerçar. Coumercial, ala. Coumaiir. Coumetant. Coumcltre.
Coumes , essa. Coumis. Coummiserution. Coumissari. Coumission.
Coumissiounari Coumissiounat , Coumissiounar . Coumoda.
Cóumode, oda. Coumodament. Ctiumoudilat. oda. Commodités de la
\ie Aises. Commodités, latrines. J.uic coumun. Commotion. Commun,
une. Communal , aie. Communauté. Communaux. Commune.
Communément. Communiant. Coumoutwn. Coumun, iiiki. Coutnunal
, ala. Coumunautat. Çoumunaus. Coumun a. Coumunament
Coumunianl.
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Commnnier. Communion. Communiqué , ée. Communiquer.

Communiquer se. Communicatif , i\e. Communication. Compacte.
Compagne. Compagnie. Compagnon. Compagnonnage. Comparable.
Comparaison. Comparaître. Comparant. Comparatif, ive.
Comparativement. Comparé, ée. Comparer. Comparoir.
Companimenl. Comparution. Compas. Compassé, ce. Compas r
Compassion. Compatibilité. Compatible. Compatir. Compatissant,
ante. Compalriole. Compensation. Compensé, ée. Compenser.
Compérage. Compère. Compétence. Compilant, ante. Compéler.
Compétiteur. Compilateur. Compilation. Compilé, ée. Compiler.
Complainte. Complaire. Complaire se. Complaisance. Complaisant ,
ante. Complément. Complété, ce. C .ment. Compléter. Complétif, ive.
Complexioo. Complication. Comp Complicité. Complus. Compliment
Complimenté , ce. Complimenter. Complimenteur. Com|)li(pié, ee.
Compliquer. Complot. Comploter. Componction. Comporté, ée. Mer.
Comporter se Coumuniar. Coumunion. Coumumcat , ada.
Coumunicar. Coumunicar se. Coumunicalif, iva. Coumunicalion.
Ctiumpacte, acta. Coumpayna. Coumpognia. Coumpaynoun.
Coumpognounagi. < 'fiimparable . abla. Coumpai esoun.
CoumpareitSer. Coumparanl. Coumparalif, iva. Coumparalivament.
Coumparat , ada. Coumparar. Coumpareister. Coumparliment.
Coumparulion. Coumpas. Cnumpassat. ada. Coumpatsar.
Coumpassion. l 'oumpatibililat. Coumpalible . ibla. Coumpalir.
Coumpatissenl, enta. Coumpali ml'). Coumpensattun. Coumpcnsat,
ada. Coumpcnsar. i '< umpairagi. Coumpaire. Coumpetença.
Coumpetenl, enta. Coumpetar. Compelitnur Compilateur.
Coumpilalion. Coumpilat, nda. Coumpilar. Coumplancha. Coumplaire.
(.'numpluire te. Coumplescnça. Coumplcsent, enta. Coumptvim ni. <
oumplelat . ada. Coumplclamenl. Coumptctar. Compleliu . \ I
CoumpU i Coumplicalion. Cnumplice , ira. Coumplit Coumplias.
Coumpliment. < oumplimt niai, ada. Coumplimentar. Coumplimentar
Coumplicat, ada. Coumplicar. Coumplol. Coumplolnr . Coumpounrtion
. Coumportal, ada. Cnumportar. Coumportar tt Composé. Composé ,
ce. Composer. Composite. Compositeur. Composition. Composteur.
Compote. Compotier. Compréhensible. Compresse. Compressible.
Compression. Comprimé, ée. Comprimer. Compromettre.
Compromis, ise. Comptabilité. Comptable. Comptant. Compte. Com|
té . ée. Compter. Comptoir. Compulser. Compulsoire. Comput.
Comtat. Comte. Comtesse. ! Concasser. Concave. Concavité. !
Concédé , ée. Coller i Concentration. Concen : Concentrer. trique.
Conci plion. Concernant. Concerner. Concert. Concei lant , ante. lé,
ee. Concerter. Concerter se. Coni i ssion. •ionnaire. Concevable.
Concevoir. Orne lier. I Conciergerie. Coni ilc. ible. Conciliabul '.
Conciliateur, tr.'cc. Conciliation. Concilie, ce. Concilier. Concis , i»c.
Concision. Concitoyen , ci. ne. Coni lave. ni , ante. Coumposal.
Coumposat, ada. Coumposar. Coumposilo. Coumpositour.
Coumposilion. Coumposlur . Coumpota. Coumpostier.
Coumprehensible , ibla. Coumpressa. Coumprcssibh , ibla.
Goumprestion. Coumpi imal , ada. Coumprimar. ( ounipi < umetlre.
Coumproumes , essa. Coumlabilital. Coumplal if, abla. Comptant.
Compte. Comptai, ada. Comptât Compladour. Coumpulsar.
Coumpulsoiro. Comput. • Comtat. Comtat. Comtctta. Trissar.
Councau, Couffut . uda Councavilat. Counccdat, ada. Councedar.
Councentration. Councentrat, ada. nlrar. < ounci ntrique.
Counception. Counct i nant. Councernar . Councertanl, anta
Counccrtat, ada. l 'ouni ii lar. Counct ilur $t . Councession.
Counccssiounari. Councevable , alla ne. Descouncagar. rgi.
Counciergeria. Councile. Counciliable , abla. Councitiabulo.
Councilialour , Iriça. Counciliation, Counciliat , ada. Counciliar.
Councit . isa. Count iloyen, ena. 110. Cvuneluant. anta. Conclu , ne.
Conclure. Conclusif . ive. Conclusion. Concomb Concombre d'dne ou
sauvage. Concordance. Concordat. c incorder. Concourir. Concours.
Concret . ète. C mcrélion. Col eu . ue. Concubinage. Concubine.
Concupiscence. Concurrence. Concurrent, ente. Concussion.
Concussionnaire. Condamine. Condamnable. Condamnation.
Condamné, ee. Condamner. Condamner se. Cm lansab ur. C
mdansalion. se . ée. Condenser. Coi es endance. c 1 scendre. c
indisciple. Condition. Conditionnel, elle. Con litionni llcmcnt.
Conditionné, ée. Conditioi i i . éance. Condm leur, ir.ee. c; Conduit .
uile. Conduit. Conduite. Cône ptn. Confection. nié. ee. mner. Confi
déralion. nce. Conféré . ée. : ncier. Confén r. Confessé, ée.
Confesser. Confi sscr se. c mfession. Confia i : , ante. Confidi ; C
Confi lenl cl elle Confidentiellement. Confier. Confier se. 37 Coundul,
ua. Counclure, Finir. Counclvsif, iva. Counclusion. Councoumbte.
Coucouroumassa. Couneordança. Councordat. Councordar.
Councourrer. Councaurs. Councret . cta. Councrelion. Counçut, uda .
ua. Councubinagi. Councubina. Councupiscença. Councurrença.
Councurrenl, enta. Councussion. Councussiounari. Coundamina.
Coundamnabli Coundamnation. Coundamnat, ada. Coundamnar.
Coundamnar se Coundensalour. Coundensation . Coundinsat , ada.
Coundensar. Coundcsccndcvça. Coundescendi e. Coundisciple.
Coundition. Counditiounel . el i. Coundiliounei Counditiounat . ada.
Counditiounai CoundouU inça. Counductour , Iriça. Counduire.
Counduch , ucha. Counduch. Counducha. Cône. l 'oui i eouna.
Counfection. Counfecliounat . ada. l 'oui !' • tiounar. i m n/i deration.
I in ça. Cnunfcrat, ada. i incier. Couiiferar. ssa. Coun fessai , ada. far.
Counfessar se. í oui /■ • rou» mon. Counfessiounal. nça. Counfiant .
anta. Counfidav{ a i ounfidanl, anta. nliel, tin . Counfidantielamer.t.
Counfisar, :r te.
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38 Configuration. Confiner. Confins. Confire. Confirmalif, i\e.

Confirmation. Confirme, ée. c infirmer. Confiscable. Confiscation.
Confiseur , euse. Confisque . ée. Confisquer Confiteor. Confiture.
Conflil. Confluent. Confluent, ente. Confondre. Conformation.
Conforme. Conforme . ée. Conformément. Conformer. Conformer se.
Conformité. Confort. Confortant , ante. Confortation. Conforté ; ce.
Conforter. Confraternité. Confrère. Confrérie. Confrontation.
Confronter. Coufns . use. Confusément. Confusion. Congé. Congédié,
ée. Congédier. Congélation. Congelé . ée. Congeler. Congeler se
Congestion. Conglutination. Conglutiner. Congratuler. Congre
commun . Congre Catsini. Congre ncir. Congréganiste. Congrégation.
Congres. Coni |uc. Conjectural , aie. Conjecture. Conjecturer.
Conjoindre. Conjointement. Conjonclif. Conjonction. Conjoncture.
Conjugaison. Conjugal , aie. Conjugalement. Conjugue, ce.
Conjuguer. C miuration. Configuration. Court finar , Bouinar. Coun
fins. Counfir. Counfirmatif . iva. Counfirmalion. Counfirmal, ada.
Couiifamar. Counfiscable , alla. Counfiscation. Counfissur , usa. Coun
fiscal, ada. Counfiscar. Counjileor. Counfitura. Counflil. Counfluent.
Coun/luent, enta. Counfoundre. Counformalion. Coun forme , orma.
Counformat , ada. Couvformamcnl. Counformar. Counformar se.
Counformital. Couvfort. Court fui tant , anta. Confortacio . vl.
Counfortat, ada. Counfortar. Counfralernitat. C'iunfiaire. Counfrairia.
Confrontation. Courifrontar . Coun fus . usa. Couvfusamenl.
Confusion. (''•Ht y (fi. Coungediat , ada. Coungediar. Coungelation.
Coun gelât, ada. Coungelur. / > ungt lar se. l 'oungi stion. Court
glalinalion . Counglulinar. Coungratular . Filas, li i ' ssoun. Grounch
nigre. Cnungi eganislo. ■ galion. Coun grès. Couhiquc, ira
Couvjectural , ala. Counjeclura. Counjecturtr. Counjougner .
Conjointament. Counjounclif. Couvjounclion. Counjounclura.
Counjugasoun. Counjugal, ola. Counjugalamt "i Counjugal , ada.
Counjugar. Counjuration. Conjurer. Connaissance. Connaissances.
Connaissement. Connaisseur , euse. Connaître. Connétable.
Coonélablie. Connexion. Connexité. Connivence. Conque. Conque
anatifère. Conquérant. Conquérir. Conquête. Consacré , ée.
Consacrer. Consanguin , ine. Consanguinité. Conscience.
Consciencieux, euse Conscription. Conscrit. Coi^ecrateur.
Consécration. Consécutif, ive. Consécutivement. Conseil. Conseillé,
ée. Conseiller. Conseiller, ère. Consentant, ante. Consentement.
Consenti , ie. Consentir. Conséquemment. Conséquence. Conséquent
, ente. Conservateur, trice. Conservation. Conservatoire. Conserve.
Conservé, ée. Conserver. Considérable. Considérablement.
Considérant. Considération. Considéré , ce. Considérer. c .• ignalaire.
c ii ignation. Consigne. Consigne , ce. Consigner. Consistance.
Consistant , ante. Consiste! Consistoire. Consisloial , aie. Consolable.
Consolant, ante. Consolateur, triée. Consolation. Console. Consolé,
ée. Consoler. Consolidation. Consolidé, ée. Consolider. Counjurar.
Couneissença. Couneissenças. Couneissament. Couneissur, usa.
Counouisser. Counetable , alla. Counelabtia. Cnunexion. Counrxitat.
Counivença Conca , 4. Cravan. Counquerc.nl. Counquistar.
Counqueta. Counsacrat , ada. Counsacrar. Counsanguin , ina.
Counsanguinitat. Counscicnça. Counsciencious, ousa. Counscriplion.
Counscril. Counsecratour. Counsecration. Cuunsecutif, iva.
Counseculivamenl. Counseou. Cnunselliat, ada. Counselhar.
Counseilhier , iera. Counsent, enta. Counsentament. Counsenlil , ida.
Counsentir. Counsequammenl. Counuquença. Counsequanl , anta.
Counservaiour , triça. Counservation Counservatoiro. Counserva.
Coun serval, ada. Counserrar. Counsiderable , obla.
Counsiderablament. Counsidcrant. Counsideration. Counsiderat .
ada. Counsiderar. Counsignatari. Counsignation. Counsigna. Coun
signal, ada. Counsignar. Counsistanfa. Counsistanl , anta. Cttuitsistar.
Counsistoiro . Counsistot toi . ala. Counsoulable , abla. Counsoulant ,
anta. Counsoulatour , tncaCounsoulation. Counsola. Counsoulat,
ada. Otunsoular. Counsoulidation. Counsoulidat, ada. Counsoulidtir.
Consommateur. Consommation. Consommé , ée. Consommé.
Consommer. Consomptif, ive. Consomption. Consonnance.
Consonne. Consorts. Consoude grande. Conspirateur. Conspiration.
Conspirer. Constamment. Constance , n. pr. Constans, n. pr.
Constant, ante. Constantin , n. pr. Constanline, n. pr. Constaté . ée.
Constater. Constellation. Conster. Consternation. Cousterné, ée.
Consterner. Constipation. Constipé , ée. Constiper. Constitué, ée.
Constituer. Constitution. Constitutionnel , ela. Constriction.
Constructeur. Construction. Construire. Construit, uiie.
Consubstantiel, elle Consul. Consulaire. Consulat Consultant.
Consultation. Consulter. Consulter se. Consumé, ée. Consumer.
Consumer se. Ccnsumar en bouil lant. Contact. Contagieux, euse.
Contagion. Conte. Contemplateur. Contemplatif, ive. Contemplation.
Contemplé, ée. Contempler. Contempler se. Contenance. Contenir.
Contenir ge. Content , ente. Contentement. Contenté , ée.
Contenter. Contenter SC. Contentieux, euse. fon*oumaiour.
Cnunsoumation. Counsoumat , ada. Ccunsoumat. Counsoumar.
Consumtiu , ira , vl. Counsoumplion. Counsounança . Counsona.
Counsorls. Uerba deis sumis. Counspiratour. Counspiralion.
Counspirar. Constamment. Coustança. Constans. Coustanl, anta.
Constantin. Conslantina. Counstatal , ada. Counstalar. Counstellation.
Counstar. Cnunsternation. Counsternat. ada. Counsternar.
Counstipalion Counstiput , ada Counstipar. Counsliluat , ada.
CounsUluar. Counstitulian. Counstitutionnel , ela Constriccio . vl.
Counslructour. Counslruction. Counslruire Counslrueh , ur/ia
Counsuíisíaníifl, eli Consou. Consulari. Consulat. Counsultant.
Counsullalion. Cnunsullar. Counsullar se. Counsumat, ada.
Counsumar. Counsumar se. Coumbourir . Countact. Countagious,
ousa. Countagion. Conte. Countemplalour Countemplatif, iva
Countemplation. Countemplat; ada. Countemplar. Contemplai- se.
Conntenenci. Countenir. Countenir se. Countent, enta. N
Cuuntenlament Counlcnlat, ada Countentar. Conntentar se.
Countentious, ou ta.
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39 Cohlenlif. Contention. Contenu , ue. Conter. Contestable.

Contestation. Contesté, ce. Contester. Coutexturc. Contigu, uë.
Counliguilé. Continence. Continent. Continent, ente. Contingent.
Contingent, ente. Continuateur. Continuation. Continuel, elle.
Continuellement. Continué, ée. Continuer. Continuité. Contorsion.
Contour. Contourner. Contractant , anle. Contracté , èe. Contracter.
Conlracttf. Contraction. Contradicteur. Contradiction. Contradictoire.
Contradictoircment. Contraindre. Contraint , ainle. Contrainte.
Contraire. Contrairement. Contrariant, ante. Contrarié , ée.
Contrarier. Contrarier se. Contrariété. Contraste. Contraster. Contrat.
Contravention. Contre. Contre-amiral. Contre balancer. Contre-
bande. Contre- bandier. Contre-basse. Contre carrer. Contre-cœur.
Contre-coup. Contre-danse. C onlre-dirc. Contre-dire se. Contre-dit.
Contrée. Contrefaçon. Contrefacteur. Conlrefaction. Contrefaire.
Contrefaire se. Conlrefiit, aile. CoDlre-forl. Contre-jour. Contenliu , vl.
Countention. Countengud , uda. Contât. Counteslahie , alla.
Cnunlestation. Counteslat , ada. Countcslar. Counlexlura. Counligut,
uda. Countiguitat. Countinenca. Counlinent. Countinent, enta.
Countingent. Countingent. Continuateur. Countinuation. Counlinuel .
ela. Cmintinuetament . Continuât, ada. Countinuar. Countinuitat.
Counloursion. Counlour. Counlournar. Countractanl, anla. Countractat
, ade. Counlractar. Contractiu, vl, Contraction. Conlradjctour.
Contradiction. Contraditoiro , ara. Conlradictoiramenl. Cuunstregner.
Coumlrech . cita. Destrecha. Countrari, aria. C'iiiti nriament.
Contrariant, anta. Contrariât, ada. Contrariar. Conli uriar se.
Contrarielat. Contratlo. Contrastât. U at. Contravention. Contra.
Contra -amiral. Contra-balançar. Contra- banda. Contra-bandier.
'■assa. Cmttra-carrar. Contra couer. rot m. Conti a-dansa. a -dire
Contra-dire se. Conti i-dich. 6'ounii ada. ' 'onli u façon. Conlra-
faclour. Contra faction. Contrefaire. Contra faire se. Controfach ,
aeha. C\.ntra-fort. Contra jour. Contre-maitrc. Contre- mander.
Contre-marche. Contremarque. Contre-marqiier. Contre-mine.
Contre- miner. Contre-mont. Contre-Ordre. Contre-partie. Contre-
poids. Contre-poil. Contre-pointer. Contre- poison. Contre- sanglon.
Contrescarpe. Contre-seing. Contre-sens. Contre-signe, ée. Contre-
signer. Contre-temps Contra-mestre. Uescoiimandar. Conlra-marcha.
Contra marca. Contra-marcar. Contra -mina. Conlra-minar. Contra-
mont. Contra-ordre. Conlra-partida. Conlra-pes. Cnntra-pcou.
Emboutir. Contra- pnuisoun Conlra-cengloun. Conlra-scarpa. Conlra-
si ing. Contra -si ns. Contra-signat, ada. Cnnlra-signar. i ontra-lemps.
Contre- venant, ante. Contra-ventnt, enta. Contra-vi nir. Contra-
paravant. Counti iliuable , abla. Counli ilniar. Counti iliulion. Counti
istul , ada. Countrislar. Counti U, ita. Counti ition. Countarole. Counti
roulât , ada. Countaroular. Countaroulur. Conlroversa. Countumaço. (
'ountusion. ( 'ounvt ncant , anta. Counvencre. Coum meut, uda, ua.
Counvalt ■ ni, enta. Counvenable , oh!a. Counvenablement. ■ h ça.
Coun v en ent , enta. Counvenir. Counvenlion. Counventiau.
Counrers, ersa. Counversation. Contre-venir. Contre -vent.
Contribuable. Contribuer. Conlribotion. Contristé, ce. Contrister.
Contrit, ite. Contrition. Contrôle. Contrôlé, ée. Contrôler. Contrôleur.
Controverse. Contumace. Contusion. Convaincant, anle. Convaincre.
Coni aincu , ne. Coni alcscence. Convalescent . cnle Convenable.
Convenablement Convi nance. Convenant, ante. Convenir.
Convention. Conventuel, elle. Convcrs , erse. Conversation.
Conversation en jouée. Converser. Conversion. Convertible. Convertir.
Convertir se. Coin exilé. Convexité d'une pièce de bois. irdil Com u
don. ( nunviction. Convié, éc. Counvidat, ada Convier. Counvidar.
Convive. Counvivo. Convocation. Counvoucation . Convoi. Counvoi.
Convoi de charrettes. Chanel. Convoité, ée. Caltgnat, ada. Convoiter
Calegnar. Pallia . i nvu sionnairc. Coopéraleur. Coopération. Coopérer.
Coordonner. Cobeitat, il. Counvoucat . ada. Counvoucar. Counvouyar.
Counvulsif, iva. l 'ounvulsion. Counvulsiounari. Cooperalour , triça.
Coopération. Coopérai-. Coordonar. COP Copahn. Ilaumc de Copahu
Copeaux. l'uputilhas. Copeaux delà hache, liessuelhas. Copeau petit.
Copie. Copié . ee. Copier. Copieusement. Copieux , euse. Copiste.
Copi opriélaire. Copier. Copulatif, ive. Cupule. liessulhoun. Coupia.
Coupiat, ada. Coupiar. < 'oupiousament. Coupious, ousa. Coupislo.
Coprouprietari. lui tar. Copulaliu . ira . il. Cupula. COQ Coq. Coq .
plante. Coq d'Inde. Coq de bruyère. Coqudlre. Coque. Coques du
levant. Coque . ciiii iii U poisson arec de la, Coque, faux-pli,
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Coqueriquer. Coquen t. Coqucrico. Coquet . elle. Coquetier.
Coquetterie, Coq lillagc. Coquille. Coquille des hélices. Coquillicr.
Coquin. Coquin gros. Coquin petit. Cm, nuis , les, en
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■il) Coracias. Corail. Corail des jardins. Coralline. Coran.

Corbeau. Corbeau. Corbeille. Corbeille au pain. Corbeille petite.
Corbeille grande. Corbeille en paille. Corbillard. Corbillon. Corbine.
Cordage. Corde. Corde petite. Corde qui soutient le linge sale. Corde
du bât. Corde de sparte. Corde de genêt. Corde à eharger. Corde à
boyau. ( 'orde d'emballage. Corde qui lie les attelés. Cordeau.
Cordelé, ée. Cordeler. Cordelette. Cordelier. C trdelle. Cordé, ée.
Corde, ée. racine. Cordei ie. Cordial , aie. Cordialement. Cordialité.
Cordier. l'ordillas. Cordon. Cordon ombilical. Cordon de sonnette.
Cordonner. Cordonnet. Cordonnier. Core'gone marénule. Coriace.
Coriandre. Corindon ferrifèie. Çorlieti. Corme. Cormier. Cormière.
Cormoran. Cornaline. Cornard. Corne. Corne grosse. Corne petite.
Cornes , qui a perdu les. l'ornes , rompre les Cornes, pousser des.
fornes , accrocher avec Us. Cornet, planter des. Grallta à peds et bec
rouges. Cour au. l'ebroun. Courallina. Alcoran. Corpatas. liarbacana.
Corbcllia. Panatiera. Corbelheta. Coueiba. Polhoua. Corbilhard.
Corbilhoun . Gralha. Cordagi. Corda Cor delà. Partega. Ajoua.
Marraun. Bridoula. Cargadouira. Corda de tripa. Embaladouirq.
Counjoungla. Cordeau. Cordai , ada. Cordar. Cor delà Corddier. Cor
delà. Cordai , Encotdut , ada. Charbul , uda , ua. Coi (laria. Cordial,
aie. Çordialament. Cordialitat. Cordier. Cordilhat. Cm doun. Yerilha,
Avcris. Cordil. Encordar. Cordounet. Coidounisr,Sabatier. Lucion de
mur. Courias, assa. Coi lundi a. Cmei il. Cmu lÌOU Sm ha , Su, i ba S
m hier , Sourbiera. Cormiera. l 'm moran. Cm câlina . Cornard. Coi r.i
, /(«/1(1. Banassa. r mêla, Desbanal , ada Desbanar. Banar.
Embanar. Encornelhar. Corne de. Corne de vergue. Corne de cerf.
Corne , plante. Cornée. Corneille noire. Corneille mantelée. Corneille,
a. pr. Cornemuse. Cornemuse, joueur de. Corner. Cornet. Cornet
acoustique. Cornet à bouquin. Cornette. Corniche. Cornichon.
Cornichon, fruit. Cornière. Cornouille. Cornouiller mâle. Cornouilles,
qui à la forme des. Cornouillers . lieu plante de. Cornouiller sanguin.
Cornu , ue. Cornue. Corollaire. Corolle. Coronal, aie. Coronille jonci
forme. Corporal. Corporation. Corporel , elle. Corporellement. Corps.
Coi ps petit ou mauvais. Corps de garde. Corps-saint. Corpulence.
Corpulent , ente. Correct , ecte. Correctement. Correcteur. Correctif.
Correction, Correctionnel, elle. Corrélatif, ivé. Correspondance.
Correspondant, anle. Correspondre. Corridor, Cori igé, ée. C'iii igei .
Corriger se. Corroboralif, ive. Cor roboration. Corroboré, ée.
Corroborer. Corrodant, anle. Corrodé, ée. Corroder. Corroi. Coi
rompre. Corrompre se. Coi rompre un cuir Corrompu , ue. Corrosif,
ive. Corrosion. Cornenc, *l. Corna de verga. Corna de cerf. lleiba de
la malha. Blanc de l'uelh. Gralha , Cliaia. Corpalus-blanc. Corntlha.
Coma-musa. Cornamusaire. Cornar. Cornet. Cornet acoustique.
Cornet à bouquin. Couiffa de nuech. Cornicha. Cornilhoun.
Cornichaun . Corniera. Acurni. Acurnier. Acurnenc. Courgnareda.
Sanguin. Banar ut, uda , ua. On n uda. Cor aller o. Corola,
Courounal, ala. Ginesla-fera. Corporal. Corporation. Corporel, ela.
Corporelamenl. Coi ps. Corsilhoun. Coi ps de garda. Corps- sant.
Coipulença. Cm paient, enta. Correct, ecla. Courrectament. ('mu
rectour. ('mu leclif. Courrection. Courrectiounel , ela. Courrclatif, ira.
Courrespondança. Cuui respondent, enta. Courrespondre.
Courreûour. Court ' igeut, ada. Courrigear. Cmn i igear se. ( 'oi i
oboratif, lia. Çorroboration. Corroborât , ada. Corrob"rar. ( 'm rodant
, anta. Cm rodai , ada. Corrodar. Battit. ('mu roumpre. Cour rompre
se. Bissar. (uni nnimpul , uda. Corrosif, iva. Corrosion. Corroyer.
Corroyère. Corroyeur. Corrupteur, trice. Çorruptibililé. Corruptible.
Corruption, Corsage. Corsaire. Corse. Corset. Corset de femme.
Carsels , ouvrier qu fait des. Cortège. Cortes. Corvée. Corvette.
Corybante. Coryphée. Cnurregcar , Tanar. Bondon. Coungreaire.
Courruplour , triça. Courruptibilitat. Couxruplible , ibla. Courruption.
Coursagi. Coursari. Corso. Cor sel, Gilecou. Bonmbct. Corsetaire.
Courtegi. Cortes. Courvada. Corveta. Corybanlo. Corypheou. C09
Cosaques. Coseigneur. Cosme , n. pr. Cosmographie. Cosmopolite.
Cosse. Cosse des légumes. Cosser. Casser, sujet à. Cosson. Cossu ,
ue. Costume. Costumer. Cosûcos. Counseignour. Cosme.
Cosmographia. Cosmopolito. Couessa. Gruelha. Bussar, Dourdar.
Bussaire. Calandra , 2 Coussut , uda , ua Costume. Costumar. Cô!c.
Côté. Cote d'or . départ. Cotes dunord, dépail Coteau. Côtelette.
Côtelette de porc salé. Côté , ée. Coter. Colcrie. Cothurne. Cùlier.
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