SOCIAL SCIENCE

Textbook in Political Science

for Class IX

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0972 – DEMOCRATIC POLITICS – I
ISBN 81-7450-537-7
Textbook in Political Science for Class IX

First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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FOREWORD
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that
children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This
principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which
continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home
and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF
signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to
discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between
different subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly
further in the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in
the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and
to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that given
space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging with
the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook
as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other resources
and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is
possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as
receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching
days is actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and
evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making
children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or
boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular
burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority
and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in
small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory
group in Social Sciences, Professor Hari Vasudevan and the Chief Advisors

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for this book, Professor Yogendra Yadav and Professor Suhas Palshikar for
guiding the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the
development of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making
this possible. We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which
have generously permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and
personnel. We are especially grateful to the members of the National
Monitoring Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and
Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development under the
Chairmanship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for
their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed to
systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products,
NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to
undertake further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training

iv

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A LETTER FOR YOU
Dear teachers and parents,

‘Civics is boring’. You may have heard this from your students or your child.
You may have felt that they had a point. Syllabi of Civics in our country
tend to focus on formal institutions of government. The textbooks are full of
constitutional, legal and procedural details, presented in a dry and abstract
manner. No wonder children experience disconnect between the theory they
read in the textbook and what they see in real life around them. This is
perhaps what makes Civics ‘boring’ for young adults in a country otherwise
full of passion for politics.
The present textbook is a small step towards changing this. The impetus
came from the National Curriculum Framework 2005 that provided the space
and opportunity to bring about this basic change. The foreword to this book
by the Director of the NCERT explains the philosophy of the new curriculum.
It meant a complete overhaul of the traditional Civics syllabi. The change in
the name – from Civics to Political Science – reflects the shift in the focus. The
new syllabi recognise that the student at this stage is aware of and needs to
know more about politics. Accordingly, the students in classes IX and X will
be offered an introduction to various facets of politics. Democracy is the
window through which they get to look at the theory and the practice of
politics.
With this textbook you are going to take the students on a tour of a
museum of contemporary democracy. You will first take them quickly
through a series of stories from different parts of the world. Once they develop
a sense and feel of democracy, you can ask some reflective questions: what
is democracy? Why democracy? With this clarity you can take them to a
gallery on constitutions. An understanding of what and how of the
constitutions would prepare them for an exhibition on three aspects of
democratic politics: elections, institutions and rights. You may encounter
many contentious themes during this tour. Our attempt here is not to hand
over a definite opinion to the students but to enable them to think on their
own.
This textbook is meant to help the students enjoy this tour and to assist
you in guiding them. It does not merely inform the students. It encourages
them to think on their own. It interacts with them through questions, moves

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them with stories and pictures and tickles them with cartoons. It helps you
in reviewing their progress and in getting them involved with activities. All
these features have meant taking more space than used to be the case earlier.
It is precisely to reduce the information load that the book takes more pages.
Please do read ‘How to use this book’ on the following pages to be able to
use these features of the book. The tour will continue in the textbook for class
X and will focus more on the working of democracy. We hope this tour will
create interest in them to understand politics more carefully and to help them
become active and participant citizens.
This hope of ours rests on you. That is why this book makes more
demands on you. You may have to learn more about new names, events and
places. You may face questions that the textbook does not answer. You may
have to guide the students through sensitive and passionate debates that
naturally arise when we discuss politics. Just when you begin to feel tired or
irritated, do entertain a thought. When your student asks a question that
you find difficult to answer, when she seeks information that is not easy to
find or expresses an opinion that you don’t approve of, this may actually be
a sign of your success as a teacher or a parent. As we all know, getting
students to question is critical to their learning process both as a student
and as citizens of a democracy. This is what the present book tries to cultivate.
The desire to get rid of the ‘boring Civics’ tag brought together, perhaps for
the first time in our country, a group of political scientists, school teachers and
educationists to think about how to teach politics to our next generation. You
can read about this group, the Textbook Development Committee, on page
xii. All these colleagues spared their valuable time and mental space for this
unscheduled event in their academic calendar. Professor Krishna Kumar,
Director NCERT, not only dragged some of us into this pleasant duty but
also supported us at every stage. Professor Hari Vasudevan and Professor
Gopal Guru provided this experiment the protection it needed. Professor
Mrinal Miri, Professor G. P. Deshpande and other members of the National
Monitoring Committee offered valuable inputs and criticisms. The experiment
gained many friends on the way: Ambassador Jorge Heine, Arvind Sardana,
Aditya Nigam, Suman Lata and Chandni Khanduja read different parts of the
draft and provided valuable inputs. At many points it drew upon Lokniti research
programme and Lokniti network of the Centre for the Study of Developing
Societies for intellectual and logistic resources. Above all, this experiment drew
upon the insights and energy of Alex M. George, Pankaj Pushkar and Manish
Jain – three young educationists committed to a radical pedagogy — who
taught us how to think about the challenge of school education. Designer Oroon
Das and cartoonist Irfan Khan and copy editor Devyani Onial helped us turn
the idea of this book into a reality.
We sincerely hope that you and the students would enjoy this book and
perhaps look at politics as something valuable, something worth taking
seriously, something worth studying. We look forward to your feedback.

K. C. Suri Yogendra Yadav

ADVISOR Suhas Palshikar
CHIEF ADVISORS

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How to use this book?
OVERVIEW comes at the beginning of each chapter. You can use it to understand
the purpose of the chapter and how it links with the rest of the book. It also
helps you explain the rationale behind the different sections of the chapter. If
you are in doubt about what to teach, what to emphasise and what kind of
questions to ask, please do refer back to the overview.

Sections and Sub-sections help you break the chapter into small bits that
you can take up one by one. Each chapter is usually divided into four
sections, each of which you can complete within about three periods. Section
Heading(s) are numbered and announce the beginning of a fresh theme within
the chapter. Sub-section heading(s) provide convenient breaks for you to
sum up one point and move to the next. Boxes are very much part of the
main text and are meant to be taught. They provide additional information
or analysis that requires a little detour.

Each chapter begins with one or more real life stories or imagined dialogues.
This is to create an interest and understanding of some central issues
discussed in the chapter. Sometimes smaller stories or examples are used to
lead the student into a section or sub-section. Please do tell this story in all
its details. If you can, please add more details to those given here. You don’t
need to bother very much if the student does not grasp the full significance
of the story at this stage. As the chapter develops, it draws upon from the
initial story and moves from the concrete to the abstract. But please do not
ask the students to memorise the facts and details of the story like the year,
names of personalities or places, etc. The same applies to any other example
used in this book. This would kill their interest and defeat the very purpose
of using stories. If the story is good, some details will stay in their memory.
Even if no details stay with them but they can draw the general point from
any such instance, we have succeeded in our task.

Munni and Unni are two characters specially designed for this book by
cartoonist Irfan Khan. The two of them keep appearing every now and then
to ask all kinds of questions: impish, irrelevant, irreverent or even impossible.
The questions are sparked off by the points made in the text. But in most
cases you will not find the answer in the textbook itself. Munni and Unni are

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there to assure the students that the kind of ‘funny’ thoughts that often
come to their minds are not stupid and to give them the courage to ask such
questions. They give you the space to take a detour and get into a side
discussion that is often richer than the main one. Please do not use these
questions for evaluation.

You would notice lots of cartoons and pictures in this book. This brings
visual relief and some fun. But these images are meant to do more. These
are parts of the teaching and learning process. The caption to each visual
provides background information to help the student appreciate the message. read
It also asks them questions. Please do stop at each cartoon or visual and get
the students involved in reading the message. If you can, please select some
the
more cartoons from your regional languages and use them. Similarly there cartoon
are several maps and many more references to countries unknown to the
students. One of the aims of this book is to expand the student’s imagination
beyond our own country. Please keep and refer to a recent political map of
the world while teaching this book.

Check your progress questions come usually at the end of every section.
These questions give you an opportunity to ensure that the students
comprehend the things discussed in that section. These questions also
indicate to you the kind of learning you might wish to emphasise. May we CHECK
urge you to please make more questions of this kind so that the student can
move away from learning by rote.
YOUR
PROGRESS
Activity may involve getting the students together within the classroom
or doing things outside the classroom. You would need to guide them by
assigning tasks to individuals or to groups. The activity and its location
in the chapter is only suggestive. If you can think of an activity that relates
better to students’ own life, please feel free to replace our suggestion
with yours. ACTIVITY
Glossary of unfamiliar words or concepts comes at the end of a chapter.
Such a word appears in pink when it is used for the first time. Please
encourage the students to refer to the glossary and learn to use the word
in a different context. But there is no need for them to memorise the
definition given in the glossary.
GLOSSARY
Exercises come at the end of each chapter. You would notice that there are
exercises

many more questions here than used to be the case. You would also notice
that the questions are of a different kind. These questions do not test the
student’s ability to recall and reproduce what they have read in the Chapter.
Keeping in with the approach of the new NCF, we have asked questions
that require interpretation, application, analysis, and reasoning based on
what they have learnt in the Chapter. You would need to spend some time
with the students going over these exercises. Please feel free to come up
with new and better questions than suggested here and use those for
student evaluation.

viii

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Let us read the newspaper is both an exercise and an activity. You can use
it to ensure that the students can apply what they have learnt to a different
context. You can also use it to encourage the habit of newspaper reading.
Where most students have access to news channels on television, you may
supplement or modify the projects suggested here to include watching of
news and current affair programmes. Here again, if you think a different
project will suit your students’ context and resources, you must be right.
Please go ahead.

ACCESSING ONLINE INFORMATION

We are living in an era of information and communication revolution. Printed books, textbooks
and the mass media such as newspapers and periodicals have ceased to be the only sources
of information. Now millions of websites (World Wide Web) provide easy and instant access
to a vast and diverse amount of online information. The World Wide Web has enabled a sudden
and extreme decentralisation of information. Since many schools do not possess the latest
encyclopaedias and traditional libraries, students and teachers may rely on the Internet to
access the needed information.
While using this textbook, the teachers and students may sometimes feel that information
provided in the book is, ‘insufficient’ for learning or classroom teaching. You may want to
know more about certain ideas, concepts and events in different countries. We would suggest
some of the ways you can use the Internet for this purpose.
You may find some information in free encyclopaedias like www.en.wikipedia.org or
www.britannica.com Search engines like Google and Yahoo can provide links to websites
that are specifically dedicated to different topics that you may be interested in.
Similarly, several important newspapers and magazines are available online. Some of
them allow you to access their archives without payments and registrations. Similarly a few
TV channels also allow you to access information without registrations and payments.
Some other websites would be useful to know more about the various institutions
discussed in the text. You could find the links to all the Indian government institutional websites
from www.india.gov.in. Specifically http://india.gov.in/directories_gov.php will provide you
the direct link to various institutions. Similarly various international organisations such as
United Nations, International Monetary Fund (IMF),World Bank, human rights organisations
such as National Human Rights Commission (NHRC) too have their own websites. Apart
from Indian constitution you will also find constitutions of many countries also being available
online. You can also look at parliaments around the world by following the link from Inter
Parliamentary Union www.ipu.org/english/home.htm
Further you may want to use more images, pictures, or cartoons for discussions. You
will find them in newspapers that are available online. Apart from it, you could also look at
www.politicalcartoons.com for this purpose. Similarly, through searching “images” category
of Google you could locate them.
You may find it useful to visit the websites like www.plato.standford.edu,
www.opendemocracy.net, www.brainyencyclopeid.com especially when you wish to get
more clarity on certain theoretical aspects or to learn more about politics.

ix

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REQUEST FOR FEEDBACK

How did you like this textbook? What was your experience in reading or using this? What were
the difficulties you faced? What changes would you like to see in the next version of this book?
Write to us on all these and any other matter related to this textbook. You could be a teacher, a
parent, a student or just a general reader. We value any and every feedback.

Please write to:

Coordinator (Political Science)
Department of Education in Social Sciences (DESS)
NCERT
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110016.

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TEXTBOOK DEVELOPMENT COMMITTEE
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS AT THE SECONDARY LEVEL
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta,
Kolkata.

CHIEF ADVISORS
Yogendra Yadav, Senior Fellow, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies,
Delhi
Suhas Palshikar, Professor, Department of Politics and Public Administration,
University of Pune, Maharashtra

ADVISOR
K.C. Suri, Professor, Nagarjuna University, Guntur, Andhra Pradesh

MEMBERS
Alex M. George, Independent Researcher, Eruvatty, District Kannur, Kerala
Amman Madan, Assistant Professor, Department of Humanities and Social
Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh
Malini Ghose, Nirantar, Centre for Gender and Education, New Delhi
Manish Jain, PGT, currently doctoral student, Department of Education,
University of Delhi, Delhi
Muzaffar Assadi, Professor, Department of Political Science, Mysore University,
Manasgangothri, Karnataka
Niraja Gopal Jayal, Professor, Centre for the Study of Law and Governance,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Pankaj Pushkar, Lecturer, Directorate of Higher Education, Government of
Uttaranchal, Dehradun
Sabyasachi Basu Roychowdhary, Professor, Rabindra Bharati University, Kolkata

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Sanjay Dubey, Reader, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We also acknowledge the contributions of the following members — Anju

Anand, PGT, G. M. Public School, R. K. Puram Sector VII, New Delhi; Amit,
Adharshila School, Village Sakal, Post Office Chatali, District Badwani,
Madhya Pradesh; A. Kamakshi, J. S. S. Public School, Banashankari,
Bangalore, Karnataka; Arvind Mohan, Associate Editor, Dainik Hindustan,
Kasturba Gandhi Marg, New Delhi; Anuradha Sen, PG Teacher, Springdales
School, Dhaula Kuan, New Delhi; P. Jisha, Noble Public School, Manjeri,
District Malapuram, Kerala; Ram Murthy, Independent Researcher and
Teacher, Nangal Slangri, District Una, Himachal Pradesh; Madan Sahani,
PGT, Government Senior Secondary School, R. K. Puram Sector VII, New
Delhi; Usha Rani T ripathy, PGT, Kendriya Vidyalaya, Bollaram,
Secunderabad, Andhra Pradesh; Yame Pertin, PGT, Government Higher
Secondary School, Doimukh, Itanagar, Arunachal Pradesh. Srimathi
Subbarao, SST Teacher, BGS International School, Nityananda Bangalore.
Thanks are also due to Cagle Cartoons for providing copyrights of the
cartoons of Angel Boligan, Patrick Chappatte, Stephane Peray, Ares, Emad
Hajjaj, Nerilicon, John Trever, Eric Allie, Simanca, M.E. Cohen.
We are also thankful to La Nacion (Chile), South Africa History Online,
GCMMF India, Shagun Jaat (Jabalpur) and PIB (India) for providing us
photographs or images.
We are specially grateful to Shankar, R.K. Laxman, Mario Miranda and
Harish Chandra Shukla (Kaak) for allowing us to use their cartoons. And
special thanks are due to Devyani Onial for her inputs in copy-editing.
The contribution of M.V.S.V. Prasad, Assistant Professor, Department
of Curriculum Studies, NCERT, in reviewing and updating the current
edition is appreciated.

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Foreword iii
A Letter for You v
How to Use this Book? vii

CHAPTER 1
WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? 1
WHY DEMOCRACY?
CHAPTER 2
CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN 18

CHAPTER 3
ELECTORAL POLITICS 34

CHAPTER 4
WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS 56

CHAPTER 5
DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS 74

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CHAPTER 1

What is
Democracy?
Why
Democracy?

OVERVIEW
What is democracy? What are its features? This chapter builds on a simple
definition of democracy. Step by step, we work out the meaning of the
terms involved in this definition. The aim here is to understand clearly the
bare minimum features of a democratic form of government. After going
through this chapter we should be able to distinguish a democratic form
of government from a non-democratic government. Towards the end of
this chapter, we step beyond this minimal objective and introduce a broader
idea of democracy.
Democracy is the most prevalent form of government in the world today
and it is expanding to more countries. But why is it so? What makes it
better than other forms of government? That is the second big question
that we take up in this chapter.

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1.1 WHAT IS DEMOCRACY?
You have already read about different But we don’t know if this is the best way of
forms of government. On the basis of defining unless we think about it ourselves. We
your understanding of democracy must not accept something just because it is
so far, mentioning a few examples famous, just because everyone accepts it.
write down some common features of: Yolanda: Ma’am, can I suggest something? We don’t
< Democratic governments need to look for any definition. I read somewhere
< Non-democratic governments that the word democracy comes from a Greek
word ‘Demokratia’. In Greek ‘demos’ means
Why define democracy? people and ‘kratia’ means rule. So democracy is
rule by the people. This is the correct meaning.
Before we proceed further, let us Where is the need to debate?
first take note of an objection by Lyngdoh Madam: That is also a very helpful way
Merry. She does not like this way of thinking about this matter. I would just say
of defining democracy and wants that this does not always work. A word does not
to ask some basic questions. remain tied to its origin. Just think of computers.
Her teacher Matilda Lyngdoh Originally they were used for computing, that is to
responds to her questions, as other say calculating, very difficult mathematical sums.
classmates join the discussion: These were very powerful calculators. But nowa-
Merry: Ma’am, I don’t like this idea. First we spend days very few people use computers for comput-
time discussing democracy and then we want ing sums. They use it for writing, for designing, for
to find out the meaning of democracy. I mean listening to music and for watching films. Words
logically shouldn’t we have approached it the remain the same but their meaning can change
other way round? Shouldn’t the meaning have with time. In that case it is not very useful to look
come first and then the example? at the origins of a word.
Lyngdoh Madam: I can see your point. But that is Merry: Ma’am, so basically what you are saying
not how we reason in everyday life. We use is that there is no shortcut to our thinking about
words like pen, rain or love. Do we wait to have the matter ourselves. We have to think about its
a definition of these words before we use them? meaning and evolve a definition.
Come to think of it, do we have clear definition Lyngdoh Madam: You got me right. Let us get on
of these words? It is only by using a word that with it now.
we understand its meaning.
Merry: But then why do we need definitions at all? A C T I V I T Y
Lyngdoh Madam: We need a definition only when
we come across a difficulty in the use of a word.
We need a definition of rain only when we wish to Let us take Lyngdoh Madam seriously and try to I have heard a
distinguish it from, say, drizzle or cloudburst. The write down the exact definition of some of the different version.
same is true for democracy. We need a clear simple words that we use all the time: pen, rain Democracy is off
definition only because people use it for different and love. For example, is there a way of defining a the people, far
purposes, because very different kinds of gov- pen that distinguishes it clearly from a pencil, a (from) the people
ernments call themselves democracy. brush, a chalk or crayon. and (where they)
Ribiang: But why do we need to work on a defini- < What have you learnt from this attempt?
buy the people.
tion? The other day you quoted Abraham < What does it teach us about understanding the
Why don’t we
Lincoln to us: “Democracy is government of meaning of democracy? accept that?
the people, by the people and for the people”.
We in Meghalaya always ruled ourselves. That
is accepted by everyone. Why do we need to A simple definition
change that? Let us get back to our discussion on
Lyngdoh Madam: I am not saying we need to similarities and differences among
change it. I too find this definition very beautiful. governments that are called

2 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 democracies. One simple factor because they happen to be born into
common to all democracies is: the the royal family.
government is chosen by the people. This simple definition is not
We could thus start with a simple adequate. It reminds us that
definition: democracy is a form of democracy is people’s rule. But if we
government in which the rulers are use this definition in an unthinking
elected by the people. manner, we would end up calling
This is a useful starting point. This almost every government that holds
definition allows us to separate an election a democracy. That would
democracy from forms of government be very misleading. As we shall find
that are clearly not democratic. The out in Chapter 3, every government
army rulers of Myanmar were not in contemporary world wants to be
elected by the people. Those who called a democracy, even if it is not
happened to be in control of the army so. That is why we need to carefully
became the rulers of the country. distinguish between a government
People had no say in this decision. that is a democracy and one that
Dictators like Pinochet (Chile) are not pretends to be one. We can do so by
elected by the people. This also understanding each word in this
applies to monarchies. The kings of definition carefully and spelling out
Saudi Arabia rule not because the the features of a democratic
people have chosen them to do so but government.

Ribiang went back home and collected some more famous quotations on democracy. This time she
did not mention the names of the people who said or wrote these. She wants you to read these and
comment on how good or useful these thoughts are:
CHECK < Democracy gives every man the right to be his own oppressor.

YOUR < Democracy consists of choosing your dictators after they’ve told you what you think it is you want
to hear.
PROGRESS < Man’s capacity for justice makes democracy possible, but man’s inclination to injustice makes
democracy necessary
< Democracy is a device that insures we shall be governed no better than we deserve.
< All the ills of democracy can be cured by more democracy.

read
the
cartoon
©Stephane Peray, Thailand, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

This cartoon was

drawn when elections
were held in Iraq with
the presence of US
and other foreign
powers. What do you
think this cartoon is
saying? Why is
‘democracy’ written
the way it is?

WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY? 3

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1.2 FEATURES OF DEMOCRACY
We have started with a simple want in a democracy? Or must a
definition that democracy is a form democratic government function
of government in which the rulers with some limits? Is it necessary
are elected by the people. This for a democracy to respect some
raises many questions: rights of the citizens?
< Who are the rulers in this Let us consider each of these
definition? Which officials must questions with the help of some
be elected for any government to examples.
be called a democracy? Which
decisions may be taken by non-
Major decisions by elected
elected officials in a democracy? leaders
< What kind of election constitutes In Pakistan, General Pervez
a democratic election? What Musharraf led a military coup in
conditions must be fulfilled for an October 1999. He overthrew a
election to be considered democratically elected government
democratic? and declared himself the ‘Chief
< Who are the people who can elect Executive’ of the country. Later he
the rulers or get elected as rulers? changed his designation to President
Should this include every citizen on and in 2002 held a referendum in
an equal basis? Can a democracy the country that granted him a five-
deny some citizens this right? year extension. Pakistani media,
< Finally, what kind of a form of human rights organisations and
government is democracy? Can democracy activists said that the
elected rulers do whatever they referendum was based on

read
the
cartoon
Syria is a small west
©Emad Hajjaj, Jordan, Cagle Cartoons Inc. 7 June 2005

Asian country. The

ruling Ba’ath Party
and some of its small
allies are the only
parties allowed in that
country. Do you think
this cartoon could
apply to China or
Mexico? What does
the crown of leaves
on democracy
signify?

4 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

Reprint 2025-26
 rulers. They cannot take the final
decisions. The power to take final
read decision rested with army officials
the and with General Musharraf, and

©Ares, Caglecartoon.com, Cagle Cartoons Inc. 22 January 2005

none of them were elected by the
cartoon people. This happens in many
dictatorships and monarchies. They
This cartoon was formally have an elected parliament
drawn in the context and government but the real power
of Latin America. Do is with those who are not elected.
you think it applies to In a few countries, the real power
the Pakistani situation was with some external powers and
as well? Think of not with locally elected
other countries where representatives. This cannot be
this could apply? called people’s rule.
Does this happen This gives us the first feature. In a
sometimes in our democracy the final decision-
country as well? making power must rest with those
elected by the people.

malpractices and fraud. In August Free and fair electoral

2002 he issued a ‘Legal Framework
Order’ that amended the
competition
Constitution of Pakistan. According In China, elections are regularly
to this Order, the President can held after every five years for
dismiss the national and provincial electing the country’s parliament,
assemblies. The work of the civilian called Quanguo Renmin Daibiao
cabinet is supervised by a National Dahui (National People’s Congress).
Security Council which is The National People’s Congress has
dominated by military officers. After the power to appoint the President
passing this law, elections were of the country. It has nearly 3,000
held to the national and provincial members elected from all over
assemblies. So Pakistan has had China. Some members are elected
elections, elected representatives by the army. Before contesting
have some powers. But the final elections, a candidate needs the
power rested with military officers approval of the Chinese Communist
and General Musharraf himself. Party. Only those who are members
Clearly, there are many reasons of the Chinese Communist Party or
why Pakistan under General eight smaller parties allied to it were
All this is so remote Musharraf should not be called a allowed to contest elections held in
for me. Is democracy. But let us focus on one 2002-03. The government is always
democracy all of these. Can we say that the rulers formed by the Communist Party.
about rulers and are elected by the people in Since its independence in 1930,
governments? Can Pakistan? Not quite. People may Mexico holds elections after every
we talk about a have elected their representatives to six years to elect its President. The
democratic the national and provincial country has never been under a
classroom? Or a assemblies but those elected military or dictator’s rule. But until
democratic family? representatives were not really the 2000 every election was won by a

WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY? 5

Reprint 2025-26
 ©Nerilicon, El Economista , Mexico, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
17 May 2005
party called PRI (Institutional
Revolutionary Party). Opposition
parties did contest elections, but
read
never managed to win. The PRI was the
known to use many dirty tricks to
win elections. All those who were cartoon
employed in government offices
had to attend its party meetings. This cartoon was
Teachers of government schools titled ‘Building
used to force parents to vote for the Democracy’ and was
PRI. Media largely ignored the first published in a
activities of opposition political Latin American
parties except to criticise them. publication. What do
Sometimes the polling booths were moneybags signify
shifted from one place to another in here? Could this
the last minute, which made it cartoon be applied to
difficult for people to cast their votes. India?
The PRI spent a large sum of money
in the campaign for its candidates.
Should we consider the elections
described above as examples of
people electing their rulers? Reading
these examples we get a sense that One person, one vvot
ot
otee ,
we cannot. There are many problems one value
here. In China the elections do not Earlier, we read about how the struggle
offer the people any serious choice. for democracy was linked to the
They have to choose the ruling party demand for universal adult franchise.
and the candidates approved by it. This principle has now come to be
Can we call this a choice? In the accepted almost all over the world. Yet
Mexican example, people seemed to there are many instances of denial of
really have a choice but in practice equal right to vote.
they had no choice. There was no < Until 2015, in Saudi Arabia women

way the ruling party could be did not have the right to vote.
< Estonia has made its citizenship
defeated, even if people were against
it. These are not fair elections. rules in such a way that people
We can thus add a second feature belonging to Russian minority
find it difficult to get the right to
to our understanding of democracy.
vote.
Holding elections of any kind is not
< In Fiji, the electoral system is
sufficient. The elections must offer
such that the vote of an
a real choice between political indigenous Fiji has more value
alternatives. And it should be than that of an Indian-Fijian.
possible for people to use this choice Democracy is based on a
to remove the existing rulers, if they fundamental principle of political
wish so. So, a democracy must be equality. That gives us the third
based on a free and fair election feature of democracy: in a
where those currently in power democracy, each adult citizen must
have a fair chance of losing. We have one vote and each vote must
shall find out more about a have one value. We shall read more
democratic election in Chapter 3. about it in Chapter 3.

6 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

Reprint 2025-26
 read
the
cartoon
©John Trever, Albuquerque Journal, US, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
This cartoon is about
the Iraqi election held
after Saddam
Hussein’s regime was
overthrown. He is
shown behind the
bars. What is the
cartoonist saying
here? Compare the
message of this
cartoon with the first
cartoon in this
chapter.

R ule of la
laww and rrespe
espe
especc t government harassed those
for rights journalists who went against it. The
Zimbabwe attained independence government ignored some court
from White minority rule in 1980. judgments that went against it and
Since then the country has been pressurised judges. He was forced
ruled by ZANU-PF, the party that led out of office in 2017.
the freedom struggle. Its leader, The example of Zimbabwe shows
Robert Mugabe, ruled the country that popular approval of the rulers is
since independence. Elections were necessary in a democracy, but it is
held regularly and always won by not sufficient. Popular governments
ZANU-PF. President Mugabe was can be undemocratic. Popular leaders
popular but also used unfair practices can be autocratic. If we wish to assess
in elections. Over the years his a democracy, it is important to look
government changed the constitution at the elections. But it is equally
several times to increase the powers important to look before and after the
of the President and make him less elections. There should be sufficient
accountable. Opposition party room for normal political activity,
workers were harassed and their including political opposition, in the
meeting disrupted. Public protests period before elections. This requires
and demonstrations against the that the state should respect some
Why talk about government were declared illegal. basic rights of the citizen. They should
Zimbabwe? I read There was a law that limited the right be free to think, to have opinions, to
similar reports from to criticise the President. Television express these in public, to form
many parts of our and radio were controlled by the associations, to protest and take other
own country. Why government and gave only the political actions. Everyone should be
don’t we discuss ruling party’s version. There were equal in the eyes of law. These rights
that? independent newspapers but the must be protected by an independent

WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY? 7

Reprint 2025-26
 ©Eric Allie, Pioneer Press, US, Cagle Cartoons Inc., 27 February 2006
judiciary whose orders are obeyed by S ummar
ummaryy def inition
definition
everyone. We shall read more about
Let us sum up the discussion so far.
these rights in Chapter 5.
We started with a simple definition
Similarly, there are some conditions
that democracy is a form of
that apply to the way a government
government in which the rulers are
is run after the elections. A elected by the people. We found that read
democratic government cannot do
whatever it likes, simply because it
this definition was not adequate
unless we explained some of the key
the
has won an election. It has to respect
some basic rules. In particular it has
words used in it. Through a series of cartoon
examples we worked out four features
to respect some guarantees to the of democracy as a form of
minorities. Every major decision has government. Accordingly, democracy Chinese government
to go through a series of is a form of government in which: blocked free flow of
consultations. Every office bearer has < Rulers elected by the people take information on the
certain rights and responsibilities all the major decisions; internet by placing
assigned by the constitution and the < Elections offer a choice and fair restrictions on popular
law. Each of these is accountable not opportunity to the people to websites like ‘Google’
only to the people but also to other change the current rulers; and ‘Yahoo’. The
independent officials. We shall read < This choice and opportunity is image of tanks and an
more about this in Chapter 4. available to all the people on an unarmed student
Both these aspects give us the fourth equal basis; and reminds the reader of
and final feature of democracy: < The exercise of this choice leads another major event in
a democratic government rules to a government limited by basic recent Chinese
within limits set by constitutional rules of the constitution and history. Find out about
law and citizens’ rights. citizens’ rights. that event.

8 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

Reprint 2025-26
 Read these five examples of working or denial of democracy. Match each of these with the relevant
feature of democracy discussed above.

CHECK Example Feature

King of Bhutan has declared that in future he will be Rule of law
YOUR guided by the advice given to him by elected representatives.
PROGRESS Many Tamil workers who migrated from India were Respect for Rights
not given a right to vote in Sri Lanka.
One person one vote
The king imposed a ban on political gatherings,
one value
demonstrations and rallies. Free and fair
The Indian Supreme Court held that the dissolution of electoral com
petition
Bihar assembly was unconstitutional.
Major decisions by
Political parties in Bangladesh have agreed that a neutral
elected leaders
government should rule the country at the time of elections.

1.3 WHY DEMOCRACY?

An argument broke out in Madam Jeni: Whatever, how does it make a difference?
Lyngdoh’s class. She had finished The point is that this can’t be the best form of
teaching the previous section on government. Democracy is all about chaos, in-
what is democracy and asked the stability, corruption and hypocrisy. Politicians
students if they thought democracy fight among themselves. Who cares for the coun-
was the best form of government. try?
Everyone had something to say. Poimon: So, what should we have instead? Go
back to the British rule? Invite some kings to
Debating merits of rule this country?
Rose: I don’t know. I think what this country needs
d e m o c rraa c y is a strong leader, someone who does not have
Yolanda: We live in a democratic country. All over to bother about elections and parliament. One
the world people want democracy. Countries that leader should have all the powers. He should
were not democratic earlier are becoming demo- be able to do whatever is needed in country’s
cratic now. All great people have said nice things interest. That alone can remove corruption and
about democracy. Isn’t it obvious that democracy poverty from this country.
is the best? Do we need to debate this? Someone shouted: That is called dictatorship!
Tangkini: But Lyngdoh Madam had said we should Hoi: What if that person starts using all these pow-
not accept something just because it is famous, ers for himself and his family? What if he is
just because everyone else accepts it. Isn’t it corrupt himself?
possible that everyone is following a wrong Rose: I am speaking only of the honest, sincere
path? and strong leader.
Jeni: Yes, it actually is a wrong path. What has Hoi: But that is not fair. You are comparing a real
democracy brought to our country? Seven democracy with an ideal dictatorship.
I want to be in decades of democracy and there is so much We should compare an ideal with an ideal, the
Lyngdoh Madam’s poverty in the country. real with the real. Go and check the record of
class! That sounds Ribiang: But what has democracy got to do with dictators in real life. They are most corrupt, self-
like a democratic it? Do we have poverty because we are demo- ish and brutal. It is just that we don’t get to know
classroom. cratic or do we have poverty despite being a about this. And what is worse, you can’t even
Doesn’t it? democracy? get rid of them.

WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY? 9

Reprint 2025-26
Madam Lyngdoh was listening to people take their own decisions.
this discussion with interest. Now This does not guarantee that their
she stepped in: “I was delighted to decisions will be good. People can This cartoon is from
see you all arguing so passionately. make mistakes. Involving the people Brazil, a country that
I don’t know who is right and who in these decisions does lead has long experience
is wrong. That is for you to settle. to delays in decision making. It of dictatorship. It is
But I did feel that you all wanted to is also true that democracy leads entitled “The Hidden
speak your mind. You may have felt to frequent changes in leadership. Side of Dictatorship”.
very bad if someone tried to stop you Sometimes this can set back Which hidden sides
or if someone punished you for big decisions and affect the does this cartoon
saying what you felt. Would you be government’s efficiency. depict? Is it
able to do that in a country that is These arguments show that necessary for every
not democratic? Is that a good democracy of the kind we see may dictatorship to have a
argument for democracy?” not be the ideal form of government. hidden side? If
But that is not a question we face in possible, find this out
Arguments against democracy real life. The real question we face about the dictators
This conversation has most of the is different: is democracy better than including Pinochet in
arguments that we routinely hear other forms of government that are Chile, Jaruzelski in
against democracy. Let us go over there for us to choose from? Poland, Sani Abacha
some of these arguments: in Nigeria and
< Leaders keep changing in a Arguments for democracy Ferdinand Marcos in
democracy. This leads to instability. China’s famine of 1958-1961 was the Philippines.
< Democracy is all about political the worst recorded famine in world
competition and power play. There history. Nearly three crore people
is no scope for morality.
< So many people have to be
died in this famine. During those
days, India’s economic condition
read
consulted in a democracy that it was not much better than China. Yet the
leads to delays. India did not have a famine of the
< Elected leaders do not know the kind China had. Economists think
cartoon
best interest of the people. It leads
to bad decisions.
< Democracy leads to corruption for
it is based on electoral competition.
< Ordinary people don’t know what
is good for them; they should not
decide anything.
Are there some other arguments
against democracy that you can
think of? Which of these arguments
applies mainly to democracy? Which
Cagle Cartoons Inc. 6 December 2004

of these can apply to misuse of any

form of government? Which of these
do you agree with?
©Osmani Simanca, Brazil,

Clearly, democracy is not a

magical solution for all the
problems. It has not ended poverty
in our country and in other parts of
the world. Democracy as a form of
government only ensures that

10 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

Reprint 2025-26
 that this was a result of different This is related to the third
government policies in the two argument. Democracy provides a
countries. The existence of method to deal with differences
democracy in India made the and conflicts. In any society people
Indian government respond to food are bound to have differences of
scarcity in a way that the Chinese opinions and interests. These
government did not. They point out differences are particularly sharp in
that no large-scale famine has ever a country like ours which has an
taken place in an independent and amazing social diversity. People
democratic country. If China too had belong to different regions, speak
multiparty elections, an opposition different languages, practise
party and a press free to criticise the different religions and have different
government, then so many people castes. They look at the world very
may not have died in the famine. differently and have different
This example brings out one of the preferences. The preferences of one
reasons why democracy is considered group can clash with those of other
the best form of government. groups. How do we resolve such a
Democracy is better than any other conflict? The conflict can be solved
form of government in responding to by brutal power. Whichever group
the needs of the people. A non- is more powerful will dictate its
democratic government may and can terms and others will have to accept
respond to the people’s needs, but it that. But that would lead to
all depends on the wishes of the resentment and unhappiness.
people who rule. If the rulers don’t Different groups may not be able to
want to, they don’t have to act live together for long in such a way.
according to the wishes of the people. Democracy provides the only
A democracy requires that the rulers peaceful solution to this problem. In
have to attend to the needs of the democracy, no one is a permanent
people. A democratic government is winner. No one is a permanent loser.
a better government because it is a Different groups can live with one
more accountable form of another peacefully. In a diverse
government. country like India, democracy keeps
There is another reason why our country together.
democracy should lead to better These three arguments were about
decisions than any non-democratic the effects of democracy on the
government. Democracy is based on quality of government and social life.
consultation and discussion. A But the strongest argument for
democratic decision always involves democracy is not about what
many persons, discussions and democracy does to the government.
meetings. When a number of people It is about what democracy does to
put their heads together, they are the citizens. Even if democracy does
able to point out possible mistakes not bring about better decisions and
What would have in any decision. This takes time. But accountable government, it is still
happened if India there is a big advantage in taking better than other forms of
was not a time over important decisions. This government. Democracy enhances
democracy? reduces the chances of rash or the dignity of citizens. As we
Could we have irresponsible decisions. Thus discussed above, democracy is
stayed together as democracy improves the quality based on the principle of political
a single nation? of decision-making. equality, on recognising that the

WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY? 11

Reprint 2025-26
poorest and the least educated has the rulers have to change their
the same status as the rich and the decisions, or the rulers can be
educated. People are not subjects of changed. This cannot happen in a
a ruler, they are the rulers non-democratic government. This cartoon was
themselves. Even when they make Let us sum it up. Democracy published in Canada
mistakes, they are responsible for cannot get us everything and is not just before its
their conduct. the solution to all problems. But it parliamentary
Finally, democracy is better than is clearly better than any other elections of 2004.
other forms of government because alternative that we know. It offers Everyone, including
it allows us to correct its own better chances of a good decision, the cartoonist,
mistakes. As we saw above, there is it is likely to respect people’s own expected the Liberal
no guarantee that mistakes cannot wishes and allows different kinds of party to win once
be made in democracy. No form of people to live together. Even when again. When the
government can guarantee that. The it fails to do some of these things, it results came, the
advantage in a democracy is that allows a way of correcting its Liberal Party lost the
such mistakes cannot be hidden for mistakes and offers more dignity to elections. Is this
long. There is a space for public all citizens. That is why democracy cartoon an argument
discussion on these mistakes. And is considered the best form of against democracy or
there is a room for correction. Either government. for democracy?

©Cam Cardow, The Ottawa Citizen, Canada, Cagle Cartoons Inc. 30 May 2004.
read
the
cartoon

Rajesh and Muzaffar read an article. It showed that no democracy has ever gone to war with another
democracy. Wars take place only when one of the two governments is non-democratic. The article said
that this was a great merit of democracy. After reading the essay, Rajesh and Muzaffar had different
reactions. Rajesh said that this was not a good argument for democracy. It was just a matter of chance. CHECK
It is possible that in future democracies may have wars. Muzaffar said that it could not be a matter of
chance. Democracies take decisions in such a way that it reduces the chances of war. Which of the two
YOUR
positions do you agree with and why? PROGRESS

12 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

Reprint 2025-26
 This famous cartoon 1.4 BROADER MEANINGS OF DEMOCRACY
by R K Laxman
comments on the In this chapter we have considered through their elected representatives.
celebrations of the the meaning of democracy in a This become necessary because:
limited and descriptive sense. We < Modern democracies involve such
fifty years of
independence. How have understood democracy as a a large number of people that it is
many images on the form of government. This way of physically impossible for them to
wall do you recognize? defining democracy helps us to sit together and take a collective
Do many common identify a clear set of minimal decision.
features that a democracy must < Even if they could, the citizen does
people feel the way the
common man in this have. The most common form that not have the time, the desire or the
cartoon does? democracy takes in our times is that skills to take part in all the
of a representative democracy. You decisions.
have already read about this in the This gives us a clear but minimal
previous classes. In the countries we understanding of democracy. This
read call democracy, all the people do not clarity helps us to distinguish
the rule. A majority is allowed to take democracies from non-democracies.
decisions on behalf of all the people. But it does not allow us to
cartoon Even the majority does not rule distinguish between a democracy
directly. The majority of people rule and a good democracy. It does not

©R.K. Laxman, The Times of India

WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY? 13

Reprint 2025-26
allow us to see the operation of If we take these ideals seriously,
democracy beyond government. For then no country in the world is a
this we need to turn to broader democracy. Yet an understanding of
meanings of democracy. democracy as an ideal reminds us
Sometimes we use democracy for of why we value democracy. It
organisations other than the enables us to judge an existing
government. Just read these democracy and identify its In my village the
statements: weaknesses. It helps us to Gram Sabha never
< “ We are a very democratic family. distinguish between a minimal meets. Is that
Whenever a decision has to be taken, democracy and a good democracy. democratic?
we all sit down and arrive at a In this book we do not deal much
consensus. My opinion matters as much with this expanded notion of
as my father’s.” democracy. Our focus here is with
< “I don’t like teachers who do not allow some core institutional features of
students to speak and ask questions in democracy as a form of government.
the class. I would like to have teachers Next year you will read more about
with democratic temperament.” a democratic society and ways of
< “One leader and his family members evaluating our democracy. At this
decide everything in this party. How can stage we just need to note that
they talk of democracy?” democracy can apply to many
These ways of using the word spheres of life and that democracy
democracy go back to its basic can take many forms. There can be
sense of a method of taking various ways of taking decisions in
decisions. A democratic decision a democratic manner, as long as the
involves consultation with and basic principle of consultation on an
consent of all those who are affected equal basis is accepted. The most
by that decision. Those who are not common form of democracy in
powerful have the same say in today’s world is rule through
taking the decision as those who are people’s elected representatives. We
powerful. This can apply to a shall read more about that in
government or a family or any other Chapter 3. But if the community is
organisation. Thus democracy is small, there can be other ways of
also a principle that can be applied taking democratic decisions. All the
to any sphere of life. people can sit together and take
Sometimes we use the word decisions directly. This is how
democracy not to describe any Gram Sabha should work in a
existing government but to set up village. Can you think of some other
an ideal standard that all democratic ways of decision making?
democracies must aim to become:
< “ True democracy will come to this
country only when no one goes hungry
A C T I V I T Y
to bed.”
< “In a democracy every citizen must be Find out the total number of eligible voters in your
able to play equal role in decision assembly constituency and your parliamentary
making. For this you don’t need just an constituency. Find out how many people can fit
equal right to vote. Every citizen needs into the largest stadium in your area. Is it possible
to have equal information, basic for all the voters in your parliamentary or assembly
education, equal resources and a lot of constituency to sit together and have a meaningful
commitment.” discussion?

14 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

Reprint 2025-26
 This also means that no country the weakness of democracy: the fate
is a perfect democracy. The features of the country depends not just on
of democracy that we discussed in what the rulers do, but mainly on
this chapter provide only the what we, as citizens, do.
minimum conditions of a This is what distinguished
democracy. That does not make it democracy from other governments.
an ideal democracy. Every Other forms of government like
democracy has to try to realise the monarchy, dictatorship or one-party
ideals of a democratic decision- rule do not require all citizens to
making. This cannot be achieved take part in politics. In fact most
once and for all. This requires a non-democratic governments
constant effort to save and would like citizens not to take part
strengthen democratic forms of in politics. But democracy depends
decision-making. What we do as on active political participation by
citizens can make a difference to all the citizens. That is why a study
making our country more or less of democracy must focus on
democratic. This is the strength and democratic politics.

exercises 1 Here is some information about four countries. Based on this

information, how would you classify each of these countries. Write
‘democratic’, ‘undemocratic’ or ‘not sure’ against each of these.
a Country A: People who do not accept the country’s official religion
do not have a right to vote.
b Country B: The same party has been winning elections for the last
twenty years.
c Country C: Ruling party has lost in the last three elections.
d Country D: There is no independent election commission.

2 Here is some information about four countries. Based on this

information, how would you classify each of these countries. Write
‘democratic’, ‘undemocratic’ or ‘not sure’ against each of these.
a Country P: The parliament cannot pass a law about the army
without the consent of the Chief of Army.
b Country Q: The parliament cannot pass a law reducing the powers
of the judiciary.
c Country R: The country’s leaders cannot sign any treaty with
another country without taking permission from its neighbouring
country.
d Country S: All the major economic decisions about the country
are taken by officials of the central bank which the ministers cannot
change.

3 Which of these is not a good argument in favour of democracy? Why?

a People feel free and equal in a democracy.
b Democracies resolve conflict in a better way than others.
c Democratic government is more accountable to the people.
d Democracies are more prosperous than others.

WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY? 15

Reprint 2025-26
 exercises
4 Each of these statements contains a democratic and an undemocratic
element. Write out the two separately for each statement.
a A minister said that some laws have to be passed by the parliament
in order to conform to the regulations decided by the World Trade
Organisation (WTO).
b The Election Commission ordered re-polling in a constituency
where large-scale rigging was reported.
c Women’s representation in the parliament has barely reached 10
per cent. This led women’s organisations to demand one-third seats
for women.

5 Which of these is not a valid reason for arguing that there is a lesser
possibility of famine in a democratic country?
a Opposition parties can draw attention to hunger and starvation.
b Free press can report suffering from famine in different parts of
the country.
c Government fears its defeat in the next elections.
d People are free to believe in and practise any religion.

6 There are 40 villages in a district where the government has made

no provision for drinking water. These villagers met and considered
many methods of forcing the government to respond to their need.
Which of these is not a democratic method?
a Filing a case in the courts claiming that water is part of right to life.
b Boycotting the next elections to give a message to all parties.
c Organising public meetings against government’s policies.
d Paying money to government officials to get water.

7 Write a response to the following arguments against democracy:

a Army is the most disciplined and corruption-free organisation in
the country. Therefore army should rule the country.
b Rule of the majority means the rule of ignorant people. What we
need is the rule of the wise, even if they are in small numbers.
c If we want religious leaders to guide us in spiritual matters, why
not invite them to guide us in politics as well. The country should
be ruled by religious leaders.

8 Are the following statements in keeping with democracy as a

value? Why?
a Father to daughter: I don’t want to hear your opinion about your
marriage. In our family children marry where the parents tell them
to.
b Teacher to student: Don’t disturb my concentration by asking me
questions in the classroom.
c Employee to the officer: Our working hours must be reduced
according to the law.

9 Consider the following facts about a country and decide if you would
call it a democracy. Give reasons to support your decision.

16 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

Reprint 2025-26
exercises a All the citizens of the country have right to vote. Elections are held
regularly.
b The country took loan from international agencies. One of the
conditions for giving loan was that the government would reduce
its expenses on education and health.
c People speak more than seven languages but education is available
only in one language, the language spoken by 52 percent people
of that country.
d Several organisations have given a call for peaceful demonstrations
and nation wide strikes in the country to oppose these policies.
Government has arrested these leaders.
e The government owns the radio and television in the country. All
the newspapers have to get permission from the government to
publish any news about government’s policies and protests.

10 In 2004 a report published in USA pointed to the increasing

inequalities in that country. Inequalities in income reflected in the
participation of people in democracy. It also shaped their abilities to
influence the decisions taken by the government. The report
highlighted that:
< If an average Black family earns $ 100 then the income of average
White family is $ 162. A White family has twelve times more wealth
than the average Black family.
< In a President’s election ‘nearly 9 out of 10 individuals in families
with income over $ 75,000 have voted. These people are the top
20% of the population in terms of their income. On the other hand
only 5 people out of 10 from families with income less than $
15,000 have voted. They are the bottom 20% of the population in
terms of their income.
< About 95% contribution to the political parties comes from the
rich. This gives them opportunity to express their opinions and
concerns, which is not available to most citizens.
< As poor sections participate less in politics, the government does
not listen to their concerns – coming out of poverty, getting job,
education, health care and housing for them. Politicians hear most
regularly about the concerns of business persons and the rich.
Write an essay on ‘Democracy and Poverty’ using the information
given in this report but using examples from India.

Most newspapers have an editorial page. On that page the newspaper

publishes its own opinions about current affairs. The paper also publishes
the views of other writers and intellectuals and letters written by the
readers. Follow any one newspaper for one month and collect editorials,
articles and letters on that page that have anything to do with democracy.
Classify these into the following categories:
< Constitutional and legal aspects of democracy
< Citizens’ rights
< Electoral and party politics
< Criticism of democracy

WHAT IS DEMOCRACY? WHY DEMOCRACY? 17

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CHAPTER 2

CONSTITUTIONAL
DESIGN

OVERVIEW
We noted in the previous chapter that in a democracy the rulers are not
free to do what they like. There are certain basic rules that the citizens
and the government have to follow. All such rules together are called
constitution. As the supreme law of the country, the constitution determines
the rights of citizens, the powers of the government and how the government
should function.
In this chapter we ask some basic questions about the constitutional
design of a democracy. Why do we need a constitution? How are the
constitutions drawn up? Who designs them and in what way? What are
the values that shape the constitutions in democratic states? Once a
constitution is accepted, can we make changes later as required by the
changing conditions?
One recent instance of designing constitution for a democratic state is
that of South Africa. We begin this chapter by looking at what happened
there and how the South Africans went about this task of designing their
constitution. Then we turn to how the Indian Constitution was made,
what its foundational values are, and how it provides a good framework
for the conduct of citizens’ life and that of the government.

18 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 2.1 DEMOCRATIC CONSTITUTION IN
SOUTH AFRICA
“I have fought against white domination apartheid divided the people and
and I have fought against black labelled them on the basis of their
domination. I have cherished the ideal of skin colour. The native people of
a democratic and free society in which all South Africa are black in colour.
persons live together in harmony and with They made up about three-fourth
equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I of the population and were called
hope to live for and to achieve. But if ‘blacks’. Besides these two groups,
Nelson Mandela needs be, it is an ideal for which I am there were people of mixed races
prepared to die.” who were called ‘coloured’ and
This was Nelson Mandela, being people who migrated from India.
tried for treason by the white South The white rulers treated all non-
African government. He and seven whites as inferiors. The non-whites
other leaders were sentenced to life did not have voting rights.
imprisonment in 1964 for daring to The apartheid system was
oppose the apartheid regime in his particularly oppressive for the
1 blacks. They were forbidden from
country. He spent the next 27 years
A signboard emblematic of
the tense relations of the in South Africa’s most dreaded living in white areas. They could
apartheid era, 1953. prison, Robben Island. work in white areas only if they had
a permit. Trains, buses, taxis,
South Africa History Online

1 hotels, hospitals, schools and

colleges, libraries, cinema halls,
theatres, beaches, swimming pools,

John Mullen, Wikipedia, GNU Free Documentation License

2

S tr uggle against apar

truggle theid
apartheid
Apartheid was the name of a system
of racial discrimination unique to
South Africa. The white Europeans
imposed this system on South
2
Sign on Durban beach
Africa. During the seventeenth and
in English, Afrikaans eighteenth centuries, the trading
and Zulu companies from Europe occupied it
In English it reads:
‘CITY OF DURBAN Under
with arms and force, in the way they
section 37 of the Durban occupied India. But unlike India, a
beach by-laws, this bathing large number of ‘whites’ had settled
area is reserved for the sole
use of members of the
in South Africa and became the
white race group’. local rulers. The system of

CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN 19

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public toilets, were all separate for national flag of the Republic of South
the whites and blacks. This was Africa was unfurled marking the
called segregation. They could not newly born democracy in the world.
even visit the churches where the The apartheid government came to
whites worshipped. Blacks could not an end, paving way for the formation
form associations or protest against of a multi-racial government. What would have
the terrible treatment. How did this come about? Let us happened in South
Since 1950, the blacks, coloured hear Mandela, the first president of Africa if the black
and Indians fought against the this new South Africa, on this extra- majority had
apartheid system. They launched ordinary transition: decided to take
protest marches and strikes. The “ Historical enemies succeeded in revenge on the
African National Congress (ANC) was negotiating a peaceful transition from whites for all their
the umbrella organisation that led apartheid to democracy exactly because oppression and
exploitation?
the struggle against the policies of we were prepared to accept the inherent
segregation. This included many capacity for goodness in the other. My
workers’ unions and the Communist wish is that South Africans never give up
Party. Many sensitive whites also on the belief in goodness, that they
joined the ANC to oppose apartheid cherish that faith in human beings is the
and played a leading role in this cornerstone of our democracy.”
struggle. Several countries de- After the emergence of the new
nounced apartheid as unjust and democratic South Africa, black
racist. But the white racist govern- leaders appealed to fellow blacks to
ment continued to rule by detain- forgive the whites for the atrocities
ing, torturing and killing thousands they had committed while in power.
of black and coloured people. They said let us build a new South
Africa based on equality of all races
and men and women, on democratic
A C T I V I T Y values, social justice and human
rights. The party that ruled through
< Make a poster on the life and struggle of Nelson oppression and brutal killings and
Mandela. the party that led the freedom
< If available, read some portions of his autobi- struggle sat together to draw up a
ography, The Long Walk to Freedom, in the common constitution.
classroom. After two years of discussion and
debate they came out with one of the
To w ar ds a ne
ards neww cconstitution
onstitution finest constitutions the world has
As protests and struggles against ever had. This constitution gave to
apartheid had increased, the its citizens the most extensive rights
government realised that they could available in any country. Together,
no longer keep the blacks under they decided that in the search for
their rule through repression. The a solution to the problems, nobody
white regime changed its policies. should be excluded, no one should
Discriminatory laws were repealed. be treated as a demon. They agreed
Ban on political parties and that everybody should become part
restrictions on the media were lifted. of the solution, whatever they might
After 28 years of imprisonment, have done or represented in the
Nelson Mandela walked out of the past. The preamble to the South
jail as a free man. Finally, at the African Constitution (see page 28)
midnight of 26 April 1994, the new sums up this spirit.

20 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 Wikipedia, GNU Free Documentation License
The South African constitution
inspires democrats all over the
world. A state denounced by the
entire world till 1994 as the most
undemocratic one is now seen as a
model of democracy. What made this
change possible was the
determination of the people of South
Africa to work together, to transform
bitter experiences into the binding
glue of a rainbow nation. Speaking
on the South African Constitution,
Mandela said:
“The Constitution of South Africa speaks
of both the past and the future. On the one
hand, it is a solemn pact in which we, as
South Africans, declare to one another that
we shall never permit a repetition of our
racist, brutal and repressive past. But it is
more than that. It is also a charter for the
transformation of our country into one
which is truly shared by all its people — a
country which in the fullest sense belongs
to all of us, black and white, women and
men.”

This image captures the spirit of South Africa today. South

Africans call themselves a ‘rainbow nation’. Can you guess
why?

For more details about South Africa, visit https://www.gov.za

Does the story of South African struggle for freedom remind you of the Indian national movement? Make
a list of similarities and dissimilarities between the two on the following points:
< Nature of colonialism
CHECK < Relationship between different communities

YOUR < Leadership: Gandhi/ Mandela

< Party that led the struggle: African National Congress/ Indian National Congress
PROGRESS < Method of struggle

2.2 WHY DO WE NEED A CONSTITUTION?

The South African example is a good their fears. They wanted to safeguard
way to understand why we need a their interests. The black majority
constitution and what do was keen to ensure that the
constitutions do. The oppressor and democratic principle of majority rule
the oppressed in this new democracy was not compromised. They wanted
were planning to live together as substantial social and economic
equals. It was not going to be easy for rights. The white minority was keen
them to trust each other. They had to protect its privileges and property.

CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN 21

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 After long negotiations both parties society or a political party, they all
agreed to a compromise. The whites need a constitution.
agreed to the principle of majority
rule and that of one person one vote.
They also agreed to accept some A C T I V I T Y
basic rights for the poor and the
workers. The blacks agreed that Approach a club or cooperative society or union or
majority rule would not be absolute. political party in your locality. Get a copy of their
They agreed that the majority would rule book (it is often called Rules of Association)
not take away the property of the white and read it. Are these rules in accordance with
minority. This compromise was not principles of democracy? Do they give membership
easy. How was this compromise going to any person without discrimination?
to be implemented? Even if they
managed to trust each other, what Thus, the constitution of a country
was the guarantee that this trust will is a set of written rules that are
not be broken in future? accepted by all people living together
The only way to build and in a country. Constitution is the
maintain trust in such a situation supreme law that determines the
is to write down some rules of the relationship among people living in
game that everyone would abide by. a territory (called citizens) and also
These rules lay down how the rulers the relationship between the people
are to be chosen in future. These and government. A constitution does
rules also determine what the many things:
elected governments are empowered < First, it generates a degree of trust
to do and what they cannot do. and coordination that is necessary
Finally these rules decide the rights for different kind of people to live
of the citizen. These rules will work together;
only if the winner cannot change < Second, it specifies how the
them very easily. This is what the government will be constituted,
South Africans did. They agreed on who will have power to take which
some basic rules. They also agreed decisions;
that these rules will be supreme, < Third, it lays down limits on the
that no government will be able to powers of the government and tells
ignore these. This set of basic rules us what the rights of the citizens
is called a constitution. are; and
Constitution making is not unique < Fourth, it expresses the
to South Africa. Every country has aspirations of the people about
diverse groups of people. Their creating a good society.
relationship may not have been as All countries that have constitutions
bad as that between the whites and are not necessarily democratic. But
the blacks in South Africa. But all over all countries that are democratic will
the world people have differences of have constitutions. After the War of
opinion and interests. Whether Independence against Great Britain, This is not fair!
democratic or not, most countries in the Americans gave themselves a What was the point
the world need to have these basic constitution. After the Revolution, the in having a
rules. This applies not just to French people approved a democratic Constituent
governments. Any association needs constitution. Since then it has Assembly in India if
to have its constitution. It could be a become a practice in all democracies all the basics were
club in your area, a cooperative to have a written constitution. already decided?

22 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 2.3 MAKING OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION
Like South Africa, India’s like. Much of this consensus had
Constitution was also drawn up evolved during the freedom struggle.
under very difficult circumstances. Our national movement was not
The making of the constitution for a merely a struggle against a foreign
huge and diverse country like India rule. It was also a struggle to
Vallabhbhai was not an easy affair. At that time rejuvenate our country and to
atel
Jhaverbhai PPatel the people of India were emerging transform our society and politics.
(1875-1950) born: Gujarat. from the status of subjects to that There were sharp differences of
Minister of Home, of citizens. The country was born opinion within the freedom struggle
All sketches by Rajeev Kumar

Information and through a partition on the basis of about the path India should take
Broadcasting in the Interim
religious differences. This was a after Independence. Such
Government. Lawyer and
leader of Bardoli peasant traumatic experience for the people differences exist even today. Yet
satyagraha. Played a of India and Pakistan. some basic ideas had come to be
decisive role in the Atleast ten lakh people were killed accepted by almost everyone.
integration of the Indian
on both sides of the border in As far back as in 1928, Motilal
princely states. Later:
Deputy Prime Minister. partition related violence. There was Nehru and eight other Congress
another problem. The British had leaders drafted a constitution for
left it to the rulers of the princely India. In 1931, the resolution at the
states to decide whether they Karachi session of the Indian
wanted to merge with India or with National Congress dwelt on how
Pakistan or remain independent. independent India’s constitution
The merger of these princely states should look like. Both these
was a difficult and uncertain task. documents were committed to the
When the constitution was being inclusion of universal adult franchise,
Abul Kalam Azad written, the future of the country did right to freedom and equality and to
(1888-1958)
born: Saudi Arabia.
not look as secure as it does today. protecting the rights of minorities in
Educationist, author and The makers of the constitution had the constitution of independent India.
theologian; scholar of anxieties about the present and the Thus some basic values were
Arabic. Congress leader, future of the country. accepted by all leaders much before
active in the national
the Constituent Assembly met to
movement. Opposed
deliberate on the Constitution.
Muslim separatist politics.
Later: Education Minister in
A C T I V I T Y The familiarity with political
the first union cabinet. institutions of colonial rule also
Speak to your grandparents or some other elders helped develop an agreement over
in your locality. Ask them if they have any memory the institutional design. The British
of partition or independence or the making of the rule had given voting rights only to
constitution. What were their fears and hopes a few. On that basis the British had
about the country at that time? Discuss these in introduced very weak legislatures.
the classroom. Elections were held in 1937 to
Provincial Legislatures and
T.T.Krishnamachari
.T.Krishnamachari The pa th ttoo CConstitution
path onstitution Ministries all over British India.
(1899-1974) Despite all these difficulties, there These were not fully democratic
born: Tamil Nadu. was one big advantage for the governments. But the experience
Member, Drafting makers of the Indian Constitution. gained by Indians in the working of
Committee. Entrepreneur
and Congress leader. Later:
Unlike South Africa, they did not the legislative institutions proved to
Finance Minister in the have to create a consensus about be very useful for the country in
Union Cabinet. what a democratic India should look setting up its own institutions and

CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN 23

Reprint 2025-26
working in them. That is why the called the Constituent Assembly.
Indian constitution adopted many Elections to the Constituent
institutional details and procedures Assembly were held in July 1946. Its
from colonial laws like the Government first meeting was held in December
of India Act, 1935. 1946. Soon after, the country was
Years of thinking and deliberation divided into India and Pakistan. The
on the framework of the constitution Constituent Assembly was also
had another benefit. Our leaders divided into the Constituent Assembly Rajendra Prasad
gained confidence to learn from of India and that of Pakistan. The (1884-1963) born: Bihar.
other countries, but on our own Constituent Assembly that wrote President of the Constituent
terms. Many of our leaders were the Indian constitution had 299 Assembly. Lawyer, known
members. The Assembly adopted for his role in the
inspired by the ideals of French Champaran satyagraha. Three
Revolution, the practice of the Constitution on 26 November
times the president of
1949 but it came into effect on 26 Congress. Later: the first
parliamentary democracy in Britain
January 1950. To mark this day we President of India.
and the Bill of Rights in the US. The
celebrate January 26 as Republic
socialist revolution in Russia had
Day every year.
inspired many Indians to think of
Why should we accept the
shaping a system based on social Constitution made by this Assembly
and economic equality. Yet they more than seven decades ago? We
were not simply imitating what have already noted one reason
others had done. At each step they above. The Constitution does not
were questioning whether these reflect the views of its members
things suited our country. All these alone. It expresses a broad
factors contributed to the making of consensus of its time. Many Jaipal Singh
our Constitution. countries of the world have had to (1903-1970)
rewrite their Constitution afresh born: Jharkhand
T h e CConstituen
onstituen
onstituentt AAssembly
ssembly because the basic rules were not A sportsman and
Who, then, were the makers of the acceptable to all major social groups educationist. Captain of the
first national Hockey team.
Indian Constitution? You will find or political parties. In some other Founder President of
here very brief sketch of some of the countries, the Constitution exists Adivasi Maha Sabha. Later:
leaders who played an important as a mere piece of paper. No one founder of Jharkhand Party.
role in making the Constitution. actually follows it. The experience
of our Constitution is different. Over
the last half a century, several
A C T I V I T Y groups have questioned some
provisions of the Constitution. But
Find out more about any member of the no large social group or political
Constituent Assembly from your state or region party has ever questioned the
who is not mentioned here. Collect a photograph legitimacy of the Constitution itself.
or make a sketch of that leader. Write a short This is an unusual achievement for H. C. Mookherjee
note on him or her, following the same style as any constitution. (1887-1956)
used here: Name (year of birth-year of death), The second reason for accepting born: Bengal.
place of birth (by current political boundaries), the Constitution is that the Vice-Chairman of the
Constituent Assembly represented Constituent Assembly.
brief description of political activities; role played Reputed author and
the people of India. There was no
after the Constituent Assembly. educationist. Congress
universal adult franchise at that leader. Member of All India
time. So the Constituent Assembly Christian Council and
The drafting of the document called
could not have been chosen directly Bengal Legislative
the constitution was done by an Assembly. Later: Governor
by all the people of India. It was
assembly of elected representatives of West Bengal.

24 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

Reprint 2025-26
 elected mainly by the members of Constituent Assembly worked in a
the existing Provincial Legislatures systematic, open and consensual
that we mentioned above. This manner. First some basic principles
ensured a fair geographical share of were decided and agreed upon. Then
members from all the regions of the a Drafting Committee chaired by Dr.
country. The Assembly was B.R. Ambedkar prepared a draft
dominated by the Indian National constitution for discussion. Several
G. Durgabai Deshmukh
Durgabai Congress, the party that led India’s rounds of thorough discussion took
(1909-1981) freedom struggle. But the Congress place on the Draft Constitution,
born: Andhra Pradesh. itself included a variety of political clause by clause. More than two
Advocate and public activist
groups and opinions. The Assembly thousand amendments were
for women’s emancipation.
Founder of Andhra Mahila had many members who did not considered. The members
Sabha. Congress leader. agree with the Congress. In social deliberated for 114 days spread over
Later: Founder Chairperson terms too, the Assembly represented three years. Every document
of Central Social Welfare members from different language presented and every word spoken in
Board.
groups, castes, classes, religions the Constituent Assembly has been
and occupations. Even if the recorded and preserved. These are
Constituent Assembly was elected called ‘Constituent Assembly
by universal adult franchise, its Debates’. When printed, these
composition would not have been debates are 12 bulky volumes! These
very different. debates provide the rationale behind
Finally, the manner in which the every provision of the Constitution.
Constituent Assembly worked gives These are used to interpret the
sanctity to the Constitution. The meaning of the Constitution.

Read the information about all the makers of the Indian Constitution given in the side columns here. You
don’t need to memorise this information. Just give examples from these to support the following
CHECK statements:
1. The Assembly had many members who were not with the Congress
YOUR 2. The Assembly represented members from different social groups
PROGRESS 3. Members of the Assembly believed in different ideologies

2.4 GUIDING VALUES OF THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION

In this book we shall study the Let us turn to these, one by one.
exact provisions of the Constitution
on different subjects. At this stage The Dream and the Promise
let us begin by understanding the Some of you may have noticed a
overall philosophy of what our name missing from the sketches of
Baldev Singh Constitution is all about. We can do the makers of the constitution:
( 1901-1961)
born: Haryana.
this in two ways. We can Mahatma Gandhi. He was not a
A successful entrepreneur understand it by reading the views member of the Constituent
and leader of the Panthic of some of our major leaders on our Assembly. Yet there were many
Akali Party in the Punjab Constitution. But it is equally members who followed his vision.
Assembly. A nominee of
important to read what the Years ago, writing in his magazine
the Congress in the
Constituent Assembly. Constitution says about its own Young India in 1931, he had spelt
Later: Defence Minister in philosophy. This is what the out what he wanted the Constitution
the Union Cabinet. preamble to the Constitution does. to do:

CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN 25

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 I shall strive for a constitution which will release India from all thralldom
and patronage … I shall work for an India in which the poorest shall feel that it
is their country in whose making they have an effective voice; an India in which
there shall be no high class and low class of people; an India in Kanhaiyalal Maniklal
Munshi
(1887-1971) born:Gujarat.
which all communities shall live in perfect harmony. There Advocate, historian and
linguist. Congress leader
can be no room in such an India for the curse of and Gandhian. Later:
Minister in the Union
Cabinet. Founder of the
untouchability or the curse of the intoxicating drinks Swatantra Party.

and drugs. Women will enjoy the same rights as men …

I shall be satisfied with nothing else.

This dream of an India that has how inequalities could be removed. He Bhimrao Ramji
eliminated inequality was shared by often bitterly criticised Mahatma Ambedkar
Dr. Ambedkar, who played a key role Gandhi and his vision. In his conclud- (1891-1956) born: Madhya
Pradesh. Chairman of the
in the making of the Constitution but ing speech to the Constituent Assem Drafting Committee. Social
he had a different understanding of bly he stated his anxiety very clearly: revolutionary thinker and
agitator against caste
divisions and caste based
On the 26th of January 1950 we are going to enter a life of contradictions. inequalities. Later: Law
minister in the first cabinet
of post-independence India.
In politics we will have equality and in social and economic life we will have Founder of Republican Party
of India.
inequality. In politics we will be recognising the principle of one man one vote and
one vote one value. In our social and economic life, we shall, by reason of our
social and economic structure, continue to deny the principle of one man one
value. How long shall we continue to live this life of contradictions? How long shall
Shyama Prasad
we continue to deny equality in our social and economic life? If we continue to Mukherjee
(1901-1953) born: West
deny it for long, we will do so only by putting our political democracy in peril. Bengal. Minister for
Industry and Supply in the
Interim Government.
Educationist and lawyer.
Active in Hindu Mahasabha.
Finally let us turn to Jawaharlal Constituent Assembly at the stroke Later: Founder President of
Nehru giving his famous speech to the of midnight on 15 August 1947: Bharatiya Jansangh.

26 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 Long years ago we made a tryst with destiny
destiny,, and now the time comes
when we shall redeem our pledge, not wholly or in full measure, but very substantially.
At the stroke of the midnight hour, when the world sleeps, India will awake to life
Jawaharlal Nehru
(1889-1964) born: Uttar and freedom. A moment comes, which comes but rarely in history, when we step
Pradesh. Prime Minister of
the interim government. out from the old to the new, when an age ends, and when the soul of a nation,
Lawyer and Congress
leader. Advocate of
socialism, democracy and long suppressed, finds utterance. It is fitting that at this solemn moment we take
anti-imperialism. Later: First
Prime Minister of India. the pledge of dedication to the service of India and her people and to the still
larger cause of humanity …
Freedom and power bring responsibility. The responsibility rests upon this
Assembly, a sovereign body representing the sovereign people of India. Before the
Sarojini Naidu
Sarojini birth of freedom we have endured all the pains of labour and our hearts are heavy
(1879-1949)
born: Andhra Pradesh.
Poet, writer and political with the memory of this sorrow. Some of those pains continue even now. Nevertheless,
activist. Among the
foremost women leaders in
the Congress. Later:
the past is over and it is the future that beckons to us now.
Governor of Uttar Pradesh.
That future is not one of ease or resting but of incessant striving so that we
may fulfil the pledges we have so often taken and the one we shall take today. The
service of India means the service of the millions who suffer. It means the ending
of poverty and ignorance and disease and inequality of opportunity. The ambition
Somnath LLahiri
ahiri
(1901-1984) born: West of the greatest man of our generation has been to wipe every tear from every eye.
Bengal. Writer and editor.
Leader of the Communist
Party of India. Later:
That may be beyond us, but as long as there are tears and suffering, so long our
Member of West Bengal
Legislative Assembly. work will not be over.

CHECK Read the three quotations above carefully.

< Can you identify one idea that is common to all these three?
YOUR < What are the differences in their ways of expressing that common idea?
PROGRESS

CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN 27

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Philosophy of the articles of the Indian Constitution.
C onstitution The Constitution begins with a short
Values that inspired and guided the statement of its basic values. This
freedom struggle and were in turn is called the Preamble to the
nurtured by it, formed the constitution. Taking inspiration
foundation for India’s democracy. from American model, most
These values are embedded in the countries in the contemporary
Preamble of the Indian world have chosen to begin their
Constitution. They guide all the constitutions with a preamble.

in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic

tranquility, provide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and
secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and
establish thisConstitution for the United States of America.
We, the people of South Africa,
Recognise the injustices of our past;
Honour those who suffered for justice and freedom in our land;
Respect those who have worked to build and develop our country; and
Believe that South Africa belongs to all who live in it, united in our diversity.
We therefore, through our freely elected representatives, adopt this Constitution as the supreme law of
the Republic so as to —
Heal the divisions of the past and establish a society based on democratic values, social justice and
fundamental human rights;
Lay the foundations for a democratic and open society in which government is based on the will of
the people and every citizen is equally protected by law;
Improve the quality of life of all citizens and free the potential of each person; and
Build a united and democratic South Africa able to take its rightful place as a sovereign state in the
family of nations.
May God protect our people.
Nkosi Sikelel’ iAfrika. Morena boloka setjhaba sa heso.
God seën Suid-Afrika. God bless South Africa.
Mudzimu fhatutshedza Afurika. Hosi katekisa Afrika.

28 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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WE, THE PEOPLE Let us read the Preamble of our Constitution very REPUBLIC
OF INDIA carefully and understand the meaning of each of its The head of the state
The constitution has key words. is an elected person
been drawn up and The Preamble of the Constitution reads like a poem and not a hereditary
enacted by the people on democracy. It contains the philosophy on which the position.
through their entire Constitution has been built. It provides a standard
representatives, and to examine and evaluate any law and action of
not handed down to JUSTICE
government, to find out whether it is good or bad. It is
them by a king or any Citizens cannot be
the soul of the Indian Constitution.
outside powers. discriminated on the
grounds of caste,
SOVEREIGN religion and gender.
People have supreme Social inequalities
right to make have to be reduced.
decisions on internal Government should
as well as external work for the welfare
matters. No external of all, especially of
power can dictate the * the disadvantaged
government of India. groups.
SOCIALIST
Wealth is generated LIBERTY
socially and should be There are no
shared equally by unreasonable
society. Government restrictions on the
should regulate the citizens in what they
ownership of land and think, how they wish to
industry to reduce express their thoughts
socio-economic and the way they wish
inequalities. to follow up their
thoughts in action.
SECULAR
Citizens have
complete freedom to
EQUALITY
follow any religion. All are equal before
But there is no official the law. The traditional
religion. Government social inequalities
treats all religious have to be ended. The
beliefs and practices government should
with equal respect. ensure equal
opportunity for all.
DEMOCRATIC
DEMOCRATIC
A form of government FRATERNITY
FRATERNITY
where people enjoy
equal political rights, All of us should
elect their rulers and behave as if we are
hold them account- members of the same
able. The government family. No one should
is run according to treat a fellow citizen
some basic rules. as inferior.

Note: * The terms ‘Socialist’ and ‘Secular’ were added in

Preamble through the 42nd Constitutional Amendment
in 1976.

CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN 29

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Compare the Preambles to the constitutions of the United States of America, India and South Africa.
< Make a list of ideas that are common to all these three.
< Note down at least one of the major differences among these.
< Which of the three makes a reference to the past? CHECK
< Which of these does not invoke God?
YOUR
Institutional design be quite difficult to understand. Yet PROGRESS
A constitution is not merely a the basic institutional design is not
statement of values and philosophy. very difficult to understand. Like any
As we noted above, a constitution is Constitution, the Indian
mainly about embodying these values Constitution lays down a procedure
into institutional arrangements. for choosing persons to govern the
Much of the document called country. It defines who will have how
Constitution of India is about these much power to take which decisions.
arrangements. It is a very long and And it puts limits to what the
detailed document. Therefore it needs government can do by providing
to be amended quite regularly to keep some rights to the citizen that
it updated. Those who crafted the cannot be violated. The remaining
Indian Constitution felt that it has to three chapters in this book are about
be in accordance with people’s these three aspects of the working
aspirations and changes in society. of Indian constitution. We shall look
They did not see it as a sacred, static at some key constitutional
and unalterable law. So, they made provisions in each chapter and
provisions to incorporate changes understand how they work in
from time to time. These changes are democratic politics. But this
called constitutional amendments. textbook will not cover all the salient
The Constitution describes the features of the institutional design
institutional arrangements in a very in the Indian Constitution. Some
legal language. If you read the other aspects will be covered in your
Constitution for the first time, it can textbook next year.

Apartheid: The official policy of racial separation and ill treatment of blacks
followed by the government of South Africa between 1948 and 1989.
Clause: A distinct section of a document.
Constituent Assembly: An assembly of people’s representatives that writes
GLOSSARY
a constitution for a country.
Constitution: Supreme law of a country, containing fundamental rules
governing the politics and society in a country.
Constitutional amendment: A change in the constitution made by the
supreme legislative body in a country.
Draft: A preliminary version of a legal document.
Philosophy: The most fundamental principles underlying one’s thoughts
and actions.
Preamble: An introductory statement in a constitution which states the
reasons and guiding values of the constitution.
Treason: The offence of attempting to overthrow the government of the
state to which the offender owes allegiance.
Tryst: A meeting or meeting place that has been agreed upon.

30 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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exercises
1 Here are some false statements. Identify the mistake in each case
and rewrite these correctly based on what you have read in this
chapter.
a Leaders of the freedom movement had an open mind about whether
the country should be democratic or not after independence.
b Members of the Constituent Assembly of India held the same views
on all provisions of the Constitution.
c A country that has a constitution must be a democracy.
d Constitution cannot be amended because it is the supreme law of
a country.

2 Which of these was the most salient underlying conflict in the mak-
ing of a democratic constitution in South Africa?
a Between South Africa and its neighbours
b Between men and women
c Between the white majority and the black minority
d Between the coloured minority and the black majority

3 Which of these is a provision that a democratic constitution does not

have?
a Powers of the head of the state
b Name of the head of the state
c Powers of the legislature
d Name of the country

4 Match the following leaders with their roles in the making of the
Constitution:
a Motilal Nehru i President of the Constituent Assembly
b B.R. Ambedkar ii Member of the Constituent Assembly
c Rajendra Prasad iii Chairman of the Drafting Committee
d Sarojini Naidu iv Prepared a Constitution for India in 1928

5 Read again the extracts from Nehru’s speech ‘Tryst with Destiny’
and answer the following:
a Why did Nehru use the expression “not wholly or in full measure”
in the first sentence?
b What pledge did he want the makers of the Indian Constitution to
take?
c “The ambition of the greatest man of our generation has been to wipe
every tear from every eye”. Who was he referring to?

6 Here are some of the guiding values of the Constitution and their
meaning. Rewrite them by matching them correctly.
a Sovereign i Government will not favour any religion.
b Republic ii People have the supreme right to make decisions.
c Fraternity iii Head of the state is an elected person.
d Secular iv People should live like brothers and sisters.

CONSTITUTIONAL DESIGN 31

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7 How did your school celebrate the Constitution Day on November exercises
26th? Prepare a brief report.

8 Here are different opinions about what made India a democracy.

How much importance would you give to each of these factors?
a Democracy in India is a gift of the British rulers. We received training
to work with representative legislative institutions under the British
rule.
b Freedom Struggle challenged the colonial exploitation and denial
of different freedoms to Indians. Free India could not be anything
but democratic.
c We were lucky to have leaders who had democratic convictions.
The denial of democracy in several other newly independent
countries shows the important role of these leaders.

9 Read the following extract from a conduct book for ‘married women’,
published in 1912. ‘God has made the female species delicate and fragile
both physically and emotionally, pitiably incapable of self-defence. They are
destined thus by God to remain in male protection – of father, husband and son
– all their lives. Women should, therefore, not despair, but feel obliged that they
can dedicate themselves to the service of men’. Do you think the values
expressed in this para reflected the values underlying our
constitution? Or does this go against the constitutional values?

10 Read the following statements about a constitution. Give reasons

why each of these is true or not true.
a The authority of the rules of the constitution is the same as that of
any other law.
b Constitution lays down how different organs of the government will
be formed.
c Rights of citizens and limits on the power of the government are
laid down in the constitution.
d A constitution is about institutions, not about values

Follow the newspapers for any report on a discussion on any constitutional

amendment or demand for any constitutional amendment. You could, for
example, focus on the demand for constitutional amendment for reservation
for women in legislatures. Was there a public debate? What reasons were
put forward in favour of the amendment? How did different parties react to
the constitutional amendment? Did the amendment take place?

32 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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Reprint 2025-26
Nehru Memorial Museum and Library, New Delhi

33
CHAPTER 3

Electoral
Politics

OVERVIEW
In Chapter 1 we have seen that in a democracy it is neither possible nor
necessary for people to govern directly. The most common form of
democracy in our times is for the people to govern through their
representatives. In this chapter we will look at how these representatives
are elected. We begin by understanding why elections are necessary and
useful in a democracy. We try to understand how electoral competition
among parties serves the people. We then go on to ask what makes an
election democratic. The basic idea here is to distinguish democratic
elections from non-democratic elections.
The rest of the chapter tries to assess elections in India in the light of
this yardstick. We take a look at each stage of elections, from the drawing
of boundaries of different constituencies to the declaration of results. At
each stage we ask what should happen and what does happen in elections.
Towards the end of the chapter, we turn to an assessment of whether
elections in India are free and fair. Here we also examine the role of the
Election Commission in ensuring free and fair elections.

34 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 3.1 WHY ELECTIONS?
Assembly Election in government would waive the loans
H a rryy ana of farmers and small businessmen.
He promised that this would be the
The time is after midnight. An expectant first action of his government.
crowd sitting for the past five hours in a The people were unhappy with the
Do most leaders chowk of the town is waiting for its leader existing government. They were also
fulfil their election to come. The organisers assure and reas- attracted by Devi Lal’s promise. So,
promises? sure the crowd that he would be here any when elections were held, they voted
moment. The crowd stands up whenever overwhelmingly in favour of Lok Dal
a passing vehicle comes that way. It and its allies. Lok Dal and its
arouses hopes that he has come. partners won 76 out of 90 seats in
The leader is Mr. Devi Lal, chief of the State Assembly. Lok Dal alone
the Haryana Sangharsh Samiti, who was won 60 seats and thus had a clear
to address a meeting in Karnal on Thurs- majority in the Assembly. The
day night. The 76-year-old leader, is a Congress could win only 5 seats.
very busy man these days. His day starts Once the election results were
at 8 a.m. and ends after 11 p.m. … he announced, the sitting Chief
had already addressed nine election Minister resigned. The newly elected
meetings since morning… been con- Members of Legislative Assembly
stantly addressing public meetings for (MLAs) of Lok Dal chose Devi Lal as
the past 23 months and preparing for this their leader. The Governor invited
election. Devi Lal to be the new Chief
Minister. Three days after the
This newspaper report is about the election results were declared, he
State assembly election in Haryana became the Chief Minister. As soon
in 1987. The State had been ruled by as he became the Chief Minister, his
a Congress party led government Government issued a Government
since 1982. Chaudhary Devi Lal, then Order waiving the outstanding loans
an opposition leader, led a movement of small farmers, agricultural
called ‘Nyaya Yudh’ (Struggle for labourers and small businessmen.
Justice) and formed a new party, Lok His party ruled the State for four
Dal. His party joined other opposition years. The next elections were held
parties to form a front against the in 1991. But this time his party did
Congress in the elections. In the not win popular support. The
election campaign, Devi Lal said that Congress won the election and
if his party won the elections, his formed the government.

Jagdeep and Navpreet read this story and drew the following conclusions. Can you say which of
these are right or wrong (or if the information given in the story is inadequate to call them right or
wrong):
< Elections can lead to changes in the policy of the government.
< The Governor invited Devi Lal to become the Chief Minister because he was impressed with his
CHECK speeches.
YOUR < People are unhappy with every ruling party and vote against it in the next election.
< The party that wins the election forms the government.
PROGRESS < This election led to a lot of economic development in Haryana.
< The Congress Chief Minister need not have resigned after his party lost elections.

ELECTORAL POLITICS 35

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 But can we call this place a
democracy? How do we find out if
A C T I V I T Y the people like their representatives
or not? How do we ensure that these
Do you know when the last Assembly election representatives rule as per the
was held in your state? Which other elections wishes of the people? How to make
have taken place in your locality in the last five sure that those who the people don’t
years? Write down the level of elections (National, like do not remain their
Assembly, Panchayat, etc.), when were they held representatives? This requires a
and the name and designation (MP, MLA, etc.) of mechanism by which people can
the persons who got elected from your area. choose their representatives at
regular intervals and change them
W h y do w
wee nee
needd ele
elecc tions? if they wish to do so. This
Elections take place regularly in mechanism is called election.
any democracy. There are more than Therefore, elections are considered
one hundred countries in the world essential in our times for any
in which elections take place to representative democracy.
choose people’s representatives. We In an election the voters make
also read that elections are held in many choices:
many countries that are not < They can choose who will make
democratic. laws for them. We have seen why
But why do we need elections? < They can choose who will form the democracies need
Let us try to imagine a democracy government and take major to have elections.
without elections. A rule of the decisions. But why do rulers
people is possible without any < They can choose the party whose in non-democratic
elections if all the people can sit policies will guide the government countries need to
together everyday and take all the and law making. hold elections?
decisions. But as we have already
seen in Chapter 1, this is not W ha
hatt mak es an ele
makes elecc tion
possible in any large community. democr
democraa tic?
Nor is it possible for everyone to Elections can be held in many ways.
have the time and knowledge to All democratic countries hold
take decisions on all matters. elections. But most non-democratic
Therefore in most democracies countries also hold some kind of
people rule through their elections. How do we distinguish
representatives. democratic elections from any other
Is there a democratic way of election? We have discussed this
selecting representatives without question briefly in Chapter 1. We
elections? Let us think of a place discussed many examples of
where representatives are selected countries where elections are held
on the basis of age and experience. but they can’t really be called
Or a place where they are chosen democratic elections. Let us recall
on the basis of education or what we learnt there and start with
knowledge. There could be some a simple list of the minimum
difficulty in deciding on who is more conditions of a democratic election:
experienced or knowledgable. But let < First, everyone should be able to
us say the people can resolve these choose. This means that everyone
difficulties. Clearly, such a place should have one vote and every
does not require elections. vote should have equal value.

36 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 < Second, there should be may wish to serve the country do not
something to choose from. Parties enter this arena. They do not like the
and candidates should be free to idea of being dragged into unhealthy
contest elections and should offer competition.
some real choice to the voters. Our Constitution makers were
< Third, the choice should be offered aware of these problems. Yet they
at regular intervals. Elections must opted for free competition in
be held regularly after every few elections as the way to select our
years. future leaders. They did so because
< Fourth, the candidate preferred by this system works better in the long
the people should get elected. run. In an ideal world all political
< Fifth, elections should be leaders know what is good for the
conducted in a free and fair people and are motivated only by a
manner where people can choose desire to serve them. Political
as they really wish. competition is not necessary in such
These might look like very simple an ideal world. But that is not what
and easy conditions. But there are happens in real life. Political leaders
all over the world, like all other
many countries where these are not
professionals, are motivated by a
fulfilled. In this chapter we will apply
desire to advance their political
these conditions to the elections held
careers. They want to remain in
in our own country to see if we can
power or get power and positions for
call these democratic elections.
themselves.They may wish to serve
the people as well, but it is risky to
I s it good ttoo ha
havv e political depend entirely on their sense of
c ompetition? duty. Besides even when they wish
Elections are thus all about political to serve the people, they may not
competition. This competition takes know what is required to do so, or
various forms. The most obvious form their ideas may not match what the
is the competition among political people really want.
parties. At the constituency level, it How do we deal with this real life
takes the form of competition among situation? One way is to try and
several candidates. If there is no improve the knowledge and character
competition, elections will become of political leaders. The other and
pointless. more realistic way is to set up a
But is it good to have political system where political leaders are
competition? Clearly, an electoral rewarded for serving the people and
competition has many demerits. It punished for not doing so. Who
creates a sense of disunity and decides this reward or punishment?
‘factionalism’ in every locality. You The simple answer is: the people.
would have heard of people This is what electoral competition
complaining of ‘party-politics’ in your does. Regular electoral competition
locality. Different political parties and provides incentives to political
Ah! So, elections leaders often level allegations against parties and leaders. They know that
are like exams one another. Parties and candidates if they raise issues that people want
where politicians often use dirty tricks to win elections. to be raised, their popularity and
and parties know if Some people say that this pressure chances of victory will increase in
they have passed to win electoral fights does not allow the next elections. But if they fail to
or failed. But who sensible long-term policies to be satisfy the voters with their work
are the examiners? formulated. Some good people who they will not be able to win again.

ELECTORAL POLITICS 37

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 So if a political party is motivated customers. If he does not, the
only by desire to be in power, even customer will go to some other shop.
then it will be forced to serve the Similarly, political competition may read
people. This is a bit like the way cause divisions and some ugliness, the
market works. Even if a shopkeeper but it finally helps to force political
is interested only in his profit, he is parties and leaders to serve the cartoon
forced to give good service to the people.

Irfan Khan

Read these two cartoons carefully. Write the message of each of them in
your own words. Have a discussion in class on which of the two is closer
to the reality in your own locality. Draw a cartoon to depict what elections
do to the relationship between voters and political leaders.

3.2 WHAT IS OUR SYSTEM OF ELECTIONS?

Can we say that Indian elections are called a by-election. In this chapter
democratic? To answer this question, we will focus on general elections.
let us take a look at how elections are
held in India. Lok Sabha and Vidhan Ele
Elecc t or al cconstituencies
oral onstituencies
Sabha (Assembly) elections are held You read about the people of
regularly after every five years. After Haryana electing 90 MLAs. You may
five years the term of all the elected have wondered how they did that.
representatives comes to an end. The Did every person in Haryana vote for
Lok Sabha or Vidhan Sabha stands all the 90 MLAs? You perhaps know
‘dissolved’. Elections are held in all that this is not the case. In our
constituencies at the same time, country we follow an area based
either on the same day or within a system of representation. The
few days. This is called a general country is divided into different
election. Sometimes election is held areas for purposes of elections.
only for one constitutency to fill the These areas are called electoral
vacancy caused by death or constitutencies. The voters who live
resignation of a member. This is in an area elect one representative.

38 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 For Lok Sabha elections, the country constituency has within it several
is divided into 543 constituencies. assembly constituencies. The same
The representative elected from each principle applies for Panchayat and
constituency is called a Member of Municipal elections. Each village or
Parliament or an MP. One of the town is divided into several ‘wards’
features of a democratic election is that are like constituencies. Each
that every vote should have equal ward elects one member of the
value. That is why our Constitution village or the urban local body.
requires that each constituency Sometimes these constituencies are
should have a roughly equal counted as ‘seats’, for each
population living within it. constituency represents one seat in
Similarly, each state is divided into the assembly. When we say that ‘Lok
a specific number of Assembly Dal won 60 seats’ in Haryana, it
constituencies. In this case, the means that candidates of Lok Dal
elected representative is called the won in 60 assembly constituencies
Member of Legislative Assembly or in the state and thus Lok Dal had
an MLA. Each Parliamentary 60 MLAs in the state assembly.

GULBARGA LOK SABHA CONSTITUENCY GULBARGA (KALABURAGI) DISTRICT

IN KARNATAKA

< Why is the boundary of the Gulbarga Lok Sabha

constituency not the same as the district
boundary of Gulbarga (Kalaburagi)? Draw a
similar map for your own Lok Sabha
constituency.
< How many Assembly constituencies are there
in the Gulbarga Lok Sabha constituency? Is it
the same in your own Lok Sabha
constituency?

ELECTORAL POLITICS 39

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R e s e r v e d CCoo n s t i t u e n c i e s local bodies are now reserved for
Our Constitution entitles every Other Backward Classes (OBC) as
citizen to elect her/his representative well. However, the proportion of
and to be elected as a representative. seats reserved varies from state to
The Constitution makers, however, state. Similarly, one-third of the
were worried that in an open seats are reserved in rural and
electoral competition, certain urban local bodies for women
weaker sections may not stand a good candidates.
chance to get elected to the Lok Sabha
and the state Legislative Assemblies. Vo tters
ers
ers’’ list
They may not have the required Once the constituencies are decided,
resources, education and contacts to the next step is to decide who can
contest and win elections against and who cannot vote. This decision
others. Those who are influential and cannot be left to anyone till the last
resourceful may prevent them from day. In a democratic election, the list
winning elections. If that happens, of those who are eligible to vote
our Parliament and Assemblies is prepared much before the
would be deprived of the voice of a election and given to everyone. This
significant section of our population. list is officially called the Electoral
That would make our democracy less Roll and is commonly known as the
representative and less democratic. Voters’ List.
So, the makers of our Constitution This is an important step for it is
thought of a special system of linked to the first condition of a
reserved constituencies for the democratic election: everyone
weaker sections. Some constituencies should get an equal opportunity to
are reserved for people who belong choose representatives. Earlier, we
to the Scheduled Castes [SC] and read about the principle of
Scheduled Tribes [ST]. In a SC universal adult franchise. In
reserved constituency only someone practice it means that everyone
who belongs to the Scheduled should have one vote and each vote
Castes can stand for election. should have equal value. No one
Similarly only those belonging to the should be denied the right to vote
Scheduled Tribes can contest an without a good reason. Different
election from a constituency citizens differ from one another in
reserved for ST. Currently, in the many ways: some are rich, some are
Lok Sabha, 84 seats are reserved for poor; some are highly educated, Do you know , like
the Scheduled Castes and 47 for the some are not so educated or not in Panchayats,
Scheduled Tribes (as on 26 January educated at all; some are kind, one-third of the
2019). This number is in proportion others are not so kind. But all of seats in Parliament
to their share in the total population. them are human beings with their and Legislative
Thus the reserved seats for SC and own needs and views. That is why Assemblies have
ST do not take away the legitimate all of them deserve to have an equal also been reserved
share of any other social group. say in decisions that affect them. for women as per
This system of reservation In our country, all the citizens aged Nari Shakti Vandan
was extended later to other 18 years and above can vote in an Adhiniyam, 2023
weaker sections at the district and election. Every citizen has the right (Women's
local level. In many states, seats to vote, regardless of his or her caste, Reservation Act
in rural (panchayat) and urban religion or gender. Some criminals 2023)
(municipalities and corporations) and persons with unsound mind can

40 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 LOK SABHA CONSTITUENCIES

TOTAL CONSTITUENCIES 543

GENERAL 412

RESERVED (SC) 84

RESERVED (ST) 47

STATES CONSTITUENCIES
Andhra Pradesh 25
Arunachal Pradesh 2
Assam 14
Bihar 40
Chhattisgarh 11
Goa 2
Gujarat 26
Haryana 10
Election Commission of India

Himachal Pradesh 4
Jharkhand 14
Karnataka 28
Kerala 20
Madhya Pradesh 29
Maharashtra 48
Manipur 2
Meghalaya 2
Mizoram 1
Nagaland 1 UNION TERRITORIES
Odisha 21
See the map above and answer the following questions. Andaman & Nicobar
Punjab 13 Islands 1
< What is the number of Lok Sabha constituencies in your state and the Rajasthan 25 Chandigarh 1
neighbouring two states? Sikkim 1 Dadra & Nagar Haveli 1
< Which states have more than 30 Lok Sabha constituencies? Tamil Nadu 39 Daman & Diu 1
< Why do some states have such a large number of constituencies? Telangana 17 Delhi 7
Tripura 2 Jammu and Kashmir 5
< Why are some constituencies small in area while others are very big?
Uttar Pradesh 80 Ladakh 1
< Are the constituencies reserved for the SCs and STs evenly spread all Uttarakhand 5 Lakshadweep 1
over the entire country or are there more in some areas? West Bengal 42 Puducherry 1

ELECTORAL POLITICS 41

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be denied the right to vote, but only Recently, a new system of
in rare situations. It is the declaration has been introduced on
responsibility of the government to direction from the Supreme Court.
get the names of all the eligible Every candidate has to make a legal
voters put on the voters’ list. As new declaration, giving full details of :
persons attain voting age names are < Serious criminal cases pending
added to the voters’ list. Names of against the candidate;
those who move out of a place or < Details of the assets and liabilities
those who are dead are deleted. A of the candidate and his or her
complete revision of the list takes family; and
place every five years. This is done < Educational qualifications of the
to ensure that it remains up to date. candidate.
In the last few years a new system This information has to be made
of Election Photo Identity Card public. This provides an opportunity
[EPIC] has been introduced. The to the voters to make their decision
government has tried to give this on the basis of the information
card to every person on the voters provided by the candidates.
list. The voters are required to carry
this card when they go out to vote, Educational qualifications for
so that no one can vote for someone candidates
else. But the card is not yet
compulsory for voting. For voting, Why is there no educational qualification for
the voters can show many other holding such an important position when some
proofs of identity like the ration card kind of educational qualification is needed for any
or the driving licence. other job in the country?
< Educational qualifications are not relevant to
N omina tion of candida
omination candidatt es all kinds of jobs. The relevant qualification for
We noted above that in a democratic selection to the Indian cricket team, for
election people should have a real example, is not the attainment of educational
choice. This happens only when degrees but the ability to play cricket well.
there are almost no restrictions on Similarly the relevant qualification for being an
anyone to contest an election. This MLA or an MP is the ability to understand
is what our system provides. Any- people’s concerns, problems and to represent
one who can be a voter can also be- their interests. Whether they can do so or not
come a candidate in elections. The is examined by lakhs of examiners — their
only difference is that in order to be voters — after every five years.
a candidate the minimum age is 25 < Even if education was relevant, it should be
years, while it is only 18 years for left to the people to decide how much
being a voter. There are some other impor tance they give to educational
restrictions on criminals etc. but qualifications.
these apply in very extreme cases. < In our countr y putting an educational
Political parties nominate their can- qualification would go against the spirit of
didates who get the party symbol democracy for yet another reason. It would
and support. Party’s nomination is mean depriving a majority of the country’s
often called party ‘ticket’. citizens the right to contest elections. If, for Why are the
Every person who wishes to example, a graduate degree like B.A., B.Com candidates
contest an election has to fill a or B.Sc was made compulsory for candidates, required to give a
‘nomination form’ and give some more than 90 per cent of the citizens will detailed statement
money as ‘security deposit’. become ineligible to contest elections. of their property?

42 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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ELECTORAL POLITICS 43

Reprint 2025-26
Match the following features of our electoral system with the principles they reflect.
Principles Features of election system
Universal adult franchise
Each constituency has roughly the same population CHECK
Representation of
Everyone who is 18 years of age or older has a right to vote
YOUR
weaker sections
PROGRESS
Open political competition Anyone can form a party or contest elections
One vote one value
Reservation of seats for the SCs and the STs

Election Campaign In election campaigns, political

The main purpose of election is to parties try to focus public attention on
give people a chance to choose the some big issues. They want to attract
representatives, the government and the public to that issue and get them
the policies they prefer. Therefore it to vote for their party on that basis. Let
is necessary to have a free and open us look at some of the successful
discussion about who is a better slogans given by different political
representative, which party will parties in various elections.
make a better government or what < The Congress party led by Indira

is a good policy. This is what happens Gandhi gave the slogan of Garibi
during election campaigns. Hatao (Remove poverty) in the
In our country such campaigns Lok Sabha elections of 1971. The
take place for a two-week period party promised to reorient all the
between the announcement of the policies of the government to
final list of candidates and the date remove poverty from the country.
< Save Democracy was the slogan
of polling. During this period the
candidates contact their voters, given by Janata Party under the
political leaders address election leadership of Jayaprakash Narayan,
meetings and political parties in the Lok Sabha election held in
mobilise their supporters. This is 1977. The party promised to undo
also the period when newspapers the excesses committed during
and television news are full of Emergency and restore civil
election related stories and debates. liberties.
But election campaign is not limited < The Left Front used the slogan of

to these two weeks only. Political Land to the Tiller in the West
parties start preparing for elections Bengal Assembly elections held in
months before they actually take 1977.
< ‘Protect the Self-Respect of the
place.
Telugus’ was the slogan used by N.
T. Rama Rao, the leader of the
Telugu Desam Party in Andhra
A C T I V I T Y Pradesh Assembly elections in
1983.
In a democracy it is best to leave
How was the election campaign in your
political parties and candidates free
constituency in the last Lok Sabha elections?
to conduct their election campaigns
Prepare a list of what the candidates and parties
the way they want to. But it is
said and did.
sometimes necessary to regulate

44 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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campaigns to ensure that every < Use government vehicles, aircrafts
political party and candidate gets a and officials for elections; and
fair and equal chance to compete. < Once elections are announced,
According to our election law, no Ministers shall not lay foundation
party or candidate can: stones of any projects, take any big
< Bribe or threaten voters; policy decisions or make any
< Appeal to them in the name of promises of providing public facilities.
caste or religion;
< Use government resources for Polling and ccoun
ounting of vvot
ounting ot
otee s
election campaign; and The final stage of an election is the
< Spend more than ` 25 lakh in a day when the voters cast or ‘poll’
constituency for a Lok Sabha election their vote. That day is usually called
or ` 10 lakh in a constituency in an the election day. Every person whose
Assembly election. name is on the voters’ list can go to
If they do so, their election can be a nearby ‘polling booth’, situated
rejected by the court even after they usually in a local school or a
have been declared elected. In government office. Once the voter
addition to the laws, all the political goes inside the booth, the election
parties in our country have agreed officials identify her, put a mark on
to a Model Code of Conduct for her finger and allow her to cast her
election campaigns. According to vote. An agent of each candidate is
this, no party or candidate can: allowed to sit inside the polling
< Use any place of worship for booth and ensure that the voting
election propaganda; takes place in a fair way.

Are the elections too expensive

for our country?
A large amount of money is spent in conducting
elections in India. For instance, the government
spent about `3,500 crores in conducting Lok Sabha
elections in 2014. That works out to about `40 per
person on the voters’ list. The amount spent by
parties and candidates was more than what the
government spent. Roughly speaking, the
expenditure made by government, parties and
candidates was around `30,000 crores or `500
per voter.
Some people say that elections are a burden
on our people, that our poor country cannot afford
to hold elections once every five years. Let us
compare this expenditure with some other figures:
< In 2005, our government decided to buy six
nuclear submarines from France. Each subma-
rine cost about `3,000 crores.
< Delhi hosted the Commonwealth Games in
2010. The estimate for its cost is around
`20,000 crores.
Are the elections too expensive? You decide.

ELECTORAL POLITICS 45

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Election result in Gulbarga
Let us go back to our example of Gulbarga. In 2014, a total of 8 candidates contested elections in that
constituency. The total eligible voters were 17.21 lakhs. Of these 9.98 lakh voters had cast their votes.
The candidate of the Congress party, Mallikarjun Kharge secured about 5.07 lakh votes. This was 50.82
percent of the total votes polled. But since he had secured more votes than anyone else, he was
declared elected a Member of Parliament from Gulbarga Lok Sabha constituency.

Election Result of Gulbarga constituency, GENERAL ELECTION TO LOK SABHA, 2014

CANDIDATE PARTY VOTES POLLED % OF VOTES
D.G. Sagar JD(S) 15690 1.57
Mallikarjun Kharge INC 507193 50.82
Danni Mahadev B. BSP 11428 1.14
Revunaik Belamagi BJP 432460 43.33
B.T. Lalitha Naik AAAP 9074 0.91
S.M. Sharma SUCI 4943 0.50
Shankar Jadhav BHPP 2877 0.29
Ramu IND 4085 0.41
None of the Above NOTA 9888 0.99
Why are party
< What is the percentage of voters who had actually cast their votes? agents present in
< To win an election is it necessary for a person to secure more than half the votes polled? the polling booth
and the counting
centre?
Earlier the voters used to indicate secure place. A few days later, on a
who they wanted to vote for by putting fixed date, all the EVMs from a
a stamp on the ballot paper. A ballot constituency are opened and the
paper is a sheet of paper on which votes secured by each candidate are
the names of the contesting counted. The agents of all candidates
candidates along with party name are present there to ensure that the
and symbols are listed. Nowadays counting is done properly. The
electronic voting machines (EVM) are candidate who secures the highest
used to record votes. The machine number of votes from a constituency
shows the names of the candidates is declared elected. In a general
and the party symbols. Independent election, usually the counting of votes
candidates too have their own in all the constituencies takes place
symbols, allotted by election commission. at the same time, on the same day.
All that the voter has to do is to press Television channels, radio and
the button against the name of the newspapers report this event. Within
candidate she wants to give her vote. a few hours of counting, all the results
Once the polling is over, all the are declared and it becomes clear as
EVMs are sealed and taken to a to who will form the next government.

Identify the fair and the unfair electoral practices among the following:
< A minister flags off a new train in his constituency a week before polling day.
< A candidate promises that she will get a new train for her constituency if she is elected. CHECK
< Supporters of a candidate take the voters to a temple and make them take an oath that they
will vote for him.
YOUR
< The supporters of a candidate distribute blankets in slums in return for a promise for vote. PROGRESS

46 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 3.3 WHAT MAKES ELECTIONS IN INDIA
DEMOCRATIC?
We get to read a lot about unfair Election Commissioner (CEC) is
practices in elections. Newspapers appointed by the President of India.
and television reports often refer to But once appointed, the Chief
such allegations. Most of these Election Commissioner is not
reports are about the following: answerable to the President or the
< Inclusion of false names and government. Even if the ruling party
exclusion of genuine names in the or the government does not like what
voters’ list; the Commission does, it is virtually
< Misuse of government facilities impossible for it to remove the CEC.
and officials by the ruling party; Very few election commissions in
< Excessive use of money by rich the world have such wide-ranging
candidates and big parties; and powers as the Election Commission
< Intimidation of voters and rigging of India.
on the polling day. < EC takes decisions on every aspect
Many of these reports are correct. of conduct and control of elections
We feel unhappy when we read or from the announcement of
see such reports. But fortunately elections to the declaration of
they are not on such a scale so as to results.
defeat the very purpose of elections. < It implements the Code of

This becomes clear if we ask a basic Conduct and punishes any

question: Can a party win an candidate or party that violates it.
election and come to power not < During the election period, the EC

because it has popular support but can order the government to follow
through electoral malpractices? This some guidelines, to prevent use
For more details about
is a vital question. Let us carefully and misuse of governmental power
the Election Commission
examine various aspects of this to enhance its chances to win
of India,
question. elections, or to transfer some
visit government officials.
https://eci.gov.in < When on election duty, govern-
Independen
Independentt Ele
Elecc tion ment officers work under the con-
C ommission trol of the EC and not the govern-
One simple way of checking whether
ment.
elections are fair or not is to look at
In the last 25 years or so, the
who conducts the elections. Are they
Election Commission has begun to
independent of the government? Or
exercise all its powers and even
can the government or the ruling party
expand them. It is very common now
influence or pressurise them? Do they for the Election Commission to
have enough powers to be able to reprimand the government and
conduct free and fair elections? Do administration for their lapses. When
they actually use these powers? election officials come to the opinion
The answer to all these questions that polling was not fair in some booths
Why does the is quite positive for our country. In or even an entire constituency, they
Election our country elections are conducted order a repoll. The ruling parties often
Commission have by an independent and very powerful do not like what the EC does. But they
so much powers? Election Commission (EC). It enjoys have to obey. This would not have
Is this good for the same kind of independence that happened if the EC was not
democracy? the judiciary enjoys. The Chief independent and powerful.

ELECTORAL POLITICS 47

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 Photo I-cards not mandatory in Biha
EC issues notification constituting 14th polls r
Lok Sabha CHECK
EC tightens norms for poll expenses EC accepts new Haryana DGP YOUR
EC will seek power to censure PROGRESS
political ads
again, review poll
EC to visit Gujarat
arrangements EC says no immediate plan to ban
Exit Polls
HC asks EC to bar ‘criminal’ netas

EC shoots down HM advic 398 more booths

e on EC orders repoll in
poll reforms
EC to keep closer eye on hidden
poll costs

Read these headlines carefully and identify which powers are used by the Election Commission in each
instance to ensure free and fair elections.

Popular par ticipa tion

ticipation 1 People’s participation in election
Another way to check the quality of is usually measured by voter
the election process is to see turnout figures. Turnout indicates
whether people participate in it with the per cent of eligible voters who
enthusiasm. If the election process actually cast their vote. Over the
is not free or fair, people will not last fifty years, the turnout in
continue to participate in the Europe and North America has
exercise. Now, read these charts declined. In India the turnout has
and draw some conclusions about either remained stable or actually
participation in India: gone up.

1 VOTER TURNOUT IN INDIA AND THE UK

90
UK
80 78 INDIA
72
VOTER TURNOUT (%)

70 66
66
60 62 60
58 59
56
50

40

30

20

10

1991 2015

ELECTION YEAR

48 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 2 In India the poor, illiterate and 4 The interest of voters in election-
underprivileged people vote in related activities has been
larger proportion as compared to increasing over the years. During
the rich and privileged sections. the 2004 elections, more than one-
This is in contrast to western third voters took part in a
democracies. For example in the campaign-related activities. More
United States of America, poor than half of the people identified
people, African Americans and themselves as being close to one
Hispanics vote much less than the or the other political party. One
rich and the white people. out of every seven voters is a
member of a political party.

2 VOTER TURNOUT IN INDIA AND US BY SOCIAL GROUPS, 2004 4 THOSE WHO PARTICIPATED IN ANY
ELECTION RELATED ACTIVITY IN INDIA
INDIA US Source: National Election Study 1996-2004, CSDS.
70
60 61 60
56 58 56
VOTER TURNOUT (%)

60
40 32
50
30
21

(%)
40
28 20 13
30 8
10
20
1996 1998 1999 2004
10
ELECTION YEAR
Upper OBC SC ST White Black Hispanic
Caste
SOCIAL GROUPS

A C T I V I T Y
Source: Figures for India 3 Common people in India attach a
from National Election
lot of importance to elections.
Study 2004, CSDS. Ask the eligible voters in your family whether they
Figures for US from They feel that through elections
voted in the last election to the Lok Sabha or to
National Election Study they can bring pressure on
2004, University of the state assembly. If they did not, ask them why
political parties to adopt policies
Michigan. did they not vote. If they did, ask them which party
and programmes favourable to
and candidate they voted for and why. Also ask
them. They also feel that their vote
them whether they had participated in any other
matters in the way things are run
election-related activity like attending an election
in the country.
meeting or rally etc.
3 DO YOU THINK YOUR VOTE MAKES A DIFFERENCE?
Acceptance of election
outcome
15%
One final test of the free and fairness
of election has in the outcome itself.
18%
67% If elections are not free or fair, the
Has effect
outcome always favours the powerful.
Has no effect In such a situation, the ruling parties
Source: National Election
Study 2004, CSDS. Don’t know do not lose elections. Usually, the

ELECTORAL POLITICS 49

Reprint 2025-26
losing party does not accept the
outcome of a rigged election.
The outcome of India’s elections
speaks for itself:
< The ruling parties routinely lose
elections in India both at the
national and state level. In fact in
every two out of the three elections
held in the last 25 years, the
ruling party lost.
< In the US, an incumbent or ‘sitting’
elected representative rarely loses

Irfan Khan
an election. In India about half of
the sitting MPs or MLAs lose
elections.
< Candidates who are known to have
spent a lot of money on ‘buying
votes’ and those with known
criminal connections often lose
The leader is coming out of a press
conference: “What was the need to say that we
read
elections.
< Barring very few disputed
have distributed tickets only amongst suitable the
and winnable family relations?” Do you think
elections, the electoral outcomes that family politics is confined to only a few
cartoon
are usually accepted as ‘people’s states or parties?
verdict’ by the defeated party.
Titled ‘Electoral
C hallenges ttoo fr ee and fair
free Campaigns’, this
ele
elecc tions cartoon was drawn in
All this leads to a simple conclusion: Questions of this kind bring the
the Latin American
elections in India are basically free many limitations and challenges of
context. Does this
and fair. The party that wins an elec- Indian elections to our attention.
apply to India
tion and forms government does so These include :
and to other
because people have chosen it over democracies
its rivals. This may not be true for in the world?
every constituency. A few candidates
may win purely on the basis of

©Nerilicon, El Economista, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

money power and unfair means. But
the overall verdict of a general elec-
tion still reflects popular preference.
There are very few exceptions to this
rule in the last 60 years in our
country. This is what makes Indian
elections democratic.
Yet the picture looks different if we
ask deeper questions: Are people’s
preferences based on real knowledge?
Are the voters getting a real choice?
Is election really level playing field
for everyone? Can an ordinary
citizen hope to win elections?

50 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 Is this an accurate
picture of what
happens to the voter
before and after
elections? Must this
always happen in a
democracy? Can you
think of examples
when this did not
happen?

read
the
R.K. Laxman, The Times of India

cartoon

< Candidates and parties with a lot similar to each other both in
of money may not be sure of their policies and practice.
victory but they do enjoy a big and < Smaller parties and independent
unfair advantage over smaller candidates suffer a huge
parties and independents. disadvantage compared to bigger
< In some parts of the country, parties.
candidates with criminal connection These challenges exist not just in
have been able to push others out of India but also in many established
the electoral race and to secure a democracies. These deeper issues
‘ticket’ from major parties. are a matter of concern for those who
< Some families tend to dominate believe in democracy. That is why
political parties; tickets are citizens, social activists and
distributed to relatives from these organisations have been demanding
families. reforms in our electoral system. Can
< Very often elections offer little you think of some reforms? What
choice to ordinary citizens, for can an ordinary citizen do to face
both the major parties are quite these challenges?

Here are some facts on Indian elections. Comment on each of these to say whether they reflect the
strength or the weakness of our electoral system:
CHECK < The 16th Lok Sabha has 12 per cent women members.
< The Election Commission often refuses to accept the government’s advice about when the elections
YOUR should be held.
PROGRESS < The 16th Lok Sabha has more than 440 members whose assets are more than Rs.1 crore.
< After losing an election the Chief Minister said: “I respect the people’s verdict”.

ELECTORAL POLITICS 51

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Code of Conduct: A set of norms and guidelines to be followed by
political parties and contesting candidates during election time.
Constituency: Voters in a geographical area who elect a representative to GLOSSARY
the legislative bodies.
Incumbent: The current holder of a political office. Usually the choice for
the voters in elections is between the incumbent party or candidate and
those who oppose them.
Level playing field: Condition in which all parties and candidates
contesting in an election have equal opportunities to appeal for votes and
to carry out election campaign.
Rigging: Fraud and malpractices indulged by a party or candidate to
increase its votes. It includes stuffing ballot boxes by a few persons using
the votes of others; recording multiple votes by the same person; and
bribing or coercing polling officers to favour a candidate.
Turnout: The percentage of eligible voters who cast their votes in an election.

1 Which of the following statements about the reasons for conducting

elections are false? exercises
a Elections enable people to judge the performance of the
government.
b People select the representative of their choice in an election.
c Elections enable people to evaluate the performance of the
judiciary.
d People can indicate which policies they prefer.

2 Which of these is not a good reason to say that Indian elections are
democratic?
a India has the largest number of voters in the world.
b India’s Election Commission is very powerful.
c In India, everyone above the age of 18 has a right to vote.
d In India, the losing parties accept the electoral verdict.

3 Match the following :

a It is necessary to keep the voters i there is a fair representation of

list up to date because all sections of our society
b Some constituencies are ii everyone has equal
reserved for SCs and STs so opportunity to elect their
that representative
c Everyone has one and only one iii all candidates must have a fair
vote so that chance of competing in
elections
d Party in power is not allowed to iv some people may have moved
use government vehicles away from the area where they
because voted last

52 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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exercises
4 List all the different election related activities mentioned in the chapter
and arrange them in a time sequence, beginning with the first activity
and ending with the last. Some of these activities are given below:
releasing election manifestos; counting of votes; making of voters’
list; election campaign; declaration of election results; casting of votes;
ordering of re-poll; announcing election schedule; filing nomination.

5 Surekha is an officer in-charge of ensuring free and fair elections in

an assembly constituency in a state. Describe what should she focus
on for each of the following stages of election:
a Election campaign
b Polling day
c Counting day

6 The table below gives the proportion of different communities among

the candidates who won elections to the US Congress. Compare these
to the proportion of these communities in the population of the US.
Based on this, would you suggest a system of reservations in the US
Congress? If yes, why and for which communities? If no, why not?

Proportion of the community

(in per cent) in the
House of Population of US
representatives
Blacks 8 13
Hispanics 5 13
Whites 86 70

7 Can we draw the following conclusions from the information given

in this chapter? Give two facts to support your position for each of
these.
a Election Commission of India does not have enough powers to
conduct free and fair elections in the country.
b There is a high level of popular participation in the elections in
our country.
c It is very easy for the party in power to win an election.
d Many reforms are needed to make our elections completely free
and fair.

8 Chinappa was convicted for torturing his wife for dowry. Satbir was
held guilty of practicing untouchability. The court did not allow either
of them to contest elections. Does this decision go against the
principles of democratic elections?

9 Here are some reports of electoral malpractices from different parts of

the world. Is there anything that these countries can learn from India
to improve their elections? What would you suggest in each case?
a During an election in Nigeria, the officer in charge of counting
votes deliberately increased the votes of one candidate and declared

ELECTORAL POLITICS 53

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 him elected. The court later found out that more than five lakh exercises
votes cast for one candidate were counted in favour of another.
b Just before elections in Fiji, a pamphlet was distributed warning
voters that a vote for former Prime Minister, Mahendra Chaudhry
will lead to bloodshed. This was a threat to voters of Indian origin.
c In the US, each state has its own method of voting, its own
procedure of counting and its own authority for conducting
elections. Authorities in the state of Florida took many controversial
decisions that favoured Mr. Bush in the presidential elections in
2000. But no one could change those decisions.

10 Here are some reports of malpractices in Indian elections. Identify

what the problem in each case is. What should be done to correct the
situation?
a Following the announcement of elections, the minister promised
to provide financial aid to reopen the closed sugar mill.
b Opposition parties alleged that their statements and campaign
was not given due attention in Doordarshan and All India Radio.
c An inquiry by the Election Commission showed that electoral rolls
of a state contain name of 20 lakh fake voters.
d The hoodlums of a political party were moving with guns, physically
preventing supporters of other political parties to meet the voters
and attacking meetings of other parties.

11 Ramesh was not in class when this chapter was being taught. He
came the next day and repeated what he had heard from his father.
Can you tell Ramesh what is wrong with these statements?
a Women always vote the way men tell them to. So what is the point
of giving them the right to vote?
b Party politics creates tension in society. Elections should be decided
by consensus not by competition.
c Only graduates should be allowed to stand as candidates for
elections.

Assembly elections are usually held every year in a few states of the
country. You can collect information about the elections that take place
during this session. While collecting news items, divide these into three
parts:
< Important events that took place before the election – main agenda
discussed by political parties; information about people’s demand;
role of the Election Commission.
< Important events on the day of the election and counting – turnout
in elections; reports of malpractice; re-polls; the types of predictions
made; and the final outcome.
< Post elections – reasons offered by political parties for winning or
losing elections; analysis of the election verdict by the media;
selection of the Chief Minister.

54 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 National Voters’ Day (NVD) Pledge
We, the citizens of India, having abiding faith in
democracy, hereby pledge to uphold the democratic
traditions of our country and the dignity of free, fair
and peaceful elections, and to vote in every election
fearlessly and without being influenced by
considerations of religion, race, caste, community,
language or any inducement. Is Electoral Literacy Club (ELC) functioning in
your school? For details about Systematic Voters’
Education and Electoral Participation (SVEEP)
How did your school celebrate the National Voters’ Day programme of the Election Commission of India,
on 25th January? Did you take the NVD Pledge? visit http://ecisveep.nic.in

The tableau of the Election Commission of India passes through the Rajpath, New Delhi, on the occasion
of the 67th Republic Day Parade in 2016.

55

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CHAPTER 4

Working of
Institutions

OVERVIEW
Democracy is not just about people electing their rulers. In a democracy
the rulers have to follow some rules and procedures. They have to work
with and within institutions. This chapter is about the working of such
institutions in a democracy. We try to understand this by looking at the
manner in which major decisions are taken and implemented in our
country. We also look at how disputes regarding these decisions are
resolved. In this process we come across three institutions that play a key
role in major decisions – legislature, executive and judiciary.
You have already read something about these institutions in earlier
classes. Here we shall quickly summarise those and move on to asking
larger questions. In the case of each institution we ask: What does this
institution do? How is this institution connected to other institutions?
What makes its functioning more or less democratic? The basic objective
here is to understand how all these institutions together carry on the
work of government. Sometimes we compare these with similar institutions
in other democracies. In this chapter we take our examples from the
working of the national level government called Central Government, Union
Government, or just Government of India. While reading this chapter, you
can think of and discuss examples from the working of the government in
your state.

56 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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4.1 HOW IS A MAJOR POLICY DECISION TAKEN?
A Government Order Pensions, signed the Order. It was
On August 13, 1990, the Government quite short, barely one page. It
of India issued an Order. It was looked like any ordinary circular or
called an Office Memorandum. Like notice that you may have seen in
all government orders, it had a num- school. The government issues hun-
ber and is known by that: O. M. No. dreds of orders every day on differ-
36012/31/90-Est (SCT), dated ent matters. But this one was very
13.8.1990. The Joint Secretary, an important and became a source of
officer in the Department of Person- controversy for several years. Let us
nel and Training in the Ministry of see how the decision was taken and
Personnel, Public Grievances and what happened later.

WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS 57

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 This Order announced a major So, were all these people involved
policy decision. It said that 27 per in this decision regarding the Office
cent of the vacancies in civil posts Memorandum? Let us find out.
and services under the Government
of India are reserved for the Socially
and Educationally Backward Classes
A C T I V I T Y
(SEBC). SEBC is another name for all
those people who belong to castes < Which points, other than the ones mentioned
that are considered backward by the above, do you recall about these institutions Is every Office
government. The benefit of job res- from the previous class? Discuss in class. Memorandum a
ervation was till then available only < Can you think of a major decision made by major political
to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled your state government? How were the Gover- decision? If not,
Tribes. Now a new third category nor, the Council of Ministers, the state assem- what made this
called SEBC was introduced. Only bly and the courts involved in that decision? one different?
persons who belong to backward
classes were eligible for this quota This Office Memorandum was the
of 27 per cent jobs. Others could not culmination of a long chain of
compete for these jobs. events. The Government of India had
appointed the Second Backward
The D
Dee cision M ak
Mak ers
akers Classes Commission in 1979. It was
Who decided to issue this headed by B.P. Mandal. Hence it was
Memorandum? Clearly, such a big popularly called the Mandal
decision could not have been taken Commission. It was asked to
by the person who signed that determine the criteria to identify the
document. The officer was merely socially and educationally backward
implementing the instructions given classes in India and recommend
by the Minister of Personnel, Public steps to be taken for their
Grievances and Pensions, of which advancement. The Commission gave
the Department was a part. We can its Report in 1980 and made many
guess that such a major decision recommendations. One of these was
would have involved other major that 27 per cent of government jobs
functionaries in our country. You be reserved for the socially and
have already read in the previous educationally backward classes.
class about some of them. Let us go The Report and recommendations
over some of the main points that were discussed in the Parliament.
you covered then: For several years, many
< President is the head of the state parliamentarians and parties kept
and is the highest formal authority demanding the implementation of
in the country. the Commission’s recommendations.
< Prime Minister is the head of the Then came the Lok Sabha election
government and actually exercises of 1989. In its election manifesto,
all governmental powers. He takes the Janata Dal promised that if voted
most of the decisions in the to power, it would implement the
Cabinet meetings. Mandal Commission report. The Now I can see
< Parliament consists of the Janata Dal did form the government clearly! That is why
President and two Houses, Lok after this election. Its leader V. P. they talk of
Mandalisation of
Sabha and Rajya Sabha. The Prime Singh became the Prime Minister.
politics. Don’t they?
Minister must have the support of Several developments took place
a majority of Lok Sabha members. after that:

58 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 < The President of India in his were full of different views and
address to the Parliament opinions on this issue. It led to
read announced the intention of the widespread protests and counter-
the government to implement the
recommendations of the Mandal
protests, some of which were violent.
People reacted strongly because this
ima ge
image Commission. decision affected thousands of job
< On 6 August 1990, the Union opportunities. Some felt that
Cabinet took a formal decision to existence of inequalities among
Reservation debate
implement the recommendations. people of different castes in India
was such an
< Next day Prime Minister V.P. Singh necessitated job reservations. They
important issue during
informed the Parliament about felt, this would give a fair
1990-91 that
this decision through a statement opportunity to those communities
advertisers used this
in both the Houses of Parliament. who so far had not adequately been
theme to sell their
< The decision of the Cabinet was represented in government
products. Can you
sent to the Department of Personnel employment.
spot some references
and Training. The senior officers of Others felt that this was unfair as
to political events and
the Department drafted an order in it would deny equality of opportunity
debates in these Amul
line with the Cabinet decision and to those who did not belong to
Butter hoardings?
took the minister’s approval. An backward communities. They would
officer signed the order on behalf of be denied jobs even though they
the Union Government. This was could be more qualified. Some felt
how O.M. No. 36012/ 31/90 was that this would perpetuate caste
born on 13 August 1990. feelings among people and hamper
For the next few months, this was national unity. In this chapter we
the most hotly debated issue in the won’t discuss whether the decision
©GCMMF India country. Newspapers and magazines was good or not. We only take this
example to understand how major
decisions are taken and
implemented in the country.
Who resolved this dispute? You
know that the Supreme Court and the
High Courts in India settle disputes
arising out of governmental decisions.
Some persons and associations
opposed to this order filed a number
of cases in the courts. They appealed
to the courts to declare the order
invalid and stop its implementation.
The Supreme Court of India bunched
all these cases together. This case was
known as the ‘Indira Sawhney and
others Vs Union of India case’. Eleven
judges of the Supreme Court heard
arguments of both sides. By a
majority, the Supreme Court judges
in 1992 declared that this order of the
Government of India was valid. At
the same time the Supreme Court
asked the government to modify its

WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS 59

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original order. It said that well-to- Personnel and Training issued
do persons among the backward another Office Memorandum on
classes should be excluded from 8 September 1993. The dispute
getting the benefit of reservation. thus came to an end and this policy
Accordingly, the Department of has been followed since then.

Who did what in this case of reservations for backward classes?

Supreme Court Made formal announcement about this decision
Cabinet Implemented the decision by issuing an order CHECK
President
Government
Officials
Took the decision to give 27% job reservations YOUR
Upheld reservations as valid PROGRESS
Nee
eedd ffor
or PPolitical
olitical Institutions of each institution. In the example
We have seen one example of how above, we saw several such
the government works. Governing a institutions at work.
country involves various such < The Prime Minister and the
activities. For example, the Cabinet are institutions that take
government is responsible for all important policy decisions.
ensuring security to the citizens and < The Civil Servants, working
providing facilities for education together, are responsible for
and health to all. It collects taxes taking steps to implement the
and spends the money thus raised ministers’ decisions.
on administration, defence and < Supreme Court is an institution
development programmes. It where disputes between citizens
formulates and implements several and the government are finally
welfare schemes. Some persons have settled.
to take decisions on how to go about Can you think of some other insti-
these activities. Others have to tutions in this example? What is
implement these decisions. If their role?
disputes arise on these decisions or Working with institutions is not
in their implementation, there should easy. Institutions involve rules and
be someone to determine what is regulations. This can bind the hands
right and what is wrong. It is of leaders. Institutions involve
important that everyone should meetings, committees and routines.
know who is responsible for doing This often leads to delays and
what. It is also important that these complications. Therefore dealing
activities keep taking place even if with institutions can be frustrating.
the persons in key positions change. One might feel that it is much better
Which institutions
So, to attend to all these tasks, to have one person take all decisions are at work in the
several arrangements are made in without any rules, procedures and running of your
all modern democracies. Such meetings. But that is not the spirit school? Would it
arrangements are called institutions. of democracy. Some of the delays be better if one
A democracy works well when these and complications introduced by person alone took
institutions perform functions institutions are very useful. They all the decisions
assigned to them. The Constitution provide an opportunity for a wider regarding
of any country lays down basic set of people to be consulted in any management of
rules on the powers and functions decision. Institutions make it your school?

60 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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difficult to have a good decision through a bad decision. That is why
taken very quickly. But they also democratic governments insist on
make it equally difficult to rush institutions.

4.2 PARLIAMENT
In the example of the Office class and try to imagine what
Memorandum, do you remember Parliament could have done if it did
the role of Parliament? Perhaps not. not approve of the Cabinet’s
Since this decision was not taken decision.
by Parliament, you might think that
Parliament had no role in it. But let W h y do w
wee nee
needd a
us go back to the story and see Par liamen
arliamen t?
liament?
whether Parliament figures in it. Let In all democracies, an assembly of
us recall the points made earlier by elected representatives exercises
completing the following sentences: supreme political authority on
< The Report of the Mandal behalf of the people. In India such a
Commission was discussed … national assembly of elected
< The President of India mentioned representatives is called Parliament.
this in his … At the state level this is called
< The Prime Minister made a … Legislature or Legislative Assembly.
The decision was not directly taken The name may vary in different
in Parliament. But Parliamentary countries, but such an assembly
discussions on the Report influenced exists in every democracy. It
and shaped the decision of the exercises political authority on
government. They brought pressure behalf of the people in many ways:
on the government to act on the
Mandal recommendation. If 1 Parliament is the final authority for
Parliament was not in favour of this making laws in any country. This
decision, the Government could not task of law making or legislation
have gone ahead with it. Can you is so crucial that these assemblies
guess why? Recall what you read are called legislatures. Parliaments
about Parliament in the earlier all over the world can make new
laws, change existing laws, or
abolish existing laws and make
new ones in their place.
2 Parliaments all over the world
exercise some control over those
who run the government. In some
countries like India this control is
direct and full. Those who run the
government can take decisions
only so long as they enjoy support
of Parliament.
3 Parliaments control all the money
that governments have. In most
Irfan Khan

countries the public money can

be spent only when Parliament
sanctions it.

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4 Parliament is the highest forum of Which of the two Houses is more
discussion and debate on public powerful? It might appear that the
issues and national policy in any Rajya Sabha is more powerful, for
country. Parliament can seek sometimes it is called the ‘Upper
information about any matter. Chamber’ and the Lok Sabha the
‘Lower Chamber’. But this does not
Tw o H ouses of PPar
Houses ar liamen
liamentt
arliamen mean that Rajya Sabha is more What is the point in
Since Parliament plays a central powerful than Lok Sabha. This is having so much
role in modern democracies, most just an old style of speaking and not debate and
large countries divide the role and the language used in our discussion in the
powers of Parliament in two parts. Constitution. Parliament when
They are called Chambers or Our Constitution does give the we know that the
Houses. One House is usually Rajya Sabha some special powers view of the ruling
directly elected by the people and over the states. But on most matters, party is going to
exercises the real power on behalf the Lok Sabha exercises supreme prevail?
of the people. The second House is power. Let us see how:
usually elected indirectly and 1 Any ordinary law needs to be
performs some special functions.
passed by both the Houses. But if
The most common work for the
there is a difference between the
second House is to look after the
two Houses, the final decision is
interests of various states, regions
taken in a joint session in which
or federal units.
members of both the Houses sit
In our country, Parliament
together. Because of the larger
consists of two Houses. The two
number of members, the view of
Houses are known as the Council of
the Lok Sabha is likely to prevail
States (Rajya Sabha) and the House
of the People (Lok Sabha). The in such a meeting.
President of India is a part of 2 Lok Sabha exercises more powers
Parliament, although she is not a in money matters. Once the Lok
member of either House. That is why Sabha passes the budget of the
all laws made in the Houses come government or any other money
into force only after they receive the related law, the Rajya Sabha
assent of the President. cannot reject it. The Rajya Sabha
You have read about the Indian can only delay it by 14 days or
Parliament in earlier classes. From suggest changes in it. The Lok
the Chapter 3 you know how Lok Sabha may or may not accept
Sabha elections take place. Let us these changes.
recall some key differences between
the composition of these two Houses
of Parliament. Answer the following A C T I V I T Y
for the Lok Sabha and the Rajya
Sabha: When Parliament is in session, there is a special
< What is the total number of programme everyday on Doordarshan about the
members? … proceedings in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. Watch
< Who elects the members? … the proceedings or read about it in the newspapers
< What is the length of the term (in and note the following:
years)? … < Powers of the two Houses of Parliament.
< Can the House be dissolved or is < Role of the Speaker.
it permanent? … < Role of the Opposition.

62 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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3 Most importantly, the Lok Sabha majority of the Lok Sabha members
controls the Council of Ministers. say they have ‘no confidence’ in the
Only a person who enjoys the Council of Ministers, all ministers
support of the majority of the including the Prime Minister, have
members in the Lok Sabha is to quit. The Rajya Sabha does not
appointed the Prime Minister. If the have this power.

A day in the life of the Lok Sabha

7 December 2004 was an ordinary day in the life of Railways in addition to that sanctioned in the
the Fourteenth Lok Sabha. Let us take a look at what Railway Budget.
happened in the course of that day. Identify the role The Minister of Human Resource Development
and powers of the parliament on the basis of the introduced the National Commission for Minority
proceedings for the day as given below. You can Educational Institutions Bill, 2004. He also gave a
also enact this day in your classroom. statement explaining why the government had to
bring an ordinance for this.
11:00 Various ministries gave
written answers to about 250 12:14 Several members highlighted
questions that were asked by some issues, including:
members. These included:
< What is the government’s policy on talking to < The vindictiveness of the Central Bureau of
militant groups in Kashmir? Investigation (CBI) in registering cases against
< What are the figures of atrocities against some leaders in the Tehelka case.
Scheduled Tribes, including those inflicted by < Need to include Rajasthani as an official
the police? language in the Constitution.
< What is the government doing about over- < Need to renew the insurance policies of
pricing of medicines by big companies? farmers and agricultural workers of Andhra
Pradesh.
12:00 A large number of official
documents were presented and were 2:26 Two bills proposed by the
available for discussion. These government were considered and
included: passed. These were:
< Recruitment rules for the Indo-Tibetan Border < The Securities Laws (Amendment) Bill
Police Force < The Enforcement of Security Interest and
< Annual Repor t of the Indian Institute of Recovery of Debts Laws (Amendment) Bill
Technology, Kharagpur
< Report and accounts of Rashtriya Ispat Nigam 4:00 Finally, there was a long
Limited, Visakhapatnam discussion regarding the foreign
policy of the government and the
12:02 The Minister of Development need to continue an independent
of North Eastern Region made a foreign policy in the context of the
statement regarding Revitalisation of situation in Iraq.
the North Eastern Council.
The Minister of State for Railways presented a 7:17 Discussion concluded. House
statement showing the grant needed by the adjourned for next day.

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4.3 POLITICAL EXECUTIVE
Do you remember the story of the executive in the case of the Office
Office Memorandum with which we Memorandum?
started this chapter? We found out You might ask: Why does the
that the person who signed the political executive have more power
document did not take this than the non-political executive?
decision. He was only executing the Why is the minister more powerful
policy decision taken by someone than the civil servant? The civil
else. We noted the role of the Prime servant is usually more educated
Minister in taking that decision. But and has more expert knowledge of
we also know that he could not the subject. The advisors working in
have taken that decision if he did the Finance Ministry know more
not have support from the Lok Sabha. about economics than the Finance
In that sense he was only executing Minister. Sometimes the ministers
the wishes of the Parliament. may know very little about the
Thus, at different levels of any technical matters that come under
government we find functionaries their ministry. This could easily
who take day-to-day decisions but happen in ministries like Defence,
do not exercise supreme power on Industry, Health, Science and
behalf of the people. All those Technology, Mines, etc. Why should
functionaries are collectively known the minister have the final say on
as the executive. They are called these matters?
executive because they are in charge The reason is very simple. In a
of the ‘execution’ of the policies of democracy the will of the people is
the government. Thus, when we talk supreme. The minister is an elected
about ‘the government’ we usually representative of the people and
mean the executive. thus empowered to exercise the will
of the people on their behalf. She is
Political and PPer
er manen
manentt
ermanen finally answerable to the people for
E x e c utiv
utivee all the consequences of her
In a democratic country, two decision. That is why the minister
categories make up the executive. takes all the final decisions. The
One that is elected by the people for minister decides the overall
a specific period, is called the framework and objectives in which
political executive. Political leaders decisions on policy should be
who take the big decisions fall in this made. The minister is not, and is not
category. In the second category, expected to be, an expert in the
people are appointed on a long-term matters of her ministry. The
basis. This is called the permanent minister takes the advice of experts
executive or civil services. Persons on all technical matters. But very
working in civil services are called often experts hold different opinions
civil servants. They remain in office or place before her more than one
even when the ruling party changes. option. Depending on what the
These officers work under political overall objective is, the minister
executive and assist them in decides.
carrying out the day-to-day Actually this happens in any large
administration. Can you recall the organisation. Those who understand
role of political and non-political the overall picture take the most

64 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 important decisions, not the After the appointment of the Prime
experts. The experts can tell the Minister, the President appoints
route, but someone with a larger other ministers on the advice of the
view decides the destination. In a Prime Minister. The Ministers are
democracy elected ministers
usually from the party or the
perform this role.
coalition that has the majority in the
P r ime M inist er and CCouncil
ouncil Lok Sabha. The Prime Minister is
Minist
inister free to choose ministers, as long as
of M inist
Minist ers
inisters
Prime Minister is the most they are members of Parliament.
read important political institution in the Sometimes, a person who is not a
member of Parliament can also
the country. Yet there is no direct
election to the post of the Prime become a minister. But such a
cartoon Minister. The President appoints the person has to get elected to one of
Prime Minister. But the President the Houses of Parliament within six
cannot appoint anyone she likes. months of appointment as minister.
The race to become The President appoints the leader
Council of Ministers is the official
minister is not new. of the majority party or the coalition
of parties that commands a majority name for the body that includes all
Here is a cartoon
in the Lok Sabha, as Prime Minister. the Ministers. It usually has 60 to
depicting ministerial
In case no single party or alliance 80 Ministers of different ranks.
aspirants waiting to
gets a majority, the President < Cabinet Ministers are usually top-
get a berth in Nehru’s appoints the person most likely to level leaders of the ruling party or
Cabinet after the secure a majority support. The parties who are in charge of the
1962 elections. Why Prime Minister does not have a fixed major ministries. Usually the
do you think political tenure. He continues in power so
Cabinet Ministers meet to take
leaders are so keen to long as he remains the leader of the
become ministers? majority party or coalition. decisions in the name of the
Council of Ministers. Cabinet is
©Shankar. Don’t Spare Me

thus the inner ring of the Council

of Ministers. It comprises about 25
ministers.
< Ministers of State with indepen-
dent charge are usually in-charge
of smaller Ministries. They
participate in the Cabinet meet-
ings only when specially invited.
< Ministers of State are attached to
and required to assist Cabinet
Ministers.
Since it is not practical for all
ministers to meet regularly and
discuss everything, the decisions are
taken in Cabinet meetings. That is
why parliamentary democracy in
most countries is often known as the
Cabinet form of government. The
Cabinet works as a team. The
ministers may have different views
and opinions, but everyone has to own
up to every decision of the Cabinet.

WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS 65

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No minister can openly criticise
any decision of the government,
even if it is about another Ministry
or Department. Every ministry has
secretaries, who are civil servants.
The secretaries provide the
necessary background information

©R.K. Laxman, The Times of India

to the ministers to take decisions.
The Cabinet as a team is assisted
by the Cabinet Secretariat. This
includes many senior civil servants
who try to coordinate the working of
different ministries.

A C T I V I T Y
who is the most powerful. The
List the names of five Cabinet Ministers and powers of the Prime Minister in all
<
their ministries each at the Union level and in parliamentary democracies of the read
your state.
< Meet the Mayor or Municipal Chairperson of
world have increased so much in
recent decades that parliamentary
the
your town or the President of Zilla Parishad of democracies are some times seen as cartoon
your district and ask him or her about how the Prime Ministerial form of
city, town or district is administered. government. As political parties have
come to play a major role in politics, This cartoon depicts
a cabinet meeting
Po wers of the the Prime Minister controls the
chaired by Prime
P r ime M inist
Minist er
inister Cabinet and Parliament through the
Minister Indira Gandhi
The Constitution does not say very party. The media also contributes to
this trend by making politics and in early 1970s, at the
much about the powers of the Prime
elections as a competition between peak of her popularity.
Minister or the ministers or their
top leaders of parties. In India too Do you think similar
relationship with each other. But as
we have seen such a tendency cartoons could be
head of the government, the Prime
towards the concentration of powers drawn about other
Minister has wide ranging powers.
in the hands of the Prime Minister. prime ministers who
He chairs Cabinet meetings. He
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime followed her?
coordinates the work of different
Departments. His decisions are final Minister of India, exercised
in case disagreements arise between enormous authority because he had
Departments. He exercises general great influence over the public.
supervision of different ministries. Indira Gandhi was also a very
All ministers work under his powerful leader compared to her
leadership. The Prime Minister colleagues in the Cabinet. Of course,
distributes and redistributes work the extent of power wielded by a
to the ministers. He also has the Prime Minister also depends on the
power to dismiss ministers. When personality of the person holding
the Prime Minister quits, the entire that position.
ministry quits. However, in recent years the rise
Thus, if the Cabinet is the most of coalition politics has imposed
powerful institution in India, within certain constraints on the power of
the Cabinet it is the Prime Minister the Prime Minister. The Prime

66 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 Minister of a coalition government The President is not elected directly
cannot take decisions as he likes. by the people. The elected Members
He has to accommodate different of Parliament (MPs) and the elected
groups and factions in his party as Members of the Legislative
Why does this well as among alliance partners. He Assemblies (MLAs) elect her. A
book refer to the also has to heed to the views and candidate standing for President’s
President as ‘she’? positions of the coalition partners post has to get a majority of votes to
Have we ever had win the election. This ensures that
and other parties, on whose support
a woman President the President can be seen to represent
in our country? the survival of the government
depends. the entire nation. At the same time
the President can never claim the kind
of direct popular mandate that the
The President Prime Minister can. This ensures that
While the Prime Minister is the head she remains only a nominal executive.
of the government, the President is The same is true of the powers of
Did you protest the head of the State. In our political the President. If you casually read
when the book
system the head of the State exercises the Constitution you would think
referred to the
Prime Minister as only nominal powers. The President of that there is nothing that she cannot
‘he’? Have we not India is like the Queen of Britain whose do. All governmental activities take
had a woman functions are to a large extent place in the name of the President.
Prime Minister? ceremonial. The President supervises All laws and major policy decisions
Why should we the overall functioning of all the political of the government are issued in her
assume that all the institutions in the country so that they name. All major appointments are
important positions
operate in harmony to achieve the made in the name of the President.
are held by men?
objectives of the State. These include the appointment of
Press Information Bureau

The President,
Shri Ram Nath Kovind
administering the oath of
office of the Prime Minister
to Shri Narendra Modi, at a
Swearing-in Ceremony, at
Rashtrapati Bhavan on
30 May 2019.

WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS 67

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the Chief Justice of India, the When no party or coalition gets a
Judges of the Supreme Court and majority in the Lok Sabha, the
the High Courts of the states, the President exercises her discretion.
Governors of the states, the Election The President appoints a leader who
Commissioners, ambassadors to in her opinion can muster majority read
other countries, etc. All international
treaties and agreements are made in
support in the Lok Sabha. In such a
case, the President can ask the
the
the name of the President. The newly appointed Prime Minister to ima ge
image
President is the supreme prove majority support in the Lok
commander of the defence forces of Sabha within a specified time.
India.
But we should remember that the The Presidential System
President exercises all these powers
only on the advice of the Council of Presidents all over the world are not always nomi-
Ministers. The President can ask the nal executives like the President of India. In many
Council of Ministers to reconsider its countries of the world, the President is both the
advice. But if the same advice is head of the state and the head of the government.
given again, she is bound to act The President of the United States of America is
according to it. Similarly, a bill the most well known example of this kind of Presi-
passed by the Parliament becomes dent. The US President is directly elected by the
a law only after the President gives people. He personally chooses and appoints all
assent to it. If the President wants, Ministers. The law making is still done by the leg-
she can delay this for some time and islature (called the Congress in the US), but the
send the bill back to Parliament for president can veto any law. Most importantly, the
reconsideration. But if Parliament president does not need the support of the major-
passes the bill again, she has to ity of members in the Congress and neither is he
sign it. answerable to them. He has a fixed tenure of four
So you may wonder what does the years and completes it even if his party does not
President really do? Can she do have a majority in the Congress. What is better for a
anything on her own at all? There is democracy: A
This model is followed in most of the countries
one very important thing she should Prime Minister who
of Latin America and many of the ex-Soviet Union
do on her own: appoint the Prime can do whatever
countries. Given the centrality of the President,
Minister. When a party or coalition he wishes or a
this system of government is called the Presiden-
of parties secures a clear majority Prime Minister who
tial form of government. In countries like ours that
in the elections, the President, has needs to consult
follow the British model, the parliament is su-
to appoint the leader of the majority other leaders and
preme. Therefore our system is called the parlia-
party or the coalition that enjoys parties?
mentary system of government.
majority support in the Lok Sabha.

Eliamma, Annakutti and Marymol read the section on the President. Each of them had a question. Can
you help them in answering these questions?
Eliamma: What happens if the President and the Prime Minister disagree about some policy? Does the
view of the Prime Minister always prevail? CHECK
Annakutti: I find it funny that the President is the Supreme Commander of Armed Forces. I doubt if the YOUR
President can even lift a heavy gun. What is the point in making the President the Com-
mander? PROGRESS
Marymol: I would say, what is the point in having a President at all if all the real powers are with the
Prime Minister?

68 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 4.4 THE JUDICIARY
It is quite common in Let us return, one final time, to the
the US for judges to story of Office Memorandum that we
A C T I V I T Y
be nominated on the started with. This time let us not
basis of well-known recall the story, but imagine how Follow the news about any major court case in a
political opinions and different the story could have been. High Court or the Supreme Court. What was the
affiliations. This Remember, the story came to a original verdict? Did the High Court or the
fictitious satisfactory end because the Supreme Court change it? What was the reason?
advertisement Supreme Court gave a verdict that
appeared in the US in was accepted by everyone. Imagine This is why an independent and
2005 when President what would have happened in the powerful judiciary is considered
Bush was considering following situations: essential for democracies. All the
various candidates for < If there was nothing like a courts at different levels in a country
nomination to the US Supreme Court in the country. put together are called the judiciary.
supreme court. What < Even if there was a Supreme The Indian judiciary consists of a
does this cartoon say Court, if it had no power to judge Supreme Court for the entire nation,
about the actions of the government. High Courts in the states, District
independence of the < Even if it had the power, if no one Courts and the courts at local level.
judiciary? Why do trusted the Supreme Court to give India has an integrated judiciary. It
such cartoons not a fair verdict. means the Supreme Court controls
appear in our < Even if it gave a fair judgement, if the judicial administration in the
country? Does this those who appealed against the country. Its decisions are binding on
demonstrate the Government Order did not accept all other courts of the country. It can
independence of our the judgement. take up any dispute
judiciary? < Between citizens of the country;
< Between citizens and government;
< Between two or more state
governments; and
< Between governments at the union
and state level.
It is the highest court of appeal in
civil and criminal cases. It can hear
appeals against the decisions of the
High Courts.
Independence of the judiciary
means that it is not under the
©M.E. Cohen, National, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

control of the legislature or the

executive. The judges do not act on
the direction of the government or
according to the wishes of the party
in power. That is why all modern
democracies have courts that are
independent of the legislature and
the executive. India has achieved
this. The judges of the Supreme
Court and the High Courts are
appointed by the President on the
advice of the Prime Minister and in

WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS 69

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consultation with the Chief Justice Constitution. Thus they can
of the Supreme Court. In practice it determine the Constitutional
now means that the senior judges validity of any legislation or action
of the Supreme Court select the new of the executive in the country,
judges of the Supreme Court and the when it is challenged before them.
High Courts. There is very little scope This is known as the judicial review.
for interference by the political The Supreme Court of India has also
executive. The senior most judge of ruled that the core or basic Why are people
the Supreme Court is usually principles of the Constitution cannot allowed to go to
appointed the Chief Justice. Once be changed by the Parliament. courts against the
a person is appointed as judge of the The powers and the independence government’s
Supreme Court or the High Court it of the Indian judiciary allow it to act decisions?
is nearly impossible to remove him as the guardian of the Fundamental
or her from that position. It is as Rights. We shall see in the next
difficult as removing the President chapter that the citizens have a
of India. A judge can be removed right to approach the courts to seek
only by an impeachment motion remedy in case of any violation of
passed separately by two-thirds their rights. In recent years the
members of the two Houses of the Courts have given several
Parliament. It has never happened judgments and directives to protect
in the history of Indian democracy. public interest and human rights.
The judiciary in India is also one Any one can approach the courts if
of the most powerful in the world. public interest is hurt by the actions
The Supreme Court and the High of government. This is called public
Courts have the power to interpret interest litigation. The courts
the Constitution of the country. They intervene to prevent the misuse of
can declare invalid any law of the the government’s power to make
legislature or the actions of the decisions. They check malpractices
executive, whether at the Union on the part of public officials. That is
level or at the state level, if they find why the judiciary enjoys a high level
such a law or action is against the of confidence among the people.
Give one reason each to argue that Indian judiciary is independent with respect to: CHECK
Appointment of judges: …
Removal of judges: … YOUR
Powers of the judiciary: … PROGRESS

The Chief Justice of India, Shri Justice

J.S. Khehar administering the oath of the
office of the President of India to Shri Ram
Nath Kovind, at a swearing-in ceremony
in the Central Hall of Parliament in New
Delhi on 25 July 2017.

70 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 Coalition government: A government formed by an alliance of two or more
political parties, usually when no single party enjoys majority support of
the members in a legislature.
GLOSSARY Executive: A body of persons having authority to initiate major policies,
make decisions and implement them on the basis of the Constitution and
laws of the country.
Government: A set of institutions that have the power to make, implement
and interpret laws so as to ensure an orderly life. In its broad sense,
government administers and supervises over citizens and resources of a
country.
Judiciary: An institution empowered to administer justice and provide a
mechanism for the resolution of legal disputes. All the courts in the country
are collectively referred to as judiciary.
Legislature: An assembly of people’s representatives with the power to
enact laws for a country. In addition to enacting laws, legislatures have
authority to raise taxes and adopt the budget and other money bills.
Office Memorandum: A communication issued by an appropriate authority
stating the policy or decision of the government.
Political Institution: A set of procedures for regulating the conduct of
government and political life in the country.
Reservations: A policy that declares some positions in government
employment and educational institutions ‘reserved’ for people and
communities who have been discriminated against, are disadvantaged and
backward.
State: Political association occupying a definite territory, having an
organised government and possessing power to make domestic and foreign
policies. Governments may change, but the state continues. In common
speech, the terms country, nation and state are used as synonyms.

exercises 1 If you are elected as the President of India which of the following
decision can you take on your own?
a Select the person you like as Prime Minister.
b Dismiss a Prime Minister who has a majority in Lok Sabha.
c Ask for reconsideration of a bill passed by both the Houses.
d Nominate the leaders of your choice to the Council of Ministers.

2 Who among the following is a part of the political executive?

a District Collector
b Secretary of the Ministry of Home Affairs
c Home Minister
d Director General of Police

3 Which of the following statements about the judiciary is false?

a Every law passed by the Parliament needs approval of the Supreme
Court
b Judiciary can strike down a law if it goes against the spirit of the
Constitution
c Judiciary is independent of the Executive
d Any citizen can approach the courts if her rights are violated

WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS 71

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 exercises
4 Which of the following institutions can make changes to an existing
law of the country?
a The Supreme Court
b The President
c The Prime Minister
d The Parliament

5 Match the ministry with the news that the ministry may have released:

a A new policy is being made to i Ministry of Defence

increase the jute exports from
the country.
b Telephone services will be made ii Ministry of Agriculture, Food
more accessible to rural areas. and Public Distribution
c The price of rice and wheat sold iii Ministry of Health
under the Public Distribution
System will go down.
d A pulse polio campaign will be iv Ministry of Commerce
launched. and Industry
e The allowances of the soldiers v Ministry of Communications
posted on high altitudes will and Information Technology
be increased.

6 Of all the institutions that we have studied in this chapter, name the
one that exercises the powers on each of the following matters.
a Decision on allocation of money for developing infrastructure like
roads, irrigation etc. and different welfare activities for the citizens
b Considers the recommendation of a Committee on a law to regulate
the stock exchange
c Decides on a legal dispute between two state governments
d Implements the decision to provide relief for the victims of an
earthquake.

7 Why is the Prime Minister in India not directly elected by the people?
Choose the most appropriate answer and give reasons for your choice.
a In a Parliamentary democracy only the leader of the majority party
in the Lok Sabha can become the Prime Minister.
b Lok Sabha can remove the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers
even before the expiry of their term.
c Since the Prime Minister is appointed by the President there is no
need for it.
d Direct election of the Prime Minister will involve lot of expenditure
on election.

8 Three friends went to watch a film that showed the hero becoming
Chief Minister for a day and making big changes in the state. Imran
said this is what the country needs. Rizwan said this kind of a personal

72 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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exercises rule without institutions is dangerous. Shankar said all this is a
fantasy. No minister can do anything in one day. What would be
your reaction to such a film?

9 A teacher was making preparations for a mock parliament. She called

two students to act as leaders of two political parties. She gave them
an option: Each one could choose to have a majority either in the
mock Lok Sabha or in the mock Rajya Sabha. If this choice was given
to you, which one would you choose and why?

10 After reading the example of the reservation order, three students

had different reactions about the role of the judiciary. Which view,
according to you, is a correct reading of the role of judiciary?
a Srinivas argues that since the Supreme Court agreed with the
government, it is not independent.
b Anjaiah says that judiciary is independent because it could have
given a verdict against the government order. The Supreme Court
did direct the government to modify it.
c Vijaya thinks that the judiciary is neither independent nor
conformist, but acts as a mediator between opposing parties. The
court struck a good balance between those who supported and
those who opposed the order.

Collect newspapers for the last one week and classify the news related to
the working of any of the institutions discussed in this chapter into four
groups:
< Working of the legislatures
< Working of the political executive
< Working of the civil services
< Working of the judiciary

WORKING OF INSTITUTIONS 73

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CHAPTER 5

DEMOCRATIC
RIGHTS

OVERVIEW
In the previous two chapters we have looked at two major elements of a
democratic government. In Chapter 3 we saw how a democratic
government has to be periodically elected by the people in a free and fair
manner. In Chapter 4 we learnt that a democracy must be based on
institutions that follow certain rules and procedures. These elements are
necessary but not sufficient for a democracy. Elections and institutions
need to be combined with a third element – enjoyment of rights – to make
a government democratic. Even the most properly elected rulers working
through the established institutional process must learn not to cross some
limits. Citizens’ democratic rights set those limits in a democracy.
This is what we take up in this final chapter of the book. We begin by
discussing some real life cases to imagine what it means to live without
rights. This leads to a discussion on what we mean by rights and why do
we need them. As in the previous chapters, the general discussion is
followed by a focus on India. We discuss one by one the Fundamental
Rights in the Indian Constitution. Then we turn to how these rights can
be used by ordinary citizens. Who will protect and enforce them? Finally
we take a look at how the scope of rights has been expanding.

74 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 5.1 LIFE WITHOUT RIGHTS
In this book we have mentioned were quite central to the
rights again and again. If you Constitution because …
remember, we have discussed rights Chapter 3: Every adult citizen of
in each of the four preceding India has the right to ... and to be ...
chapters. Can you fill in the blanks
by recalling the rights dimension in Chapter 4: If a law is against the
each chapter? Constitution, every citizen has the
right to approach …
Chapter 1: A comprehensive
Let us now begin with three
definition of democracy includes …
examples of what it means to live in
Chapter 2: Our Constitution makers the absence of rights.
believed that fundamental rights
P r ison in GGuan
uan tanamo BBaa y
uantanamo
About 600 people were secretly
picked up by the US forces from all
over the world and put in a prison
Dear Mr Tony Blair, in Guantanamo Bay, an area near
Cuba controlled by Amercian Navy.
Firstly, how are you? I sent a Anas’s father, Jamil El-Banna, was
letter two years ago, why didn’t among them. The American
you reply?!? I was waiting for a
government said that they were
long time but you did not reply.
enemies of the US and linked to the
Please can you give me an answer
attack on New York on 11
to my question? Why is my dad in
September 2001. In most cases the
prison? Why is he far away in
governments of their countries were
that Guantánamo Bay?! I miss my not asked or even informed about
dad so much. I have not seen my their imprisonment. Like other
dad for three years. I know my prisoners, El-Banna’s family got to
dad has not done anything, know that he was in that prison only
because he is a good man. I hear through the media. Families of
everybody speak about my dad in prisoners, media or even UN
a nice way. Your children spend representatives were not allowed to
Christmas with you, but me and meet them. The US army arrested
my brothers, and sisters have them, interrogated them and
spent Eid alone without our dad decided whether to keep them there
for 3 years. What do you think or not. There was no trial before any
about that? magistrate in the US. Nor could
I hope you will answer me this these prisoners approach courts in
time. their own country.
Thank you, Amnesty International, an
international human rights
From: Anas Jamil El-Banna, organisation, collected information
9 years old. on the condition of the prisoners in
7/12/2005 Guantanamo Bay and reported that
the prisoners were being tortured in
ways that violated the US laws. They

DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS 75

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were being denied the treatment E thnic massacr
massacree in KKoso
oso
osovv o
that even prisoners of war must get You might think that this is possible
as per international treaties. Many in an absolute monarchy but not
prisoners had tried protesting against in countries which choose their
these conditions by going on a hunger rulers. Just consider this story from
strike. Prisoners were not released Kosovo. This was a province of
even after they were officially declared
Yugoslavia before its split. In this
not guilty. An independent inquiry
province the population was
by the UN supported these findings.
overwhelmingly ethnic Albanian. If you were a Serb,
The UN Secretary General said the
But in the entire country, Serbs would you support
prison in Guantanamo Bay should be
were in majority. A narrow minded what Milosevic did
closed down. The US government
refused to accept these pleas. Serb nationalist Milosevic in Kosovo? Do you
(pronounced Miloshevich) had won think his project of
the election. His government was establishing Serb
C itiz ens
ens’’ RRigh
itizens igh ts in
ights dominance was
S audi AArr abia very hostile to the Kosovo
good for the
The case of Guantanamo Bay looks Albanians. He wanted the Serbs to
Serbs?
like an exception, for it involves the dominate the country. Many Serb
government of one country denying leaders thought that Ethnic
rights to citizens of another country. minorities like Albanians should
Let us therefore look at the case of either leave the country or accept
Saudi Arabia and the position of the the dominance of the Serbs.
citizens with regard to their This is what happened to an
government. Consider these facts: Albanian family in a town in Kosovo
< The country is ruled by a in April 1999:
hereditary king and the people “74-year-old Batisha Hoxha was
have no role in electing or sitting in her kitchen with her 77-
changing their rulers. year–old husband, Izet, staying
< The king selects the legislature as warm by the stove. They had heard
well as the executive. He appoints explosions but did not realise that
the judges and can change any of Serbian troops had already entered
their decisions. the town. The next thing she knew,
< Citizens cannot form political par-
five or six soldiers had burst through
ties or any political organisations.
the front door and were demanding
Media cannot report anything that
“Where are your children?”
the monarch does not like.
“… they shot Izet three times in the
< There is no freedom of religion.
chest” recalled Batisha. With her
Every citizen is required to be
Muslim. Non-Muslim residents husband dying before her, the
can follow their religion in private, soldiers pulled the wedding ring off
but not in public. her finger and told her to get out. “I
< Women are subjected to many
was not even outside the gate when they
public restrictions. The testimony burned the house” … She was standing
of one man is considered equal to on the street in the rain with no
that of two women. house, no husband, no possessions
This is true not just of Saudi but the clothes she was wearing.”
Arabia. There are many countries in This news report was typical of
the world where several of these what happened to thousands of
conditions exist. Albanians in that period. Do

76 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 remember that this massacre was
being carried out by the army of
their own country, working under A C T I V I T Y
the direction of a leader who came
to power through democratic < Write a letter to Anas Jamil in UK, describing
elections. This was one of the worst your reactions after reading his letter to Tony
instances of killings based on ethnic Blair.
prejudices in recent times. Finally < Write a letter from Batisha in Kosovo to a
several other countries intervened woman who faced a similar situation in
to stop this massacre. Milosevic lost India.
power and was tried by the < Write a memorandum on behalf of women in
International Court of Justice for Saudi Arabia to the Secretary General of the
crimes against humanity. United Nations.

For each of the three cases of life without rights, mention an example from India. These could include the
following:
< Newspaper reports on custodial violence.
< Newspaper reports on force-feeding of prisoners who go on hunger strike.
< Ethnic massacre in any part of our country.
CHECK < Reports regarding unequal treatment of women.

YOUR List the similarities and differences between the earlier case and the Indian example. It is not necessary
PROGRESS that for each of these cases you must find an exact Indian parallel.

5.2 RIGHTS IN A DEMOCRACY

Think of all the examples that we everything. One has to be reasonable
have discussed so far. Think of the in what one expects and demands of
victims in each example: the everyone else, for one has to grant
prisoners in Guantanamo Bay, the same to everyone. But you might
women in Saudi Arabia, Albanians insist that the assurance does not
in Kosovo. If you were in their remain on paper, that there is
position, what would you have someone to enforce these
wished? If you could, what would assurances, that those who violate
you do to ensure that such things these are punished. In other words,
do not happen to anyone? you might want a system where at
You would perhaps desire a least a minimum is guaranteed to
system where security, dignity and everyone – powerful or weak, rich
fair play are assured to everyone. or poor, majority or minority. This
You might want, for example, that is the spirit behind thinking about
no one should be arrested without rights.
proper reason and information. And
if someone is arrested, he or she What are rights?
should have a fair chance to defend Rights are claims of a person over
themselves. You might agree that other fellow beings, over the society
such assurance cannot apply to and over the government. All of us

DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS 77

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want to live happily, without fear enforceable. We can then demand
and without being subjected to their application. When fellow
degraded treatment. For this we citizens or the government do not
expect others to behave in such a respect these rights we call it
way that does not harm us or hurt violation or infringement of our
us. Equally, our actions should not rights. In such circumstances
also harm or hurt others. So a right citizens can approach courts to
is possible when you make a claim protect their rights. So, if we want What are the
that is equally possible for others. to call any claim a right, it has to examples of
You cannot have a right that harms have these three qualities. Rights elected
or hurts others. You cannot have a are reasonable claims of persons governments not
right to play a game in such a way recognised by society and protecting or even
that it breaks the neighbour’s sanctioned by law. attacking the rights
window. The Serbs in Yugoslavia of their own
could not have claimed the whole W hy do w
wee nee
needd rrigh
igh ts in a
ights citizens? Why do
country for themselves. The claims democr ac
democrac y?
acy? they do that?
we make should be reasonable. Rights are necessary for the very
They should be such that can be sustenance of a democracy. In a
made available to others in an equal democracy every citizen has to have
measure. Thus, a right comes with the right to vote and the right to
an obligation to respect other rights. be elected to government. For
Just because we claim some thing democratic elections to take place, it
it does not become our right. It has is necessary that citizens should
to be recognised by the society we have the right to express their
live in. Rights acquire meaning only opinion, form political parties and
in society. Every society makes take part in political activities.
certain rules to regulate our Rights also perform a very special
conduct. They tell us what is right role in a democracy. Rights protect
and what is wrong. What is minorities from the oppression of
recognised by the society as rightful majority. They ensure that the
becomes the basis of rights. That is majority cannot do whatever it likes.
why the notion of rights changes Rights are guarantees which can be
from time to time and society to used when things go wrong. Things
society. Two hundred years ago may go wrong when some citizens
anyone who said that women should may wish to take away the rights of
have right to vote would have others. This usually happens when
sounded strange. Today not granting those in majority want to dominate
them vote in Saudi Arabia appears those in minority. The government
strange. should protect the citizens’ rights in
When the socially recognised such a situation. But sometimes
claims are written into law they elected governments may not
acquire real force. Otherwise they protect or may even attack the rights
remain merely as natural or moral of their own citizens. That is why
rights. The prisoners in some rights need to be placed higher
Guantanamo Bay had a moral claim than the government, so that the
not to be tortured or humiliated. But government cannot violate them. In
they could not go to anyone to most democracies the basic rights
enforce this claim. When law of the citizen are written down in the
recognises some claims they become constitution.

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 5.3 RIGHTS IN THE INDIAN CONSTITUTION
In India, like most other R igh
ightt ttoo EEqualit
qualit
qualityy
democracies in the world, these The Constitution says that the
rights are mentioned in the government shall not deny to any
Constitution. Some rights which are person in India equality before the law
fundamental to our life are given a or the equal protection of the laws. It
special status. They are called means that the laws apply in the same
Fundamental Rights. We have manner to all, regardless of a person’s
already read in Chapter 2 the status. This is called the rule of law.
preamble to our Constitution. It Rule of law is the foundation of any
talks about securing for all its democracy. It means that no person
citizens equality, liberty and justice. is above the law. There cannot be any
Fundamental Rights put this distinction between a political leader,
promise into effect. They are an government official and an ordinary
important basic feature of India’s citizen.
Everyone knows Constitution. Every citizen, from the Prime
that the rich can You already know our Constitution Minister to a small farmer in a remote
have better lawyers provides for six Fundamental Rights. village, is subjected to the same laws.
in the courts. What Can you recall these? What exactly No person can legally claim any
is the point in do these rights mean for an ordinary special treatment or privilege just
talking about because he or she happens to be an
citizen? Let us look at these one by
equality before important person. For example, a few
one.
law?
years ago a former Prime Minister of
the country faced a court case on
charges of cheating. The court finally

ã
declared that he was not guilty. But
Right to as long as the case continued, he had
Equality to go to the court, give evidence and
Right to file papers, just like any other citizen.
Right to This basic position is further
Freedom
Constitutional clarified in the Constitution by
Remedies spelling out some implications of the
Right to Equality. The government
shall not discriminate against any
citizen on grounds only of religion,
F U N D A M E N T A L R I G H T S race, caste, sex or place of birth. Every
citizen shall have access to public
places like shops, restaurants, hotels,
and cinema halls. Similarly, there
Right shall be no restriction with regard to
Cultural and
against the use of wells, tanks, bathing ghats,
Educational
Rights Right to Exploitation roads, playgrounds and places of
Freedom public resorts maintained by
of government or dedicated to the use
Religion of general public. This might appear
very obvious, but it was necessary to

DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS 79

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incorporate these rights in the
Constitution of our country where the
traditional caste system did not allow
people from some communities to
access all public places.
The same principle applies to
public jobs. All citizens have equality
of opportunity in matters relating to
employment or appointment to any
position in the government. No
citizen shall be discriminated
against or made ineligible for
employment on the grounds
mentioned above. You have read in
Chapter 4 that the Government of
India has provided reservations for
Scheduled Castes, Scheduled
Tribes and Other Backward Classes.
Various governments have different
schemes for giving preference to
women, poor or physically
handicapped in some kinds of jobs.
Are these reservations against the
A C T I V I T Y
right to equality? They are not. For
equality does not mean giving < Go to the playground of the school or any sta-
everyone the same treatment, no dium and watch a 400 metre race on any track.
matter what they need. Equality Why are the competitors in the outer lane placed
means giving everyone an equal ahead of those in the inner lane at the starting
opportunity to achieve whatever one point of the race? What would happen if all the
is capable of. Sometimes it is competitors start the race from the same line?
necessary to give special treatment Which of these two would be an equal and fair
to someone in order to ensure equal race? Apply this example to a competition for
opportunity. This is what job jobs.
reservations do. Just to clarify this, < Observe any big public building. Is there a ramp
the Constitution says that for physically handicapped? Are there any other
reservations of this kind are not a facilities that make it possible for physically
violation of the Right to Equality. handicapped to use the building in the same
The principle of non-discrimination way as any one else? Should these special fa-
extends to social life as well. The cilities be provided, if it leads to extra expendi-
Constitution mentions one extreme ture on the building? Do these special provi-
form of social discrimination, the sions go against the principle of equality?
practice of untouchability, and
clearly directs the government to put practice which looks down upon
an end to it. The practice of people on account of their birth with
untouchability has been forbidden certain caste labels. Such practice
in any form. Untouchability here denies them interaction with others
does not only mean refusal to touch or access to public places as equal
people belonging to certain castes. citizens. So the Constitution made
It refers to any belief or social untouchability a punishable offence.

80 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 Many Forms of Untouchability manner that violates others’ right to
freedom. Your freedoms should not
In 1999, P. Sainath wrote a series of newsreports cause public nuisance or disorder.
in The Hindu describing untouchability and caste You are free to do everything which
discrimination that was still being practiced injures no one else. Freedom is not
against Dalits or persons belonging to Scheduled unlimited licence to do what one
Castes. He travelled to various parts of the coun- wants. Accordingly, the government
try and found that in many places: can impose certain reasonable
< Tea stalls kept two kinds of cups, one for Dalits
restrictions on our freedoms in the
one for others; larger interests of the society.
< Barbers refused to serve dalit clients;
Freedom of speech and
< Dalit students were made to sit separately in the
expression is one of the essential
classroom or drink water from separate picher; features of any democracy. Our ideas
< Dalit grooms were not allowed to ride a horse
and personality develop only when we
in the wedding procession; and are able to freely communicate with
< Dalits were not allowed to use common
others. You may think differently
handpump or if they did, the handpump was from others. Even if a hundred
washed to purify it. people think in one way, you should
have the freedom to think differently
All these fall under the definition of untouchability. and express your views accordingly.
Can you think of some examples from your own You may disagree with a policy of
area? government or activities of an
association. You are free to criticise
R igh
ightt ttoo FFrr ee dom
eedom the government or the activities of
Freedom means absence of the association in your
constraints. In practical life it means conversations with parents, friends
absence of interference in our affairs and relatives. You may publicise
by others – be it other individuals your views through a pamphlet,
or the government. We want to live magazine or newspaper. You can do
in society, but we want to be free. it through paintings, poetry or
We want to do things in the way we songs. However, you cannot use this
want to do them. Others should not freedom to instigate violence against
dictate us what we should do. So, others. You cannot use it to incite
under the Indian Constitution all people to rebel against government.
citizens have the right to

Irfan Khan
< Freedom of speech and expression
< Assembly in a peaceful manner
< Form associations and unions
< Move freely throughout the
country
Should the
< Reside in any part of the country,
freedom of
expression be and
extended to those < Practice any profession, or to carry

who are spreading on any occupation, trade or

wrong and narrow- business.
minded ideas? You should remember that every
Should they be citizen has the right to all these
allowed to confuse freedoms. That means you cannot
the public? exercise your freedom in such a

DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS 81

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Neither can you use it to defame
others by saying false and mean
things that cause damage to a
person’s reputation.
Citizens have the freedom to
hold meetings, processions, rallies
and demonstrations on any issue.
They may want to discuss a
problem, exchange ideas, mobilise
public support to a cause, or seek

Irfan Khan
votes for a candidate or party in an
election. But such meetings have to
be peaceful. They should not lead
to public disorder or breach of peace procedure established by law. It
in society. Those who participate in means that no person can be killed
these activities and meetings should unless the court has ordered a death
not carry weapons with them. sentence. It also means that a
Citizens also can form associations. government or police officer cannot
For example workers in a factory can arrest or detain any citizen unless
form a workers’ union to promote he has proper legal justification.
their interests. Some people in a Even when they do, they have to
town may come together to form an follow some procedures:
association to campaign against < A person who is arrested and
corruption or pollution. detained in custody will have to be
As citizens we have the freedom to informed of the reasons for such
travel to any part of the country. arrest and detention.
We are free to reside and settle in any < A person who is arrested and
part of the territory of India. Let us detained shall be produced before
say a person who belongs to the state the nearest magistrate within a
of Assam wants to start a business period of 24 hours of arrest.
in Hyderabad. He may not have any < Such a person has the right to
connection with that city, he may not consult a lawyer or engage a
have even seen it ever. Yet as a citizen lawyer for his defence.
of India he has the right to set up base
there. This right allows lakhs of
people to migrate from villages to
towns and from poorer regions of the
countries to prosperous regions and
big cities. The same freedom extends
to choice of occupations. No one can
force you to do or not to do a certain
job. Women cannot be told that some
kinds of occupations are not for them.
People from deprived castes cannot
be kept to their traditional
occupations.
The Constitution says that no
Irfan Khan

person can be deprived of his life or

personal liberty except according to

82 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 Let us recall the cases of threat to the most basic of all
Guantanamo Bay and Kosovo. The liberties, the protection of
victims in both these cases faced a individual life and personal liberty.

Are these cases instances of violation of right to freedom? If yes, which constitutional provision does
each of these violate?
< The government of India banned Salman Rushdie’s book Satanic Verses on the ground that it was
disrespectful to Prophet Mohammed and was likely to hurt the feelings of Muslim community.
< Every film has to be approved by the Censor Board of the government before it can be shown to
CHECK the public. But there is no such restriction if the same story is published in a book or a magazine.
YOUR < The government is considering a proposal that there will be industrial zones or sectors of economy
where workers will not be allowed to form unions or go on strike.
PROGRESS < City administration has imposed a ban on use of public microphones after 10 p.m. in view of the
approaching secondary school examinations.

R i g hhtt against EExploita

xploita tion
xploitation any form. Begar is a practice where
Once the right to liberty and equality the worker is forced to render service
is granted, it follows that every to the ‘master’ free of charge or at a
citizen has a right not to be nominal remuneration. When this
exploited. Yet the Constitution practice takes place on a life-long
makers thought is was necessary to basis, it is called the practice of
write down certain clear provisions bonded labour.
to prevent exploitation of the weaker Finally, the Constitution also
sections of the society. prohibits child labour. No one can
The Constitution mentions three employ a child below the age of
specific evils and declares these fourteen to work in any factory or
illegal. First, the Constitution mine or in any other hazardous
prohibits ‘traffic in human beings’. work, such as railways and ports.
Traffic here means selling and Using this as a basis many laws have
buying of human beings, usually been made to prohibit children from
women, for immoral purposes. working in industries such as beedi
Second, our Constitution also making, firecrackers and matches,
CHECK prohibits forced labour or begar in printing and dyeing.
YOUR
On the basis of these news reports write a letter to the editor or a petition to a court highlighting the
PROGRESS violation of right against exploitation:
The latest annual survey
A petition was filed in the Children, from the age of five,
conducted by the National
were employed in the iron ore
Madras High Court. The Sample Survey Organisation
mines in the Hospet, Sandur and
petitioner said a large number found that the number of female
the Ikal areas in Karnataka.
of children aged between child labourers was growing both
Children were forced to carry out
seven and 12 were taken from digging, breaking stones, loading, in rural and urban areas. The
villages in Salem district and dumping, transporting and survey revealed there were 41
sold at auctions at Olur Nagar processing of iron ore with no female child labourers per
in Kerala’s Thrissur district. safety equipment, fixed wages and thousand worker population in
The petitioner requested the working hours. They handled a rural areas as against the
courts to order the government high-level of toxic wastes and previous figure of 34 per
to check these facts. were exposed to mine dust, which thousand. The figure for male
(March 2005) was above the permissible level. child had remained at 31. (April
The school dropout rate in the 2005)
region was very high. (May 2005)

DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS 83

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 religion. For example, one cannot
sacrifice animals or human beings
A C T I V I T Y as offerings to supernatural forces
or gods. Religious practices which
Do you know what the minimum wages in your treat women as inferior or those that
state are? If not, can you find out? Speak to five infringe women’s freedom are not
people doing different types of work in your allowed. For example, one cannot
neighbourhood and find out if they are earning force a widow to shave head or wear The Constitution
the minimum wages or not. Ask them if they know white clothes. does not give
what the minimum wages are. Ask them if men A secular state is one that does not people their
and women are getting the same wages. confer any privilege or favour on any religion. Then how
particular religion. Nor does it pun- can it give people
R igh
ightt ttoo FFrree dom of RReligion
eedom eligion ish or discriminate against people the right to practise
Right to freedom includes right to on the basis of religion they follow. their religion?
freedom of religion as well. In this case Thus the government cannot com-
too, the Constitution makers were pel any person to pay any taxes for
very particular to state it clearly. You the promotion or maintenance of
have already read in Chapter 2 that any particular religion or religious
India is a secular state. Most people institution. There shall be no
in India, like anywhere else in the religious instruction in the govern-
world, follow different religions. Some ment educational institutions. In
may not believe in any religion. educational institutions managed by
Secularism is based on the idea that private bodies no person shall be
the state is concerned only with compelled to take part in any
relations among human beings, and religious instruction or to attend any
not with the relation between human religious worship.
beings and God. A secular state is one
that does not establish any one C ultur al and EEduca
ultural duca tional
ducational
religion as official religion. Indian R igh ts
ights
secularism practices an attitude of a You might wonder why the
principled and equal distance from Constitution makers were so
all religions. The state has to be particular in providing written
neutral and impartial in dealing with guarantees of the rights of the
all religions. minorities. Why are there no special
Every person has a right to guarantees for the majority? Well, for
profess, practice and propagate the simple reason that the working
the religion he or she believes in. of democracy gives power to the
Every religious group or sect is free majority. It is the language, culture
to manage its religious affairs. A and religion of minorities that needs
right to propagate one’s religion, special protection. Otherwise, they
however, does not mean that a may get neglected or undermined
person has right to compel another under the impact of the language,
person to convert into his religion by religion and culture of the majority.
means of force, fraud, inducement or That is why the Constitution speci-
allurement. Of course, a person is free fies the cultural and educational
to change religion on his or her own rights of the minorities:
will. Freedom to practice religion < Any section of citizens with a
does not mean that a person can do distinct language or culture have
whatever he wants in the name of a right to conserve it.

84 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 < Admission to any educational level. In some places people speaking
institution maintained by a particular language are in majority;
government or receiving people speaking a different language
government aid cannot be denied are in a minority. For example,
to any citizen on the ground of Telugu speaking people form a
religion or language. majority in Andhra Pradesh. But they
< All minorities have the right to es- are a minority in the neighbouring
tablish and administer educa- State of Karnataka. Sikhs constitute
tional institutions of their choice. a majority in Punjab. But they are a
Here minority does not mean only minority in Rajasthan, Haryana and
religious minority at the national Delhi.

Read these news reports and identify the right that is being debated in each of these cases:
< An emergency session of the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC) rejected the
proposal to form a separate body to manage the affairs of Sikh shrines in Haryana. It warned the
government that the Sikh community would not tolerate any interference in their religious affairs.
(June 2005)
CHECK
< The Allahabad High Court quashed the Central law, which gave Aligarh Muslim University its minority
YOUR status, and held illegal the reservation of seats for Muslims in its postgraduate medical courses.
PROGRESS (January 2006)
< The Rajasthan Government has decided to enact an anti-conversion law. Christian leaders have said
that the Bill would aggravate the sense of insecurity and fear in the minds of minorities. (March 2005)

How can we secure Fundamental Rights are

these rights? guaranteed against the actions of
If rights are like guarantees, they are the Legislatures, the Executive, and
of no use if there is no one to honour any other authorities instituted by
them. The fundamental rights in the the government. There can be no law
Constitution are important because or action that violates the
they are enforceable. We have a right Fundamental Rights. If any act of the
to seek the enforcement of the above Legislature or the Executive takes
mentioned rights. This is called the away or limits any of the
Right to Constitutional Remedies. Fundamental Rights it will be
This itself is a Fundamental Right. invalid. We can challenge such laws
This right makes other rights of the central and state
effective. It is possible that governments, the policies and
sometimes our rights may be actions of the government or the
violated by fellow citizens, private governmental organisations like the
bodies or by the government. When nationalised banks or electricity
any of our rights are violated we can boards. Courts also enforce the
Can the President seek remedy through courts. If it is a Fundamental Rights against private
of India stop you Fundamental Right we can directly individuals and bodies. The
from approaching approach the Supreme Court or the Supreme Court and High Courts
the Supreme Court High Court of a state. That is why Dr. have the power to issue directions,
to secure your Ambedkar called the Right to orders or writs for the enforcement
fundamental Constitutional Remedies, ‘the heart of the Fundamental Rights. They can
rights? and soul’ of our Constitution. also award compensation to the

DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS 85

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National Human Rights Commission
Many cases of human rights violations in diverse into any case of violation of human rights. It also
fields are being brought to the public notice from inquires into any case of abetment of such
across India. Human rights organisations and the violation or negligence in controlling it by any
media often criticise government agencies for not government officer and takes other general steps
seriously pursuing these cases or catching the to promote human rights in the country. The
culprits. Someone had to intervene on behalf of the Commission presents its findings and
victims. This is where the National Human Rights recommendations to the government or intervene
in the court on behalf of the victims. It has wide
Commission stepped in. This is an independent
ranging powers to carry out its inquiry. Like any
commission set up by law in 1993. Like
court it can summon witnesses, question any
judiciary, the Commission is independent of the
government official, demand any official paper,
government. The Commission is appointed by the
visit any prison for inspection or send its own
President and includes retired judges, officers and
team for on-the-spot inquiry.
eminent citizens. Yet it does not have the burden of
Any citizen of India can write a letter to this
deciding court cases. So it can focus on helping
address to complain against the violation of
the victims secure their human rights. These
human rights: National Human Rights
include all the rights granted to the citizens by the
Commission, G.P.O. Complex, INA, New Delhi
Constitution. For NHRC human rights also include
110023. There is no fee or anyformal procedure
the rights mentioned in the UN sponsored
to approach the NHRC. Like NHRC, there are
international treaties that India has signed.
State Human Rights Commissions in all the 28
The NHRC cannot by itself punish the guilty.
states of the country. For more details, visit http:/
That is the responsibility of courts. The NHRC is
/www.nhrc.nic.in
there to make independent and credible inquiry

victims and punishment to the PIL any citizen or group of citizens

violators. We have already seen in can approach the Supreme Court or
Chapter 4 that the judiciary in our a High Court for the protection of
country is independent of the public interest against a particular
government and the parliament. We law or action of the government. One
also noted that our judiciary is very can write to the judges even on a
powerful and can do whatever is postcard. The court will take up the
needed to protect the rights of the matter if the judges find it in public
citizens. interest.
In case of any violation of a
Fundamental Right the aggrieved
person can go to a court for remedy. A C T I V I T Y
But now, any person can go to court
against the violation of the Is there a State Human Rights Commission in
Fundamental Right, if it is of social your state? Find out about its activities.
or public interest. It is called Public Write a petition to the NHRC if you know any
Interest Litigation (PIL). Under the instances of human rights violation in your area.

86 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 5.4 EXPANDING SCOPE OF RIGHTS
enumerated in the Constitution.
We began this chapter by discussing Constitution provides many more
the significance of rights. In much rights, which may not be Fundamental
of the chapter we have focussed only Rights. For example the right to
on Fundamental Rights in the property is not a Fundamental Right
Constitution. You might think that but it is a constitutional right. Right to
Fundamental Rights granted by the vote in elections is an important
Constitution are the only rights constitutional right.
Are these rights citizen have. This is not true. While Sometimes the expansion takes
only for adults? Fundamental Rights are the source place in what is called human rights.
Which of these of all rights, our Constitution and These are universal moral claims that
rights are available
law offers a wider range of rights. may or may not have been recognised
to children?
Over the years the scope of rights by law. In that sense these claims are
has expanded. not rights going by the definition that
Sometimes it leads to expansion we presented earlier. With the
in the legal rights that the citizen can expansion of democracy all over the
enjoy. From time to time, the courts world, there is greater pressure on
gave judgments to expand the scope governments to accept these claims.
of rights. Certain rights like right to Some international covenants have
freedom of press, right to also contributed to the expansion of
information, and right to education rights.
are derived from the Fundamental Thus the scope of rights has been
Rights. Now school education has expanding and new rights are
become a right for Indian citizens. evolving over time. They are result
The governments are responsible for of struggle of the people. New rights
providing free and compulsory emerge as societies develop or as
education to all children up to the new constitutions are made. The
age of 14 years. Parliament has Constitution of South Africa guarantees
enacted a law giving the right to its citizens several kinds of new rights:
information to the citizens. This Act < Right to privacy, so that citizens
was made under the Fundamental or their home cannot be searched,
Right to freedom of thought and their phones cannot be tapped,
expression. We have a right to seek their communication cannot be
information from government opened.
offices. Recently the Supreme Court < Right to an environment that is not
has expanded the meaning of the harmful to their health or well-
right to life to include the right to being;
food. Also, rights are not limited only < Right to have access to adequate
to Fundamental Rights as housing.

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< Right to have access to health care Many people think that the right to
services, sufficient food and water; work, right to health, right to minimum
no one may be refused emergency livelihood and right to privacy
medical treatment. should be made fundamental rights
in India as well. What do you think?
International Covenant on
Economic, Social and Cultural Amnesty International: An GLOSSARY
Rights international organisation of
volunteers who campaign for
This international covenant recognises many human rights. This organisation
rights that are not directly a par t of the brings out independent reports on
Fundamental Rights in the Indian Constitution. the violation of human rights all over
This has not yet become an international treaty. the world.
But human right activists all over the world see Claim: Demand for legal or moral
this as a standard of human rights. These include: entitlements a person makes on
< right to work: opportunity to everyone to earn fellow citizens, society or the
livelihood by working government.
< right to safe and healthy working conditions, Covenant: Promise made by
fair wages that can provide decent standard of individuals, groups or countries to
living for the workers and their families uphold a rule or principle. It is
< right to adequate standard of living including legally binding on the signatories
adequate food, clothing and housing to the agreement or statement.
< right to social security and insurance Dalit: A person who belongs to the
< right to health: medical care during illness, castes which were considered low
special care for women during childbirth and and not touchable by others. Dalits
prevention of epidemics are also known by other names such
< right to education: free and compulsory primary as the Scheduled Castes, Depressed
education, equal access to higher education. Classes etc.

Ethnic group: An ethnic group is a human population whose members

usually identify with each other on the basis of a common ancestry. People
of an ethnic group are united by cultural practices, religious beliefs and
historical memories.
Traffic: Selling and buying of men, women or children for immoral
purposes.
Summon: An order issued by a court asking a person to appear before it.
Writ: A formal document containing an order of the court to the
government issued only by High Court or the Supreme Court.

88 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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exercises
1 Which of the following is not an instance of an exercise of a
fundamental right?
a Workers from Bihar go to the Punjab to work on the farms
b Christian missions set up a chain of missionary schools
c Men and women government employees get the same salary
d Parents’ property is inherited by their children

2 Which of the following freedoms is not available to an Indian citizen?

a Freedom to criticise the government
b Freedom to participate in armed revolution
c Freedom to start a movement to change the government
d Freedom to oppose the central values of the Constitution

3 Which of the following rights is available under the Indian

Constitution?
a Right to work
b Right to adequate livelihood
c Right to protect one’s culture
d Right to privacy

4 Name the Fundamental Right under which each of the following rights
falls:
a Freedom to propagate one’s religion
b Right to life
c Abolition of untouchability
d Ban on bonded labour

5 Which of these statements about the relationship between democracy

and rights is more valid? Give reasons for your preference.
a Every country that is a democracy gives rights to its citizens.
b Every country that gives rights to its citizens is a democracy.
c Giving rights is good, but it is not necessary for a democracy.

6 Are these restrictions on the right to freedom justified? Give reasons

for your answer.
a Indian citizens need permission to visit some border areas of the
country for reasons of security.
b Outsiders are not allowed to buy property in some areas to protect
the interest of the local population.
c The government bans the publication of a book that can go against
the ruling party in the next elections.

7 Manoj went to a college to apply for admission into an MBA course.

The clerk refused to take his application and said “You, the son of a
sweeper, wish to be a manager! Has anyone done this job in your
community? Go to the municipality office and apply for a sweeper’s
position”. Which of Manoj’s fundamental rights are being violated in
this instance? Spell these out in a letter from Manoj to the district
collector.

DEMOCRATIC RIGHTS 89

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 exercises
8 When Madhurima went to the property registration office, the
Registrar told her, “You can’t write your name as Madhurima Banerjee
d/o A. K. Banerjee. You are married, so you must give your husband’s
name. Your husband’s surname is Rao. So your name should be
changed to Madhurima Rao.” She did not agree. She said “If my
husband’s name has not changed after marriage, why should mine?”
In your opinion who is right in this dispute? And why?

9 Thousands of tribals and other forest dwellers gathered at Piparia in

Hoshangabad district in Madhya Pradesh to protest against their
proposed displacement from the Satpura National Park, Bori Wildlife
Sanctuary and Panchmarhi Wildlife Sanctuary. They argue that such
a displacement is an attack on their livelihood and beliefs. Government
claims that their displacement is essential for the development of
the area and for protection of wildlife. Write a petition on behalf of
the forest dwellers to the NHRC, a response from the government
and a report of the NHRC on this matter.

10 Draw a web interconnecting different rights discussed in this chapter.

For example right to freedom of movement is connected to the freedom
of occupation. One reason for this is that freedom of movement enables
a person to go to place of work within one’s village or city or to another
village, city or state. Similarly this right can be used for pilgrimage,
connected with freedom to follow one’s religion. Draw a circle for
each right and mark arrows that show connection between or among
different rights. For each arrow, give an example that shows the
linkage.

In every chapter we have done an exercise on reading the newspaper. Let

us now try to write for the newspaper. Take any example from the reports
discussed in this chapter or any other local example that you are familiar
with and write the following:
< Letter to the editor highlighting a case of human rights violation.
< Press release by a human rights organisation.
< A headline and a news item concerning a Supreme Court order
related to Fundamental Rights.
< Editorial on growing incidents of custodial violence.

Put these together and make a newspaper for your school notice board.

90 DEMOCRATIC POLITICS

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 Social Science

Democratic Politics-II
Textbook in Political Science for Class X

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 1072 – Democratic Politics-II ISBN 81-7450-711-6
Textbook for Class X

First Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
March 2007 Chaitra 1928
 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
Reprinted or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of
February 2008, January 2009, the publisher.
January 2010, January 2011,
January 2012, November 2012,  This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of
trade, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the
December 2013, December 2014,
publisher’s consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in
January 2016, January 2017, which it is published.
December 2017, January 2019,
January 2020, March 2021 and  The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any
November 2021 revised price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other
means is incorrect and should be unacceptable.
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December 2022 Agrahayana 1944 Division, NCERT
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IMT Faridabad, Haryana–121004

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 Foreword

The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that

children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school. This
principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning which
continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the school, home and
community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on the basis of NCF signify
an attempt to implement this basic idea. They also attempt to discourage
rote learning and the maintenance of sharp boundaries between different
subject areas. We hope these measures will take us significantly further in
the direction of a child-centred system of education outlined in the National
Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals and
teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own learning and
to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must recognise that given
space, time and freedom, children generate new knowledge by engaging
with the information passed on to them by adults. Treating the prescribed
textbook as the sole basis of examination is one of the key reasons why other
resources and sites of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative
is possible if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as
receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily timetable is as necessary as rigour in
implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of teaching
days is actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for teaching and
evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook proves for making
children’s life at school a happy experience, rather than a source of stress or
boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to address the problem of curricular
burden by restructuring and reorienting knowledge at different stages with
greater consideration for child psychology and the time available for teaching.
The textbook attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority
and space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in
small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the advisory
group in Social Sciences, Professor Hari Vasudevan. We also wish to thank
the Chief Advisors for this book, Professors Yogendra Yadav and Suhas
Palshikar along with Advisor for this book, Professor K. C. Suri for guiding
the work of this committee. Several teachers contributed to the development
of this textbook; we are grateful to their principals for making this possible.
We are indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously

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 permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially
grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed by the
Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource
Development under the Chairmanship of Professor Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P.
Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution. As an organisation committed
to systemic reform and continuous improvement in the quality of its products,
NCERT welcomes comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake
further revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 November 2006 Research and Training

iv

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 Rationalisation of Content
in the Textbooks

In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content

load on students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises
upon reducing the content load and providing opportunities for
experiential learning with creative mindset. In this background, the
NCERT has undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks across
all classes. Learning Outcomes already developed by the NCERT
across classes have been taken into consideration in this exercise.

Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of the

following

• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas

in the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class
in the same subject
• High difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much
interventions from teachers and can be learned by children
through self-learning or peer-learning.
• Content, which is not relevant in the present context or outdated.

This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying out the

changes given above.

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 A Letter for You

Dear students, teachers and parents,

Political Science textbooks for Class IX and Class X together form an
integrated whole. That is why we called them Democratic Politics-I and
Democratic Politics-II. This book begins where the Political Science textbook
stopped last year in Class IX. Last year, the tour of democracy introduced you
mainly to some basic ideas, institutions and rules of democracy. This year, the
focus shifts from the institutions to the process. The book introduces you to
how democracy works in practice and what can be expected of it.
As a result of this shift, you would read much more directly about politics in
this book. Politics is about how thinking human beings determine and change the
way they live together. This involves ideas and ideals, cooperation and coordination.
This also involves conflict and competition, self and collective interest. Therefore
much of democratic politics is about power sharing.
This forms the subject matter of the first four chapters in this book. In these
chapters, we explore various forms of sharing and shaping of power in a democracy.
Chapters One and Two constitute the first unit that presents the idea of power
sharing and elaborates it in the context of power sharing between different levels of
government. The second unit is about power sharing and accommodation among
different social groups. The next chapter tells us how different political organisations
and movements are important in democratic politics. The fifth chapter takes up the
larger questions with which we began our tour last year. Thus, what democracies
have achieved and what is yet to be achieved is discussed in the fifth chapter on
outcomes. Thus ends the tour of democracy we began last year. As we travel through
the different chapters, the meaning of democracy expands.
This book is a continuation of the Class IX textbook in another sense as well.
Last year, the textbook had introduced a different style and form. Since we have had
a very positive feedback from many of you regarding these features, we continue
the experiment this year as well. This book also interacts with the students with the
help of stories, illustrations, puzzles and cartoons. This time we have increased the
visual elements and introduced a new feature called ‘Plus Box’. Do read about all the
old and new features in the ‘How to Use this Book’. Above all, this book does not
seek to teach and preach about democracy. It seeks to engage in a conversation with
you. You would agree that this is a democratic way of thinking about democracy.
We were fortunate this year as well that some of the leading political scientists
of the country agreed to join the Textbook Development Committee. We would
like to express our deep appreciation of the support we received in preparing this
textbook from Professor Krishna Kumar and Professor Hari Vasudevan and the
advice received from the National Monitoring Committee. We would like to thank
Professor Satish Deshpande for reading specific chapters and giving comments. A
group of teachers and educationists comprising Anuradha Sen, Suman Lata, Manish

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 Jain, Radhika Menon, Malini Ghose, Alex M. George and Pankaj Pushkar read the
drafts and made valuable suggestions. We would like to make a special mention of the
untiring efforts of Alex and Pankaj, the two ‘super advisors’ of this book, to ensure
that what is presented in the book was accurate, interesting and communicative.
Parthiv Shah and Shroboni gave the book its attractive look. Irfan Khan once again
created new-look Unni and Munni for you. Ahmed Raza of ARK Grafix provided
with informative and appealing graphics and maps. We are highly thankful to the
Lokniti and Centre for the Study of Developing Societies (CSDS) for providing a
congenial home for the textbook development committee, for sparing space and
resources for this enterprise during the last two years.
At the end of this academic year, you will be taking the Board examinations.
We wish you all the best in your examinations. We wish and hope that the tour
of democracy undertaken in these two books will help you overcome two most
common reactions: that Political Science is boring and that politics is disgusting.
We hope you will continue to take interest in a critical and balanced understanding
of democratic politics either by opting for Political Science as a subject or by acting
as a responsible citizen in future.

K. C. Suri Yogendra Yadav, Suhas Palshikar

Advisor Chief Advisors

viii

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 How to Use this Book
This book retains several features with which you are familiar. These were
introduced in your Political Science textbook for Class IX. This book also
has some new features that you might wish to know about.

Overview comes at the beginning of every chapter. It tells you about the
purpose of the chapter and what is covered in it. Please read the overview
before and after reading the chapter.

Section and sub-section headings: Each chapter is divided into

sections and sub-sections. A section heading spreads over both columns on
the page. This indicates the beginning a major part of the chapter and often
covers a topic specified in the syllabus. The sub-section heading in a column
indicates one point under the section concerned.

Graphics, Collages, Photographs and Posters occupy more space in this

textbook than they did in your textbook for Class IX. You would continue
to find a wide range of political Cartoons. These images provide visual relief
and some fun. But you should not merely ‘see’ these images and turn the page.
You are expected to ‘read’ the meaning of these images. Very often politics
is carried out not through words but through images. The captions and
questions that often accompany these images help you to read these images.

Munni and Unni are back with you. Like you, they have also grown up
a little since you met them in Class IX. They keep popping up and asking
questions that you may have wished to ask. Do stop to engage with their
questions. And don’t hesitate to ask similar questions to your teachers and
parents.

+ Plus boxes contain supplementary information related to the theme of the

chapter. Sometimes the plus box has a story that invites you to reflect on
the dilemmas concerning our social and political life. You are supposed to
read and discuss these. But you need not memorise the information and
contents of the plus box. Nor is there a ‘correct’ answer to some of the moral
questions posed there. These are just meant to help you think hard. Each
plus box carries a special + sign.

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 Let us watch television, Let us listen to radio, Let us read newspaper, Let us
debate, Let’s find out or Let’s do it give students some activity in or outside
the classroom. These activities become more meaningful when the students
present their findings to the entire class and have the space for discussion. Where
necessary, please feel free to substitute one type of media with another.

Glossary appears at the margin of the page in which an unfamiliar word or

expression comes in the text. Such a word is highlighted in the text. Remember,
you don’t need to learn the definition by heart. You just need to understand the
word.

Let us revise usually comes at the end of every section. The questions invite you
to apply the points learnt in that section to a specific situation. Teachers can
come up with more such in-text exercises and use these to check the progress
that everyone has made.
Exercises

Exercises come at the end of every chapter. You would notice that we have
introduced some new kinds of exercises, particularly in multiple choice format,
which require reasoning and application of mind. Once you become familiar
with the format, you would enjoy the challenge.

Maps are essential not just for understanding geography but also for history and
politics. That is why some of the information is presented by way of maps in
this book. You are not expected to draw the maps, but understand the patterns
depicted here.

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 Textbook Development Committee

Chairperson, Advisory Committee for Textbooks at the Secondary Level

Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department History, University of Calcutta, Kolkata
Chief Advisors
Yogendra Yadav, Senior Fellow, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, Delhi
Suhas Palshikar, Professor, Department of Politics and Public Administration, University
of Pune, Pune
Advisor
K. C. Suri, Professor, Department of Political Science, University of Hyderabad,
Hyderabad

Members
Sanjyot Apte, Senior Lecturer, Department of Politics, S. P. College, Pune
Rajeev Bhargava, Senior Fellow, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, Delhi
Peter R. deSouza, Senior Fellow, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, Delhi
Alex M. George, Independent Researcher, Eruvatty, District Kannur, Kerala
Malini Ghose, Nirantar, Center for Gender and Education, New Delhi
Manish Jain, Researcher, University of Delhi, Delhi
Suman Lata, Senior Lecturer, Department of Education, Gargi College, University of
Delhi, Delhi
Pratap Bhanu Mehta, President and Chief Executive, Center for Policy Research, New Delhi
Nivedita Menon, Reader, Department of Political Science, Faculty of Arts, University of
Delhi, Delhi
Radhika Menon, Lecturer, Department of Education, Mata Sunderi College, University
of Delhi, Delhi
Sanjeeb Mukherjee, Senior Lecturer, Department of Political Science, Calcutta University,
Kolkata
Priyavadan Patel, Professor, Department of Political Science, M. S. University, Vadodara
Malla V. S. V. Prasad, Lecturer, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
Pankaj Pushkar, Senior Lecturer, Lokniti, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies,
Delhi
Madan Lal Sawhney, PGT (Pol. Sc.), Govt. Sr. Sec. School, Sec. VII, R.K. Puram, New
Delhi
Anuradha Sen, Principal, The Srijan School, Model Town III, Delhi
Meenakshi Tandon, PGT (Pol. Sc.), Sardar Patel Vidyalaya, Lodhi Road, New Delhi

Coordinator
Sanjay Dubey, Reader, DESSH, NCERT,
xi New Delhi

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 Acknowledgements
Maps, photographs, posters, graphics and cartoons for this book are drawn from a variety of
sources. We gratefully acknowledge the following institutions and persons (with their institutional
affiliation) in this regard:
Wikipedia for the map on page 2 and for the photographs on pages 4 and 5, which are available
under GNU license.
ARK Grafix for the maps on pages 3 and 14 and for the graphics on pages 35, 39 and 56.
UNFPA for the map on page 33.
The Hindu for the photographs on pages 47 and 50.
Zuban for generous help in searching several precious posters, including the ones on pages 30
and 31.
Oxfam GB for the poster on page 34.
Oxford University Press and Raza/ARK for the graphics on pages 52, 66 and 72, which are
taken from the Report on the State of Democracy in South Asia.
Ajit Ninan of Times of India for the cartoons on pages 21 and 42; Keshav of The Hindu for the
cartoons on page 60; Kutty for the cartoon on page 21; Manjul of DNA for the one on page 59;
Cagle Cartoons for the cartoons on pages 6, 8, 53, 57, 58, 65, 67-72; R.K. Laxman of Times of India
for the cartoons on pages 48 and 64.
Irfaan Khan, Yesudasan and R.K. Laxman for the cartoons on the Cover page. Zuban, INSAF
(Delhi), SAHMAT, Street Art Workers.com, Oxfam GB, Aalochana (Pune), Chandralekha
(Chennai), Nari Nirjatan Pratirodh Manch (West Bengal), Sakhi (Kerala), Institute of Development
Communication (Chandigarh), Sahiyar (Gujarat), Sheba Chhachhi for the posters on back cover.
We thank Uttam Kumar and Ritu Sharma, DTP Operators, NCERT, for their sincere efforts
in making this book error-free. We also thank Devyani Oniyal and Deepti Sharma of NCERT
for copy-editing the book.
The Council acknowledges the valuable inputs for analysing syllabi, textbooks and the content,
proposed to be rationalised for this edition by Kavita Jain, PGT Political Science, Maneesha Pandey,
Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, Hindu College, Shankar Sharan, Professor,
DESS, NCERT, Vanthangpui Khobung, Assistant Professor, RIE, Bhopal and Sunita Kathuria,
PGT Political Science, MLC Saraswati Bal Mandir, New Delhi.

Request for feedback

How did you like this textbook? What was your experience in reading or using this? What
were the difficulties you faced? What changes would you like to see in the next version of
this book?
Write to us on all these and any other matter related to this textbook. You could be a teacher,
a parent, a student or just a general reader. We value any and every feedback.
Please write to:
Coordinator (Political Science)
Department of Education in Social Sciences (DESS)
NCERT
Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016.

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 Contents
Foreword iii
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks v
A Letter for You vii
How to Use this Book ix

Unit I
Chapter 1
Power-sharing 1
Chapter 2
Federalism 13

Unit II
Chapter 3
Gender, Religion and Caste 29

Unit III
Chapter 4
Political Parties 46

Unit IV
Chapter 5
Outcomes of Democracy 63

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 Power-sharing

Overview

Chapter I
With this chapter, we resume the tour of democracy that we started last
year. We noted last year that in a democracy all power does not rest
with any one organ of the government. An intelligent sharing of power
among legislature, executive and judiciary is very important to the design
of a democracy. In this and the next two chapters, we carry this idea of
power-sharing forward. We start with two stories from Belgium and Sri
Lanka. Both these stories are about how democracies handle demands for
power-sharing. The stories yield some general conclusions about the need
for power-sharing in democracy. This allows us to discuss various forms
of power-sharing that will be taken up in the following two chapters.

Po w e r - sh a r i n g

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 Belgium and Sri Lanka
Belgium is a small country in Europe, to tensions between the Dutch-
smaller in area than the state of speaking and French-speaking
Haryana. It has borders with France, communities during the 1950s and
the Netherlands, Germany and 1960s. The tension between the
Luxembourg. It has a population of two communities was more acute
a little over one crore, about half the in Brussels. Brussels presented a
population of Haryana. The ethnic special problem: the Dutch-speaking
I have a simple composition of this small country is people constituted a majority in
equation in mind. very complex. Of the country’s total the country, but a minority in the
Sharing power = population, 59 per cent lives in the capital.
dividing power = Flemish region and speaks Dutch Let us compare this to the
weakening the language. Another 40 per cent people situation in another country. Sri
country. Why do we live in the Wallonia region and speak Lanka is an island nation, just a few
start by talking of French. Remaining one per cent of kilometres off the southern coast
this? the Belgians speak German. In the of Tamil Nadu. It has about two
capital city Brussels, 80 per cent crore people, about the same as in
people speak French while 20 per Haryana. Like other nations in the
cent are Dutch-speaking. South Asia region, Sri Lanka has a
The minority French-speaking diverse population. The major social
community was relatively rich and groups are the Sinhala-speakers (74
powerful. This was resented by the per cent) and the Tamil-speakers (18
Dutch-speaking community who got per cent). Among Tamils there are
the benefit of economic development two sub-groups. Tamil natives of
and education much later. This led the country are called ‘Sri Lankan

Communities
and
regions of
Belgium
© Wikipedia

Ethnic: A social
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

division based on
shared culture. People
belonging to the same
ethnic group believe in
Brussels-Capital Region
their common descent
because of similarities Walloon (French-speaking)
of physical type or of
Flemish (Dutch-speaking)
culture or both. They
need not always have German-speaking Look at the maps of Belgium and Sri Lanka. In
the same religion or which region, do you find concentration of different
nationality. communities?
For more details, visit https://www.belgium.be/en

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 Tamils’ (13 per cent). The rest, the Dutch community could take
whose forefathers came from India as advantage of its numeric majority
plantation workers during colonial and force its will on the French and
period, are called ‘Indian Tamils’. German-speaking population. This
As you can see from the map, Sri would push the conflict among
Lankan Tamils are concentrated in communities further. This could
the north and east of the country. lead to a very messy partition of the
Most of the Sinhala-speaking people country; both the sides would claim
are Buddhists, while most of the control over Brussels. In Sri Lanka,
Tamils are Hindus or Muslims. There the Sinhala community enjoyed
are about 7 per cent Christians, who an even bigger majority and could
are both Tamil and Sinhala. impose its will on the entire country.
Just imagine what could happen Now, let us look at what happened
in situations like this. In Belgium, in both these countries.

Majoritarianism in Sri Lanka

Sri Lanka emerged as an independent language and culture. They felt that
country in 1948. The leaders of the constitution and government
the Sinhala community sought to policies denied them equal political
secure dominance over government rights, discriminated against them in
by virtue of their majority. As a getting jobs and other opportunities
result, the democratically elected and ignored their interests. As a
government adopted a series of
majoritarian measures to establish Ethnic Communities
Sinhala supremacy. of Sri Lanka
In 1956, an Act was passed Sinhalese
Sri Lankan Tamil
to recognise Sinhala as the only Indian Tamil
Muslim
official language, thus disregarding
Tamil. The governments followed
preferential policies that favoured
Sinhala applicants for university
positions and government jobs. A
new constitution stipulated that
the state shall protect and foster
Buddhism.
Po w e r - sh a r i n g

All these government measures, Majoritarianism: A

coming one after the other, gradually belief that the majority
increased the feeling of alienation community should be
among the Sri Lankan Tamils. able to rule a country in
whichever way it wants,
They felt that none of the major by disregarding the
political parties led by the Buddhist wishes and needs of the
Sinhala leaders was sensitive to their For more details, visit https://www.gov.lk minority.

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 result, the relations between the Tamil Eelam (state) in northern and
What’s wrong
Sinhala and Tamil communities eastern parts of Sri Lanka.
if the majority
strained over time. The distrust between the two
community rules?
If Sinhalas don’t The Sri Lankan Tamils launched communities turned into widespread
rule in Sri Lanka, parties and struggles for the recognition conflict. It soon turned into a civil
where else will of Tamil as an official language, for war. As a result thousands of people
they rule? regional autonomy and equality of of both the communities have been
opportunity in securing education killed. Many families were forced to
and jobs. But their demand for more leave the country as refugees and many
autonomytoprovincespopulatedbythe more lost their livelihoods. The civil
Tamils was repeatedly denied. By 1980s, war has caused a terrible setback to the
several political organisations were social, cultural and economic life of the
formed demanding an independent country. It ended in 2009.

Accommodation in Belgium
The Belgian leaders took a different the support of majority of members
path. They recognised the existence from each linguistic group. Thus, no
of regional differences and cultural single community can make decisions
diversities. Between 1970 and 1993, unilaterally.
they amended their constitution four  Many powers of the Central
times so as to work out an arrangement Government have been given to State
that would enable everyone to live Governments of the two regions of
together within the same country. the country. The State Governments
The arrangement they worked out is are not subordinate to the Central
Government.
different from any other country and is
very innovative. Here are some of the  Brusselshasaseparategovernment
elements of the Belgian model: in which both the communities have
Civil war: A violent equal representation. The French-
conflict between  Constitution prescribes that the speaking people accepted equal
opposing groups number of Dutch and French-speaking
within a country that representation in Brussels because
becomes so intense ministers shall be equal in the central the Dutch-speaking community has
that it appears like a government. Some special laws require accepted equal representation in the
war.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

© Wikipedia

What kind of a solution

is this? I am glad our
Constitution does not say The photograph here is of a street
address in Belgium. You will notice
which minister will come from
that place names and directions in two
which community. languages – French and Dutch.

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 accepted equal representation in the
Central Government.
Apart from the Central and
the State Government, there is a
third kind of government. This
‘community government’ is elected
by people belonging to one language
community – Dutch, French and
German-speaking – no matter where
they live. This government has the
power regarding cultural, educational
and language-related issues.
You might find the Belgian model
very complicated. It indeed is very
complicated, even for people living
in Belgium. But these arrangements European Parliament in Brussels, Belgium
have worked well so far. They helped
to avoid civic strife between the two
major communities and a possible Europe came together to form the
So you are
division of the country on linguistic European Union, Brussels was
saying that
lines. When many countries of chosen as its headquarters.
sharing of power
makes us more
powerful. Sounds
odd! Let me
think.
Read any newspaper for one week and make clippings of
news related to ongoing conflicts or wars. A group of five
students could pool their clippings together and do the following:
 Classify these conflicts by their location (your state, India,
outside India).
 Find out the cause of each of these conflicts. How many of these
are related to power sharing disputes?
 Which of these conflicts could be resolved by working out power
sharing arrangements?

What do we learn from these two and regions. Such a realisation

stories of Belgium and Sri Lanka? resulted in mutually acceptable
Both are democracies. Yet, they arrangements for sharing power.
Po w e r - sh a r i n g

dealt with the question of power Sri Lanka shows us a contrasting

sharing differently. In Belgium, example. It shows us that if a
the leaders have realised that the majority community wants to
unity of the country is possible force its dominance over others
only by respecting the feelings and and refuses to share power, it can
interests of different communities undermine the unity of the country.

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 The cartoon at the left refers to the
problems of running the Germany’s grand
coalition government that includes the
two major parties of the country, namely
the Christian Democratic Union and the
Social Democratic Party. The two parties
are historically rivals to each other. They

© Tab - The Calgary Sun, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

had to form a coalition government
because neither of them got clear
majority of seats on their own in the 2005
elections. They take divergent positions
on several policy matters, but still jointly
run the government.
For details about the German Parliament,
visit https://www.bundestag.de/en

Tyranny of the majority is not just

oppressive for the minority; it often
affects majority adversely as well.
There is a second, deeper reason
why power sharing is good for
Why power sharing is desirable? democracies. Power sharing is
Thus, two different sets of reasons can the very spirit of democracy. A
be given in favour of power sharing. democratic rule involves sharing
Firstly, power sharing is good because power with those affected by its
it helps to reduce the possibility of exercise, and who have to live with
conflict between social groups. Since its effects. People have a right to be
social conflict often leads to violence consulted on how they are to be
and political instability, power sharing governed. A legitimate government
is a good way to ensure the stability is one where citizens, through
of political order. Imposing the will participation, acquire a stake in
of majority community over others the system.
may look like an attractive option in Let us call the first set of reasons
the short run, but in the long run it prudential and the second moral.
undermines the unity of the nation. While prudential reasons stress
that power sharing will bring out
better outcomes, moral reasons
emphasise the very act of power
sharing as valuable.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Annette studies in a Dutch medium school in the

northern region of Belgium. Many French-speaking students
Prudential: Based on
in her school want the medium of instruction to be French.
prudence, or on careful
calculation of gains Selvi studies in a school in the northern region of Sri Lanka.
and losses. Prudential All the students in her school are Tamil-speaking and they
decisions are usually want the medium of instruction to be Tamil.
contrasted with decisions If the parents of Annette and Selvi were to approach
based purely on moral respective governments to realise the desire of the child
considerations.
who is more likely to succeed? And why?

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 Khalil’s As usual, Vikram was driving the motorbike under a vow
of silence and Vetal was the pillion rider. As usual, Vetal

dilemma started telling Vikram a story to keep him awake while

driving. This time the story went as follows:

“In the city of Beirut, there lived a man called Khalil. His
parents came from different communities. His father was an Orthodox Christian and
mother a Sunni Muslim. This was not so uncommon in this modern, cosmopolitan
city. People from various communities that lived in Lebanon came to live in its
capital, Beirut. They lived together, intermingled, yet fought a bitter civil war among
themselves. One of Khalil’s uncles was killed in that war.

At the end of this civil war, Lebanon’s leaders came together and agreed to some basic
rules for power sharing among different communities. As per these rules, the country’s
President must belong to the Maronite sect of Catholic Christians. The Prime Minister
must be from the Sunni Muslim community. The post of Deputy Prime Minister is fixed
for Orthodox Christian sect and that of the Speaker for Shi’a Muslims. Under this pact,
the Christians agreed not to seek French protection and the Muslims agreed not to seek
unification with the neighbouring state of Syria.When the Christians and Muslims came
to this agreement, they were nearly equal in population. Both sides have continued to
respect this agreement though now the Muslims are in clear majority.

Khalil does not like this system one bit. He is a popular man with political ambition.
But under the present system, the top position is out of his reach. He does not practise
either his father’s or his mother’s religion and does not wish to be known by either. He
cannot understand why Lebanon can’t be like any other ‘normal’ democracy. “Just hold
an election, allow everyone to contest and whoever wins maximum votes becomes the
president, no matter which community he comes from. Why can’t we do that, like in
other democracies of the world?” he asks. His elders, who have seen the bloodshed of
the civil war, tell him that the present system is the best guarantee for peace…”

The story was not finished, but they had reached the TV tower
where they stopped every day. Vetal wrapped up quickly
and posed his customary question to Vikram: “If
you had the power to rewrite the rules
in Lebanon, what would you do? Would
you adopt the ‘regular’ rules followed
everywhere, as Khalil suggests? Or stick to
the old rules? Or do something else?” Vetal
did not forget to remind Vikram of their basic
Po w e r - sh a r i n g

pact: “If you have an answer in mind and yet

do not speak up, your mobike will freeze, and
so will you!”

Can you help poor Vikram in answering Vetal?

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 Forms of power-sharing
The idea of power-sharing has power should be distributed among
emerged in opposition to the notions as many citizens as possible.
of undivided political power. For a In modern democracies, power
long time, it was believed that all sharing arrangements can take many
power of a government must reside forms. Let us look at some of the
in one person or group of persons most common arrangements that we
located at one place. It was felt that have or will come across.
if the power to decide is dispersed,
1 Power is shared among different
it would not be possible to take
organs of government, such as the
quick decisions and to enforce them.
legislature, executive and judiciary.
But these notions have changed
Let us call this horizontal distribution
with the emergence of democracy.
of power because it allows different
One basic principle of democracy
organs of government placed at
is that people are the source of all
the same level to exercise different
political power. In a democracy,
powers. Such a separation ensures
people rule themselves through
that none of the organs can exercise
institutions of self-government. In
unlimited power. Each organ checks
a good democratic government, due
the others. This results in a balance
respect is given to diverse groups
of power among various institutions.
and views that exist in a society.
Last year, we studied that in a
Everyone has a voice in the shaping
democracy, even though ministers
of public policies. Therefore, it
and government officials exercise
follows that in a democracy, political
power, they are responsible to the
Reigning the Reins
Parliament or State Assemblies.
© Olle Johansson - Sweden, Cagle Cartoons Inc., 25 Feb. 2005

Similarly, although judges are

appointed by the executive, they can
check the functioning of executive or
laws made by the legislatures. This
arrangement is called a system of
checks and balances.
2 Power can be shared among
governments at different levels –
a general government for the entire
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

country and governments at the

provincial or regional level. Such a
general government for the entire
country is usually called federal
government. In India, we refer to it as
In 2005, some new laws were made in Russia giving more powers to the Central or Union Government.
its president. During the same time, the US president visited Russia.
What, according to this cartoon, is the relationship between democracy The governments at the provincial or
and concentration of power? Can you think of some other examples to regional level are called by different
illustrate the point being made here?
names in different countries.

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 In India, we call them State groups, who otherwise, would feel
Governments. This system is not alienated from the government. This
followed in all countries. There are method is used to give minority
many countries where there are no communities a fair share in power. In
provincial or state governments. Unit II, we shall look at various ways
But in those countries like ours, of accommodating social diversities.
where there are different levels 4 Power sharing arrangements
of government, the constitution can also be seen in the way political
clearly lays down the powers of parties, pressure groups and
different levels of government. This movements control or influence
is what they did in Belgium, but was those in power. In a democracy,
refused in Sri Lanka. This is called the citizens must have freedom to
federal division of power. The same choose among various contenders
principle can be extended to levels f or power . In contempor ar y
of government lower than the State democracies, this takes the form
government, such as the municipality of competition among different
and panchayat. Let us call division of parties. Such competition ensures
powers involving higher and lower that power does not remain in
levels of government vertical division one hand. In the long run, power
of power. We shall study these at is shared among different political
some length in the next chapter. parties that represent different
3 Power may also be shared ideologies and social groups.
among different social groups, Sometimes this kind of sharing can
such as the religious and linguistic be direct, when two or more parties
groups. ‘Community government’ form an alliance to contest elections.
in Belgium is a good example of this If their alliance is elected, they form
arrangement. In some countries, a coalition government and thus
there are constitutional and legal share power. In a democracy, we
arrangements, whereby socially find interest groups, such as those of
weaker sections and women are traders, businessmen, industrialists,
represented in the legislatures farmers and industrial workers.
and administration. Last year, we They also will have a share in In my school,
studied the system of ‘reserved governmental power, either through the class monitor
constituencies’ in assemblies and participation in governmental changes every
month. Is that
the parliament of our country. This committees or bringing influence on
what you call a
type of arrangement is meant to the decision-making process. In Unit
power sharing
give space in the government and III, we shall study the working of
arrangement?
administration to diverse social political parties.
Po w e r - sh a r i n g

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 Here are some examples of power sharing. Which of the four types of power
sharing do these represent? Who is sharing power with whom?
 The Bombay High Court ordered the Maharashtra State Government to immediately
take action and improve living conditions for the 2,000-odd children at seven
children’s homes in Mumbai.
 The government of Ontario state in Canada has agreed to a land claim settlement
with the aboriginal community. The Minister responsible for Native Affairs announced
that the government will work with aboriginal people in a spirit of mutual respect
and cooperation.
 Russia’s two influential political parties, the Union of Right Forces and the Liberal
Yabloko Movement, agreed to unite their organisations into a strong right-
wing coalition. They propose to have a common list of candidates in the next
parliamentary elections.
 The finance ministers of various states in Nigeria got together and demanded that
the federal government declare its sources of income. They also wanted to know the
formula by which the revenue is distributed to various State Governments.
Exercises

1. What are the different forms of power sharing in modern

democracies? Give an example of each of these.
2. State one prudential reason and one moral reason for power sharing
with an example from the Indian context.
3. After reading this chapter, three students drew different
conclusions. Which of these do you agree with and why? Give
your reasons in about 50 words.
Thomman - Power sharing is necessary only in societies which
have religious, linguistic or ethnic divisions.
Mathayi – Power sharing is suitable only for big countries that
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

have regional divisions.

Ouseph – Every society needs some form of power sharing even
if it is small or does not have social divisions.
4. The Mayor of Merchtem, a town near Brussels in Belgium, has
defended a ban on speaking French in the town’s schools. He
said that the ban would help all non-Dutch speakers integrate
in this Flemish town. Do you think that this measure is in
keeping with the spirit of Belgium’s power sharing
arrangements? Give your reasons in about 50 words.

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 5. Read the following passage and pick out any one of the
prudential reasons for power sharing offered in this.
“We need to give more power to the panchayats to realise the
dream of Mahatma Gandhi and the hopes of the makers of
our Constitution. Panchayati Raj establishes true democracy.
It restores power to the only place where power belongs in
a democracy – in the hands of the people. Giving power to
Panchayats is also a way to reduce corruption and increase
administrative efficiency. When people participate in the planning
and implementation of developmental schemes, they would
naturally exercise greater control over these schemes. This
would eliminate the corrupt middlemen. Thus, Panchayati Raj will
strengthen the foundations of our democracy.”
6. Different arguments are usually put forth in favour of and against

Exercises
power sharing. Identify those which are in favour of power sharing
and select the answer using the codes given below? Power sharing:
A. reduces conflict among different communities
B. decreases the possibility of arbitrariness
C. delays decision making process
D. accommodates diversities
E. increases instability and divisiveness
F. promotes people’s participation in government
G. undermines the unity of a country

(a) A B D F
(b) A C E F
(c) A B D G
(d) B C D G

7. Consider the following statements about power sharing

arrangements in Belgium and Sri Lanka.
A. In Belgium, the Dutch-speaking majority people tried to impose
their domination on the minority French-speaking community.
B. In Sri Lanka, the policies of the government sought to ensure the
dominance of the Sinhala-speaking majority.
C. The Tamils in Sri Lanka demanded a federal arrangement of
power sharing to protect their culture, language and equality of
opportunity in education and jobs.
D. The transformation of Belgium from unitary government to
a federal one prevented a possible division of the country on
Po w e r - sh a r i n g

linguistic lines.
Which of the statements given above are correct?

(a) A, B, C and D (b) A, B and D (c) C and D (d) B, C and D

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 8. Match List I (forms of power sharing) with List II (forms of government)
and select the correct answer using the codes given below in the lists:

List I List II
1. Power shared among different A. Community government
organs of government
2. Power shared among B. Separation of powers
governments at different levels
3. Power shared by different social C. Coalition government
groups
4. Power shared by two or more D. Federal government
Exercises
political parties

1 2 3 4
(a) D A B C
(b) B C D A
(c) B D A C
(d) C D A B

9. Consider the following two statements on power sharing and

select the answer using the codes given below:
A. Power sharing is good for democracy.
B. It helps to reduce the possibility of conflict between social groups.
Which of these statements are true and false?

(a) A is true but B is false

(b) Both A and B are true
(c) Both A and B are false
(d) A is false but B is true
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

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 Gender,
Religion and
Caste

Chapter 3
Overview
The existence of social diversity does not threaten democracy. Political
expression of social differences is possible and sometimes quite desirable
in a democratic system. In this chapter we apply these ideas to the practice
of democracy in India. We look at three kinds of social differences that
can take the form of social divisions and inequalities. These are social
differences based on gender, religion and caste. In each case we look at
the nature of this division in India and how it gets expressed in politics.
We also ask whether different expressions based on these differences are
healthy or otherwise in a democracy.

Gender, Religion and Caste

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 Gender and politics
Public/private division
Boys and girls are brought up to
believe that the main responsibility
of women is housework and bringing
up children. This is reflected in a
sexual division of labour in most
families: women do all work inside
the home such as cooking, cleaning,
washing clothes, tailoring, looking
after children, etc., and men do all
the work outside the home. It is not
that men cannot do housework; they
simply think that it is for women to
attend to these things. When these
© Zuban

jobs are paid for, men are ready to

A poster from Bengal affirming women’s take up these works. Most tailors or
strength. cooks in hotels are men. Similarly,
Let us begin with gender division. it is not that women do not work
This is a form of hierarchical social outside their home. In villages,
division seen everywhere, but is women fetch water, collect fuel and
Sexual division of labour: work in the fields. In urban areas,
rarely recognised in the study of
A system in which all
politics. The gender division tends poor women work as domestic
work inside the home
is either done by the to be understood as natural and helper in middle class homes, while
women of the family, unchangeable. However, it is not middle class women work in offices.
or organised by them In fact, the majority of women do
based on biology but on social
through the domestic
expectations and stereotypes. some sort of paid work in addition
helpers.
to domestic labour. But their work
is not valued and does not get
recognition.
The result of this division of
labour is that although women
constitute half of the humanity, their
role in public life, especially politics,
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

is minimal in most societies. Earlier,

only men were allowed to participate
Why not? If in public affairs, vote and contest
Why are we
politics is about for public offices. Gradually the
discussing things
power, then
like household gender issue was raised in politics.
surely male
work in this Women in different parts of the
dominance in the
textbook on world organised and agitated for
household should
Political Science? equal rights. There were agitations
be considered
Is this politics? in different countries for the
political.
extension of voting rights to women.
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 These agitations demanded on this question helped to improve
enhancing the political and legal women’s role in public life. We now
status of women and improving their find women working as scientists,
educational and career opportunities. doctors, engineers, lawyers,
More radical women’s movements managers and college and university
aimed at equality in personal and teachers which were earlier not
family life as well. These movements considered suitable for women. In
are called feminist movements. some parts of the world, for example
Political expression of gender in Scandinavian countries, such as
division and political mobilisation Sweden, Norway and Finland, the

Gender, Religion and Caste

Feminist: A
woman or a man
© Zuban

who believes in
equal rights and
Discuss all these perceptions of an ideal woman that prevail in our society. Do you opportunities for
agree with any of these? If not, what is your image of an ideal woman? women and men.

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 participation of women in public life disadvantage, discrimination and
is very high. oppression in various ways:
In our country, women still lag  The literacy rate among women
much behind men despite some is only 54 per cent compared with
improvement since Independence. 76 per cent among men. Similarly, a
Ours is still a male-dominated, smaller proportion of girl students
patriarchal society. Women face go for higher studies. When we

+ A ‘time use survey’ was conducted in six states of our country. It

shows that an average woman works every day for a little over
seven and half hours while an average man works for six and a
half hours. Yet the work done by men is more visible because
most of their work leads to generation of income. Women also do
a lot of direct income generating work, but the bulk of their work
is household related. This work remains unpaid and invisible.

Daily time use (hours: minutes)

Activities Men Women

Income generating work 6:00 2:40

Household and related work 0:30 5:00

Talking, Gossip 1:25 1:20

No work/ Leisure 3:40 3:50

Sleep, self-care, reading etc. 12:25 11:10

Source: Government of India, Time Use Survey, 1998-99.

You can conduct a similar time use survey in your own

household. Observe all the adult male and female members of
your family for one week. Every day note down the number of
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

hours each of them spends on the following activities: income

generating activity (working at the office or shop or factory
Patriarchy: Literally, or field, etc.), household related activity (cooking, cleaning,
rule by father, this washing, fetching water, looking after children or elders, etc.),
concept is used to reading and recreation, talking/gossiping, self-care, taking rest
refer to a system that or sleeping. If necessary make new categories. Add up the time
values men more and taken on each activity for a week and calculate the daily average
gives them power for each activity for each member. Do women work more in your
over women. family as well?

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 look at school results, girls perform  The Equal Remuneration Act,
Mummy always
as well as boys, if not better in 1976 provides that equal wages
says to outsiders:
some places. But they drop out should be paid to equal work.
“I don’t work. I
because parents prefer to spend their However in almost all areas of
am a housewife.”
resources for their boys’ education work, from sports and cinema, to
But I see her
factories and fields, women are paid
rather than spending equally on their working non-stop
less than men, even when both do
sons and daughters. all the time. If
exactly the same work. what she does is
 No wonder the proportion of
 In many parts of India, parents not work, what
women among the highly paid and prefer to have sons and find ways to else is work?
valued jobs, is still very small. On have the girl child aborted before
an average, an Indian woman works she is born. Such sex-selective
one hour more than an average man abortion led to a decline in child sex
every day. Yet much of her work ratio (number of girl children per
is not paid and therefore, often thousand boys) in the country to
not valued. merely 919. As the map shows, this

Can you identify

your State on this
map? What is the
child sex ratio in
it? How is it
different from
others with a
different colour?

Identify the States

which have child
sex ratio below
900.
Compare this map
with the poster
on the next page.
How do the two of

Gender, Religion and Caste

them tell us about
the same issue?
Source: Census Report of 2011

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 even within their own home from
beating, harassment and other forms
of domestic violence.
Women’s political
representation
All this is well known. Yet issues
related to women’s well being or
otherwise are not given adequate
attention. This has led many
feminists and women’s movements
to the conclusion that unless women
control power, their problems will
not get adequate attention. One way
to ensure this is to have more women
© Oxfam GB

as elected representatives.
In India, the proportion of
women in legislature has been very
ratio has fallen below 850 or even low. For example, the percentage
800 in some States. of elected women members in Lok
There are reports of various Sabha has touched 14.36 per cent of
kinds of harassment, exploitation its total strength for the first time
and violence against women. Urban in 2019. Their share in the state
areas have become particularly assemblies is less than 5 per cent.
unsafe for women. They are not safe In this respect, India is among the

Women in national parliaments in different

regions of the world (in%)

World
45
Average
40 42.3

35
24
30
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

25 29.5
26.4
20 23.7

Could you think of some 15 19.8

18.6
reasons why women’s 10 15.6
representation is so 11.8
low in India? Do you 5
think Americas and 0
Nordic Americas Europe Sub- Asia Arab Pacific India
Europe have achieved countries Saharan Africa States
a satisfactory level of
women’s representation? Region
Note: Figures are for the per cent of women in the directly elected houses of parliament as on 1 October
2018.
Source: http://archive.ipu.org/wmn-e/world.htm

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 bottom group of nations in the similar reservation of at least one-
world (see the graph below). India third of seats in Lok Sabha and
is behind the averages for several State Assemblies for women. A
developing countries of Africa and bill with this proposal was pending
Latin America. In the government, before the Parliament for many
cabinets are largely all-male even decades. In 2023, Nari shakti Vandan
when a woman becomes the Chief Adhiniyam (Womens’ Reservation
Minister or the Prime Minister. Act, 2023) has been passed which
will give 33 percent reservation of If casteism and
One way to solve this problem is
seats for women in Lok Sabha, State communalism
to make it legally binding to have a fair are bad, what
Legislative Assemblies and also Delhi
proportion of women in the elected Assembly. makes feminism
bodies. This is what the Panchayati a good thing?
Gender division is an example
Raj has done in India. One-third of Why don’t we
that some form of social division
seats in local government bodies – in oppose all those
needs to be expressed in politics. This who divide the
panchayats and municipalities – are
also shows that disadvantaged groups society on any
now reserved for women. Now there
do benefit when social divisions lines – caste,
are more than 10 lakh elected women
become a political issue. Do you religion or
representatives in rural and urban think that women could have made gender?
local bodies. the gains we noted above if their
Women’s organizations and unequal treatment was not raised in
activists had been demanding a the political domain?

Gender, Religion and Caste

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 Religion, communalism and politics
Let us now turn to a very different and politics. But they do not
kind of social division, the division seem very wrong or dangerous.
based on religious differences. Ideas, ideals and values drawn
This division is not as universal from different religions can and
as gender, but religious diversity perhaps should play a role in
is fairly widespread in the world politics. People should be able
today. Many countries including to express in politics their needs,
India have in their population, interests and demands as a member
followers of different religions. As of a religious community. Those
we noticed in the case of Northern who hold political power should
Ireland, even when most of the sometimes be able to regulate the
people belong to the same religion, practice of religion so as to prevent
there can be serious differences discrimination and oppression.
about the way people practice that These political acts are not wrong
as long as they treat every religion
religion. Unlike gender differences,
equally.
the religious differences are often
expressed in the field of politics. Communalism
Consider the following: The problem begins when religion
 Gandhiji used to say that is seen as the basis of the nation.
religion can never be separated The example of Northern Ireland
from politics. What he meant by in Chapter 3 shows the dangers of
religion was not any particular such an approach to nationalism.
religion like Hinduism or Islam The problem becomes more acute
but moral values that inform all when religion is expressed in
religions. He believed that politics politics in exclusive and partisan
terms, when one religion and
must be guided by ethics drawn
its followers are pitted against
from religion.
another. This happens when beliefs
 Human rights groups in our of one religion are presented as
country have demanded that the superior to those of other religions,
Government should take special when the demands of one religious
steps to prevent communal riots group are formed in opposition to
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

and protect religious minorities. another and when state power is

 Women’s movement has argued used to establish domination of one
that family laws of all religions religious group over the rest. This
I am not
discriminate against women. manner of using religion in politics
religious. So they have demanded that is communal politics.
Why should I government should change these Communal politics is based
bother about laws to make them more equitable. on the idea that religion is the
communalism All these instances involve principal basis of social community.
and secularism? a relationship between religion Communalism involves thinking
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 along the following lines. The that we often fail to notice it, even
I often crack
followers of a particular religion when we believe in it.
jokes about
must belong to one community.  A communal mind often leads to a people from one
Their fundamental interests are quest for political dominance of one’s religion. Does
the same. Any difference that they own religious community. For those that make me
may have is irrelevant or trivial belonging to majority community, communal?
for community life. It also follows this takes the form of majoritarian
that people who follow different dominance. For those belonging
religions cannot belong to the same to the minority community, it can
social community. If the followers take the form of a desire to form a
of different religions have some separate political unit.
commonalities these are superficial  Political mobilisation on
and immaterial, their interests are religious lines is another frequent
bound to be different and involve form of communalism. This involves
a conflict. In its extreme form, the use of sacred symbols, religious
communalism leads to the belief leaders, emotional appeal and plain
that people belonging to different fear in order to bring the followers
religions cannot live as equal citizens of one religion together in the
within one nation. Either, one of political arena. In electoral politics,
them has to dominate the rest or this often involves special appeal to
they have to form different nations. the interests or emotions of voters of
This belief is fundamentally one religion in preference to others.
flawed. People of one religion  Sometimes communalism takes
do not have the same interests its most ugly form of communal
and aspirations in every context. violence, riots and massacre. India
Everyone has several other roles, and Pakistan suffered some of the
positions and identities. There worst communal riots at the time of
are many voices inside every the Partition. The post-Independence
community. All these voices have period has also seen large scale
a right to be heard. Therefore any communal violence.

Gender, Religion and Caste

attempt to bring all followers of one
Secular state
religion together in context other
Communalism was and continues
than religion is bound to suppress
to be one of the major challenges
many voices within that community.
to democracy in our country. The
Communalism can take various Family laws: Those
makers of our Constitution were
forms in politics: laws that deal with
aware of this challenge. That is why,
family related matters
 The most common expression they chose the model of a secular such as marriage,
of communalism is in everyday state. This choice was reflected in divorce, adoption,
beliefs. These routinely involve several constitutional provisions that inheritance, etc.
religious prejudices, stereotypes of we studied last year: In our country,
religious communities and belief in  There is no official religion for different family laws
the superiority of one’s religion over the Indian state. Unlike the status of apply to followers of
other religions. This is so common Buddhism in Sri Lanka, that of Islam different religions.

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 in Pakistan and that of Christianity in Caste inequalities
England, our Constitution does not Unlike gender and religion, caste
give a special status to any religion. division is special to India. All societies
 The Constitution provides to have some kind of social inequality
all individuals and communities and some form of division of labour.
freedom to profess, practice and In most societies, occupations are
propagate any religion, or not to passed on from one generation to
follow any. another. Caste system is an extreme
 The Constitution prohibits form of this. What makes it different
discrimination on grounds of from other societies is that in this
religion. system, hereditary occupational
division was sanctioned by rituals.
 At the same time, the Constitution
Members of the same caste group
allows the state to intervene in
were supposed to form a social
the matters of religion in order to community that practiced the same
ensure equality within religious or similar occupation, married
communities. For example, it bans within the caste group and did
untouchability. not eat with members from other
Understood in this sense, caste groups.
secularism is not just an ideology of Caste system was based on
some parties or persons. This idea exclusion of and discrimination
constitutes one of the foundations against the ‘outcaste’ groups. They
of our country. Communalism were subjected to the inhuman
should not be seen as a threat to practice of untouchability about
some people in India. It threatens which you have studied in Class
the very idea of India. That is why IX. That is why political leaders
communalism needs to be combated. and social reformers like Jotiba
A secular Constitution like ours Phule, Gandhiji, B.R. Ambedkar
is necessary but not sufficient to and Periyar Ramaswami Naicker
combat communalism. Communal advocated and worked to establish
prejudices and propaganda need to a society in which caste inequalities
be countered in everyday life and are absent.
religion- based mobilisation needs to Partly due to their efforts and
be countered in the arena of politics. partly due to other socio-economic
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

changes, castes and caste system

Caste and politics in modern India have undergone
great changes. With economic
We have seen two instances of the development, large scale
expression of social divisions in the urbanisation, growth of literacy and
arena of politics, one largely positive education, occupational mobility
and the other largely negative. Let us and the weakening of the position
turn to our final case, that of caste of landlords in the villages, the old
and politics, that has both positive notions of caste hierarchy are
and the negative aspects. breaking down. Now, most of the
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 Social and Religious Diversity of India
The Census of India records the religion of each and every Indian after every ten years.
The person who fills the Census form visits every household and records the religion of
each member of that household exactly the way each person describes it. If someone
says she has ‘no religion’ or that he is an ‘atheist’, this is exactly how it is recorded.
Thus we have reliable information on the proportion of different religious communities
in the country and how it has changed over the years. The pie chart below presents
the population proportion of six major religious communities in the country. Since
Independence, the total population of each community has increased substantially but
their proportion in the country’s population has not changed much. In percentage terms,
the population of the Hindus, Jains and Christians has declined marginally since 1961.
The proportion of Muslim, Sikh and Buddhist population has increased slightly. There is
a common but mistaken impression that the proportion of the Muslims in the country’s
population is going to overtake other religious communities. Expert estimates done for
the Prime Minister’s High Level Committee (popularly known as Sachar Committee)
show that the proportion of the Muslims is expected to go up a little, by about 3 to 4
per cent, in the next 50 years. It proves that in overall terms, the population balance
of different religious communities is not likely to change in a big way.
The same is true of the major caste groups. The Census of India counts two social
groups: the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes. Both these broad groups
include hundreds of castes or tribes whose names are listed in an official Schedule.
Hence the prefix ‘Scheduled’ in their name. The Scheduled Castes, commonly known
as Dalits, include those that were previously regarded as ‘outcaste’ in the Hindu social
order and were subjected to exclusion and untouchability. The Scheduled Tribes, often
referred to as Adivasis, include those communities that led a secluded life usually in hills
and forests and did not interact much with the rest of society. In 2011, the Scheduled
Castes were 16.6 per cent and the
Scheduled Tribes were 8.6 per cent Population of different religious
of the country’s population. communities in India, 2011

Gender, Religion and Caste

The Census does not yet count the
Other Backward Classes, the group Hindu
we discussed in Class IX. Hence there 79.8
are some differences about their
proportion in the country’s population. In % Muslim
The National Sample Survey of 14.2
2004–05 estimates their population
to be around 41 per cent. Thus the
SC, ST and the OBC together account Others 2%
for about two-thirds of the country’s Others include Buddhist 0.7% Jain 0.4% Christian 2.3
population and about three-fourths of Other Religions and Persuasions 0.7%
Sikh 1.7
Religion not stated 0.2%
the Hindu population.
Source: Census of India, 2011

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 naturally lagged behind. That is why
I don’t care what Now you don’t like
my caste is. Why
there is a disproportionately large
it! Didn’t you tell
are we discussing presence of ‘upper caste’ among
me that wherever
all this in the there is domination,
the urban middle classes in our
textbook? Are we we should discuss it country. Caste continues to be
not promoting in Political Science? closely linked to economic status.
casteism by Will caste disappear (See Plus Box on Page 41.)
talking about if we keep mum
caste?
Caste in politics
about it?
As in the case of communalism,
casteism is rooted in the belief
that caste is the sole basis of social
community. According to this way
of thinking, people belonging to
the same caste belong to a natural
social community and have the
same interests which they do not
times, in urban areas it does not share with anyone from another
matter much who is walking along caste. As we saw in the case of
next to us on a street or eating at communalism, such a belief is not
the next table in a restaurant. The borne out by our experience. Caste
Constitution of India prohibited any is one aspect of our experience but it
caste-based discrimination and laid is not the only relevant or the most
the foundations of policies to reverse important aspect.
the injustices of the caste system. If
Caste can take various forms
a person who lived a century ago
in politics:
were to return to India, she would
be greatly surprised at the change  When parties choose candidates
Urbanisation: Shift that has come about in the country. in elections, they keep in mind the
of population from caste composition of the electorate
rural areas to urban Yet caste has not disappeared
and nominate candidates from
areas. from contemporary India. Some
different castes so as to muster
Occupational of the older aspects of caste have
necessary support to win elections.
mobility: Shift from persisted. Even now most people
When governments are formed,
one occupation to marry within their own caste or
political parties usually take care that
another, usually tribe. Untouchability has not ended
when a new representatives of different castes and
completely, despite constitutional
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

generation takes up tribes find a place in it.

prohibition. Effects of centuries
occupations other of advantages and disadvantages  Political parties and candidates
than those practiced in elections make appeals to caste
continue to be felt today. The caste
by their ancestors. sentiment to muster support. Some
groups that had access to education
Caste hierarchy: A political parties are known to favour
ladder-like formation under the old system have done very
well in acquiring modern education some castes and are seen as their
in which all the caste
as well. Those groups that did not representatives.
groups are placed
from the ‘highest’ to have access to education or were  Universal adult franchise and
the ‘lowest’ castes. prohibited from acquiring it have the principle of one-person-one-vote

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 Caste inequality today
Caste is an important source of economic inequality because it regulates
access to resources of various kinds. For example, in the past, the so-called
‘untouchable’ castes were denied the right to own land, while only the so-called
‘twice born’ castes had the right to education. Although this kind of explicit and
formalised inequality based on caste is now outlawed, the effects of centuries of
accumulated advantages and disadvantages continue to be felt. Moreover, new
kinds of inequalities have also developed.
The relationship between caste and economic status has certainly changed a
lot. Today, it is possible to find very rich and very poor people in every caste,
whether ‘low’ or ‘high’. This was not true even twenty or thirty years ago – it
was very rare indeed to find rich people among the ‘lowest’ castes. However,
as this evidence from the National Sample Survey shows, caste continues to be
very strongly linked to economic status in many important ways:
 The average economic status (measured by criteria like monthly
consumption expenditure) of caste groups still follows the old hierarchy –
the ‘upper’ castes are best off, the Dalits and Adivasis are worst off, and the
backward classes are in between.
 Although every caste has some poor members, the proportion living in
extreme poverty (below the official ‘poverty line’) is much higher for the lowest
castes and much lower for the upper castes, with the backward classes once
again in between.
 Although every caste has some members who are rich, the upper castes are
heavily over-represented among the rich while the lower castes are severely
under-represented.
Percentage of population living below the poverty line, 1999–—
—– 2000
Caste and Community groups Rural Urban
Scheduled Tribes 45.8 35.6

Gender, Religion and Caste

Scheduled Castes 35.9 38.3
Other Backward Classes 27.0 29.5
Muslim Upper Castes 26.8 34.2
Hindu Upper Castes 11.7 9.9
Christian Upper Castes 9.6 5.4
Sikh Upper Castes 0.0 4.9
Other Upper Castes 16.0 2.7
All Groups 27.0 23.4
Note: ‘Upper Caste’ here means those who are not from SC, ST, or OBC. Below the poverty line
means those who spent `327 or less per person per month in rural and `454 or less per person per
month in urban areas.
Source: National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), Government of India, 55th Round, 1999–2000

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 compelled political leaders to gear up the voters from that caste vote for
to the task of mobilising and securing that party.
political support. It also brought new  Many political parties may put
consciousness among the people of up candidates from the same caste
castes that were hitherto treated as (if that caste is believed to dominate
inferior and low. the electorate in a particular
The focus on caste in politics constituency). Some voters have
can sometimes give an impression more than one candidate from their
that elections are all about caste and caste while many voters have no
nothing else. That is far from true. candidate from their caste.
Just consider these:  The ruling party and the sitting
 No parliamentary constituency MP or MLA frequently lose elections
in the country has a clear majority in our country. That could not
of one single caste. So, every have happened if all castes and
candidate and party needs to win the communities were frozen in their
confidence of more than one caste political preferences.
and community to win elections. Clearly, while caste matters in
 No party wins the votes of all electoral politics, so do many other
the voters of a caste or community. factors. The voters have strong
When people say that a caste is a attachment to political parties which
‘vote bank’ of one party, it usually is often stronger than their attachment
means that a large proportion of to their caste or community. People
within the same caste or community
have different interests depending
on their economic condition. Rich
and poor or men and women from
the same caste often vote very
differently. People’s assessment of
the performance of the government
and the popularity rating of the
© Ajith Ninan - India Today Book of Cartoons

leaders matter and are often decisive

in elections.
Politics in caste
We have so far looked at what caste
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

does to politics. But it does not mean

that there is only a one-way relation
between caste and politics. Politics
too influences the caste system and
caste identities by bringing them
into the political arena. Thus, it is
Do you think that political leaders are right to treat people belonging to a
not politics that gets caste-ridden, it
caste as ‘vote banks’?

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 is the caste that gets politicised. This power. In this sense, caste politics
takes several forms: has helped people from Dalits and
 Each caste group tries to become OBC castes to gain better access to
bigger by incorporating within it decision making. Several political
neighbouring castes or sub-castes and non-political organisations have
which were earlier excluded from it. been demanding and agitating for
an end to discrimination against
 Various caste groups are required
particular castes, for more dignity
to enter into a coalition with other
and more access to land, resources
castes or communities and thus enter
and opportunities.
into a dialogue and negotiation.
At the same time, exclusive
 New kinds of caste groups
attention to caste can produce
have come up in the political arena negative results as well. As in the
like ‘backward’ and ‘forward’ case of religion, politics based on
caste groups. caste identity alone is not very
Thus, caste plays different healthy in a democracy. It can
kinds of roles in politics. In some divert attention from other pressing
situations, expression of caste issues like poverty, development
differences in politics gives many and corruption. In some cases, caste
disadvantaged communities the division leads to tensions, conflict
space to demand their share of and even violence.

Gender, Religion and Caste

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 1. Mention different aspects of life in which women are discriminated or
disadvantaged in India.
2. State different forms of communal politics with one example each.
3. State how caste inequalities are still continuing in India.
4. State two reasons to say that caste alone cannot determine election
results in India.
5. What is the status of women’s representation in India’s legislative
bodies?
6. Mention any two constitutional provisions that make India a secular
state.
Exercises
7. When we speak of gender divisions, we usually refer to:
(a) Biological difference between men and women
(b) Unequal roles assigned by the society to men and women
(c) Unequal child sex ratio
(d) Absence of voting rights for women in democracies
8. In India seats are reserved for women in
(a) Lok Sabha
(b) State legislative assemblies
(c) Cabinets
(d) Panchayati Raj bodies
9. Consider the following statements on the meaning of communal
politics. Communal politics is based on the belief that:
A. One religion is superior to that of others.
B. People belonging to different religions can live together happily as
equal citizens.
C. Followers of a particular religion constitute one community.
D. State power cannot be used to establish the domination of one
religious group over others.
Which of the statements are correct?
(a) A, B, C, and D (b) A, B, and D (c) A and C (d) B and D
10. Which among the following statements about India’s Constitution is
wrong? It
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

(a) prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion.

(b) gives official status to one religion.
(c) provides to all individuals freedom to profess any religion.
(d) ensures equality of citizens within religious communities.
11. Social divisions based on _________ are peculiar to India.

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 12. Match List I with List II and select the correct answer using the
codes given below the Lists:
List I List II
1. A person who believes in equal rights and
opportunities for women and men A. Communalist
2. A person who says that religion is the
principal basis of community B. Feminist
3. A person who thinks that caste is the
principal basis of community C. Secularist
4. A person who does not discriminate others
on the basis of religious beliefs D. Castiest

Exercises
1 2 3 4
(a) B C A D
(b) B A D C
(c) D C A B
(d) C A B D

Gender, Religion and Caste

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 Political Parties

Overview
In this tour of democracy, we have come across political parties several

Chapter 4
times. In Class IX, we noticed the role of political parties in the rise of
democracies, in the formation of constitutional designs, in electoral politics
and in the making and working of governments. In this textbook, we have
glanced at political parties as vehicles of federal sharing of political power
and as negotiators of social divisions in the arena of democratic politics.
Before concluding this tour, let us take a close look at the nature and
working of political parties, especially in our country. We begin by asking
two common questions: Why do we need parties? How many parties are
good for a democracy? In the light of these, we introduce the national
and regional political parties in today’s India and then look at what is
wrong with political parties and what can be done about it.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

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 Why do we need political parties?
Political parties are easily one of to be very critical of political parties.
the most visible institutions in a They tend to blame parties for all So, you agree
with me. Parties
democracy. For most ordinary that is wrong with our democracy
are partial,
citizens, democracy is equal to and our political life. Parties have
partisan and lead
political parties. If you travel to become identified with social and
to partitions.
remote parts of our country and political divisions.
Parties do
speak to the less educated citizens, Therefore, it is natural to ask – do nothing but
you could come across people who we need political parties at all? About divide people.
may not know anything about our hundred years ago, there were few That is their real
Constitution or about the nature of countries of the world that had function!
our government. But chances are any political party. Now there are
that they would know something few that do not have parties. Why
about our political parties. At the did political parties become so
same time, this visibility does not omnipresent in democracies all over
mean popularity. Most people tend the world? Let us first answer what
political parties are and what they
do, before we say why we need them.
Meaning
© (1) M Govarthan (2) A Muralidharan (3) M Moorthy (4) T Singaravelou, The Hindu

A political party is a group of

people who come together to contest
elections and hold power in the
government. They agree on some
policies and programmes for the
society with a view to promote the
collective good. Since there can be
(1) different views on what is good for

(3)
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

(2)

Election Commission has officially banned wall

writing by parties during election times. Most
political parties argue that was the cheapest way
for their campaign. These election times used to
create amazing graffiti on the walls. Here are some
examples from Tamil Nadu. (4)

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 © RK Laxman - Brushing up the years

all, parties try to persuade people mainly among the candidates put
why their policies are better than up by political parties. Parties select
others. They seek to implement their candidates in different ways.
these policies by winning popular In some countries, such as the USA,
support through elections. members and supporters of a party
Thus, parties reflect fundamental choose its candidates. Now more
political divisions in a society. Parties and more countries are following
are about a part of the society and this method. In other countries
thus, involve partisanship. Thus, like India, top party leaders choose
a party is known by which part it candidates for contesting elections.
stands for, which policies it supports 2 Parties put forward different
and whose interests it upholds. A policies and programmes and the
political party has three components: voters choose from them. Each of
 the leaders, us may have different opinions and
Partisan: A person  the active members and views on what policies are suitable
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

who is strongly  the followers for the society. But no government

committed to a Functions can handle such a large variety
party, group or of views. In a democracy, a large
What does a political party do?
faction. Partisanship number of similar opinions have
Basically, political parties fill political
is marked by a to be grouped together to provide
offices and exercise political power.
tendency to take a a direction in which policies can
Parties do so by performing a series
side and inability be formulated by the governments.
of functions:
This is what the parties do. A party
to take a balanced
1 Parties contest elections. In most reduces a vast multitude of opinions
view on an issue.
democracies, elections are fought into a few basic positions which it

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 supports. A government is expected That is why, they feel close to parties
to base its policies on the line taken even when they do not fully trust
by the ruling party. them. Parties have to be responsive
3 Parties play a decisive role to people’s needs and demands.
in making laws for a country. Otherwise people can reject those
Formally, laws are debated and parties in the next elections.
passed in the legislature. But since Necessity
most of the members belong to a
This list of functions in a sense
party, they go by the direction of
answers the question asked above:
the party leadership, irrespective of
we need political parties because
their personal opinions.
they perform all these functions.
4 Parties form and run governments. But we still need to ask why modern
As we noted last year, the big policy democracies cannot exist without
decisions are taken by political political parties. We can understand
executive that comes from the the necessity of political parties by
political parties. Parties recruit imagining a situation without parties.
leaders, train them and then Every candidate in the elections
make them ministers to run the will be independent. So no one
government in the way they want. will be able to make any promises
5 Those parties that lose in the to the people about any major
elections play the role of opposition policy changes. The government
to the parties in power, by voicing may be formed, but its utility will
different views and criticising remain ever uncertain. Elected
Okay, granted
government for its failures or representatives will be accountable
that we can’t
wrong policies. Opposition parties to their constituency for what they
live without
also mobilise opposition to the do in the locality. But no one will political parties.
government. be responsible for how the country But tell me on
6 Parties shape public opinion. will be run. what grounds do
They raise and highlight issues. We can also think about it by people support a
Parties have lakhs of members and looking at the non-party based political party?
activists spread all over the country. elections to the panchayat in many
Many of the pressure groups are the states. Although, the parties do not
extensions of political parties among contest formally, it is generally
different sections of society. Parties noticed that the village gets split into
sometimes also launch movements more than one faction, each of which
for the resolution of problems puts up a ‘panel’ of its candidates.
faced by people. Often opinions in This is exactly what the party does.
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

the society crystallise on the lines That is the reason we find political
parties take. parties in almost all countries of the
7 Parties provide people access world, whether these countries are
to government machinery and big or small, old or new, developed
welfare schemes implemented by or developing.
Ruling Party: Political
governments. For an ordinary citizen The rise of political parties is party that runs
it is easy to approach a local party directly linked to the emergence government.
leader than a government officer. of representative democracies.

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 As we have seen, large societies responsible government could be
need representative democracy. formed. They needed a mechanism to
As societies became large and support or restrain the government,
complex, they also needed some make policies, justify or oppose
agency to gather different views them. Political parties fulfill these
on various issues and to present needs that every representative
these to the government. They government has. We can say that
needed some ways, to bring various parties are a necessary condition for
representatives together so that a a democracy.

Categorise these photographs by the functions of political parties they

illustrate. Find one photograph or news clipping from your own area for
each of the functions listed above.
© (1) C V Subrahmanyan (2) K Gopinathan

2
(3) A Chakrabarty, The Hindu

1 3

1: Activists of BJP Mahila Morcha demonstrate against hike in prices of onions and LPG in
Visakhapatnam.
2: Minister distributes ` One lakh cheque to the families of hooch victims at their houses.
3: Activists of CPI (M), CPI, OGP and JD (S) take out a rally in Bhubaneswar to protest against
POSCO, the Korean steel company for being permitted by the State Government to export iron
ore from Orissa to feed steel plants in China and Korea.

How many parties should we have?

D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

In a democracy any group of citizens the race to win elections and form
is free to form a political party. In the government. So the question is:
this formal sense, there are a large how many major or effective parties
number of political parties in each are good for a democracy?
country. More than 750 parties In some countries, only one
are registered with the Election party is allowed to control and run
Commission of India. But not all the government. These are called
these parties are serious contenders one-party systems. In Class IX,
in the elections. Usually only a we noted that in China, only the
handful of parties are effectively in Communist Party is allowed to
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 rule. Although, legally speaking, coalition. When several parties in a
people are free to form political multi-party system join hands for the
parties, it does not happen because purpose of contesting elections and
the electoral system does not permit winning power, it is called an alliance
free competition for power. We or a front. For example, in India
cannot consider one-party system as there were three such major alliances
a good option because this is not a in 2004 parliamentary elections– the
democratic option. Any democratic National Democratic Alliance, the
system must allow at least two parties United Progressive Alliance and the
to compete in elections and provide a Left Front. The multiparty system
fair chance for the competing parties often appears very messy and leads
to come to power. to political instability. At the same
time, this system allows a variety
In some countries, power usually
of interests and opinions to enjoy
changes between two main parties.
political representation.
Several other parties may exist,
So, which of these is better? I wonder how
contest elections and win a few seats
Perhaps the best answer to this very politicians
in the national legislatures. But only manage these
common question is that this is not
the two main parties have a serious coalitions. I can’t
a very good question. Party system
chance of winning majority of seats even remember
is not something any country can
to form government. Such a party the names of all
choose. It evolves over a long time,
system is called two-party system. the parties.
depending on the nature of society,
The United States of America and
its social and regional divisions, its
the United Kingdom are examples
history of politics and its system of
of two-party system.
elections. These cannot be changed
If several parties compete for very quickly. Each country develops a
power, and more than two parties party system that is conditioned by its
have a reasonable chance of coming special circumstances. For example, if
to power either on their own strength India has evolved a multiparty system,
or in alliance with others, we call it it is because the social and geographical
a multiparty system. Thus in India, diversity in such a large country is
we have a multiparty system. In this not easily absorbed by two or even
system, the government is formed by three parties. No system is ideal for all
various parties coming together in a countries and all situations.
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

Let us apply what we have learnt about party systems to the various
states within India. Here are three major types of party systems that
exist at the State level. Can you find the names of at least two States for
each of these types?
 Two-party system
 Multiparty system with two alliances
 Multiparty system

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 Popular
participation
in
It is often said that political parties are facing a
crisis because they are very unpopular and the
political parties citizens are indifferent to political parties. The
available evidence shows that this belief is only
partly true for India. The evidence, based on a series of large
sample surveys conducted over several decades, shows that:
 Political parties do not enjoy much trust among the people in
South Asia. The proportion of those who say their trust in political
parties is ‘not much’ or ‘not at all’ is more than those who have
‘some’ or ‘great’ trust.
 The same is true of most other democracies as well. Political
parties are one of the least trusted institutions all over the world.
 Yet the level of participation in the activities of political parties
was fairly high. The proportion of those who said they were
members of some political party was higher in India than many
advanced countries like Canada, Japan, Spain and South Korea.
 Over the last three decades, the proportion of those who
report to be members of
political parties in India has
gone up steadily.
 The proportion of those
who say they feel ‘close to
a political party’ has also
gone up in India in this
period.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Source: SDSA Team, State of Democracy in South Asia, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007

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 © Tab - The Calgary Sun, Cagle Cartoons Inc.
Crunching the Numbers

Does the cartoon reflect the data graphics shown on the

previous page?

National parties
Democracies that follow a federal special facilities are ‘recognised’ by
system all over the world tend to the Election Commission for this
have two kinds of political parties: purpose. That is why these parties
parties that are present in only one of are called, ‘recognised political For more details
the federal units and parties that are parties’. The Election Commission about registration
present in several or all units of the has laid down detailed criteria of and recognition of
federation. This is the case in India the proportion of votes and seats political parties by the
as well. There are some country-wide that a party must get in order to Election Commission
parties, which are called ‘national be a recognised party. A party that of India, visit https://
parties’. These parties have their secures at least six per cent of the eci.gov.in
units in various states. But by and total votes in an election to the
large, all these units follow the same Legislative Assembly of a State and
policies, programmes and strategy wins at least two seats is recognised
that is decided at the national level. as a State party. A party that secures
Every party in the country at least six per cent of the total votes
has to register with the Election in Lok Sabha elections or Assembly
Commission. While the Commission elections in four States and wins at
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

treats all parties equally, it offers least four seats in the Lok Sabha is
some special facilities to large and recognised as a national party.
established parties. These parties According to this classification,
are given a unique symbol – only there are six recognized national
the official candidates of that party parties in the country as per
can use that election symbol. Parties notification of the Election
that get this privilege and some other Commission of India issued in 2023.

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 Aam Aadmi Party 3.63 per cent votes and secured 10
(AAP): Formed on seats in the Lok Sabha.
26 November 2012, Bharatiya Janata Party
following the 2011 (BJP): Founded in 1980
anti-corruption movement. The by reviving the erstwhile
party was founded on the idea of Bharatiya Jana Sangh,
accountability, clean administration, formed by Syama Prasad
transparency and good governance. Mukherjee in 1951. Wants to build a
In the year after its formation, AAP strong and modern India by drawing
emerged as the second largest party inspiration from India’s ancient
in the Delhi Legislative Assembly culture and values; and Deendayal
election. It formed a government Upadhyaya’s ideas of integral
with the support of Indian National humanism and Antyodaya. Cultural
Congress (INC). It also emerged nationalism (or ‘Hindutva’) is an
as the third front in the politics of important element in its conception
Gujarat after 2022 Gujarat Legislative of Indian nationhood and politics.
Wants full territorial and political
Assembly election. Presently, AAP
integration of Jammu and Kashmir
formed governments in Punjab and
with India, a uniform civil code
Delhi. In the Lok Sabha election held
for all people living in the country
in 2019, it secured one seat in the Lok irrespective of religion, and ban on
Sabha. religious conversions. Its support
Bahujan Samaj base increased substantially in the
Party (BSP): 1990s. Earlier limited to north and
Formed in 1984 west and to urban areas, the party
expanded its support in the south,
under the leadership of Kanshi
east, the north-east and to rural areas.
Ram. Seeks to represent and secure
Came to power in 1998 as the leader
power for the bahujan samaj which
of the National Democratic Alliance
includes the dalits, adivasis, OBCs (NDA) including several regional
and religious minorities. Draws parties. Emerged as the largest party
inspiration from the ideas and with 303 members in the 2019 Lok
teachings of Sahu Maharaj, Mahatma Sabha elections. Currently leads
Phule, Periyar Ramaswami Naicker the ruling NDA government at
and Babasaheb Ambedkar. Stands for the Centre.
the cause of securing the interests and
Communist Party
welfare of the dalits and oppressed
of India - Marxist
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

people. It has its main base in the ( C P I - M ) : Fo unded

state of Uttar Pradesh and substantial in 1964. Believes
presence in neighbouring states like in Marxism-Leninism. Supports
Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, socialism, secularism and
Uttarakhand, Delhi and Punjab. democracy and opposes imperialism
Formed government in Uttar and communalism. Accepts
Pradesh several times by taking democratic elections as a useful
the support of different parties at and helpful means for securing the
different times. In the Lok Sabha objective of socio-economic justice in
elections held in 2019, it polled about India. Enjoys strong support in West

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 Bengal, Kerala and Tripura, especially its ideological orientation, the party
among the poor, factory workers, espouses secularism and welfare of
farmers, agricultural labourers and weaker sections and minorities. The
the intelligentsia. Critical of the new INC supports new economic reforms
economic policies that allow free flow but with a human face. Leader of the
of foreign capital and goods into the United Progressive Alliance (UPA)
country. Was in power in West Bengal government from 2004 to 2019. In the
without a break for 34 years. In the 2019 2019 Lok Sabha election, it won 19.5%
Lok Sabha elections, it won about 1.75 votes and 52 seats.
per cent of votes and 3 seats.
National People’s Party
Indian National Congress
(NPP): Formed in July 2013
(INC): Popularly known
under the leadership of P.A
as the Congress Party. One
Sangma. NPP is the first
of the oldest parties of the
political party from North
world. Founded in 1885 and
East India to have attained
has experienced many splits. Played
a dominant role in Indian politics at the status of a national party. It
the national and state level for several believes in diversity of the country and
decades after India’s Independence. recognizes that different regions have
Under the leadership of Jawaharlal different developmental challenges.
Nehru, the party sought to build a The core philosophy of the party is
modern secular democratic republic in education and employment to all as
India. Ruling party at the centre till 1977 well as empowerment of all sections of
and then from 1980 to 1989. After 1989, the society. It formed government in
its support declined, but it continues Meghalaya and has presence in many of
to be present throughout the country, North Eastern States. In the Lok Sabha
cutting across social divisions. A centrist election held in 2019, NPP secured one
party (neither rightist nor leftist) in seat in the Lok Sabha.

State parties
Other than these seven parties, most Over the last three decades, the
of the major parties of the country are number and strength of these parties has
classified by the Election Commission expanded. This made the Parliament
as ‘State parties’. These are commonly of India politically more and more
referred to as regional parties. Yet diverse. No one national party is able
these parties need not be regional in to secure on its own a majority in the
their ideology or outlook. Some of Lok Sabha, until 2014. As a result, the
these parties are all India parties that national parties are compelled to form
happen to have succeeded only in alliances with State parties. Since 1996,
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

some states. Parties like the Samajwadi nearly every one of the State parties has
Party and Rashtriya Janata Dal have got an opportunity to be a part of one
national level political organisation or the other national level coalition
with units in several states. Some of government. This has contributed to
these parties like Biju Janata Dal, Sikkim the strengthening of federalism and
Democratic Front, Mizo National democracy in our country. (See the
Front and Telangana Rashtra Samithi map on the next page for details of
are conscious about their State identity. these parties).

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 D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Map not to scale

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 Challenges to political parties
We have seen how crucial political in the working of political parties.
parties are for the working of Political parties need to face and
democracy. Since parties are the overcome these challenges in order
most visible face of democracy, it is to remain effective instruments
natural that people blame parties for of democracy.
whatever is wrong with the working The first challenge is lack of
of democracy. All over the world, internal democracy within parties.
people express strong dissatisfaction All over the world there is a tendency
with the failure of political parties in political parties towards the
to perform their functions well. concentration of power in one or
This is the case in our country too. few leaders at the top. Parties do not
Popular dissatisfaction and criticism keep membership registers, do not
has focussed on four problem areas hold organisational meetings, and
Berlusconi Puppet Theatre do not conduct internal elections
regularly. Ordinary members of
the party do not get sufficient
information on what happens inside
the party. They do
not have the means
or the connections
needed to influence
the decisions. As a
result, the leaders
assume greater
power to make
decisions in the
name of the party.
Since one or few
leaders exercise
© Riber Hansson - Svenska Dagbladet, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

paramount power
in the party, those
who disagree with
the leadership find Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

Berlusconi was the Prime

Minister of Italy. He is also Why don’t
one of the top businessmen parties give
in Italy. He is the leader of enough tickets
the Forza Italia founded in
1993. His company owns TV to women? Is
channels, the most important that also due to
publishing company, a foot lack of internal
ball club (AC Milan) and a
bank. This cartoon was made
democracy?
during the last elections.

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 it difficult to continue in the party. The third challenge is about
More than loyalty to party principles the growing role of money and
and policies, personal loyalty to the muscle power in parties, especially
leader becomes more important. during elections. Since parties are
The second challenge of dynastic focussed only on winning elections,
succession is related to the first they tend to use short-cuts to win
one. Since most political parties do elections. They tend to nominate
not practice open and transparent those candidates who have or can
procedures for their functioning, raise lots of money. Rich people and
there are very few ways for an companies who give funds to the
ordinary worker to rise to the top parties tend to have influence on the
in a party. Those who happen to be policies and decisions of the party. In
the leaders are in a position of unfair some cases, parties support criminals
advantage to favour people close to who can win elections. Democrats
them or even their family members. all over the world are worried about
In many parties, the top positions the increasing role of rich people and
are always controlled by members big companies in democratic politics.
of one family. This is unfair to other The fourth challenge is that
members of that party. This is also very often parties do not seem to
bad for democracy, since people who offer a meaningful choice to the
do not have adequate experience or voters. In order to offer meaningful
popular support come to occupy choice, parties must be significantly
positions of power. This tendency different. In recent years, there has
is present in some measure all over been a decline in the ideological
the world, including in some of the differences among parties in most
older democracies.   parts of the world. For example,
the difference between the Labour
Party and the Conservative Party
in Britain is very little. They agree
on more fundamental aspects but
differ only in details on how policies
© Huffaker - Cagle Cartoons Inc., 16 June 2004

are to be framed and implemented.

In our country too, the differences
among all the major parties on the
economic policies have reduced.
Those who want really different
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

policies have no option available

to them. Sometimes people cannot
even elect very different leaders
either, because the same set of
leaders keep shifting from one
party to another.

This cartoon was drawn during the Presidency of George Bush of the
Republican Party in the USA. The party’s symbol is elephant. The cartoon
seems to suggest that the Corporate America controls all major institutions
of the country.

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 Does this
suggest that
in democracies
people contest
elections only to
make money?
But isn’t it
true that there
are politicians

© Manjul - DNA
committed to
the well-being
of the people?

Can you identify which of the challenges described in this section are being
highlighted in these cartoons (on pages 57 to 59)? What are the ways to
curb the misuse of money and muscle power in politics?

How can parties be reformed?

In order to face these challenges, leaders. If all of them do not wish to
political parties need to be reformed. reform, how can anyone force them
The question is: Are political parties to change?
willing to reform? If they are willing, Let us look at some of the
what has prevented them from recent efforts and suggestions in our
reforming so far? If they are not country to reform political parties
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

willing, is it possible to force them and its leaders:

to reform? Citizens all over the  The Constitution was amended Defection: Changing
world face this question. This is not to prevent elected MLAs and MPs party allegiance from
a simple question to answer. In a from changing parties. This was done the party on which a
democracy, the final decision is made because many elected representatives person got elected (to
by leaders who represent political were indulging in defection in order a legislative body) to
parties. People can replace them, to become ministers or for cash a different party.
but only by another set of party rewards. Now the law says that if
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 is mere formality. It is not clear if
this step has led to greater internal
democracy in political parties.
Besides these, many suggestions
are often made to reform political
parties:
 A law should be made to regulate
the internal affairs of political parties.
It should be made compulsory for
political parties to maintain a register
of its members, to follow its own
© Keshav - The Hindu

constitution, to have an independent

authority, to act as a judge in case of
party disputes, to hold open elections
to the highest posts.
 It should be made mandatory for
Do you agree that this form of reforming political parties will be
acceptable to them? political parties to give a minimum
any MLA or MP changes parties, number of tickets, about one-third,
he or she will lose the seat in the to women candidates. Similarly,
legislature. This new law has helped there should be a quota for women
bring defection down. At the same in the decision making bodies of
time, this has made any dissent even the party.
more difficult. MPs and MLAs have  There should be state funding of
to accept whatever the party leaders elections. The government should
decide. give parties money to support their
 The Supreme Court passed an election expenses. This support
order to reduce the influence of could be given in kind: petrol, paper,
money and criminals. Now, it is telephone, etc. Or it could be given in
mandatory for every candidate who cash on the basis of the votes secured
contests elections to file an affidavit by the party in the last election.
giving details of his property and These suggestions have not yet
criminal cases pending against him. been accepted by political parties. If
The new system has made a lot of and when these are accepted these
information available to the public. could lead to some improvement.
But there is no system to check if the But we must be very careful about
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

information given by the candidates legal solutions to political problems.

is true. As yet we do not know if it Over-regulation of political parties
has led to decline in the influence of can be counter-productive. This
the rich and the criminals. would force all parties to find ways
Affidavit: A signed to cheat the law. Besides, political
 The Election Commission
document submitted parties will not agree to pass a law
passed an order making it necessary
to an officer, where a that they do not like.
for political parties to hold their
person makes a sworn There are two other ways
organisational elections and file their
statement regarding her in which political parties can be
income tax returns. The parties have
personal information. started doing so but sometimes it reformed. One, people can put
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 pressure on political parties. This can those who want this, join political
be done through petitions, publicity parties. The quality of democracy
and agitations. Ordinary citizens, depends on the degree of public
pressure groups and movements and participation. It is difficult to reform
the media can play an important role politics if ordinary citizens do not
in this. If political parties feel that take part in it and simply criticise
they would lose public support by it from the outside. The problem of
not taking up reforms, they would bad politics can be solved by more
become more serious about reforms. and better politics. We shall return
Two, political parties can improve if to this theme in the final chapter.

1. State the various functions political parties perform in a democracy.

2. What are the various challenges faced by political parties?

Exercises
3. Suggest some reforms to strengthen parties so that they perform
their functions well?
4. What is a political party?
5. What are the characteristics of a political party?
6. A group of people who come together to contest elections and hold
power in the government is called a _____________________.
7. Match List I (organisations and struggles) with List II and select the
correct answer using the codes given below the lists:

List I List II
1. Congress Party A. National Democratic Alliance
2. Bharatiya Janata Party B. State party
3. Communist Party of India (Marxist) C. United Progressive Alliance
4. Telugu Desam Party D. Left Front

1 2 3 4
(a) C A B D
(b) C D A B
(c) C A D B
(d) D C A B

8. Who among the following is the founder of the Bahujan Samaj

Party?
A. Kanshi Ram
Po l i t i c a l Pa r t i e s

B. Sahu Maharaj
C. B.R. Ambedkar
D. Jotiba Phule
9. What is the guiding philosophy of the Bharatiya Janata Party?
A. Bahujan Samaj
B. Revolutionary democracy
C. Integral humanism
D. Modernity

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 10. Consider the following statements on parties.
A. Political parties do not enjoy much trust among the people.
B. Parties are often rocked by scandals involving top party leaders.
C. Parties are not necessary to run governments.
Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) A, B, and C (b) A and B (c) B and C (d) A and C

11. Read the following passage and answer the questions given
below:
Muhammad Yunus is a famous economist of Bangladesh.
He received several international honours for his efforts to
promote economic and social development for the benefit of
the poor. He and the Grameen Bank that he started jointly,
Exercises
received the Nobel Peace Prize for the year 2006. In February
2007, he decided to launch a political party and contest in the
parliamentary elections. His objective was to foster proper
leadership, good governance and build a new Bangladesh.
He felt that only a political party different from the traditional
ones would bring about new political culture. His party would
be democratic from the grassroots level.
The launching of the new party, called Nagarik Shakti
(Citizens’ Power), has caused a stir among the Bangladeshis.
While many welcomed his decision, some did not like it. “Now
I think Bangladesh will have a chance to choose between
good and bad and eventually have a good government,” said
Shahedul Islam, a government official. “That government, we
hope, would not only keep itself away from corruption but also
make fighting corruption and black money a top priority.”
But leaders of traditional political parties who dominated
the country’s politics for decades were apprehensive. “There
was no debate (over him) winning the Nobel, but politics is
different – very challenging and often controversial,” said
a senior leader of the Bangladesh Nationalist Party. Some
others were highly critical. They asked why he was rushing
into politics. “Is he being planted in politics by mentors from
outside the country,” asked one political observer.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Do you think Yunus made a right decision to float a new political

party?
Do you agree with the statements and fears expressed by various
people? How do you want this new party organised to make it
different from other parties? If you were the one to begin this
political party, how would you defend it?

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 Outcomes of
Democracy

Overview

Chapter 5
As we begin to wind up our tour of democracy, it is time to move
beyond our discussion of specific themes and ask a general set of
questions: What does democracy do? Or, what outcomes can we
reasonably expect of democracy? Also, does democracy fulfil these
expectations in real life? We begin by thinking about how to assess
the outcomes of democracy. After some clarity on how to think on
this subject, we proceed to look at the expected and actual outcomes
of democracy in various respects: quality of government, economic
well-being, inequality, social differences and conflict and finally
freedom and dignity.

Outcomes of Democracy

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 How do we assess democracy’s outcomes?
Do you remember how students principle, but felt to be not so good in
in Madam Lyngdoh’s class argued its practice. This dilemma invites us
about democracy? This was in to think hard about the outcomes of
Chapter 2 of Class IX textbook. democracy. Do we prefer democracy
It emerged from that conversation only for moral reasons? Or are there
that democracy is a better form of some prudential reasons to support
government when compared with democracy too?
dictatorship or any other alternative. Over a hundred countries of
Did we We felt that democracy was better the world today claim and practice
reach these because it:
conclusions
some kind of democratic politics:
 Promotes equality among they have formal constitutions, they
in Madam
citizens; hold elections, they have parties and
Lyngdoh’s class?
 Enhances the dignity of the they guarantee rights of citizens.
I loved that
individual; While these features are common to
class because
 Improves the quality of most of them, these democracies are
students were
decision-making; very much different from each other
not being
dictated any
 Provides a method to resolve in terms of their social situations,
conclusions. conflicts; and their economic achievements and
 Allows room to correct mistakes. their cultures. Clearly, what may be
Are these expectations realised achieved or not achieved under each
under democracies? When we talk of these democracies will be very
to people around us, most of them different. But is there something that
support democracy against other we can expect from every democracy,
alternatives, such as rule by a monarch just because it is democracy?
or military or religious leaders. But Our interest in and fascination
not so many of them would be for democracy often pushes us into
satisfied with the democracy in taking a position that democracy
practice. So we face a dilemma: can address all socio-economic and
democracy is seen to be good in political problems. If some of our
expectations are not met, we start
blaming the idea of democracy. Or,
we start doubting if we are living in
a democracy. The first step towards
thinking carefully about the outcomes
© RK Laxman - Brushing up the years
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

of democracy is to recognise
that democracy is just a form
of government. It can only create
conditions for achieving something.
The citizens have to take advantage
of those conditions and achieve
those goals. Let us examine some of
the things we can reasonably expect
Is democracy all about coping with multiple pressures and
from democracy and examine the
accommodating diverse demands? record of democracy.
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 Accountable, responsive and legitimate government
There are some things that democracy Governmental Secrecy
must provide. In a democracy, we
are most concerned with ensuring
that people will have the right
to choose their rulers and people
will have control over the rulers.

© Mike Keefe - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

Whenever possible and necessary,
citizens should be able to participate
in decision making, that affects
them all. Therefore, the most basic
outcome of democracy should
be that it produces a government
that is accountable to the citizens,
and responsive to the needs and
expectations of the citizens.
Before we go into this question, Now look at the other side –
we face another common question: Is democracy ensures that decision
Can you think of
the democratic government efficient? making will be based on norms and what and how the
Is it effective? Some people think that procedures. So, a citizen who wants government knows
democracy produces less effective to know if a decision was taken about you and your
family (for example
government. It is, of course, true that through the correct procedures ration cards and
non-democratic rulers do not have to can find this out. She has the right voter identity cards)?
bother about deliberation in assemblies and the means to examine the What are the sources
of information for
or worry about majorities and public process of decision making. This you about the
opinion. So, they can be very quick is known as transparency. This government?
and efficient in decision making factor is often missing from a
and implementation. Democracy non-democratic government.
is based on the idea of deliberation Therefore, when we are trying to
and negotiation. So, some delay is find out the outcomes of democracy,
bound to take place. Does that make it is right to expect democracy to
democratic government inefficient? produce a government that follows
Let us think in terms of costs. procedures and is accountable to the
people. We can also expect that the
Outcomes of Democracy
Imagine a government that may
take decisions very fast. But it may democratic government develops
take decisions that are not accepted mechanisms for citizens to hold
by the people and may therefore the government accountable and
face problems. In contrast, the mechanisms for citizens to take part
democratic government will take in decision making whenever they
more time to follow procedures think fit.
before arriving at a decision. But If you wanted to measure
because it has followed procedures, democracies on the basis of this
its decisions may be both more expected outcome, you would look
acceptable to the people and more for the following practices and
effective. So, the cost of time that institutions: regular, free and fair
democracy pays is perhaps worth it. elections; open public debate on
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 major policies and legislations; the demands of a majority of its
So, the best and citizens’ right to information population. The routine tales of
outcome of about the government and its corruption are enough to convince us
democracy functioning. The actual performance that democracy is not free of this evil.
is that it is a of democracies shows a mixed At the same time, there is nothing
democracy! That record on this. Democracies have to show that non-democracies are
is what we have had greater success in setting up less corrupt or more sensitive to
discovered after regular and free elections and in the people.
all this mental setting up conditions for open There is one respect in which
gymnastics? public debate. But most democracies democratic government is certainly
fall short of elections that provide better than its alternatives: demo-
a fair chance to everyone and in cratic government is legitimate
subjecting every decision to public government. It may be slow,
debate. Democratic governments do less efficient, not always very
not have a very good record when responsive or clean. But a democratic
it comes to sharing information government is people’s own
with citizens. All one can say in government. That is why, there is
favour of democratic regimes is an overwhelming support for the
that they are much better than any idea of democracy all over the world.
non-democratic regime in As the accompanying evidence from
these respects. South Asia shows, the support
In substantive terms, it may be exists in countries with democratic
reasonable to expect from democracy regimes as well as countries without
a government that is attentive to the democratic regimes. People wish to
needs and demands of the people be ruled by representatives elected
and is largely free of corruption. by them. They also believe that
The record of democracies is not democracy is suitable for their
impressive on these two counts. country. Democracy’s ability to
Democracies often frustrate the generate its own support is itself an
needs of the people and often ignore outcome that cannot be ignored.

Democracy is preferred Very few doubt the suitability of democracy

over dictatorship for their own country
How suitable is democracy for your country?
South Asia everywhere except
28 Pakistan Very suitable Suitable
South Asia 88
Those who agree with one of
Bangladesh 93
the statements
10 Sri Lanka 92
62 India 92
Pakistan 84
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Nepal 79
0 50 100
Overwhelming support for democracy
Those who agree with the rule of leaders elected by the people
Bangladesh India Nepal Pakistan Sri Lanka
Strongly agree Agree
Democracy is South Asia 94
preferable 69 70 62 37 71
Sri Lanka 98
Sometimes dictatorship Bangladesh 96
is better 6 9 10 14 11 India 95
Nepal 94
Doesn’t Pakistan 81
matter to me 25 21 28 49 18
0 50 100

Source: SDSA Team, State of Democracy in South Asia, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007

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 Economic growth and development
If democracies are expected to size, global situation, cooperation
produce good governments, then from other countries, economic
is it not fair to expect that they priorities adopted by the country,
would also produce development? etc. However, the difference in the
Evidence shows that in practice, rates of economic development
many democracies did not fulfil this between less developed countries
expectation. with dictatorships and democracies
If you consider all democracies is negligible. Overall, we cannot say
and all dictatorships for the fifty that democracy is a guarantee of
years between 1950 and 2000, economic development. But we can
dictatorships have slightly higher rate expect democracy not to lag behind
of economic growth. The inability
dictatorships in this respect.
of democracy to achieve higher
economic development worries us. When we find such significant Cartoon on this page
and next three pages tell
But this alone cannot be reason difference in the rates of economic
us about the disparities
to reject democracy. As you have growth between countries under between the rich and
already studied in economics, dictatorship and democracy, it is poor. Should the gains
of economic growth
economic development depends on better to prefer democracy as it has be evenly distributed?
several factors: country’s population several other positive outcomes. How can the poor get a
voice for a better share
in a nation? What can
the poor countries do to
receive a greater share in
the world’s wealth?
The Rich Get Buff

Outcomes of Democracy
© RJ Matson - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

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 Economic outcomes
of democracy
Arguments about democracy tend to be
very passionate. This is how it should
Poor Kids
be, for democracy appeals to some of
our deep values. These debates cannot

© Jimmy Margulies - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

be resolved in a simple manner. But
some debates about democracy can and
should be resolved by referring to some
facts and figures. The debate about the
economic outcomes of democracy is
one such debate. Over the years, many
students of democracy have gathered
careful evidence to see what the
relationship of democracy with economic
growth and economic inequalities is.
The tables and the cartoon here present
some of the evidences:
 Table 1 shows that on an average dictatorial regimes have had a slightly better record
of economic growth. But when we compare their record only in poor countries, there is
virtually no difference.
 Table 2 shows that within democracies there can be very high degree of inequalities.
In democratic countries like South Africa and Brazil, the top 20 per cent people take away
more than 60 per cent of the national income, leaving less than 3 per cent for the bottom
20 per cent population. Countries like Denmark and Hungary are much better in this
respect.
 You can see in the cartoon, there is often inequality of opportunities available to the
poorer sections.
What would be your verdict on democracy if you had to base it purely on economic
performance of democratic regimes in terms of growth and equal distribution?

Table 2
Inequality of income in selected countries
Table 1
Name of the % share of national
Rates of economic growth for different countries,
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Countries income
1950 – 2000
Top 20 % Bottom 20 %
Type of regimes and countries Growth Rate South Africa 64.8 2.9
All democratic regimes 3.95 Brazil 63.0 2.6
All dictatorial regimes 4.42 Russia 53.7 4.4
Poor countries under dictatorship 4.34 USA 50.0 4.0
Poor countries under democracy 4.28 United Kingdom 45.0 6.0
Source: A Przeworski, M E Alvarez, J A Cheibub and F Limongi, Democracy and
Development: Political Institutions and Well-Being in the World, 1950 -1990.
Denmark 34.5 9.6
Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Hungary 34.4 10.0

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 Reduction of inequality and poverty
Perhaps more than development, it Democracies are based on political
is reasonable to expect democracies equality. All individuals have equal
to reduce economic disparities. Even weight in electing representatives.
when a country achieves economic Parallel to the process of bringing
growth, will wealth be distributed individuals into the political arena
in such a way that all citizens of the on an equal footing, we find growing
country will have a share and lead economic inequalities. A small
a better life? Is economic growth number of ultra-rich enjoy a highly
Democracy is
in democracies accompanied by disproportionate share of wealth and
a rule of the
increased inequalities among the incomes. Not only that, their share majority. The
people? Or do democracies lead in the total income of the country poor are in
to a just distribution of goods and has been increasing. Those at the majority. So
opportunities? bottom of the society have very little democracy must
to depend upon. Their incomes have be a rule of the
Voice of the Poor been declining. Sometimes they find poor. How can
it difficult to meet their basic needs this not be the
of life, such as food, clothing, house, case?
education and health.
In actual life, democracies do
not appear to be very successful in
reducing economic inequalities. In
Class IX Economics textbook, you
have already studied about poverty in
India. The poor constitute a large
proportion of our voters and no
party will like to lose their
votes. Yet democratically
elected governments do
not appear to be as keen
to address the question
of poverty as you would
© Ares - Best of Latin America, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

expect them to. The

situation is much worse Outcomes of Democracy
in some other countries.
In Bangladesh, more than
half of its population
lives in poverty. People
in several poor countries
are now dependent on the
rich countries even for
food supplies.

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 World’s Wealth Owned by a Few

© Manny Francisco - The Phillippines, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

Accommodation of social diversity
Do democracies lead to peaceful and often turn a blind eye to or suppress
harmonious life among citizens? internal social differences. Ability to
It will be a fair expectation that handle social differences, divisions
democracy should produce a and conflicts is thus a definite plus
harmonious social life. We have point of democratic regimes. But
All you are seen in the earlier chapters how the example of Sri Lanka reminds
saying is that democracies accommodate various us that a democracy must fulfil two
democracy social divisions. We saw in the first conditions in order to achieve this
ensures that chapter how Belgium has successfully outcome:
people do not negotiated differences among ethnic  It is necessary to understand
break each populations. Democracies usually that democracy is not simply rule
other’s head. develop a procedure to conduct by majority opinion. The majority
This is not their competition. This reduces always needs to work with the
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

harmony. Should the possibility of these tensions minority so that governments

we be happy becoming explosive or violent. function to represent the general
about it?
No society can fully and view. Majority and minority
permanently resolve conflicts among opinions are not permanent.
different groups. But we can certainly  It is also necessary that rule by
learn to respect these differences and majority does not become rule by
we can also evolve mechanisms to majority community in terms of
negotiate the differences. Democracy religion or race or linguistic group,
is best suited to produce this etc. Rule by majority means that in
outcome. Non-democratic regimes case of every decision or in case of
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 every election, different persons and of time. If someone is barred from
groups may and can form a majority. being in majority on the basis of
Democracy remains democracy only birth, then the democratic rule ceases
as long as every citizen has a chance to be accommodative for that person
of being in majority at some point or group.

Enemies

© Ares - Best of Latin America, Cagle Cartoons Inc.

Greeting

The two images depict two different kinds of

effects democratic politics can have on social
divisions. Take one example for each image
and write a paragraph each on the outcome of
democratic politics in both situations.

Dignity and freedom of the citizens

Democracy stands much superior in various degrees in various
to any other form of government democracies. For societies which Outcomes of Democracy
in promoting dignity and freedom have been built for long on the basis
of the individual. Every individual of subordination and domination, it
wants to receive respect from is not a simple matter to recognise
fellow beings. Often conflicts arise that all individuals are equal.
among individuals because some feel Take the case of dignity of
that they are not treated with due women. Most societies across
respect. The passion for respect and the world were historically male
freedom are the basis of democracy. dominated societies. Long struggles
Democracies throughout the world by women have created some
have recognised this, at least in sensitivity today that respect to
principle. This has been achieved and equal treatment of women are
71
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Chapter 5.indd 71 08-04-2022 12:37:00

 necessary ingredients of a democratic What is most distinctive about
I am anxious society. That does not mean that democracy is that its examination
about my board women are actually always treated never gets over. As democracy
exams. But with respect. But once the principle passes one test, it produces another
democracy has is recognised, it becomes easier for test. As people get some benefits of
so many exams. women to wage a struggle against democracy, they ask for more and
And millions of
what is now unacceptable legally want to make democracy even better.
examiners!
and morally. In a non-democratic That is why, when we ask people
set up, this unacceptability would about the way democracy functions,
not have legal basis because the they will always come up with more
principle of individual freedom and expectations, and many complaints.
dignity would not have the legal and The fact that people are complaining
moral force there. The same is true is itself a testimony to the success of
of caste inequalities. Democracy in democracy: it shows that people have
India has strengthened the claims of developed awareness and the ability
the disadvantaged and discriminated to expect and to look critically at
castes for equal status and equal power holders and the high and
opportunity. There are instances the mighty. A public expression of
still of caste-based inequalities and dissatisfaction with democracy shows
atrocities, but these lack the moral the success of the democratic project:
and legal foundations. Perhaps, it is it transforms people from the status
the recognition that makes ordinary of a subject into that of a citizen.
citizens value their democratic rights. Most individuals today believe that
Expectations from democracy their vote makes a difference to the
also function as the criteria for way the government is run and to
judging any democratic country. their own self-interest.

Rosa Parks Still Inspires

Belief in the efficacy of vote is placed above the

calculus of utility
Those who say that their vote makes a difference...
© Pat Bagley - Cagle Cartoons Inc.

South Asia 65
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Bangladesh 66
India 67
Nepal 75
Pakistan 50
Sri Lanka 65

0 80
Source: SDSA Team, State of Democracy in South
Asia, Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2007.
The above cartoon and graph illustrate a point made in this section
(Dignity and freedom of the citizens). Underline the sentences from this
section which connect to the cartoon or graph.

72
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 1. How does democracy produce an accountable, responsive and
legitimate government?
2. What are the conditions under which democracies accommodate
social diversities?
3. Give arguments to support or oppose the following assertions:
 Industrialised countries can afford democracy but the poor
need dictatorship to become rich.
 Democracy can’t reduce inequality of incomes between
different citizens.
 Government in poor countries should spend less on poverty
reduction, health, education and spend more on industries
and infrastructure.
 In democracy all citizens have one vote, which means that
there is absence of any domination and conflict.

Exercises
4. Identify the challenges to democracy in the following descriptions.
Also suggest policy/institutional mechanism to deepen democracy in
the given situations:
 Following a High Court directive, a temple in Orissa that had
separate entry doors for dalits and non-dalits allowed entry for
all from the same door.
 A large number of farmers are committing suicide in different
states of India.
 Following an allegation of killing of three civilians in Gandwara
in a fake encounter by Jammu and Kashmir police, an enquiry
has been ordered.
5. In the context of democracies, which of the following ideas is correct–
democracies have successfully eliminated:
A. conflicts among people
B. economic inequalities among people
C. differences of opinion about how marginalised sections
are to be treated
D. the idea of political inequality
6. In the context of assessing democracy, which among the following is
the odd one out. Democracies need to ensure:
A. free and fair elections
Outcomes of Democracy
B. dignity of the individual
C. majority rule
D. equal treatment before law
7. Studies on political and social inequalities in democracy show that:
A. democracy and development go together.
B. inequalities exist in democracies.
C. inequalities do not exist under dictatorship.
D. dictatorship is better than democracy.

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 8. Read the passage below:
Nannu is a daily wage earner. He lives in Welcome Mazdoor
Colony, a slum habitation in East Delhi. He lost his ration card
and applied for a duplicate one in January 2004. He made
several rounds to the local Food and Civil Supplies office for
the next three months. But the clerks and officials would
not even look at him, leave alone do his job or bother to
tell him the status of his application. Ultimately, he filed an
application under the Right to Information Act asking for the
daily progress made on his application, names of the officials,
who were supposed to act on his application and what action
would be taken against these officials for their inaction. Within
a week of filing application under the Right to Information Act,
he was visited by an inspector from the Food Department,
Exercises
who informed him that the card had been made and he could
collect it from the office. When Nannu went to collect his card
next day, he was given a very warm treatment by the Food
and Supply Officer (FSO), who is the head of a Circle. The FSO
offered him tea and requested him to withdraw his application
under the Right to Information, since his work had already
been done.
What does Nannu’s example show? What impact did Nannu’s
action have on officials? Ask your parents their experiences
when they approach government officials to attend to their
problems.
D e m o c ra t i c Po l i t i c s

Source: Election Commission of India

74
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Political Theory
Textbook for Class XI

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11117 – Political Theory
ISBN 81-7450-613-6
Textbook for Class XI

First Edition ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

September 2006 Asvina 1928 q No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher.
Reprinted
q This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade, be lent,
February 2007, January 2008, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s consent, in any
January 2009, January 2010, form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published.
January 2011, March 2012, q The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any revised price
April 2013, October 2013, indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other means is incorrect and should
be unacceptable.
December 2014, January 2016,
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July 2021 and November 2021 NCERT Campus
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Revised Edition New Delhi 110 016 Phone : 011-26562708
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 Foreword
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF), 2005, recommends that
children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school.
This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning
which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the
school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed on
the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea. They
also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance of sharp
boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these measures
will take us significantly further in the direction of a child-centred system
of education outlined in the National Policy on Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals
and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own
learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must
recognise that given space, time and freedom, children generate new
knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them by adults.
Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of examination is one
of the key reasons why other resources and sites of learning are ignored.
Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible if we perceive and treat
children as participants in learning, not as receivers of a fixed body of
knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode
of functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour
in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of
teaching days is actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for
teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook
proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather
than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried to
address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and reorienting
knowledge at different stages with greater consideration for child

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psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook attempts
to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and space to
opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion in small
groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
The National Council of Educational Research and Training (NCERT)
appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development committee
responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson of the
advisory group in Social Sciences, Professor Hari Vasudevan and
the Chief Advisors for this book, Professor Suhas Palshikar and
Professor Yogendra Yadav for guiding the work of this committee. Several
teachers contributed to the development of this textbook; we are grateful
to their principals for making this possible. We are indebted to the
institutions and organisations which have generously permitted us to
draw upon their resources, material and personnel. We are especially
grateful to the members of the National Monitoring Committee, appointed
by the Department of Secondary and Higher Education, Ministry of
Human Resource Development under the Chairmanship of Professor
Mrinal Miri and Professor G.P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and
contribution. As an organisation committed to systemic reform and
continuous improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes
comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further
revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2005 Research and Training

iv

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 Rationalisation of Content in
the Textbooks
In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to reduce content
load on students. The National Education Policy 2020, also emphasises
reducing the content load and providing opportunities for experiential
learning with creative mindset. In this background, the NCERT has
undertaken the exercise to rationalise the textbooks across all classes.
Learning Outcomes already developed by the NCERT across classes have
been taken into consideration in this exercise.

Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view of

the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject areas in
the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the same
subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without much
interventions from teachers and can be learned by children through
self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context

This present edition, is a reformatted version after carrying

out the changes given above.

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Reprint 2025-26
 Preface
The NCERT this year has introduced a separate paper on Political Theory
for students of Class XI. This change has come as a part of the larger
project to revise and redesign the school curricula. Previously students
were exposed to political ideas and theories primarily through the study of
political ideologies, such as, Liberalism, or Marxism, or Fascism. Concepts
like freedom and equality entered the picture only indirectly in terms of
their place in a given system of ideas. In the new course the central focus is
on concepts rather than ideologies. The objective of the course is to introduce
students to some of the important ideas and concepts which form a part of
the living tradition of political thought in the world.
In the writing of this book the approach which was followed was to try and
involve the students in the process of learning, both as recipients and creators
of knowledge. The objective was to encourage students to do political theory by
training them to scrutinise and reflect upon the ways we make sense of and
conceptualise our world, as well as to develop and extend their understanding.
Hence, even as each chapter begins with some minimum, and at times
commonsensical, understanding of a concept, it tries to introduce students to
different dimensions of the concept and give them a feel of the range of ideas
that can be marshaled while taking positions and offering reasons.
For all of you, the students, who will study political theory and be examined
in this subject, we hope will be this approach to the study of political theory
more engaging. We wanted you not only to learn about the ideas which have
been developed by thinkers over the ages but also to be able to respond to
them on the basis of your own experience of the world. As you will see, the
concepts included in this book – freedom, equality, rights, nationalism – are
used in everyday life not only by politicians and governments but by all of us.
We speak frequently of our freedoms and rights, of the fairness and unfairness
of things, of our desire to be treated equally, of our sentiments about
nationalism or peace, or other such ideals. The concepts that we are going to
study in this book are thus already part of our lives. We apply them in our
personal life, in the family, in the school, or among our friends, and we also
use them when we take positions on public policies or political debates.
The starting point of our study is not therefore unfamiliar. But we hope
that through the study of political theory you will be able to refine your

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ideas and express them with greater precision and clarity. If, at the end of
the year, you are able to critically reflect on your beliefs and ideas and offer
reasoned and compelling arguments in defence of your position, we think
that this experiment would have been successful. The side comments,
suggestions for activities, and exercises in each chapter were designed to
indicate how these concepts could help you interpret the often-confusing
world in which we live. As with all such new projects, mistakes might have
been made but we look forward to feedback from you.
Even though students were the major focus of our thinking when planning
the book we recognise the crucial role that teachers play in the learning
process. We hope that the book will also empower teachers to use it not as a
repository of truths but as a starting point for generating a creative classroom
environment. The different exercises and activities included in each chapter
were intended not as directions for what the teachers have to do in their
classes. Rather they were meant to be indicators of how the ideas in a chapter
and the book as a whole could be appropriated and developed.
We might also add that in addition to the main text, boxes have been
introduced in each chapter to draw your attention to the political thought
and contribution of a particular theorist or of a system of ideas. These too
were conceived as ways of enriching and deepening the discussion, without
compelling the student to commit to memory who said what, when and why.
We do hope that the teachers will assess students in terms of their ability to
think for themselves by understanding the different aspects and dimensions
of a given concept rather than for their skill in rehearsing and reproducing
all the possible arguments and usages of a concept discussed in the text.
Such an open-ended approach may present a challenge both for teachers
and students but it should become an integral part of our educational system.
In this short preface, rather than prescribing what needs to be done,
and how, we have tried to share with you how we approached the writing of
the book. From teachers also we would appreciate feedback about the book
and its design.
Writing the book was a collective enterprise of a number of people and it
involved a continuous dialogue regarding the meaning of concepts and how
they could be taught. We recognised both the need to listen to each other as
well as to convince others of our point of view. The end result is before you
and we will wait to get your response.

Chief Advisors Advisors

Suhas Palshikar Gurpreet Mahajan
Yogendra Yadav Sarah Joseph

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 Textbook Development Committee
CHAIRPERSON, ADVISORY COMMITTEE FOR TEXTBOOKS AT THE SECONDARY LEVEL
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of Calcutta, Kolkata
CHIEF ADVISORS
Suhas Palshikar, Professor, Department of Politics and Public Administration,
University of Pune, Maharashtra
Yogendra Yadav, Senior Fellow, Centre for the Study of Developing Societies, Delhi
ADVISORS
Gurpreet Mahajan, Professor, Centre for Political Studies, School of Social Sciences,
Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi
Sarah Joseph, (Retd.) Reader, Lady Sri Ram College, New Delhi, 2A, Palacina Apts.,
43, M.E.G.Officers Colony, Banaswadi Road, Bangalore
MEMBERS
Ashok Acharya, Professor, Department of Political Science, Art Faculty Extension,
Delhi University, Delhi
Bhagat Oinam, Associate Professor, Center of Philosophy, JNU, New Delhi
Lajwanti Chattani, Associate Professor, Department of Political Science, MS
University Baroda, Vadodara, Gujarat
Mangesh Kulkarni, Reader, Department of Politics and Public Administration,
University of Pune, Maharashtra
Meenakshi Tandon, PGT (Pol. Sc.), Sardar Patel Vidyalaya, New Delhi
Neeraj Priya, Lecturer, N 16, Navin Shahadara, Delhi
Peter R. D’ Souza, Professor and Co-Director Lokniti, Senior Fellow, CSDS, 29, Rajpur
Road, Delhi
Rajeev Bhargava, Professor and Senior Fellow, CSDS, 29 Rajpur Road, Delhi
Rajesh Dev, Lecturer , Women’s College, Laithumkhrah, Shillong, Meghalaya
Rupa Sen, Principal, Former PGT (Pol. Sc.) Ajanta Public School, Gurgaon
Satya P. Gautam, Professor, Centre for Philosophy, SSS, JNU, New Delhi
Vasanthi Srinivasan, Associate Professor, B-20, University of Hyderabad, Gachi
Bowli Campus, Hyderabad
Vipul Mudgal, Editor, HT-School edition, Hindustan Times House, New Delhi

MEMBER-COORDINATOR
Sanjay Dubey, Reader, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi

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 Acknowledgements
We would like to thank all the people who have been associated with this book in
different capacities. At the initial stages of planning inputs were provided by a
committee which included school teachers, representatives of the NCERT and some
State Education Boards in addition to chapter writers. Although it is difficult to
mention the names of all the people who helped in the production and preparation
of this book, we would like to mention Vasanthi Srinivasan from Hyderabad Central
University and Mangesh Kulkarni from Pune University for contributing chapters
and willingly offering additional help through editorial and other inputs. We would
also like to thank Peter D’Souza, S. Gautam, Rajeev Bhargava, Bhagat Oinam,
Ashok Acharya, Nivedita Menon, Lajwanti and Janaki Srinivasan for contributing
to the text. Their contributions kick-started this project. Besides them several young
teachers and research students provided invaluable help in giving the book its
final form. We would in particular like to thank Ankita Pandey, Divya Singh and
Navanita Sinha from JNU, Sriranjani from CSDS and Mohinder Singh and Papia
SenGupta from Delhi University. We would also like to thank Aarti Sethi and Rafia
Zaman in helping the preparation of the box items.
For some of the images used in this book, we would like to thank
www.africawithin.com, www.ibiblio.org, www.narmada.org, Sardar Sarovar Narmada
Nigam Ltd. and the National Archives and Records Administration, USA. Our special
thanks also to P. Sainath, Harikrishna, Deepa Jani and Shweta Rao for allowing us
to use their pictures and images. Most of all we would like to thank R.K. Laxman for
letting us use Cartoons from his various collections. We are grateful to Mathew John
for proof reading and to DTP Operator, Arvind Sharma for assistance in finalising
the book.
The design of this book has the stamp of Shweta Rao and if the book has an attractive
look that compels you to leaf through it, it is on account of her efforts.
The contribution of M.V.S.V. Prasad, Assistant Professor, Department of Curriculum
Studies, NCERT, in reviewing and updating the current edition is appreciated.
The Council acknowledges the contributions of the following review committee
members towards the rationalisation of the textbook: Kavita Jain, PGT, Political
Science, Delhi; Maneesha Pandey, Department of Political Science, Hindu College,
Delhi University, New Delhi; Shankar Sharan, Professor, DESS, NCERT;
Vanthangpui Khobung, Assistant Professor, RIE, Bhopal, NCERT; Sunita Kathuria,
PGT, Political Science, New Delhi.

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 Contents
Rationalisation of Content in v
the Textbook

Chapter 1 1-16
Political Theory: An Introduction

Chapter 2 17-30
Freedom

Chapter 3 31-52
Equality

Chapter 4 53-66
Social Justice

Chapter 5 67-78
Rights

Chapter 6 79-96
Citizenship

Chapter 7 97-110
Nationalism

Chapter 8 111-128
Secularism

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Equality
Equality

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 Political Theory
Introduction Political Theory

Human beings are unique in two respects: they possess reason and
the ability to reflect on their actions. They also have the capacity to
use language and communicate with each other. Unlike other species,
they can express their innermost thoughts and desires; they can
share their ideas and discuss what they consider to be good and
desirable. Political theory has its roots in the twin aspects of the
human self. It analyses certain basic questions such as how should
society be organised? Why do we need government? What is the best
form of government? Does law limit our freedom? What does the
state owe its citizens? What do we owe each other as citizens?
Political theory examines questions of this kind and
systematically thinks about the values that inform political life —
values such as freedom, equality and justice. It explains the meaning
and significance of these and other related concepts. It clarifies the
existing definitions of these concepts by focusing on some major
political thinkers of the past and present. It also examines the extent
to which freedom or equality are actually present in the institutions
that we participate in, everyday life such as schools, shops, buses
or trains or government offices. At an advanced level, it looks at
whether existing definitions are adequate and how existing
institutions (government, bureaucracy) and policy practices must
be modified to become more democratic. The objective of political
theory is to train citizens to think rationally about political questions
and assess the political events of our time.

In this chapter, we will examine what is meant by politics and

political theory and why we should study it.

1.1 WHAT IS POLITICS?

“”
You would have noticed that people have different ideas
about what politics is. Political leaders, and persons
who contest elections and hold political office, may argue
LET’S DEBATE that it is a kind of public service. Some others associate
What is Politics. politics with manipulation and intrigue undertaken to
pursue ambitions and satisfy wants. A few think of
politics as what politicians do. If they see politicians
2 defecting from parties, making false promises and tall

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Political Theory
Political Theory
Introduction
claims, manipulating different sections, pursuing personal or group
interests ruthlessly and in worst cases stooping to crime, they link
politics with ‘scams’. So prevalent is this way of thinking that when
we see people in different walks of life trying to promote their interests
by any means possible, we say they are playing politics. If we see
a cricketer manipulating to stay in the team, or a fellow student
trying to use his father’s position, or a colleague in office mindlessly
agreeing with the boss, we say he or she is playing ‘dirty’ politics.
Disillusioned by such pursuits of selfishness we

R. K. Laxman in the Times of India

despair of politics. We say, “I am not interested
in politics” or “I am going to stay away from
politics”. It is not only ordinary people who
despair of politics; even businessmen and
entrepreneurs routinely blame politics for their
woes even as they benefit from and fund various
political parties. Cinema stars also complain of
politics though they seem to be adept at the game
once they join it.
We are thus confronted with conflicting
images of politics. Is politics an undesirable
activity that we should stay away from and get
rid off? Or, is it a worthwhile activity which we You must retire from politics at
must engage with in order to make a better world? once! Your activities are having a
bad influence on him. He thinks
It is unfortunate that politics has come to be he can get away with lying and
associated with the pursuit of self-interest by cheating.
any and every method. We need to realise that
politics is an important and integral part of any society. Mahatma
Gandhi once observed that politics envelops us like the coils of a
snake and there is no other way out but to wrestle with it. No society
can exist without some form of political organisation and collective
decision making. A society that wants to sustain itself needs to
take into account the multiple needs and interests of its members.
A number of social institutions such as the family, tribes and
economic institutions, have emerged to help people fulfil their needs
and aspirations. Such institutions help us find ways of living together
acknowledging our obligations to each other. Among such
institutions, governments play an important part. How governments 3

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 Political Theory
Introduction
Read the newspaper. What are
the issues dominating the
important focus of politics.
Political Theory

are formed and how they function is thus an

headlines? Do you think they But politics is not confined to the affairs of
have any relevance for you? government. In fact what governments do is
relevant because it affects the lives of the
people in many different ways. We see that
governments determine our economic policy and foreign policy and
educational policy. These policies can help to improve the lives of
people but an inefficient or corrupt government can also endanger
people’s lives and security. If the government in power allows any
conflicts to become violent, markets close down and schools are
shut. These disrupt our lives; we cannot buy things that we may
need urgently; those who are sick cannot reach the hospital; even
the school schedule gets affected, syllabi cannot be completed and
we may have to take extra coaching for the exams and pay tuition
fees. If, on the other hand, the government makes policies to increase
literacy and employment, we may get an opportunity to go to a
good school and get a decent job.
Since the actions of the government affect us deeply, we take a
lively interest in what governments do. We form associations and
organise campaigns to articulate our demands. We negotiate with
others and try to shape the goals that governments pursue. When
we disagree with the policies of the government, we protest and
organise demonstrations to persuade the government to change
the existing laws. We passionately debate the actions of our
representatives and discuss whether corruption has increased or
decreased. We ask whether corruption can be rooted out; whether
reservations for specific groups are just or not. We try to understand
why some parties and leaders win
elections. In this way we look for the
rationale underlying the prevalent chaos
and decay, and aspire to create a better LET’S DO IT Do
world.
How does politics
influence our daily life?
To sum up, politics arises from the
Analyse a day’s events
fact that we have different visions of what
in your life.
4 is just and desirable for us and our

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Political Theory
Political Theory
Introduction
society. It involves the multiple negotiations

“”
that go on in society through which collective
decisions are made. At one level, it involves what
governments do and how they relate to the
aspirations of the people; at another level, it
LET’S DEBATE
involves how people struggle and influence decision
making. People may be said to engage in political
Should students
activity whenever they negotiate with each other
participate in politics?.
and take part in collective activities which are
designed to promote social development and help
to resolve common problems.

1.2 WHAT DO WE STUDY IN POLITICAL THEORY?

If we look around us what we see would be movement, development
and change. But if we look deeper we would also see certain values
and principles that have inspired people and guided policies. Ideals
like democracy, freedom or equality for instance. Different countries
may try to protect such values by enshrining them in their constitutions
as is the case with the American and Indian constitutions.
These documents did not just emerge overnight; they are built
upon the ideas and principles debated almost since the time
of Kautilya, Aristotle to Jean Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, Mahatma
Gandhi and Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. As far back as the fifth century
B.C., Plato and Aristotle discussed with their students whether
monarchy or democracy was better. In modern times, Rousseau first
argued for freedom as a fundamental right of humankind. Karl Marx
argued that equality was as crucial as freedom. Closer home, Mahatma
Gandhi discussed the meaning of genuine freedom or swaraj in his
book Hind Swaraj. Dr. Ambedkar vigorously argued that the
scheduled castes must be considered a minority,
and as such, must receive special protection.
Write a short note on any of
These ideas find their place in the Indian
the political thinkers
Constitution; our Preamble enshrines freedom mentioned in the chapter. [50
and equality; the chapter on Rights in the Indian words]
Constitution abolishes untouchability in any
form; Gandhian principles find a place in
Directive Principles. 5

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 Political Theory
Introduction Political Theory

Political theory deals with the ideas and principles that shape
Constitutions, governments and social life in a systematic manner.
It clarifies the meaning of concepts such as freedom, equality, justice,
democracy, secularism and so on. It probes the significance of
principles such as rule of law, separation of powers, judicial review,
etc. This is done by examining the arguments advanced by different
thinkers in defence of these concepts. Though Rousseau or Marx or
Gandhi did not become politicians, their ideas influenced generations
of politicians everywhere. There are also contemporary thinkers who
draw upon them to defend freedom or democracy in our own time.
Besides examining arguments, political theorists also reflect upon
our current political experiences and point out trends and
possibilities for the future.

Can you identify the political principle/value which is in

application in each of the following statements/situations?
a. I should be able to decide which subjects I want to study in
school.
b. The practice of untouchability has been abolished.
c. All Indians are equal before law.
d. Minorities can have their own schools and colleges.
e. Foreigners who are visiting India cannot vote in Indian
elections.
f. There should be no censorship of media or films.
g. Students should be consulted while planning the annual day
functions.
h. Everyone must join the Republic Day celebrations.

But is all this relevant for us now? Have we not already achieved
freedom and democracy? While India is free and independent,
questions regarding freedom and equality have not ceased to crop
up. This is because issues concerning freedom, equality, democracy,
arise in many areas of social life and they are being implemented in
different sectors at different paces. For instance, although equality
may exist in the political sphere in the form of equal rights, it may
not exist to the same extent in the economic or social spheres.
6 People may enjoy equal political rights but still be discriminated

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Political Theory
Political Theory
Introduction
against socially because of their caste or poverty. Some people may
have a privileged place in society while others are deprived even of
basic necessities. Some are able to achieve whatever goals they set
for themselves while many are unable even to go to schools so that
they can have decent jobs in the future. For them, freedom is still a
distant dream.
Secondly, though freedom is guaranteed in our Constitution,
we encounter new interpretations all the time. This is a bit like
playing a game; as we play chess or cricket, we learn how to interpret
the rules. In the process, we discover new and broader meanings of
the game itself. Similarly, the fundamental rights guaranteed by
our Constitution are continually being reinterpreted in response to
new circumstances. For instance, the right to life has been
interpreted by the Courts to include the right to livelihood. The
right to information has been granted through a new law. Societies
frequently encounter new challenges which generate new
interpretations. The fundamental rights guaranteed by our
Constitution have been amended and expanded over time through
judicial interpretations and government policies which are designed
to address new problems.

Thirdly, as our world changes, we may discover new

Do
LET’S DO IT
dimensions of freedom as well as new threats to freedom.
For instance, global communications technology is
making it easier for activists to network with one another Collect cartoons
across the world for protecting tribal cultures or forests. fr om various
But it also enables terrorists and criminals to network. newspapers and
Moreover, internet commerce is all set to increase in magazines. What are
the future. This means that the information we give the various issues
about ourselves online to buy goods or services must that they are
be protected. So even though netizens (citizens of the concer ned with?
Which political
internet) do not like government control, they recognise
concept do they
that some form of regulation is necessary to safeguard
highlight?
individual security and privacy. As a result, questions
are raised regarding how much freedom should be given
to people using the net. For instance, should they be allowed to send
unsolicited e-mails to strangers? Can you advertise your products in
7

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 Political Theory
Introduction Political Theory

In ancient Greece, in the city of Athens, Socrates was described as the ‘wisest
man’. He was known for questioning and challenging popularly held beliefs about
society, religion and politics. For this he was condemned to death by the rulers of
Athens.

His student Plato wrote extensively about the life and ideas of Socrates. In his
book ‘The Republic’, he created the character Socrates and through him examined
the question – what is justice?

The book opens with a dialogue between Socrates and Cephalus. In the course of
this dialogue Cephalus and his friends come to recognise that their understanding
of justice is inadequate and unacceptable.

The important thing in this is that Socrates uses reason to reveal the limitations
and inconsistencies in a given point of view. His adversaries eventually admit
that the views they had held and lived by could not be sustained.

chat rooms? Should governments be allowed to read private e-mails

to track down terrorists? How much regulation is justified and who
should regulate – governments or some private regulators? Political
theory has a lot to teach us about possible answers to these questions
and is therefore very relevant.

1.3 PUTTING POLITICAL THEORY TO PRACTICE

In this textbook, we confine ourselves to one aspect of political theory
— that which deals with the origins, meaning and significance of
political ideas that we are familiar with such as freedom, equality,
citizenship, justice, development, nationalism, secularism and so
on. When we begin a debate or argument on any topic, we usually
ask “what does it mean?” and “how does it matter?” Political theorists
have asked what is freedom or equality and provided diverse
definitions. Unlike in mathematics where there can be one definition
of a triangle or square, we encounter many definitions of equality
or freedom or justice.
8

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Political Theory
Introduction
Read and see how Socrates achieved this.

Well said, Cephalus, I replied; but as concerning justice, what is it? —to speak the
truth and to pay your debts — no more than this?
And even to this are there not exceptions? Suppose that a friend when in his right
mind has deposited arms with me and he asks for them when he is not in his right
mind, ought I to give them back to him? …

You are quite right, he replied.

But then, I said, speaking the truth and paying your debts is not a correct definition
of justice. …
And instead of saying simply as we did at first, that it is just to do good to our
friends and harm to our enemies, we should further say: It is just to do good to our
friends when they are good and harm to our enemies when they are evil?

Yes, that appears to me to be the truth.

This is because terms like equality concern our relationships

with other human beings rather than with things. Human beings,
unlike things, have opinions on issues like equality. And many
opinions need to be understood and harmonised. How do we go
about doing this? Let us begin with our common experience of
equality in different places.
You may have noticed that people often jump the queue in shops
or doctor’s waiting rooms or government offices. Sometimes, those
who do so are told to get back in line and we feel glad. Sometimes,
they get ahead and we feel cheated. We resent this because we all
want equal opportunity to get goods and services for which we are
paying. So when we reflect on our experience, we understand that
equality means equal opportunity for all. At the same time, if there
are separate counters for the old and disabled, we understand that
such special treatment may be justified.
But we also notice everyday that many poor people cannot
go to the shop or to a doctor because they have no money to pay
9

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Introduction
But ought the just to injure anyone at all?
Undoubtedly he ought to injure those who are both wicked and his enemies.
Political Theory

When horses are injured, are they improved or deteriorated?

The latter.

Deteriorated, that is to say, in the good qualities of horses, not of dogs?

Yes, of horses.

And dogs are deteriorated in the good qualities of dogs, and not of horses?
Of course.

And will not men who are injured be deteriorated in that which is the proper virtue
of man?
Certainly.

And that human virtue is justice?

To be sure.

for goods and services. Some of these people could be day

labourers who are cutting stones or lugging bricks for long hours.
If we are sensitive, we feel that it is not fair that in a society
some members cannot even have their basic needs satisfied. We
come to realise that equality must involve some kind of fairness
so that people are not unduly exploited and disadvantaged by
economic factors.
Consider the fact that there are many children who cannot go
to school because they have to work to feed themselves. And most
girl students in poor households are pulled out of school to care for
their younger siblings while parents go to work. Even though the
Indian constitution guarantees the right to primary education for
all, this right remains formal. Again, we may feel that the government
should do more for such children and their parents so that they are
enabled to go to school.
Thus you may see that our idea of equality is quite complex;
10 when we are in a queue or playground we want equal opportunity.

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Political Theory
Introduction
Then men who are injured are of necessity made unjust?
That is the result.

But can the musician by his art make men unmusical?

Certainly not.

Or the horseman by his art make them bad horsemen?

Impossible.

And can the just by justice make men unjust, or speaking general can the good
by virtue make them bad?
Assuredly not….

Nor can the good harm anyone?

Impossible.

And the just is the good?

Certainly.

If we suffer from some disability we want special provisions made.

When we cannot even afford basic needs, equal opportunity is not
enough. We must be enabled to go to school or get help through
proactive measures such as fair distribution of resources (jobs,
decent wages, subsidised hospitals, etc.). This requires that some
agency be made responsible to ensure fairness.
So the reason we have many definitions is because the meaning
of equality is dependent on the context. We started with what it
meant for ourselves and then proceeded to consider others (the poor,
disadvantaged, senior citizens, etc.). We discovered many layers of
meaning. We have been doing political theory without realising it.
Political theorists clarify the meaning of political concepts by
looking at how they are understood and used in ordinary language.
They also debate and examine the diverse meanings and opinions
in a systematic manner. When is equality of opportunity enough?
When do people need special treatment? How far and how long
should such special treatment be given? Should poor children be 11

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 Political Theory
Introduction Political Theory

Then to injure a friend or any one else is not the act of a just man, but of the
opposite, who is the unjust?
I think that what you say is quite true, Socrates.

And he who is most skilful in preventing or escaping from a disease is best able to
create one?
True.

And he is the best guard of a camp who is best able to steal a march upon the
enemy?
Certainly.

Then he who is a good keeper of anything is also a good thief?

That, I suppose, is to be inferred.

Then if the just man is good at keeping money, he is good at stealing it.
That is implied in the argument.

given midday meals to encourage them to stay in schools? These

are some questions which they address. As you can see, these issues
are eminently practical; they provide guidelines for framing public
policies on education and employment.

As in the case of equality, so also in the case of other concepts,

political theorists engage with everyday opinions, debate possible
meanings and thrash out policy options. Freedom, Citizenship, Rights,
Development, Justice, Equality, Nationalism and Secularism are some
of the concepts that we will discuss in the following chapters.

1.4 WHY SHOULD WE STUDY POLITICAL THEORY?

We may have political ideas but do we need to study political theory?
Is it not more suited for politicians who practise politics? Or for
bureaucrats who make policies? Or for those who teach political
theory? Or for lawyers and judges who interpret the Constitution
and laws? Or for activists and journalists who expose exploitation
12

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Political Theory
Introduction
Then after all the just man has turned out to be a thief. …
You would argue that the good are our friends and the bad our enemies?
Yes.

And instead of saying simply as we did at first, that it is just to do good to our
friends and harm to our enemies, we should further say: It is just to do good to our
friends when they are good and harm to our enemies when they are evil?
Yes, that appears to me to be the truth.
But ought the just to injure any one at all?
Undoubtedly he ought to injure those who are both wicked and his enemies.

When horses are injured, are they improved or deteriorated?

The latter.

Deteriorated, that is to say, in the good qualities of horses, not of dogs?

Yes, of horses.

And dogs are deteriorated in the good qualities of dogs, and not of horses?
Of course.

and demand new rights? What do we (high school students) gain by

knowing the meaning of freedom or equality?
First of all, political theory is relevant for all the above target
groups. As high school students, we may choose one of the above
professions in the future and so indirectly it is relevant for us even
now. Do we not learn mathematics although not all of us will become
mathematicians or engineers? Is it not because basic arithmetic is
useful to life in general?
Secondly, we are all going to be citizens entitled to vote and
decide other issues. To act responsibly, it is helpful to have a basic
knowledge of the political ideas and institutions that shape the
world we live in. In the information society, it is crucial that we
learn to be reasonable and informed if we are to participate in gram
sabhas or offer our views on websites and polls. If we simply express
arbitrary preferences, we will not be very effective. But if we are
thoughtful and mature we can use the new media to discuss and
express our common interests. 13

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Introduction Political Theory

And will not men who are injured be deteriorated in that which is the proper
virtue of man?
Certainly.

And that human virtue is justice?

To be sure.

Then men who are injured are of necessity made unjust?

That is the result.

But can the musician by his art make men unmusical?

Certainly not.

Or the horseman by his art make them bad horsemen?

Impossible.

And can the just by justice make men unjust, or speaking general can the good
by virtue make them bad?
Assuredly not….

As citizens, we are a bit like the audience in a music concert;

we are not the main performers interpreting the song and melody.
But we set the agenda and appreciate the output and put in new
requests. Have you noticed that musicians perform better when
they know the audience is knowledgeable and appreciative? So
also an educated and vigilant citizenry makes those who play politics
more public-spirited.
Thirdly, freedom, equality and secularism are not abstract issues
in our lives. We daily encounter discrimination of various sorts in
families, schools, colleges, shopping malls and so on. We ourselves
have prejudices against people who are different from us, be they
of a different caste or religion or gender or class. If we feel oppressed,
we want it redressed and if that is delayed, we feel violent revolution
is justified. If we are privileged, we deny that there is any oppression
even as our maids and servants struggle for dignity. Sometimes,
we even feel that our servants deserve the treatment they get. What
political theory encourages us to do is examine our ideas and feelings
14

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Political Theory
Introduction
Nor can the good harm any one?
Impossible.

And the just is the good?

Certainly.

Then to injure a friend or any one else is not the act of a just man, but of
the opposite, who is the unjust?
I think that what you say is quite true, Socrates.

Then if a man says that justice consists in the repayment of debts, and
that good is the debt which a man owes to his friends, and evil the debt
which he owes to his enemies, —to say this is not wise; for it is not true, if, as
has been clearly shown, the injuring of another can be in no case just.

I agree with you, said Polemarchus.

about political things. Just by looking at them more carefully, we

become moderate in our ideas and feelings.
Finally, as students we enjoy debates and elocution competitions.
We have opinions about what is right or wrong, just or unjust but do
not know whether they are reasonable or not. Only when we argue
with others, we realise the need to defend them and seek out reasons
and arguments. Political theory exposes us to systematic thinking
on justice or equality so that we can polish our opinions and argue in
an informed manner and for the sake of common interests. Such
skills of debating rationally and communicating effectively are likely
to be great assets in the global informational order.

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Introduction Political Theory

1. Which of the following statements are true/false about Political Theory?

(a) It discusses ideas that form the basis of political institutions.
(b) It explains the relationship between different religions.
(c) It explains the meanings of concepts like equality and freedom.
(d) It predicts the performance of political parties.
Exercises

2. Politics is more than what politicians do. Do you agree with this
statement? Give examples.

3. Vigilant citizens are a must for the successful working of a democracy.

Comment.

4. In what ways is the study of political theory useful for us? Identify
four ways in which political theory can be useful to us?

5. Do you think that a good/convincing argument can compel others to

listen to you?

6. Do you think studying political theory is like studying mathematics?

Give reasons for your answer.

16

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Chapter 2

Freedom
Overview
Human history provides many examples of people and communities which have been
dominated, or enslaved, or exploited, by more powerful groups. But it also provides us
with inspiring examples of heroic struggles against such domination. What is this freedom
for which people have been willing to sacrifice and die? In its essence, the struggle for
freedom represents the desire of people to be in control of their own lives and destinies
and to have the opportunity to express themselves freely through their choices and
activities. Not just individuals but societies also value their independence and wish to
protect their culture and future.
However, given the diverse interests and ambitions of people any form of social
living requires some rules and regulation. These rules may require some constraints
to be imposed on the freedom of individuals but it is recognised that such constraints
may also free us from insecurity and provide us with the conditions in which we can
develop ourselves. In political theory much of the discussion regarding freedom has
therefore focused on trying to evolve principles by which we can distinguish between
socially necessary constraints and other restrictions. There has also been debate about
possible limitations on freedom which may result from the social and economic
structures of a society. In this chapter we will look at some of these debates.
After studying this chapter you should be able to:
o Understand the importance of freedom for individuals and societies.
o Explain the difference between the negative and positive dimensions of freedom.
o Explain what is meant by the term ‘harm principle’.

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Freedom
2.1 THE IDEAL OF FREEDOM
Political Theory

Before we set out to answer these questions, let us stop for a

moment and consider this. The autobiography of one of the greatest
persons of the twentieth century, Nelson Mandela, is titled Long
Walk to Freedom. In this book he talks about his personal struggle
against the apartheid regime in South Africa, about the resistance
of his people to the segregationist policies of the white regime,
about the humiliations, hardships and police brutalities suffered
by the black people of South Africa. These ranged from being
bundled into townships and being denied easy movement about
the country, to being denied a free choice of whom to marry.
Collectively, such measures constituted a body of constraints
imposed by the apartheid regime that discriminated between citizens
based on their race. For Mandela and his colleagues it was the
struggle against such unjust constraints, the struggle to remove
the obstacles to the freedom of all the people of South Africa (not
just the black or the coloured but also the white people), that was
the Long Walk to Freedom.
For this freedom, Mandela spent twenty-seven
years of his life in jail, often in solitary
confinement. Imagine
what it meant to give up
one’s youth for an ideal,
to voluntarily give up the
pleasure of talking with
one’s friends, of playing
one’s favourite game
(Mandela loved boxing), of wearing one’s
favourite clothes, of listening to one’s
favourite music, of enjoying the many Do only great men
festivals that are part of one’s life. Imagine and women fight
giving all these up and choosing instead for great principles
to be locked up alone in a room, not like freedom? What
knowing when one would be released, only does this principle
because one campaigned for the freedom mean to me?
18 of one’s people. For freedom Mandela paid

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Freedom
Political Theory
Freedom
Now, take another case. Gandhiji’s thoughts
on non-violence have been a source of inspiration
for Aung San Suu Kyi as she remained under house
arrest in Myanmar, separated from her children,
unable to visit her husband when he was dying of
cancer, because she feared that if she left Myanmar
to visit him in England she would not be able to
return. Aung San Suu Kyi saw her freedom as
connected to the freedom of her people. Her book
of essays bears the title Freedom from Fear. She says, “for me real
freedom is freedom from fear and unless you can live free from fear
you cannot live a dignified human life”. These are deep thoughts
that lead us to pause and consider their implications. We must not,
her words suggest, be afraid of the opinions of other people, or of the
attitude of authority, or of the reactions of the members of our
community to the things we want to do, of the ridicule of our peers,
or of speaking our mind. Yet we find that we often exhibit such fear.
For Aung San Suu Kyi living a ‘dignified human life’ requires us to
be able to overcome such fear.

From these two books of Nelson Mandela and Aung

San Suu Kyi, we can see the power of the ideal of
freedom, an ideal that was at the centre of our national
Do
LET’S DO IT
struggle and the struggles of the peoples of Asia and
Africa against British, French and Portuguese
colonialism. Can you think of
someone in your village,
2.2 WHAT IS FREEDOM? town or district who has
struggled for his/her
A simple answer to the question ‘what is freedom’ is own freedom or the
absence of constraints. Freedom is said to exist when freedom of others? Write
external constraints on the individual are absent. In a short note about
that person and the
terms of this definition an individual could be
particular aspect of
considered free if he/she is not subject to external
freedom which he/she
controls or coercion and is able to make independent struggled to protect.
decisions and act in an autonomous way. However,
absence of constraints is only one dimension of
freedom. Freedom is also about expanding the ability 19

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 Freedom
Freedom
SWARAJ
A concept analogous to Freedom in
Political Theory

of people to freely express themselves

and develop their potential. Freedom
in this sense is the condition in which
Indian political thought is ‘Swaraj’. people can develop their creativity
The term Swaraj incorporates within and capabilities.
it two words — Swa (Self) and Raj
(Rule). It can be understood to mean Both these aspects of freedom — the
both the rule of the self and rule over absence of external constraints as well
self. Swaraj, in the context of the as the existence of conditions in which
freedom struggle in India referred to people can develop their talents — are
freedom as a constitutional and important. A free society would be one
political demand, and as a value at which enables all its members to
the social-collective level. That is why
develop their potential with the
Swaraj was such an important
minimum of social constraints.
rallying cry in the freedom movement
inspiring Tilak’s famous statement — No individual living in society can
“Swaraj is my birth right and I shall hope to enjoy total absence of any
have it.” kind of constraints or restrictions. It
It is the understanding of Swaraj
becomes necessary then to determine
as Rule over the Self that was
which social constraints are justified
highlighted by Mahatma Gandhi in
his work Hind Swaraj wher e he and which are not, which are
states, “It is Swaraj when we learn acceptable and which should be
to rule ourselves”. Swaraj is not just removed. To understand which social
freedom but liberation in redeeming constraints are necessary,
one’s self-respect, self-responsibility, discussions on freedom need to look
and capacities for self-realisation at the core relationship between the
from institutions of dehumanisation. individual and the society (or group,
Understanding the real ‘Self ’, and its
community, or state) within which
relation to communities and society,
she/he is placed. That is, we need to
is critical to the project of attaining
Swaraj.
examine the relationship between
Gandhiji believed the development individual and society. We would
that follows would liberate both need to see which features of the
individual and collective potentialities society allow the individual the
guided by the principle of justice. freedom to choose, decide or act, and
Needless to say, such an under- which do not. We would need to
standing is as relevant to the twenty d e t e r mine which featur es are
first century as it was when Gandhiji desirable and which are not, which
wrote the Hind Swaraj in 1909.
should be removed and which should
20 not. Further we need to see if the

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Freedom
Political Theory
Freedom
principles which we use to differentiate necessary from
unnecessary constraints also apply to the relationships between
individuals and groups and nations.
Thus far we have defined freedom as the absence of constraint.
To be free means to reduce or minimise social constraints that
limit our ability to make choices freely. However, this is only one
aspect of freedom. To put it in another way, freedom also has a
positive dimension. To be free a society must widen the area in
which individuals, groups, communities or nations,

“”
will be able to charter their own destiny and be what
they wish to be. Freedom, in this sense, allows the full
development of the individual’s creativity, sensibilities
and capabilities: be it in sports, science, art, music or LET’S DEBATE
exploration. A free society is one that enables one to
pursue one’s interests with a minimum of constraints. Girls and boys should
Freedom is considered valuable because it allows us be free to decide whom
they wish to marry.
to make choices and to exercise our judgement. It
Parents should have no
permits the exercise of the individual’s powers of
say in this matter.”
reason and judgement.
The Sources of Constraints
Restrictions on the freedom of individuals may come from
domination and external controls. Such restrictions may be imposed
by force or they may be imposed by a government through laws
which embody the power of the rulers over the people and which
may have the backing of force. This was the form of constraint
represented by colonial rulers over their subjects, or by the system
of apartheid in South Africa. Some form of government may be
inevitable but if the government is a democratic one, the members
of a state could retain some control over their rulers. That is why
democratic government is considered to be an important means of
protecting the freedom of people.
But constraints on freedom can also result from social inequality
of the kind implicit in the caste system, or which result from extreme
economic inequality in a society. The quotation from Subhas
Chandra Bose on freedom draws attention to the need for the
country to work to remove such constraints. 21

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Freedom
NETAJI SUBHAS CHANDRA BOSE ON FREEDOM
Political Theory

“If we are to bring about a revolution of ideas we have first to hold up before us
an ideal which will galvanise our whole life. That ideal is freedom. But freedom is
a word which has varied connotations and, even in our country, the conception
of freedom has undergone a process of evolution. By freedom I mean all round
freedom, i.e., freedom for the individual as well as for society; freedom for the
rich as well as for the poor; freedom for men as well as for women; freedom for all
individuals and for all classes. This freedom implies not only emancipation from
political bondage but also equal distribution of wealth, abolition of caste barriers
and social iniquities and destruction of communalism and religious intolerance.
This is an ideal which may appear Utopian to hard-headed men and women, but
this ideal alone can appease the hunger in the soul.”
(Presidential Address to the Student’s Conference held at Lahore on 19 October 1929 )

2.3 WHY DO WE NEED CONSTRAINTS?

We cannot live in a world where there are no constraints. We need
some constraints or else society would descend into chaos.
Differences may exist between people regarding their ideas and
opinions, they may have conflicting ambitions, they may compete
to control scarce resources. There are numerous reasons why
disagreements may develop in a society which may express
themselves through open conflict. We see people around us ready
to fight for all kinds of reasons ranging from the serious to the
trivial. Rage while driving on the roads, fighting over parking spaces,
quarrels over housing or land, disagreements regarding whether a
particular film should be screened, all these, and many other issues,
can lead to conflict and violence, perhaps even loss of life. Therefore
every society needs some mechanisms to control violence and settle
disputes. So long as we are able to respect each other’s views and
do not attempt to impose our views on others we may be able to live
freely and with minimum constraints. Ideally, in a free society we
should be able to hold our views, develop our own rules of living,
and pursue our choices.
But the creation of such a society too requires some constraints.
At the very least, it requires that we be willing to respect differences
22 of views, opinions and beliefs. However, sometimes, we think that a

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Freedom
Political Theory

strong commitment to our

beliefs requires that we must
oppose all those who differ
Freedom
LIBERALISM
When we say that someone’s parents are very
from or reject our views. We ‘liberal’, we usually mean that they are very
see their views or ways of tolerant. As a political ideology, liberalism has
living as unacceptable or been identified with tolerance as a value.
even undesirable. Under Liberals have often defended the right of a person
to hold and express his/her opinions and beliefs
such circumstances we need
even when they disagree with them. But that is
some legal and political
not all that there is to liberalism. And liberalism
restraints to ensure that is not the only modern ideology that supports
differences may be discussed tolerance.
and debated without one What is more distinctive about modern
group coercively imposing its liberalism is its focus on the individual. For
views on the other. Worse liberals entities like family, society, community
still, we may be confronted have no value in themselves, but only if these
with attempts to bully or are valued by individuals. They would say, for
harass us so that we conform example, that the decision to marry someone
should be taken by the individual rather than
to their wishes. If so, we may
by the family, caste or the community. Liberals
want stronger support from
tend to give priority to individual liberty over
law to ensure that my values like equality. They also tend to be
freedom is protected. suspicious of political authority.
Historically, liberalism favoured free market
The important question and minimal role to the state. However, present
however is to identify which day liberalism acknowledges a role for welfare
constraints on freedom are state and accepts the need for measures to
necessary and justifiable reduce both social and economic inequalities.
and which are not? What
sort of authority, external to
the individual, may justifiably say what can be done and what
cannot? Further, are there any areas of our life and action that
should be left free of all external constraints?

2.4 HARM PRINCIPLE

To answer these questions satisfactorily we have to address the
issue of the limits, competence, and consequences of the imposition.
We also have to engage with another issue that John Stuart Mill
stated so eloquently in his essay On Liberty. In the discussions in 23

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political theory it is called the ‘harm principle’. Let us quote his

statement and then try to explain it.
...the sole end for which mankind are warranted,
individually or collectively, in interfering with the
liberty of action of any of their number, is
self-protection. That the only purpose for which
power can be rightfully exercised over any member
of a civilised community, against his will, is to
prevent harm to others.
Mill introduces here an important distinction. He
Why does he talk
about ‘mankind’? distinguishes between ‘self-regarding’ actions, i.e., those
What about actions that have consequences only for the individual
women? actor and nobody else, and ‘other regarding’ actions,
i.e., those actions that also have consequences for others.
He argues that with respect to actions or choices that
affect only one’s self, self-regarding actions, the state (or any other
external authority) has no business to interfere. Or put in simple
language it would be: ‘That’s my business, I’ll do what I like’, or
‘How does it concern you, if it does not affect you?’ In contrast,
with respect to actions that have consequences for others, actions
which may cause harm to them, there is some case for external
interference. After all if your actions cause me harm then surely I
must be saved from such harm by some external authority? In this
case it is the state which can constrain a person from acting in a
way that causes harm to someone else.
However, as freedom is at the core of human society, is so crucial
for a dignified human life, it should only be constrained in special
circumstances. The ‘harm caused’ must be ‘serious’. For minor harm,
Mill recommends only social disapproval and not the force of law.
For example the playing of loud music in an apartment building
should bring only social disapproval from the other residents of the
building. They should not involve the police. They should indicate
their disapproval, of the inconvenience that playing loud music has
caused them, by perhaps refusing to greet the person who plays the
music disregarding the harm it is causing others. The harm that
playing loud music causes is that of preventing those in other
24 apartments from talking, or sleeping, or listening to their own music.

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Freedom
This is minor harm and should only provoke social disapproval. It
is not a fit case for legal punishment. Constraining actions by the
force of law should only happen when the other regarding actions
cause serious harm to definite individuals. Otherwise society must
bear the inconvenience in the spirit of protecting freedom.

LET’S THINK
The Issue of Dress Code
If choosing what to wear is an expression of one’s freedom then how should
we look at the following situations where there are restrictions on dress?

o In China during Mao’s regime all the people had to wear ‘Mao suits’
based on the argument that it was an expression of equality.
o A fatwa was issued against Sania Mirza for her style of dress that was
considered, by one cleric, to be against the dress code prescribed for
women.
o The rules of a test match in cricket require every cricketer to wear
white dress.
o Students are required to wear school uniforms.

Let us debate some questions.

o Is the restriction on what to wear justified in all cases or only in some?
When does it constitute a constraint on freedom?
o Who has the authority to impose these constraints? Should religious
leaders be given the authority to issue decrees on dress? Can the state
decide what one should wear? Should the ICC set down rules of what to
wear when playing cricket?
o Is the imposition excessive? Does it diminish the many ways, people
have of expressing themselves?
o What are the consequences of accepting the impositions? Will the society
become ‘equal’ if everyone dresses the same way as in Maoist China? Or
are women being denied the participation in sports if they cannot wear
clothes that would help them to compete effectively? Will the game be
affected if cricketers wear coloured clothes?

People should be ready to tolerate different ways of life, different

points of view, and the different interests, so long as they do not
cause harm to others. But such tolerance need not be extended to
views and actions which may put people in danger or foment hatred 25

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against them. Hate campaigns cause serious harm to the freedom

of others and actions that cause ‘serious harm’ are actions on
which constraints can be imposed. But we must make sure that
the constraints imposed are not so severe that they destroy freedom
itself. For example, we must not ask for life imprisonment for those
who only conduct hate campaign. Maybe some restriction on their
movement, or some curtailment of their right to hold public meetings
can be considered especially if they continue to carry on this
campaign in spite of warnings by the state to desist from conducting
such campaigns.

In the constitutional discussions in India, the term used for such

justifiable constraints is ‘reasonable restrictions’. The restrictions
may be there but they must be reasonable, i.e., capable of being
defended by reason, not excessive, not out of proportion to the action
being restricted, since then it would impinge on the general condition
of freedom in society. We must not develop a habit of imposing
restrictions since such a habit is detrimental to freedom.

2.5 NEGATIVE AND POSITIVE LIBERTY

Earlier in the chapter we had mentioned two dimensions of freedom
school— freedom as the absence of external constraints, and freedom
as the expansion of opportunities to express one’s self. In political
theory these have been called negative and positive liberty. ‘Negative
liberty’ seeks to define and defend an area in which the individual
would be inviolable, in which he or she could ‘do, be or become’
whatever he or she wished to ‘do, be or become’. This is an area in
which no external authority can interfere. It is a minimum area
that is sacred and in which whatever the individual does, is not to
be interfered with. The existence of the ‘minimum area of non-
interference’ is the recognition that human nature and human
dignity need an area where the person can act unobstructed by
others. How big should this area be, or what should it contain, are
matters of discussion, and will continue to be matters of debate
since the bigger the area of non-interference the more the freedom.
All we need to recognise is that the negative liberty tradition
argues for an inviolable area of non-interference in which the
26 individual can express himself or herself. If the area is too small

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Freedom
then human dignity gets compromised. We may here ask the
obvious question: Is the choice of what clothes to wear in different
situations – school, playing-field, office – a choice that belongs to
the minimum area and therefore one that cannot be interfered with
by external authority or is it a choice that can be interfered with by
state, religious authority, ICC or CBSE. Negative liberty arguments
are in response to the question: ‘Over what area am I the master?’
It is concerned with explaining the idea of ‘freedom from’.
In contrast, the arguments of positive liberty are concerned with
explaining the idea of ‘freedom to’. They are in response to the answer
‘who governs me?’ to which the ideal answer is ‘I govern myself ’.
Positive liberty discussions have a long tradition that can be traced
to Rousseau, Hegel, Marx, Gandhi, Aurobindo, and also to those
who draw their inspiration from these thinkers. It is concerned
with looking at the conditions and nature of the relationship between
the individual and society and of improving these conditions such
that there are fewer constraints to the development of the individual
personality. The individual is like a flower that blossoms when the
soil is fertile, and the sun is gentle, and the water is adequate, and
the care is regular.
The individual to develop his or her capability must
get the benefit of enabling positive conditions in material,
political and social domains. That is, the person must
not be constrained by poverty or unemployment; they
must have adequate material resources to pursue their
wants and needs. They must also have the opportunity
to participate in the decision making process so that Do we have the
the laws made reflect their choices, or at least take those freedom to destroy
preferences into account. Above all, to develop their mind our environment?
and intellect, individuals must have access to education
and other associated opportunities necessary to lead a
reasonably good life.
Positive liberty recognises that one can be free only in society
(not outside it) and hence tries to make that society such that it
enables the development of the individual whereas negative liberty
is only concerned with the inviolable area of non-interference and
not with the conditions in society, outside this area, as such. Of
course negative liberty would like to expand this minimum area as 27

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much as is possible keeping in mind, however, the stability of society.

Generally they both go together and support each other, but it can
happen that tyrants justify their rule by invoking arguments of
positive liberty.
Freedom of Expression
One of the issues that is considered to belong to the minimum area
of ‘non-interference’ is the freedom of expression. J.S.Mill set out
good reasons why freedom of expression should not be restricted.
This is a good case for discussion.
At various times there have been demands to ban books, plays,
films, or academic articles in research journals. Let us think about
this demand to ban books in the light of our discussion so far which
sees freedom as ‘the making of choices’, where a distinction is made
between ‘negative and positive liberty’, where we recognise the need
for ‘justifiable constraints’ but these have to be supported by proper
procedures and important moral arguments. Freedom of expression
is a fundamental value and for that society must be willing to bear
some inconvenience to protect it from people who want to restrict
it. Remember Voltaire’s statement — ‘I disapprove of what you say
but I will defend to death your right to say it’. How deeply are we
committed to this freedom of expression?
Some years ago Deepa Mehta, film maker, wanted to make a film
about widows in Varanasi. It sought to explore the plight of widows
but there was a strong protest from a section of the polity who felt
that it would show India in a very bad light, who felt it was being
made to cater to foreign audiences, who felt it would bring a bad
name to the ancient town. They refused to allow it to be made and as
a result it could not be made in Varanasi. It was subsequently made
elsewhere. Similarly the book Ramayana Retold by Aubrey Menon
and The Satanic Verses by Salman Rushdie were banned after protest
from some sections of society. The film The Last Temptation of Christ
and the play Me Nathuram Boltey were also banned after protests.
Banning is an easy solution for the short term since it meets the
immediate demand but is very harmful for the long-term prospects
of freedom in a society because once one begins to ban then one
develops a habit of banning. But does this mean that we should
28 never ban? After all we do have censorship of films. Is it not similar

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Political Theory

to banning, where only a portion

of a film is banned and not the
whole film? The question that is
Freedom
FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION
John Stuart Mill, a political thinker and
often debated, therefore, is: When an activist in the nineteenth century
should one ban and when should Britain, offered a passionate defence of
one not? Should one never ban? freedom of expression, including freedom
Just for interest, in England of thought and discussion. In his book On
anyone who is employed to work Liberty he offered four reasons why there
for the Royal household is should be freedom of expression even for
those who espouse ideas that appear ‘false’
constrained by contract (a
or misleading today.
constraint?) from writing about the
First, no idea is completely false. What
inner affairs of the household. So appears to us as false has an element of
if such a person were to leave the truth. If we ban ‘false’ ideas, we would lose
employment they would be unable that element of truth that they contain.
to give an interview or write an This is related to the second point.
article or author a book about the Truth does not emerge by itself. It is only
politics of the Royal household. Is through a conflict of opposing views that
this an unjustifiable constraint on truth emerges. Ideas that seem wrong
the freedom of expression? today may have been very valuable in the
emergence of what we consider right kind
Constraints of different kind of ideas.
thus exist and we are subject to Thirdly, this conflict of ideas is
them in different situations. valuable not just in the past but is of
While reflecting on such continuing value for all times. Truth
situations we need to realise that always runs the risk of being reduced to
when constraints are backed by an unthinking cliché. It is only when we
organised social — religious or expose it to opposing views that we can
cultural — authority or by the be sure that this idea is trustworthy.
Finally, we cannot be sure that what
might of the state, they restrict
we consider true is actually true. Very
our freedom in ways that are
often ideas that were considered false at
difficult to fight against. However,
one point by the entire society and,
if we willingly, or for the sake of therefore, suppressed turned out to be
pursuing our goals or ambitions, true later on. A society that completely
accept certain restrictions, our suppr esses all ideas that are not
freedom is not similarly limited. acceptable today, runs the danger of losing
In any case if we are not coerced the benefits of what might turn out to be
into accepting the conditions, very valuable knowledge.
then we cannot claim that our
freedom has been curtailed.
29

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 Freedom
Freedom We began by saying that freedom is the absence of external
constraints. We have now come to realise that freedom embodies
our capacity and our ability to make choices. And when we make
Political Theory

choices, we have also to accept responsibility for our actions and

their consequences. It is for this reason that most advocates of
liberty and freedom maintain that children must be placed in the
care of parents. Our capacity to make the right choices, to assess
in a reasoned manner available options, and shoulder the
responsibility of our actions, have to be built through education
and cultivation of judgement just as much as it needs to be nurtured
by limiting the authority of the state and the society.
Exercises

1. What is meant by freedom? Is there a relationship between freedom

for the individual and freedom for the nation?

2. What is the difference between the negative and positive conception of

liberty?

3. What is meant by social constraints? Are constraints of any kind

necessary for enjoying freedom?

4. What is the role of the state in upholding freedom of its citizens?

5. What is meant by freedom of expression? What in your view would be

a reasonable restriction on this freedom? Give examples.

Credit: Images on opening page: http://www.africawithin.com (Nelson Mandela)

30 and http://www.ibiblio.org (Suu Kyi)

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Chapter 3

Equality
Overview
This chapter is about the concept of equality, a value that is also enshrined in our
Constitution. In reflecting on this concept it examines the following questions:

o What is equality? Why should we be concerned about this moral and political
ideal?
o Does the pursuit of equality involve treating everyone the same way in every
condition?
o How may we pursue equality and minimise inequality in different spheres of life?
o How do we distinguish between different dimensions of equality — political, economic
and social?
In the course of understanding and answering these questions, you would encounter
some important ideologies of our time — socialism, marxism, liberalism and feminism.
In this chapter you will see facts and figures about the conditions of inequality.
These are only for you to appreciate the nature of inequality; the facts and figures
need not be memorised.

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 Equality
Equality 3.1 WHY DOES EQUALITY MATTER?
Political Theory

Equality is a powerful moral and political ideal

that has inspired and guided human society
for many centuries. It is implicit in all faiths
and religions which proclaim all human beings
to be the creation of God. As a political ideal
the concept of equality invokes the idea that all
human beings have an equal worth regardless
of their colour, gender, race, or nationality. It
maintains that human beings deserve equal
consideration and respect because of their
common humanity. It is this notion of a shared
humanity that lies behind, for instance, the
notions of universal human rights or ‘crimes
against humanity’.
In the modern period the equality of all
human beings has been used as a rallying
slogan in the struggles against states and social

LET’S DO IT Do institutions which uphold inequalities of rank,

wealth status or privilege, among people. In
the eighteenth century, the French
Search for quotations revolutionaries used the slogan ‘Liberty,
from different religious Equality and Fraternity’ to revolt against the
scriptures that affirm landed feudal aristocracy and the monarchy.
the ideal of equality. The demand for equality was also raised during
Read these in the anti-colonial liberation struggles in Asia and
classroom. Africa during the twentieth century. It continues
to be raised by struggling groups such as

Everyone I know believes in a religion.

Every religion I know preaches equality.
Then why is there inequality in the
world?

32

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Equality
women or dalits who feel marginalised in our society. Today, equality
is a widely accepted ideal which is embodied in the constitutions
and laws of many countries.
Yet, it is inequality rather than equality which is most visible
around us in the world as well as within our own society. In our
country we can see slums existing side by side with luxury housing,
schools with world class facilities and airconditioned classrooms
along with schools which may lack even drinking water facilities or
toilets, waste of food as well as starvation. There are glaring differences
between what the law promises and what we see around us.
Read the accompanying fact sheet on global inequalities and
the table on inequalities within our country.

FACT SHEET ON GLOBAL INEQUALITIES

1. The richest 50 individuals in the world have a combined income greater

than that of the poorest 40 crore people.
2. The poorest 40 per cent of the world’s population receive only 5 per cent of
global income, while the richest 10 per cent of the world’s population controls
54 per cent of global income.
3. The first world of the advanced industrial countries, mainly North America
and Western Europe, with 25 per cent of the world’s population, owns 86
per cent of the world’s industry, and consumes 80 per cent of the world’s
energy.
4. On a per capita basis, a resident of the advanced industrial countries
consumes at least three times as much water, ten times as much energy,
thirteen times as much iron and steel and fourteen times as much paper
as someone living in a developing country like India or China.
5. The risk of dying from pregnancy related causes is 1 to 18 in Nigeria but
1 to 8700 in Canada.
6. The industrial countries of the first world account for nearly two-thirds of
the global emissions of carbon dioxide from the combustion of fossil fuels.
They also account for three-quarters of emissions of sulphur and nitrogen
oxide that cause acid rain. Many industries known for their high rate of
pollution are being shifted from the developed countries to the less developed
countries.

Source: Human Development Report, 2005, UNDP.

33
33

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Equality
ECONOMIC INEQUALITIES IN INDIA
Political Theory

Here are some findings from the Census of India held in 2011 about household
amenities and assets. You don’t need to memorise any of these figures. Just read
these to understand the extent of urban-rural disparities in the country. Where
would your own family fit?

Families that have… Rural Urban Put û or ü for

families families your family

Electricity connection 55% 93%

Tap water in the house 35% 71%
Bathroom in the house 45% 87%
Television 33% 77%
Scooter/Moped/ Motorcycle 14% 35%
Car/Jeep/ Van 2% 10%

Thus we face a paradox : almost everyone accepts

the ideal of equality, yet almost everywhere we
encounter inequality. We live in a complex world of
unequal wealth, opportunities, work situations, and
power. Should we be concerned about these kinds of
inequalities? Are they a permanent and inevitable
feature of social life which reflects the differences of
Why talk about talent and ability of human beings as well as their
global or national different contributions towards social progress and
inequalities when all prosperity? Or are these inequalities a consequence of
around us there are
our social position and rules? These are questions that
inequalities to which
have troubled people all over the world for many years.
nobody seems to
object? Just look at It is a question of this kind that makes equality
the way my parents one of the central themes of social and political theory.
favour my brother A student of political theory has to address a range
over me.
of questions, such as, what does equality imply?
Since we are different in many obvious ways, what does it mean to
say that we are equal? What are we trying to achieve through the
ideal of equality? Are we trying to eliminate all differences of income
and status? In other words, what kind of equality are we pursuing,
34 and for whom? Some other questions that have been raised regarding

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Equality
the concept of equality which we will consider here are : to promote
equality should we always treat all persons in exactly the same
way? How should a society decide which differences of treatment or
reward are acceptable and which are not? Also, what kind of policies
should we pursue to try and make the society more egalitarian?

3.2 WHAT IS EQUALITY?

Take a look at these images.

R ED S ERVED
COLOU
IN REAR

IN
G FOUNTA
DRINKIN
URED
COLO OOM
S
WHITE ES T R Y
R TE ONL
WHI

All of them make distinctions between human beings on grounds of

race and colour and these appear to most of us as unacceptable. In
fact, such distinctions violate our intuitive understanding of equality
which tells us that all human beings should be entitled to the same
respect and consideration because of their common humanity.
However, treating people with equal respect need not mean always
treating them in an identical way. No society treats all its members
in exactly the same way under all conditions. The smooth functioning
of society requires division of work and functions and people often
enjoy different status and rewards on account of it. At times these
differences of treatment may appear acceptable or even necessary.
For instance, we usually do not feel that giving prime ministers, or
army generals, a special official rank and status goes against the
notion of equality, provided their privileges are not misused. But 35

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some other kinds of inequalities may seem unjust. For instance, if a

child born in a slum is denied nutritious food or good education
through no fault of his/her own, it may appear unfair to us.
The question that arises is which distinctions and differences are
acceptable and which are not? When people are treated differently
just because they are born in a particular religion or race or caste or
gender, we regard it as an unacceptable form of inequality. But
human beings may pursue different ambitions and goals and not
all may be equally successful. So long as they are able to develop the
best in themselves we would not feel that equality has been
undermined. Some may become good musicians while others may
not be equally outstanding, some become famous scientists while
others more noted for their hard work and conscientiousness. The
commitment to the ideal of equality does not imply the elimination
of all forms of differences. It merely suggests that the treatment we
receive and the opportunities we enjoy must not be pre-determined
by birth or social circumstance.

Equality of Opportunities
The concept of equality implies that all people, as human beings,
are entitled to the same rights and opportunities to develop their
skills and talents, and to pursue their goals and ambitions. This
means that in a society people may differ with regard to their choices
and preferences. They may also have different talents and skills
which results in some being more successful in their chosen careers
than others. But just because only some become ace cricketers or
successful lawyers, it does not follow that the society should be
considered unequal. In other words, it is not the lack of equality of
status or wealth or privilege that is significant but the inequalities
in people’s access to such basic goods, as education, health care,
safe housing, that make for an unequal and unjust society.

Natural and Social Inequalities

A distinction has sometimes been made in political theory between
natural inequalities and socially-produced inequalities. Natural
inequalities are those that emerge between people as a result of
36 their different capabilities and talents. These kinds of inequalities

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Equality
are different from socially-produced inequalities which emerge as a
consequence of inequalities of opportunity or the exploitation of
some groups in a society by others.

Men are superior to women. It is a

natural inequality. You can’t do
anything about it.

I get more marks than you in every

subject. And I also help my mother in
housework. What makes you superior?

Natural inequalities are considered to be the result of the different

characteristics and abilities with which people are born. It is generally
assumed that natural differences cannot be altered. Social inequalities
on the other hand are those created by society. Certain societies
may, for instance, value those who perform intellectual work over
those who do manual work and reward them differently. They may
treat differently people of different race, or colour, or gender, or caste.
Differences of this kind reflect the values of a society and some of
these may certainly appear to us to be unjust.
This distinction is sometimes useful in helping us to distinguish
between acceptable and unfair inequalities in society but it is not
always clear or self-evident. For instance, when certain inequalities
in the treatment of people have existed over a long period of time
they may appear to us as justifiable because they are based on
natural inequalities, that is, characteristics that people are born
with and cannot easily change. For example, women were for long
described as ‘the weaker sex’, considered timid and of lesser
intelligence than men, needing special protection. Therefore, it was
felt that denying women equal rights could be justified. Black people
in Africa were considered by their colonial masters to be of lesser
intelligence, child-like, and better at manual work, sports and music.
This belief was used to justify institutions like slavery. All
these assessments are now questioned. They are now seen as
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distinctions made by society as a result of the differences of power

between people and nations rather than based on their inborn
characteristics.
Another problem which arises with the idea of natural differences is
that some differences which could be considered natural need no longer
be seen as unalterable. For instance, advances in medical science and
technologies have helped many disabled people to function effectively
in society. Today, computers can help blind people, wheel chairs and
artificial limbs can help in cases of physical disability, even a person’s
looks can be changed with cosmetic surgery. The famous physicist
Stephen Hawking can hardly move or speak but he has made major
contributions to science. It would seem unjust to most people today if
disabled people are denied necessary help to overcome the effects of
their disability or a fair reward for their work on the grounds that they
are naturally less capable.

Given all these complexities, it would be difficult to use the natural/

socially-produced distinction as a standard by which the laws and
policies of a society can be assessed. For this reason many theorists
today differentiate between inequality arising from our choices and
inequalities operating on account of the family or circumstance in
which a person is born. It is the latter that is a source of concern to
advocates of equality and which they wish to minimise and eliminate.

3.3 THREE DIMENSIONS OF EQUALITY

After considering what kind of social differences are unacceptable
we need to ask what are the different dimensions of equality that
we may pursue or seek to achieve in society. While identifying
different kinds of inequalities that exist in society, various thinkers
and ideologies have highlighted three main dimensions of equality
namely, political, social and economic. It is only by addressing
each of these three different dimensions of equality can we move
towards a more just and equal society.
Political Equality
In democratic societies political equality would normally include
38 granting equal citizenship to all the members of the state. As you

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Equality
will read in the chapter on Citizenship, equal citizenship brings with
it certain basic rights such as the right to vote, freedom of expression,
movement and association and freedom of belief. These are rights
which are considered necessary to enable citizens to develop
themselves and participate in the affairs of the state. But they are
legal rights, guaranteed by the constitution and laws. We know that
considerable inequality can exist even in countries which grant equal
rights to all citizens. These inequalities are often the result of
differences in the resources and opportunities which are available to
citizens in the social and economic spheres. For this reason a demand
is often made for equal opportunities, or for ‘a level playing field’.
But we should remember that although political and legal equality
by itself may not be sufficient to build a just and egalitarian society,
it is certainly an important component of it.
Social Equality
Political equality or equality before the law is an important first step
in the pursuit of equality but it often needs to be supplemented by
equality of opportunities. While the former is necessary to remove
any legal hurdles which might exclude people from a voice in
government and deny them access to available social goods, the
pursuit of equality requires that people belonging to different groups
and communities also have a fair and equal chance to compete for
those goods and opportunities. For this, it is necessary to minimise
the effects of social and economic inequalities and guarantee certain
minimum conditions of life to all the members of the society —
adequate health care, the opportunity for good education, adequate
nourishment and a minimum wage, among other things. In the
absence of such facilities it is exceedingly difficult for all the members
of the society to compete on equal terms. Where equality of
opportunity does not exist a huge pool of potential talent tends to
be wasted in society.
In India, a special problem regarding equal opportunities comes
not just from lack of facilities but from some of the customs which
may prevail in different parts of country, or among different groups.
Women, for instance, may not enjoy equal rights of inheritance in
some groups, or there may be social prohibitions regarding their
taking part in certain kinds of activities, or they may even be 39

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Equality
INEQUALITIES IN EDUCATION
Are the differences in the educational
Political Theory

discouraged from obtaining higher

education. The state has a significant
role in such matters. It should make
attainment of different communities
policies to prevent discrimination or
depicted in the table below
harassment of women in public places
significant? Could these differences
have taken place just by chance? Or or employment, to provide incentives
do these differences point to the to open up education or certain
working of the caste system? Which professions to women, and other such
factor other than the caste system do measures. But social groups and
you see at work here? individuals also have a role to play in
Caste-community inequalities in raising awareness and supporting
higher education in urban India those who want to exercise their
rights.
Castes/ Graduates per
Communities thousand Economic Equality
persons
At the simplest level, we would say
Scheduled Caste 47
that economic inequality exists in a
Muslim 61
Hindu–OBC 86
society if there are significant
Scheduled Tribes 109 differences in wealth, property or
Christian 237 income between individuals or
Sikh 250 classes. One way of measuring the
Hindu–Upper Caste 253 degree of economic inequality in a
Other Religions 315 society would be to measure the
ALL INDIA AVERAGE 155 relative difference between the richest
and poorest groups. Another way
Source:
National Sample Survey Organisation,
could be to estimate the number of
55th round survey, 1999-2000 people who

“”
live below the
poverty line.
Of course,
absolute equality of wealth or income has LET’S DEBATE
probably never existed in a society. Most
democracies today try to make equal Women should be
opportunities available to people in the belief allowed to join the
combat units of the
that this would at least give those who have
army and go up to the
talent and determination the chance to
highest position.
improve their condition. With equal
40

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Equality
Racial Inequality in the United States
CARTOON

© R.J. Matson, Cagle Cartoons Inc. (13.1.2006)

A
READ

Find out more about racial inequality in the US. Which group or
groups in our country suffer from similar inequality? What kind of
policies have been adopted in the US to reduce this inequality? Is
there something to be learnt from their experience? Can they learn
something from our experience?

opportunities, inequalities may continue to exist between individuals

but there is the possibility of improving one’s position in society with
sufficient effort.
Inequalities which are entrenched, that is, which remain
relatively untouched over generations, are more dangerous for a
society. If in a society certain classes of people have enjoyed
considerable wealth, and the power which goes with it, over
generations, the society would become divided between those classes
and others who have remained poor over generations. Over time such
class differences can give rise to resentment and violence. Because
of the power of the wealthy classes it might prove difficult to reform
such a society to make it more open and egalitarian. 41

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Equality
FEMINISM
Political Theory

Feminism is a political doctrine of equal

rights for women and men. Feminists are
those men and women who believe that
many of the inequalities we see in society
between men and women are neither
natural nor necessary and can be altered
so that both women and men can lead free
and equal lives.
According to feminists, inequality
between men and women in society is the
result of patriarchy. This term refers to a social, economic and
cultural system that values men more than women and gives men
power over women. Patriarchy is based on the assumption that
men and women are different by nature and that this difference
justifies their unequal positions in society. Feminists questions
this way of thinking by making a distinction between “sex” i.e.
biological difference between men and women, and “gender” which
determines the different roles that men and women play in society.
For instance, the biological fact that only women can become
pregnant and bear children does not require that only women
should look after children after they are born. Feminists show us
that much of the inequality between men and women is produced
by society and not by nature.
Patriarchy produces a division of labour by which women are
supposed to be responsible for “private” and “domestic” matters
while men are responsible for work in the
“public” domain. Feminists question this
distinction by pointing out that in fact most
women are also active in the “public” domain. That
is, most women all over the world are employed
in some form of work outside the home, but
women continue to be solely responsible for
housework as well. However, despite this “double
burden” as feminists term it, women are given
little or no say in decisions taken in the public
domain. Feminists contend that this public/
private distinction and all forms of gender
inequalities can and should be eliminated.
42

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Equality
Marxism and liberalism are two important political
ideologies of our times. Marx was an important
nineteenth century thinker who argued that the root
cause of entrenched inequality was private ownership
of important economic resources such as oil, or land, LET’S DO IT
Do
or forests, as well as other forms of property. He
pointed out that such private ownership did not only Make a list of all the
make the class of owners wealthy, it also gave them social and economic
political power. Such power enables them to influence inequalities that you
notice among the
state policies and laws and this could prove a threat
students of your own
to democratic government. Marxists and socialists feel
school.
that economic inequality provides support to other
forms of social inequality such as differences of rank
or privilege. Therefore, to tackle inequality in society
we need to go beyond providing equal opportunities and try and
ensure public control over essential resources and forms of property.
Such views may be debatable but they have raised important issues
which need to be addressed.
An opposing point of view can be found in liberal theories. Liberals
uphold the principle of competition as the most efficient and fair way
of distributing resources and rewards in society. They believe that
while states may have to intervene to try and ensure a minimum
standard of living and equal opportunities for all, this cannot by
itself bring equality and justice to society. Competition between people
in free and fair conditions is the most just and efficient way of
distributing rewards in a society. For them, as long as competition is
open and free, inequalities are unlikely to become entrenched and
people will get due reward for their talents and efforts.
For liberals the principle of competition is the most just and
efficient way of selecting candidates for jobs or admission to
educational institutions. For instance, in our country many students
hope for admission to professional courses and entry is highly
competitive. From time to time, the government and the courts have
stepped in to regulate educational institutions and the entrance
tests to ensure that everybody gets a fair and equal chance to
compete. Some may still not get admission but it is considered to
be a fair way of distributing limited seats. 43

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SOCIALISM
Political Theory

Socialism refers to a set of political ideas that emerged as a response to the

inequalities present in, and reproduced by, the industrial capitalist economy.
The main concern of Socialism is how to minimise existing inequality and
distribute resources justly. Although advocates of socialism are not entirely
opposed to the market, they favour some kind of government regulation, planning
and control over certain key areas such as education and health care.
In India the eminent socialist thinker Rammanohar Lohia, identified five
kinds of inequalities that need to be fought against simultaneously: inequality
between man and woman, inequality based on skin colour, caste-based inequality,
colonial rule of some countries over others, and, of course, economic inequality.
This might appear a self-evident idea today. But during Lohia’s time it was
common for the socialists to argue that class inequality was the only form of
inequality worth struggling against. Other inequalities did not matter or would
end automatically if economic inequality could be ended. Lohia argued that each
of these inequalities had independent roots and had to be fought separately and
simultaneously. He did not speak of revolution in the singular. For him struggle
against these five inequalities constituted five revolutions. He added two more
revolutions to this list : revolution for civil liberties against unjust encroachments
on private life and revolution for non-violence, for renunciation of weapons in
favour of Satyagraha. These were the seven revolutions or Sapta Kranti which
for Lohia was the ideal of socialism.

Unlike socialists, liberals do not believe that political, economic

and social inequalities are necessarily linked. They maintain that
inequalities in each of these spheres should be tackled appropriately.
Thus, democracy could help to provide political equality but it might
be necessary to also devise different strategies to deal with social
differences and economic inequalities. The problem for liberals is
not inequality as such, but unjust and entrenched inequalities which
prevent individuals from developing their capabilities.

3.4 HOW CAN WE PROMOTE EQUALITY?

We have already noted some of the basic differences among the
socialists and the liberals on the most desirable way of achieving
the goal of equality. While the relative merits and limitations of
each of these points of view are being debated the world over, we
44 still need to consider what principles and policies might be

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considered necessary for pursuing equality. Specifically, we need
to consider if the use of affirmative action is justified for purposes
of bringing about equality. This issue has raised a lot of controversy
in recent years and we will discuss this issue in the following section.

Establishing Formal Equality

The first step towards bringing about equality is, of course, ending
the formal system of inequality and privileges. Social, economic
and political inequalities all over the world have been protected by
customs and legal systems that prohibited some sections of society
from enjoying certain kinds of opportunities and rewards. Poor
people were not granted the right to vote in a large number of
countries. Women were not allowed to take up many professions
and activities. The caste system in India prevented people from
the ‘lower’ castes from doing anything except manual labour. In
many countries only people from some families could occupy
high positions.
Attainment of equality requires that all such restrictions or
privileges should be brought to an end. Since many of these systems
have the sanction of law, equality requires that the government
and the law of the land should stop protecting these systems of
inequality. This is what our Constitution does. The Constitution
prohibits discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex or
place of birth. Our Constitution also abolishes the practice of
untouchability. Most modern constitutions and democratic
governments have formally accepted the principle of equality and
incorporated it as identical treatment by law to all citizens without
any regard to their caste, race, religion or gender.
Equality Through Differential Treatment
However, as we noted earlier, formal equality or equality before law
is necessary but not sufficient to realise the principle of equality.
Sometimes it is necessary to treat people differently in order to
ensure that they can enjoy equal rights. Certain differences between
people may have to be taken into account for this purpose. For
instance, disabled people may justifiably demand special ramps in
public spaces so that they get an equal chance to enter public 45

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buildings. Or women working in call centres at

night may need special protection during the
journey to and from the centre so that their equal
right to work may be protected. These should not

Do
be seen as infringements of equality but as
enhancement of equality.
LET’S DO IT
What kinds of differences hinder access to
Make a list of all the equal opportunities and what kinds of policies may
facilities that students be pursued to overcome those hindrances are
with various kinds of questions that are being discussed in almost all
physical handicaps
societies today. Some countries have used policies
would need to learn as
of affirmative action to enhance equality of
any other student.
Which of these facilities opportunity. In our country we have relied on the
are available in your policy of reservations. In the next section, we will
school? attempt to understand the idea of affirmative
action and understand some of the issues raised
by specific policies within that framework.
46

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Political Theory

Affirmative Action
Equality
Affirmative action is based on the idea that it is not sufficient to
establish formal equality by law. When we wish to eliminate
inequalities that are deeply rooted, it is necessary to take some
more positive measures to minimise and eliminate entrenched forms
of social inequalities. Most policies of affirmative action are thus
designed to correct the cumulative effect of past inequalities.
Affirmative action can however take many forms, from
preferential spending on facilities for disadvantaged communities,
such as, scholarships and hostels to special consideration for
admissions to educational institutions and jobs. In our country we
have adopted a policy of quotas or reserved seats in education and
jobs to provide equality of opportunity to deprived groups, and this
has been the subject of considerable debate and disagreement. The
policy has been defended on the ground that certain groups have
been victims of social prejudice and discrimination in the form of
exclusion and segregation. These communities who have suffered
in the past and been denied equal opportunities cannot be
immediately expected to compete with others on equal terms.
Therefore, in the interest of creating an egalitarian and just society
they need to be given special protection and help.
Special assistance in the form of affirmative action is expected to
be a temporary or time-bound measure. The assumption is that
special consideration will enable these communities to overcome the
existing disadvantages and then compete with others on equal terms.
Although policies of affirmative action are supported for making the
society more equal, many theorists argue against them. They question
whether treating people differently can ever lead to greater equality.
Critics of positive discrimination, particularly policies of
reservations, thus invoke the principle of equality to argue against
such policies. They contend that any provision of reservations or
quotas for the deprived in admissions for higher education or jobs is
unfair as it arbitrarily denies other sections of society their right to
equal treatment. They maintain that reservations are a form of reverse
discrimination and they continue with the practices that the principle
of equality questions and rejects. Equality requires that all persons 47

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be treated alike, and when we make distinctions between

individuals on the basis of their caste or colour, we are

“”
likely to reinforce caste and racial prejudices. For these
theorists, the important thing is to do away with social
distinctions that divide our society.
LET’S DEBATE
In the context of this debate, it is relevant to draw a
Policies of affirmative distinction between equality as a guiding principle of state
action for the policy and equal rights of individuals. Individuals have a
Scheduled Castes right to equal consideration for admission to educational
and Scheduled Tribes institutions and public sector employment. But
should be extended competition should be fair. Sometimes when competing
to admission to
for limited seats or jobs people from deprived strata may
private educational
be at a disadvantage. The needs and circumstances of a
institutions.
first generation learner whose parents and ancestors were
illiterate are very different from those who are born into
educated families. Members of excluded groups, whether
they are dalits, women, or any other category, deserve and need some
special help. To provide this, the state must devise social policies
which would help to make such people equal and give them a fair
chance to compete with others.
The fact is that in the spheres of education and health care India
has done far less for its deprived population than what is their due.
Inequalities in school education are glaring. Many poor children in
rural areas or urban slums have little chance of attending schools.
If they do get the chance, their schools have little to offer that would
be comparable to the facilities available in elite schools. The
inequalities with which children enter school tend to continue to
hamper their chances to improve their qualifications or get good
jobs. These students face hurdles in gaining admission to elite
professional courses because they lack the means to pay for special
coaching. The fees for professional courses also may be prohibitively
high. Consequently, they cannot compete on equal terms with the
more privileged sections.
Social and economic inequalities of this kind hinder the pursuit
of equal opportunities. Most theorists today recognise this. What
48 they contest is not the goal of equal opportunity but the policies

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that the state should pursue to achieve that goal. Should the state
reserve seats for the deprived communities or should they provide
special facilities that can help to develop talents and skills from an
early age? How should we define who is deprived? Should we use
an economic criterion to identify the deprived, or should we use
social inequalities arising from the caste system in our country as
the basis of identifying the deprived groups? These are aspects of
social policy that are today being debated. Ultimately the policies
that we choose would have to be justified in terms of their success
in making the society more egalitarian and fair to all.
While reflecting on the issue of equality, a distinction must also
be made between treating everyone in an identical manner and
treating everyone as equal. The latter may on occasions need
differential treatment but in all such cases the primary consideration
is to promote equality. Differential or special treatment may be
considered to realise the goal of equality but it requires justification
and careful reflection. Since differential treatment for different
communities was part and parcel of the caste system and practices
like apartheid, liberals are usually very wary of deviations from the
norm of identical treatment.

LET’S THINK
Consider the following situations. Is special and
differential treatment justified in any of the following?
o Working women should receive maternity leave.
o A school should spend money to buy special
equipment for two visually challenged students.
o Geeta plays brilliant basketball, so the school should
build a basketball court for her so that she can
develop her skills further.
o Jeet’s parents want him to wear a turban in school,
and Irfan’s parents want him to pray on Friday
afternoon, so the school should not insist that Jeet
should wear a helmet while playing cricket, and
Irfan’s teacher should not ask him to stay back for
extra classes on Friday.
49

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Many of these issues relating to the pursuit of equality have been

raised by the women’s movement. In the nineteenth century women
struggled for equal rights. They demanded, for instance, the right to
vote, the right to receive degrees in colleges and universities and the
right to work — that is, the same rights as the men in their society.
However, as they entered the job market they realised that women
required special facilities in order to exercise these rights. For
instance, they required some provision for maternity leave and crèches
in the workplace. Without special considerations of this kind, they
could not seriously compete for jobs or enjoy a successful
professional and personal life. They needed, in other words,
sometimes to be treated differently if they are to enjoy the same rights
as men.
As we deliberate on issues of equality and examine whether
different treatment is warranted in a particular case, we need
continuously to ask ourselves whether differential treatment is
essential to ensure that a set of people can enjoy the same rights as
the rest of society. Caution must, however, be exercised to see that
differential treatment does not yield new structures of dominance
and oppression, or become a means for some dominant groups to
reassert special privileges and power in society. Differential treatment
is intended and justified only as a means to promoting a just and
egalitarian society.

50

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Equality
1. Some people argue that inequality is natural while others maintain
that it is equality which is natural and the inequalities which we notice
around us are created by society. Which view do you support? Give
reasons.

2. There is a view that absolute economic equality is neither possible nor

desirable. It is argued that the most a society can do is to try and
reduce the gaps between the richest and poorest members of society.
Do you agree?

3. Match the following concepts with appropriate instances:

(a) Affirmative action
(b) Equality of opportunity

(c) Equal Rights.

(i) Every adult citizen has a right to vote
(ii) Banks offer higher rate of interest
to senior citizen
(iii) Every child should get free education
Exercises
4. A government report on farmers’ problems says that small and marginal
farmers cannot get good prices from the market. It recommends that
the government should intervene to ensure a better price but only for
small and marginal farmers. Is this recommendation consistent with
the principle of equality?

5. Which of the following violate the principles of equality? And why?

(a) Every child in class will read the text of the play by turn.
(b) The Government of Canada encouraged white Europeans to migrate
to Canada from the end of the Second World War till 1960.
(c) There is a separate railway reservation counter for the senior
citizens. 51

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(d) Access to some forest areas is reserved for certain tribal

communities.

6. Here are some arguments in favour of the right to vote for women.
Which of these are consistent with the idea of equality? Give reasons.
(a) Women are our mothers. We shall not disrespect our mothers by
denying them the right to vote.
(b) Decisions of the government affect women as well as men, therefore
they also should have a say in choosing the rulers.
(c) Not granting women the right to vote will cause disharmony in the
family.
(d) Women constitute half of humanity. You cannot subjugate them
Exercises

for long by denying them the right to vote.

52 Credit: Images on opening page: P. Sainath

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Chapter 4

Social Justice
Overview
Just as we intuitively understand what love means even if we cannot explain all its
different shades of meaning, we also have an intuitive understanding of justice even
though we may not be able to define it precisely. In that sense justice is a lot like love.
In addition, both love and justice evoke passionate responses from their advocates.
And as with love, no one hates justice, everyone wants justice for oneself and to some
extent for others also. But unlike love, which is an aspect of our relationships with a
few people whom we know well, justice concerns our life in society, the way in which
public life is ordered and the principles according to which social goods and social
duties are distributed among different members of society. As such, questions of
justice are of central importance for politics.
After going through this chapter you should be able to:
o Identify some of the principles of justice which have been put forward in different
societies and at different periods of time.
o Explain what is meant by distributive justice.
o Discuss John Rawls’ argument that a fair and just society would be in the interest
of all members and could be defended on rational grounds.

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Justice 4.1 WHAT IS JUSTICE?
Political Theory

All cultures and traditions have grappled with questions of justice

although they may have interpreted the concept in different ways.
For instance, in ancient Indian society, justice was associated with
dharma and maintaining dharma or a just social order, was
considered to be a primary duty of kings. In China, Confucius, the
famous philosopher argued that kings should maintain justice by
punishing wrong doers and rewarding the virtuous. In fourth century
B.C. Athens (Greece), Plato discussed issues of justice in his book
The Republic. Through a long dialogue between Socrates and his
young friends, Glaucon and Adeimantus, Plato examined why we
should be concerned about justice. The young people ask Socrates
why we should be just. They observe that people who were unjust
seemed to be much better off than those who
“They say that to do were just. Those who twisted rules to serve their
injustice is, by nature, interests, avoided paying taxes and were willing
good; to suffer injustice, to lie and be deceitful, were often more successful
evil; but that the evil is than those who were truthful and just. If one
greater than the good. And were smart enough to avoid being caught then
so when men have both it would seem that being unjust is better than
done and suf fered
being just. You may have heard people
injustice and have had
experience of both, not
expressing similar sentiments even today.
being able to avoid the one Socrates reminds these young people that
and obtain the other, they if everyone were to be unjust, if everyone
think that they had
manipulated rules to suit their own interests,
better agree among
no one could be sure of benefiting from injustice.
themselves to have
neither; hence there
Nobody would be secure and this was likely to
arise laws and mutual harm all of them. Hence, it is in our own long-
covenants; and that term interest to obey the laws and be just.
which is ordained by law Socrates clarified that we need to understand
is termed by them lawful clearly what justice means in order to figure
and just.” out why it is important to be just. He explained
(Glaucon to Socrates in that justice does not only mean doing good to
The Republic). our friends and harm to our enemies, or
pursuing our own interests. Justice involves the
54 well-being of all people. Just as a doctor is

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Justice
concerned with the well-being of his/her patients, similarly the just
ruler or the just government must be concerned with the well-being
of the people. Ensuring the well-being of the people includes giving
each person his due.
The idea that justice involves giving each person his due continues
to be an important part of our present day understanding of justice.
However, our understanding of what is due to a person has changed
from the time of Plato. Today, our understanding of what is just is
closely linked to our understanding of what is due to each person as
a human being. According to the German philosopher Immanuel
Kant, human beings possess dignity. If all persons are granted dignity
then what is due to each of them is that they have the opportunity to
develop their talents and pursue their chosen goals. Justice requires
that we give due and equal consideration to all individuals.

Equal Treatment for Equals

Although there might be broad agreement in modern society about
the equal importance of all people, it is not a simple matter to decide
how to give each person his/her due. A number of different principles
have been put forward in this regard. One of the principles is the
principle of treating equals equally. It is considered that all individuals
share certain characteristics as human beings. Therefore they deserve
equal rights and equal treatment. Some of the important rights which
are granted in most liberal democracies today include civil rights
such as the rights of life, liberty and property, political rights like the
right to vote, which enable people to participate in political processes,
and certain social rights which would include the right to enjoy equal
opportunities with other members of the society.
Apart from equal rights, the principle of treating equals equally
would require that people should not be discriminated against on
grounds of class, caste, race or gender. They should be judged on
the basis of their work and actions and not on the basis of the
group to which they belong. Therefore, if two persons from different
castes perform the same kind of work, whether it be breaking stones
or delivering Pizzas, they should receive the same kind of reward. If
a person gets one hundred rupees for some work and another receives
only seventy five rupees for the same work because they belong to 55

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different castes, then it would be unfair or unjust. Similarly, if a male

teacher in a school gets a higher salary than a female teacher, then
this difference would also be unjustifiable and wrong.

Proportionate Justice
However, equal treatment is not the only principle of justice. There
could be circumstances in which we might feel that treating
everybody equally would be unjust. How, for instance, would you
react if it was decided in your school that all those who did an exam
should get equal marks because they are all students of the same
school and did the same exam? Here you might think it would be
more fair if students were awarded marks according to the quality
of their answer papers and also, possibly, the degree of effort they
had put in. In other words, provided everybody starts from the same
base line of equal rights, justice in such cases would mean rewarding
people in proportion to the scale and quality of their effort. Most
people would agree that although people should get the same reward
for the same work, it would be fair and just to reward different
kinds of work differently if we take into account factors such as the
effort required, the skills required, the possible dangers involved in
that work, and so on. If we use these criteria we may find that
certain kinds of workers in our society are not paid a wage which
takes such factors sufficiently into account. For instance, miners,
skilled craftsmen, or people in sometimes dangerous but socially
useful professions like policemen, may not always get a reward
which is just if we compare it to what some others in society may be
earning. For justice in society, the principle of equal treatment needs
to be balanced with the principle of proportionality.
Recognition of Special Needs
A third principle of justice which we recognise is for a society to take
into account special needs of people while distributing rewards or
duties. This would be considered a way of promoting social justice.
In terms of their basic status and rights as members of the society
justice may require that people be treated equally. But even non-
discrimination between people and rewarding them proportionately
to their efforts might not be enough to ensure that people enjoy
56 equality in other aspects of their lives in society nor that the society

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Justice
as a whole is just. The principle of taking account of the special needs
of people does not necessarily contradict the principle of equal
treatment so much as extend it because the principle of treating
equals equally could imply that people who are not equal in certain
important respects could be treated differently.

LET’S THINK
Examine the following situations and discuss whether
they are just. In each case discuss the principle of justice
that might be used in defence of your argument.

o Suresh, a visually impaired student, gets three hours

and thirty minutes to finish his mathematics paper,
while the rest of the class gets only three hours.
o Geeta walks with a limp. The teacher decided to
give her also three hours and thirty minutes to
finish her mathematics paper.
o A teacher gives grace marks to the weaker students
in class, to boost their morale.
o A professor distributes different question papers
to different students based on her evaluation of
their capabilities.
o There is a proposal to reserve 33 per cent of the
seats in the Parliament for women.

People with special needs or disabilities could be considered

unequal in some particular respect and deserving of special help.
But it is not always easy to get agreement regarding which inequalities
of people should be recognised for providing them special help.
Physical disabilities, age or lack of access to good education or health
care, are some of the factors which are considered grounds for special
treatment in many countries. It is believed that if people who enjoy
very different standard of living and opportunities are treated equally
in all respects with those who have been deprived of even the basic
minimum needs to live a healthy and productive life, the result is
likely to be an unequal society, not an egalitarian and just one. In
our country, lack of access to good education or health care
and other such facilities is often found combined with 57

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social discrimination on grounds of caste. The Constitution therefore

allowed for reservations of government jobs and quotas for admissions
to educational institutions for people belonging to the Scheduled
Castes and Tribes.

Why is the statue of justice blindfolded?

She is blindfolded
because she needs
to be impartial.

Of course she needs to be impartial.

But I wonder how then does she see
the special needs of people?

Our discussion of different principles of justice has indicated that

governments might sometimes find it difficult to harmonise the three
principles of justice which have been discussed — equal treatment
for equals, recognition of different efforts and skills while determining
rewards and burdens, and provision of minimum standard of living
and equal opportunities to the needy. Pursuing equality of treatment
by itself might sometimes work against giving due reward to merit.
Emphasising rewarding merit as the main principle of justice might
mean that marginalised sections would be at a disadvantage in many
areas because they have not had access to facilities such as good
nourishment or education. Different groups in the country might
favour different policies depending upon which principle of justice
they emphasise. It then becomes a function of governments to
harmonise the different principles to promote a just society.

4.2 JUST DISTRIBUTION

To achieve social justice in society, governments might have to do
more than just ensure that laws and policies treat individuals in a
fair manner. Social justice also concerns the just distribution of
58 goods and services, whether it is between nations or between different

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Justice
groups and individuals within a society. If there are serious economic
or social inequalities in a society, it might become necessary to try
and redistribute some of the important resources of the society to
provide something like a level playing field for citizens. Therefore,
within a country social justice would require not only that people
be treated equally in terms of the laws and policies of the society
but also that they enjoy some basic equality of life conditions and
opportunities. This is seen as necessary for each person to be able
to pursue his/her objectives and express himself. In our country
for instance, the Constitution abolished the practice of
untouchability to promote social equality and ensure that people
belonging to ‘lower’ castes have access to temples, jobs and basic
necessities like water. Different state governments have also taken
some measures to redistribute important resources like land in a
more fair manner by instituting land reforms.
Differences of opinion on matters such whether, and how, to
distribute resources and ensure equal access to education and jobs
arouse fierce passions in society and even sometimes provoke
violence. People believe the future of themselves and their families
may be at stake. We have only to remind ourselves about the anger
and even violence which has sometimes been roused by proposals
to reserve seats in educational institutions or in government
employment in our country. As students of political theory however
we should be able to calmly examine the issues involved in terms of
our understanding of the principles of justice. Can schemes to help
the disadvantaged be justified in terms of a theory of justice? In the
next section, we will discuss the theory of just distribution put forward
by the well-known political philosopher, John Rawls. Rawls has
argued that there could indeed be a rational justification for
acknowledging the need to provide help to the least privileged
members of a society.

4.3 JOHN RAWLS’ THEORY OF JUSTICE

If people are asked to chose the kind of society in which they would
like to live, they are likely to chose one in which the rules and
organisation of society allot them a privileged position. We cannot
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the good of society, especially if they believe that their decision is

going to have an impact on the kind of life and opportunities their
children will have in the future. Indeed, we often expect parents to
think of and support what is best for their children. But such
perspectives cannot form the basis of a theory of justice for a society.
So how do we reach a decision that would be both fair and just?
John Rawls has tried to answer this question. He argues that
the only way we can arrive at a fair and just rule is if we imagine
ourselves to be in a situation in which we have to make decisions
about how society should be organised although we do not know
which position we would ourselves occupy in that society. That is,
we do not know what kind of family we would be born in, whether
we would be born into an ‘upper’ caste or ‘lower’ caste family, rich
or poor, privileged or disadvantaged. Rawls argues that if we do not
know, in this sense, who we will be and what options would be
available to us in the future society, we will be likely to support a
decision about the rules and organisation of that future society which
would be fair for all the members.
Rawls describes this as thinking under a ‘veil of ignorance’. He
expects that in such a situation of complete ignorance about our
possible position and status in society, each person would decide in
the way they generally do, that is, in terms of their own interests.
But since no one knows who he would be, and what is going to
benefit him, each will envisage the future society from the point of
view of the worst-off. It will be clear to a person who can reason and
think for himself, that those who are born privileged will enjoy certain
special opportunities. But, what if they have the misfortune of being
born in a disadvantaged section of society where few opportunities
would be available to them? Hence, it would make sense for each
person, acting in his or her own interest, to try to think of rules of
organisation that will ensure reasonable opportunities to the weaker
sections. The attempt will be to see that important resources, like
education, health, shelter, etc., are available to all persons, even if
they are not part of the upper class.
It is of course not easy to erase our identities and to imagine
60 oneself under a veil of ignorance. But then it is equally difficult for

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most people to be self-

sacrificing and share their
good fortune with
Justice
strangers. That is why we
habitually associate self-
sacrifice with heroism.
Given these human failings
and limitations, it is better
for us to think of a
framework that does not
require extraordinary
actions. The merit of the ‘veil
of ignorance’ position is that
it expects people to just be
their usual rational selves:
they are expected to think
for themselves and choose
what they regard to be in
their interest. The pertinent thing however is that when they choose
under the ‘veil of ignorance’ they will find that it is in their interest
to think from the position of the worst-off.
Wearing the imagined veil of ignorance is the first step in
arriving at a system of fair laws and policies. It will be evident
that rational persons will not only see things from the perspective
of the worst-off, they will also try to ensure that the policies
they frame benefit the society as a whole. Both things have to
go hand-in-hand. Since no one knows what position they will
occupy in the future society, each will seek rules that protect
them in case they happen to be born among the worst-off. But
it would make sense if they also try to ensure that their chosen
policy does not also make those who are better-off weaker
because it is also possible that they could be born into a
privileged position in the future society. Therefore, it would be
in the interests of all that society as a whole should benefit from
the rules and policies that are decided and not just any particular
section. Such fairness would be the outcome of rational action,
not benevolence or generosity. 61

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Rawls therefore argues that rational thinking, not morality, could

lead us to be fair and judge impartially regarding how to distribute
the benefits and burdens of a society. In his example, there are no
goals or norms of morality that are given to us in advance and we
remain free to determine what is best for ourselves. It is this belief
which makes Rawls’ theory an important and compelling way to
approach the question of fairness and justice.

4.4 PURSUING SOCIAL JUSTICE

If in a society deep and persistent divisions exist between those who
enjoy greater wealth and property, and the power which goes with
such ownership, and those who are excluded and deprived, we

LET’S DO IT Do would say that social justice is lacking there. We are not talking
here merely about the different standards of living which may be
enjoyed by different individuals in a society. Justice does not
Various calculations require absolute equality and sameness in the way in which
of the minimum people live. But a society would be considered unjust if the
requirements of
differences between rich and poor are so great that they seem to
food, income, water
be living in different worlds altogether, and if the relatively
and such facilities
have been made deprived have no chance at all to improve their condition however
by gover nment hard they may work. In other words, a just society should provide
agencies and U.N. people with the basic minimum conditions to enable them to live
agencies. Search healthy and secure lives and develop their talents as well as equal
in your school opportunities to pursue their chosen goals in society.
library, or on the
internet, for any How can we decide what are the basic minimum conditions
such calculations. of life needed by people? Various methods of calculating the basic
needs of people have been devised by different governments and
by international organisations like the World Health Organisation.
But in general it is agreed that the basic amount of nourishment
needed to remain healthy, housing, supply of clean drinking water,
education and a minimum wage would constitute an important part
of these basic conditions. Providing people with their basic needs is
considered to be one of the responsibilities of a democratic government.
However, providing such basic conditions of life to all citizens may
pose a heavy burden on governments, particularly in countries like
India which have a large number of poor people.
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Justice
Even if we all agree that states should try and help the most
disadvantaged members of the society to enjoy some degree of
equality with others, disagreements could still arise regarding the
best methods of achieving this goal. A debate is currently going on
in our society, as well as in other parts of the world, about whether
promoting open competition through free markets would be the
best way of helping the disadvantaged without harming the better-
off members of a society, or whether the government should take
on the responsibility of providing a basic minimum to the poor, if
necessary even through a redistribution of resources. In our country
these different approaches are being supported by different political
groups who debate the relative merits of different schemes for helping
marginalised sections of the population such as the rural or urban
poor. We will briefly examine this debate.

A Just society is that society

in which ascending sense of
reverence and descending
sense of contempt is dissolved
into the creation of a
compassionate society
– B.R. Ambedkar

Free Markets versus State Intervention

Supporters of free markets maintain that as far as possible,
individuals should be free to own property and enter into contracts
and agreements with others regarding prices and wages and profits.
They should be free to compete with each other to gain the greatest
amount of benefit. This is a simple description of a free market.
Supporters of the free market believe that if markets are left free of
state interference the sum of market transactions would ensure
overall a just distribution of benefits and duties in society. Those
with merit and talent would be rewarded accordingly while the
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incompetent would get a lesser reward. They would maintain that

whatever be the outcome of market distribution it would be just.
However, not all free market supporters today would support
absolutely unregulated markets. Many would now be willing to
accept certain restrictions, for instance, states could step in to ensure
a basic minimum standard of living to all people so that they are
able to compete on equal terms. But they might argue that even here
the most efficient way of providing people with basic services might
be to allow markets in health care, education, and such services, to
develop. In other words, private agencies should be encouraged to
provide such services while state policies should try to empower
people to buy those services. It might also be necessary for the state
to give special help to the old and the sick who cannot compete. But
apart from this, the role of the state should only be to maintain a
framework of laws and regulations to ensure that competition
between individuals remains free of coercion and other obstacles.
They maintain that a free market is the basis of a fair and just society.
The market, it is said, does not care about the caste or religion of the
person; it does not see whether you are a man or a woman. It is
neutral and concerned with the talents and skills that you have. If
you have the merit, then nothing else matters.
One of the arguments put forward in favour of market
distribution is that it gives us more choices. There is no doubt that
the market system gives us more choices as consumers. We can
choose the rice we eat and the school we go to, provided that we have
the means to pay for them. But regarding basic goods and services
what is important is the availability of good quality goods and services
at a cost people can afford. If private agencies do not find this
profitable for them, they may prefer not to enter that particular
market, or to provide cheap and substandard services. That is why
there may be few private schools in remote rural areas and the few
which have been set up may be of low quality. The same would be
true of health care or housing. In such situations the government
might have to step in.
Another argument often heard in defence of free markets and
private enterprise is that the quality of services they provide is often
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superior to that provided in government institutions. But the cost of
such services may put them out of the reach of the poor. Private
business tends to go where business would be most profitable and
hence free markets eventually tend to work in the interest of the
strong, the wealthy and the powerful. The result may be to deny,
rather than extend, opportunities for those who are relatively weak
and disadvantaged.
Arguments can be put forward on both sides of the debate but
free markets often exhibit a tendency to work in favour of the already
privileged. This is why many argue that to ensure social justice the
state should step in to see that basic facilities are made available to
all the members of a society.
In a democratic society disagreements about issues of distribution
and justice are inevitable and even healthy because they force us to
examine different points of view and rationally defend our own views.
Politics is about the negotiation of such disagreements through
debate. In our own country many kinds of social and economic
inequalities exist and much remains to be done if they are to be
reduced. Studying the different principles of justice should help us
to discuss the issues involved and come to an agreement regarding
the best way of pursuing justice.

Justice implies something which it is not only right to do and

wrong not to do; but which some individual person can claim
from us as his moral right.
– J. S. Mill

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1. What does it mean to give each person his/her due? How has the
meaning of “giving each his due” changed over time?

2. Briefly discuss the three principles of justice outlined in the

chapter? Explain each with examples.

3. Does the principle of considering the special needs of people conflict

with the principle of equal treatment for all?

4. How does Rawls use the idea of a veil of ignorance to argue that fair
and just distribution can be defended on rational grounds?

5. What are generally considered to be the basic minimum

Exercises

requirements of people for living a healthy and productive life? What

is the responsibility of governments in trying to ensure this
minimum to all?

6. Which of the following arguments could be used to justify state

action to provide basic minimum conditions of life to all citizens?
(a) Providing free services to the poor and needy can be justified as
an act of charity.
(b) Providing all citizens with a basic minimum standard of living
is one way of ensuring equality of opportunity.
(c) Some people are naturally lazy and we should be kind to them.
(d) Ensuring basic facilities and a minimum standard of living to
all is a recognition of our shared humanity and a human right.

66 Credit: Image on opening page: Shweta Rao

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Chapter 5

Rights
Overview
In everyday life we often talk of our rights. As members of a democratic country we
may speak of such rights as the right to vote, the right to form political parties, the
right to contest elections and so on. But apart from the generally accepted political
and civil rights, people today are also making new demands for rights such as the
right to information, right to clean air or the right to safe drinking water. Rights are
claimed not only in relation to our political and public lives but also in relation to
our social and personal relationships. Moreover, rights may be claimed not only for
adult human beings but also for children, unborn foetuses, and even animals. The
notion of rights is thus invoked in a variety of different ways by different people. In
this chapter we will explore:
o What do we mean when we speak of rights?
o What is the basis on which rights are claimed?
o What purpose do rights serve and, why are they so important?

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5.1 WHAT ARE RIGHTS?
Political Theory

A right is essentially an entitlement or a justified claim. It denotes

what we are entitled to as citizens, as individuals and as human
beings. It is something that we consider to be due to us; something
that the rest of society must recognise as being a legitimate claim
that must be upheld. This does not mean that everything that I regard
to be necessary and desirable is a right. I may want to wear the
clothes of my choice to school rather than the prescribed uniform. I
may want to stay out late at night but this does not mean that I have
a right to dress in any way I like at school or to return home when I
choose to do so. There is a distinction between what I want and
think I am entitled to, and what can be designated as rights.
Rights are primarily those claims that I along with others regard
to be necessary for leading a life of respect and dignity. In fact, one
of the grounds on which rights have been claimed is that they
represent conditions that we collectively see as a source of self-
respect and dignity. For example, the right to livelihood may be
considered necessary for leading a life of dignity. Being gainfully
employed gives a person economic independence and thus is central
for his/her dignity. Having our basic needs met gives us freedom
to pursue our talents and interests. Or, take the right to express
ourselves freely. This right gives us the opportunity to be creative
and original, whether it be in writing, or dance, or music, or any
other creative activity. But freedom of expression is also important
for democratic government since it allows for the free expression of
beliefs and opinions. Rights such as the right to a livelihood, or
freedom of expression, would be important for all human beings
who live in society and they are described as universal in nature.

Another ground on which rights have been claimed is that they

are necessary for our well-being. They help individuals to develop
their talents and skills. A right like the right to education, for
instance, helps to develop our capacity to reason, gives us useful
skills and enables us to make informed choices in life. It is in this
sense that education can be designated as a universal right. However,
68 if an activity is injurious to our health and well-being it cannot be

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claimed as a right. For instance, since medical research

has shown that prohibited drugs are injurious to one’s
health and since they affect our relations with others,
Rights
DoLET’S DO IT
we cannot insist that we have a right to inhale or inject Go through recent
drugs or smoke tobacco. In the case of smoking it may newspapers and
even be injurious to the health of people who may be make a list of people’s
around the smoker. Drugs may not only injure our movements that have
health but they may also sometimes change our made proposals for
behaviour patterns and make us a danger to other new kinds of rights?
people. In terms of our definition of rights, smoking or
taking banned drugs cannot be claimed as a right.

5.2 WHERE DO RIGHTS COME FROM?

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, political theorists
argued that rights are given to us by nature or God. The rights of
men were derived from natural law. This meant that rights were
not conferred by a ruler or a society, rather we are born with them.
As such these rights are inalienable and no one can take these
away from us. They identified three natural rights of man: the right
to life, liberty and property. All other rights were said to be derived
from these basic rights. The idea that we are born with certain
rights, is a very powerful notion because it implies that no state or
organisation should take away what has been given by the law of
nature. This conception of natural rights has been used widely to
oppose the exercise of arbitrary power by states and governments
and to safeguard individual freedom.
In recent years, the term human rights is being used more than
the term natural rights. This is because the idea of there being a
natural law, or a set of norms that are laid down for us by nature,
or God, appears unacceptable today. Rights are increasingly seen
as guarantees that human beings themselves seek or arrive at in
order to lead a minimally good life.
The assumption behind human rights is that all persons are
entitled to certain things simply because they are human beings.
As a human being each person is unique and equally valuable. This
means that all persons are equal and no one is born to serve others. 69

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KANT ON HUMAN DIGNITY
Political Theory

Each of us possesses an intrinsic

value, hence we must have equal
opportunities to be free and realise
“ ... everything has either a price or a
dignity. What has a price is such that our full potential. This conception of
something else can also be put in its place a free and equal self is increasingly
as its equivalent; by contrast, that which being used to challenge existing
is elevated above all price, and admits of inequalities based on race, caste,
no equivalent, has a dignity. religion and gender. Today, the UN
‘Human beings’, unlike all other Universal Declaration of Human
objects, possess dignity. They are, for this Rights builds upon this understanding
reason valuable in themselves. For the of rights and it attempts to recognise
eighteenth century German philosopher, those claims that the world
Immanuel Kant, this simple idea had a deep
community collectively sees as being
meaning. It meant that every person has
important for leading a life of dignity
dignity and ought to be so treated by virtue
and self-respect.
of being a human being. A person may be
uneducated, poor or powerless. He may The notion of universal human
even be dishonest or immoral. Yet, he rights has been used by oppressed
remains a human being and deserves to be people all over the world to
given some minimum dignity. challenge laws which segregate
For Kant, to treat people with dignity them and deny them equal
was to treat them morally. This idea became opportunities and rights. In fact, it
a rallying point for those struggling against is through the struggles of groups
social hierarchies and for human rights. that have felt excluded that the
Kant’s views represent, what is called, interpretation of existing rights has
the moral conception of rights. This
sometimes been altered. Slavery
position rests upon two arguments. First,
has, for instance, been abolished,
we should be treating others as we would
but there are other struggles that
like to be treated ourselves. Second, we
have only had a limited success.
should make sure that we don’t treat the
Even today there are communities
other person as means to our ends. We
should not treat people as we treat a pen,
struggling to define humanity in a
a car, or a horse. That is, we should respect way which includes them.
people not because they are useful to us
but because they are, after all, human
The list of human rights which
beings. people have claimed has expanded
over the years as societies face
new threats and challenges. For
instance, we are very conscious
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today of the need to protect

the natural environment
and this has generated
Rights
demands for rights to clean
air, water, sustainable
development, and the like.
A new awareness about the
changes which many
people, especially women,
children or the sick, face in
times of war or natural
crisis has also led to
demands for a right to
livelihood, rights of children
and the like. Such claims
express a sense of moral
outrage about infringements
of peoples’ dignity and they
also act as a rallying call to
people to try and extend rights to all human beings. We should not
understate the extent and power of such claims. They often invoke
wide support. You may have heard about the pop star Bob Geldof ’s
recent appeal to western governments to end poverty in Africa and
seen T.V. reports about the scale of support which he received from
ordinary people.

5.3 LEGAL RIGHTS AND THE STATE

While claims for human rights appeal to our moral self, the degree of
success of such appeals depends on a number of factors, most
important of which is the support of governments and the law. This
is why so much importance is placed on the legal recognition of rights.
A Bill of Rights is enshrined in the constitutions of many
countries. Constitutions represent the highest law of the land and
so constitutional recognition of certain rights gives them a primary
importance. In our country we call them Fundamental Rights. Other
laws and policies are supposed to respect the rights granted in the
Constitution. The rights mentioned in the Constitution would be
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those which are considered to be of basic importance. In some cases

these may be supplemented by claims which gain importance
because of the particular history and customs of a country. In India,
for instance, we have a provision to ban untouchability which draws
attention to a traditional social practice in the country.
So important is the legal and constitutional recognition of our
claims that several theorists define rights as claims that are
recognised by the state. The legal endorsement certainly gives our
rights a special status in society but it is not the basis on which
rights are claimed. As we discussed earlier, rights have steadily
been expanded and reinterpreted to include previously excluded
groups and to reflect our contemporary understanding of what it
means to lead a life of dignity and respect.
However, in most cases the claimed rights are directed towards
the state. That is, through these rights people make demands upon
the state. When I assert my right to education, I call upon the state
to make provisions for my basic education. Society may also accept
the importance of education and contribute to it on its own. Different
groups may open schools and fund scholarships so that children of
all classes can get the benefit of education. But the primary
responsibility rests upon the state. It is the state that must initiate
necessary steps to ensure that my right to education is fulfilled.
Thus, rights place an obligation upon the state to act in certain
kinds of ways. Each right indicates what the state must do as well
as what it must not do. For instance, my right to life obliges the
state to make laws that protect me from injury by others. It calls
upon the state to punish those who hurt me or harm me. If a society
feels that the right to life means a right to a good quality of life, it
expects the state to pursue policies that provide for clean
environment along with other conditions that may be necessary for
a healthy life. In other words, my right here places certain obligations
upon the state to act in a certain way.
Rights not only indicate what the state must do, they also suggest
what the state must refrain from doing. My right to liberty as a person,
for instance, suggests that the state cannot simply arrest me at its
72 own will. If it wishes to put me behind bars, it must defend that action;

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it must give reasons for curtailing my liberty before a

judicial court. This is why the police are required to
Rights
produce an arrest warrant before taking me away. My
rights thus place certain constraints upon state actions. LET’S DO IT Do
To put it another way, our rights ensure that the Go thr ough the
authority of the state is exercised without violating the newspapers of the last
sanctity of individual life and liberty. The state may be few days and identify
the sovereign authority; the laws it makes may be cases of rights violations
enforced with force, but the sovereign state exists not which have been
for its own sake but for the sake of the individual. It is discussed. What should
the gover nment and
people who matter more and it is their well-being that
civil society do to
must be pursued by the government in power. The rulers
prevent such violations?
are accountable for their actions and must not forget
that law exists to ensure the good of the people.

5.4 KINDS OF RIGHTS

Most democracies today begin by drawing up a charter of political
rights. Political rights give to the citizens the right to equality before
law and the right to participate in the political process. They include
such rights as the right to vote and elect representatives, the right
to contest elections, the right to form political parties or join them.
Political rights are supplemented by civil liberties. The latter refers
to the right to a free and fair trial, the right to express one’s views
freely, the right to protest and express dissent. Collectively, civil
liberties and political rights form the basis of a democratic system
of government. But, as was mentioned before, rights aim to protect
the well-being of the individual. Political rights contribute to it by
making the government accountable to the people, by giving greater
importance to the concerns of the individual over that of the rulers
and by ensuring that all persons have an opportunity to influence
the decisions of the government.
However, our rights of political participation can only be exercised
fully when our basic needs, of food, shelter, clothing, health, are
met. For a person living on the pavements and struggling to meet
these basic needs, political rights by themselves have little value.
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basic needs and reasonable conditions of work. Hence

“”
democratic societies are beginning to recognise these
obligations and providing economic rights. In some
countries, citizens, particularly those with low
incomes, receive housing and medical facilities from
LET’S DEBATE
the state; in others, unemployed persons receive a
The right to culture certain minimum wage so that they can meet their
means that no one basic needs. In India the government has recently
should be allowed to introduced a rural employment guarantee scheme,
make films that offend among other measures to help the poor.
the r eligious or
cultural beliefs of
Today, in addition to political and economic rights
others. more and more democracies are recognising the
cultural claims of their citizens. The right to have
primary education in one’s mother tongue, the right
to establish institutions for teaching one’s language and culture,
are today recognised as being necessary for leading a good life. The
list of rights has thus steadily increased in democracies. While some
rights, primarily the right to life, liberty, equal treatment, and the
right to political participation are seen as basic rights that must
receive priority, other conditions that are necessary for leading a
decent life, are being recognised as justified claims or rights.

LET’S THINK
Which of the following rights granted to groups/
communities are justifiable? Discuss.
o Jain community in a town sets up its own school
and enrols students only from its own community.
o Purchase of land or property in Himachal Pradesh
is restricted to those who are residents in that
state.
o The principal of a co-ed college issued a circular
that no girl should wear any ‘western’ dress.
o A Panchayat in Haryana decided that the boy and
the girl from different castes who married each
other will not be allowed to live in the village.

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5.5 RIGHTS AND RESPONSIBILITIES

Rights
Rights not only place obligations upon the state to act in a certain
way — for instance, to ensure sustainable development — but they
also place obligations upon each of us. Firstly, they compel us to
think not just of our own personal needs and interests but to defend
some things as being good for all of us. Protecting the ozone layer,
minimising air and water pollution, maintaining the green cover by
planting new trees and preventing cutting down of forests,
maintaining the ecological balance, are things that are essential for
all of us. They represent the ‘common-good’ that we must act to
protect for ourselves as well as for the future generations who are
entitled to inherit a safe and clean world without which they cannot
lead a reasonably good life.
Secondly, they require that I respect
the rights of others. If I say that I must
be given the right to express my views
I must also grant the same right to
others. If I do not want others to
interfere in the choices I make — the
dress I wear or the music I listen to —
I must refrain from interfering in the
choices that others make. I must leave
them free to choose their music and
clothes. I cannot use the right to free
speech to incite a crowd to kill my
neighbour. In exercising my rights, I
cannot deprive others of their rights.
My rights are, in other words, limited
by the principle of equal and same
rights for all.
Thirdly, we must balance our rights when they come into conflict.
For instance, my right to freedom of expression allows me to take
pictures; however, if I take pictures of a person bathing in his house
without his consent and post them on the internet, that would be a
violation of his right to privacy.
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Fourthly, citizens must be vigilant about limitations

which may be placed on their rights. A currently debated
topic concerns the increased restrictions which many
governments are imposing on the civil liberties of
citizens on the grounds of national security. Protecting
national security may be defended as necessary for
safeguarding the rights and well-being of citizens. But
at what point could the restrictions imposed as
necessary for security themselves become a threat to
the rights of people? Should a country facing the threat
of terrorist bombings be allowed to curtail the liberty
of citizens? Should it be allowed to arrest people on
mere suspicion? Should it be allowed to intercept their
mail or tap their phones? Should it be allowed to use
torture to extract confession?
In such situations the question to ask is whether
the person concerned poses an imminent threat to
society. Even arrested persons should be allowed legal
counsel and the opportunity to present their case before
a magistrate or a court of law. We need to be extremely
cautious about giving governments powers which could

“”
be used to curtail the civil liberties of individuals for
such powers can be misused. Governments can become
authoritarian and undermine the very reasons for which
LET’S DEBATE governments exist — namely, the well-being of the
members of the state. Hence, even though rights can
One man‘s rights end
never be absolute, we need to be vigilant in protecting
where the other man‘s
nose begins. our rights and those of others for they form the basis
of a democratic society.

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Rights
On 10 December 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations
adopted and proclaimed the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
Following this historic act the Assembly called upon all Member
countries to publicise the text of the Declaration and “to cause it to be
disseminated, displayed, read and expounded principally in schools
and other educational institutions, without distinction based on the
political status of countries or territories.”
PREAMBLE
Whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and
inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation
of freedom, justice and peace in the world,
Whereas disregard and contempt for human rights have resulted
in barbarous acts which have outraged the conscience of mankind,
and the advent of a world in which human beings shall enjoy freedom
of speech and belief and freedom from fear and want has been
proclaimed as the highest aspiration of the common people,
Whereas it is essential, if man is not to be compelled to have
recourse, as a last resort, to rebellion against tyranny and oppression,
that human rights should be protected by the rule of law,
Whereas it is essential to promote the development of friendly
relations between nations,
Whereas the peoples of the United Nations have in the Charter
reaffirmed their faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity
and worth of the human person and in the equal rights of men and
women and have determined to promote social progress and better
standards of life in larger freedom,
Whereas Member States have pledged themselves to achieve, in
co-operation with the United Nations, the promotion of universal
respect for and observance of human rights and fundamental
freedoms,
Whereas a common understanding of these rights and freedoms
is of the greatest importance for the full realisation of this pledge,
Now, therefore THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY proclaims THIS
UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS as a common
standard of achievement for all peoples and all nations, to the end
that every individual and every organ of society, keeping this
Declaration constantly in mind, shall strive by teaching and education
to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive
measures, national and international, to secure their universal and
effective recognition and observance, both among the peoples of
Member States themselves and among the peoples of territories under
their jurisdiction.

For more details, visit www.un.org 77

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1. What are rights and why are they important? What are the bases on
which claims to rights can be made?
Exercises

2. On what grounds are some rights considered to be universal in nature?

Identify three rights which you consider universal. Give reasons.

3. Discuss briefly some of the new rights claims which are being put
forward in our country today — for example the rights of tribal peoples
to protect their habitat and way of life, or the rights of children against
bonded labour.

4. Differentiate between political, economic and cultural rights. Give

examples of each kind of right.

5. Rights place some limits on the authority of the state. Explain with
examples.

Credit: Image on opening page: The National Archives and Records

78 Administration, United States of America

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Citizenship
Chapter 6

Citizenship
Overview
Citizenship implies full and equal membership of a political community. In this
chapter we will explore what exactly this means today. In Sections 6.2 and 6.3 we
will look at some debates and struggles which are going on regarding the interpretation
of the term ‘full and equal membership’. Section 6.4 will discuss the relationship
between citizens and the nation and the criteria of citizenship adopted in different
countries. Theories of democratic citizenship claim that citizenship should be
universal. Does this mean that every person today should be accepted as a member
of one or other state? then How can we explain the existence of so many stateless
people? This issue will be discussed in Section 6.5. The last section 6.6 will discuss
the issue of global citizenship. Does it exist and could it replace national citizenship?
After going through this chapter you should be able to
o explain the meaning of citizenship, and
o discuss some of the areas in which that meaning is being expanded or
challenged today.

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6.1 INTRODUCTION
Political Theory

Citizenship has been defined as full and

equal membership of a political community.
In the contemporary world, states provide a
collective political identity to their members
as well as certain rights. Therefore we think
of ourselves as Indians, or Japanese, or
Germans, depending on the state to which
we belong. Citizens expect certain rights
from their state as well as help and
protection wherever they may travel.
The importance of full membership of a state can be
appreciated if we think of the condition of the thousands of people
in the world who have the bad fortune to be forced to live as
refugees or illegal migrants because no state is willing to grant
them membership. Such people are not guaranteed rights by any
state and generally live in precarious conditions. For them full
membership of a state of their choice is a goal for which they are
willing to struggle, as we see today with Palestinian refugees in
the Middle East.
The precise
nature of the
rights granted to
citizens may
vary from state
to state but in
most democratic
countries today
they would include
some political
rights like the right
to vote, civil rights
like the freedom of speech or belief, and some socio-economic rights
which could include the right to a minimum wage, or the right to
education. Equality of rights and status is one of the basic rights
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Each of the rights now enjoyed by citizens
has been won after struggle. Some of the earliest
struggles were fought by people to assert their
independence and rights against powerful
monarchies. Many European countries
experienced such struggles, some of them violent,
like the French Revolution in 1789. In the colonies
of Asia and Africa, demands for equal citizenship
formed part of their struggle for independence
from colonial rulers. In South Africa, the black
African population had to undertake a long
struggle against the ruling white minority for
equal citizenship. This continued until the early
1990s. Struggles to achieve full membership and
equal rights continue even now in many parts of the world. You
may have read about the women’s movement and the dalit movement
in our country. Their purpose is to change public opinion by drawing
attention to their needs as well as to influence government policy to
ensure them equal rights and opportunities.

LET’S THINK
During seventeenth to twentieth century, white people of
Europe established their rule over the black people in
South Africa. Read the following description about the
policy practices in South Africa till 1994.
The whites had the right to vote, contest elections
and elect government; they were free to purchase property
and go to any place in the country. Blacks did not have
such rights. Separate colonies for whites and blacks were
established. The blacks had to take ‘passes’ to work in
white neighbourhoods. They were not allowed to keep their
families in the white areas. The schools were also separate
for the people of different colour.
o Do you think the Blacks had full and equal membership
in South Africa? Give reasons.
o What does the above description tell us about the
relationship of different groups in South Africa?
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Do
LET’S DO IT
Political Theory

However, citizenship is about more than the

relationship between states and their members. It
is also about citizen-citizen relations and involves
Think of some certain obligations of citizens to each other and to
examples of activities the society. These would include not just the legal
of citizens in your area
obligations imposed by states but also a moral
intended to help
obligation to participate in, and contribute to, the
others, or improve the
area, or protect the shared life of the community. Citizens are also
envir onment. List considered to be the inheritors and trustees of the
some of the activities culture and natural resources of the country.
which could be
undertaken by young A good way to understand a political concept is
people of your age- to look for instances where its accepted meaning is
group. being questioned by groups who feel that it does
not take account of their needs and aspirations.

6.2 FULL AND EQUAL MEMBERSHIP

If you have ever travelled in a crowded
railway compartment or bus you will be
familiar with the way in which those who
may have earlier fought each other to enter,
once inside discover a shared interest in
keeping others out! A division soon
develops between ‘insiders’ and ‘outsiders’
with ‘outsiders’ being seen as a threat.
Similar processes take place from time
to time in cities, regions, or even the nation
as a whole. If jobs, facilities like medical
care or education, and natural resources
like land or water, are limited, demands may be made to restrict
entry to ‘outsiders’ even though they may be fellow citizens. You may
remember the slogan ‘Mumbai for Mumbaikars’ which expressed
such feelings. Many similar struggles have taken place in different
parts of India and the world.
This raises questions about what ‘full and equal membership’
really means? Does it mean that citizens should enjoy equal rights
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and opportunities wherever

in the country they may
decide to live, study, or
Citizenship
MARTIN LUTHER KING
The 1950s witnessed the emergence of Civil
work? Does it mean that all Rights Movements against inequalities that
citizens, rich or poor, existed between black and white populations in
should enjoy certain basic many of the southern states of the USA. Such
inequalities were maintained in these states by a
rights and facilities?
set of laws called Segregation Laws through which
In this section we will the black people were denied many civil and
explore the meaning of political rights. These laws created separate areas
citizenship by focusing on for coloured and white people in various civic
the first of these questions. amenities like railways, buses, theatres, housing,
hotels, restaurants, etc.
One of the rights Martin Luther King Jr. was a black leader of
granted to citizens in our the movement against these laws. King gave many
country, and in many arguments against the prevailing laws of
others, is freedom of segregation. First, in terms of self-worth and
dignity every human person in the world is equal
movement. This right is of
regardless of one’s race or colour. Second, King
particular importance for
argued that segregation is like ‘social leprosy’ on
workers. Labour tends to the body politic because it inflicts deep
migrate in search of jobs psychological wounds on the people who suffer
when opportunities are not as a result of such laws.
available near their homes. King argued that the practice of segregation
Some people may even diminishes the quality of life for the white
travel outside the country community also. He illustrates this point by
in search of jobs. Markets examples. The white community, instead of
allowing the black people to enter some
for skilled and unskilled
community parks as was directed by the court,
workers have developed in
decided to close them. Similarly, some baseball
dif fer ent parts of our teams had to be disbanded, as the authorities
country. For instance, I.T. did not want to accept black players. Thirdly, the
workers may flock to segregation laws create artificial boundaries
towns like Bangalore. between people and prevent them from
Nurses from Kerala may cooperating with each other for the overall benefit
be found all over the of the country. For these reasons, King argued
country. The booming that these laws should be abolished. He gave a
call for peaceful and non-violent resistance
building industry in town
against the segregation laws. He said in one of
attracts workers from
his speeches: “We must not allow our creative
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country. So do infrastructure projects like road making. You

may have come across workers from different regions near your
home or school.
However, often resistance builds up among the local people
against so many jobs going to people from outside the area,
sometimes at lower wages. A demand may develop to restrict certain
jobs to those who belong to the state, or those who know the local
language. Political parties may take up the issue. Resistance could
even take the form of organised violence against ‘outsiders’. Almost
every region of India has experienced such movements. Are such
movements ever justified?
We all become indignant, if Indian workers in other countries
are ill-treated by the local population. Some of us may also feel
that skilled and educated workers have the right to migrate for
work. States may even be proud of their ability to attract such
workers. But if jobs are scarce in a region, local residents may
resent competition from ‘outsiders’. Does the right to freedom of
movement include the right to live or work in any part of the country?
Another factor that we need to consider is that there may
sometimes be a difference between our response to poor migrants
and to skilled migrants. We may not always be as welcoming to
poor migrants who move into our areas as we may be to skilled and
affluent workers. This raises the question of whether poor and
unskilled workers should have the same right to live and work
anywhere in the country as do skilled workers? These are some of
the issues which are being debated in our country today regarding
‘full and equal membership’ for all citizens of the country.

However, disputes may sometimes arise even in democratic

societies. How can such disputes be resolved? The right to protest
is an aspect of the freedom of expression guaranteed to citizens in
our Constitution, provided protest does not harm the life or property
of other people or the State. Citizens are free to try and influence
public opinion and government policy by forming groups, holding
demonstrations, using the media, appealing to political parties, or
by approaching the courts. The courts may give a decision on the
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matter, or they may urge the government to address the issue. It

may be a slow process but varying degrees of success are sometimes
possible. If the guiding principle of providing full and equal
membership to all citizens is kept in mind, it should be possible to
arrive at an acceptable solution to the problems that may arise
from time to time in a society. A basic principle of democracy is that
such disputes should be settled by negotiation and discussion rather
than force. This is one of the obligations of citizenship.

LET’S THINK
Examine the arguments for and against freedom of
movement and occupation throughout the country for
citizens.
Should the long-term inhabitants of a region enjoy
preference for jobs and facilities?
Or, should states be allowed to fix quotas for
admissions to professional colleges for students who do
not belong to that state?

6.3 EQUAL RIGHTS

In this section we will examine another aspect of citizenship, that
is, the issue of whether full and equal membership means that all
citizens, rich or poor, should be guaranteed certain basic rights
and a minimum standard of living by the state. To discuss this
issue, we will look at one set of people, that is the urban poor.
Dealing with the problem of the poor in towns is one of the urgent
problems facing the government today.
There is a large population of slum-dwellers and squatters in
every city in India. Although they may do necessary and useful
work, often at low wages, they are often viewed as unwelcome visitors
by the rest of the town population. They may be blamed for straining
the resources of the city or for spreading crime and disease.
The conditions in slums are often shocking. Many people may
be crammed into small rooms with no private toilets, running water,
or sanitation. Life and property are insecure in a slum. However,
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slum dwellers
make a significant
contribution to the
Citizenship
CITIZENSHIP, EQUALITY AND RIGHTS
Citizenship is not merely a legal concept. It is also closely
economy through related to larger notions of equality and rights. A widely
their labour. They accepted formulation of this relationship was provided
may be hawkers, by the British sociologist, T. H. Marshall (1893-1981).
petty traders, In his book Citizenship and Social Class (1950), Marshall
defined citizenship as “a status bestowed on those who
scavengers, or
are full members of a community. All who possess the
domestic workers,
status are equal with respect to the rights and duties
plumbers, or
with which the status is endowed.”
mechanics, among The key concept in Marshall’s idea of citizenship is
other professions. that of ‘equality’. This implies two things: first, that
Small businesses quality of the given rights and duties improves. Second,
such as cane that the quantity of people upon whom they are
weaving, or textile bestowed grows.
printing, or Marshall sees citizenship as involving three kinds
tailoring, may also of rights: civil, political and social.
develop in slums. Civil rights protect the individual’s life, liberty and
The city probably property. Political rights enable the individual to participate
spends relatively in the process of governance. Social rights give the
individual access to education and employment. Together
little on providing
they make it possible for the citizen to lead a life of dignity.
slum-dwellers with
Marshall saw social class as a ‘system of inequality’.
services such as Citizenship ensures equality by countering the divisive
sanitation or water effects of class hierarchy. It thus facilitates the creation
supply. of a better-integrated and harmonious community.

Awareness about the condition of the urban poor is growing

among governments, N.G.O’s and other agencies, and among the
slum-dwellers themselves. For instance, a national policy on urban
street vendors was framed in January 2004. There are lakhs of
street vendors in big cities and they often face harassment from
the police and town authorities. The policy was intended to provide
recognition and regulation for vendors to enable them to carry on
their profession without harassment so long as they obeyed
government regulations.
Slum-dwellers also are becoming aware of their rights and are
beginning to organise to demand them. They have sometimes even
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CITIZENSHIP, EQUALITY AND

The Supreme Court gave an important

RIGHTS
Political Theory

approached the courts. Even

a basic political right like the
right to vote may be difficult
decision regarding the rights of slum-dwellers for them to exercise because
in Bombay in response to a Public Interest to be included in the list of
Litigation filed by a social activist, Olga Tellis voters a fixed address is
against Bombay Municipal Corporation in required and squatters and
1985. The petition claimed the right to live pavement dwellers may find it
on pavements or in slums because there was
difficult to provide this.
no alternative accommodation available close
to their place of work. If they were forced to Among other groups of
move they would lose their livelihood as well. people who are becoming
The Supreme Court said, “Article 21 of the marginalised in our society are
Constitution which guaranteed the right to the tribal people and forest
life included the right to livelihood. Therefore dwellers. These people are
if pavement dwellers were to be evicted they
dependent on access to forests
should first be provided alter native
and other natural resources to
accommodation under the right to shelter.”
maintain their way of life. Many
of them face threats to their way
of life and livelihood because of
the pressure of increasing populations and the search for land and
resources to maintain them. Pressures from commercial interests
wanting to mine the resources which may exist in forests or coasts
poses another threat to the way of life and livelihood of forest dwellers
and tribal peoples, as does the tourist industry. Governments are
struggling with the problem of how to protect these people and their
habitat without at the same time endangering development of the
country. This is an issue that affects all citizens, not just tribal people.
To try and ensure equal rights and opportunities for all citizens
cannot be a simple matter for any government. Different groups of
people may have different needs and problems and the rights of
one group may conflict with the rights of another. Equal rights for
citizens need not mean that uniform policies have to be applied to
all people since different groups of people may have different needs.
If the purpose is not just to make policies which would apply in the
same way to all people, but to make people more equal, the different
needs and claims of people would have to be taken into account
when framing policies.
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Citizenship
What should become clear from this discussion is
that changes in the world situation, the economy, and
society demand new interpretations of the meaning
and rights of citizenship. The formal laws regarding LET’S DO IT Do
citizenship only form the starting point and the
Survey three families
interpretation of laws is constantly evolving. While
of workers working
answers to some the problems which may arise may
close to, or in, your
not be easy to find, the concept of equal citizenship homes or school. Find
would mean that providing equal rights and protection out details about their
to all citizens should be one of the guiding principles life. Where is their
of government policies. ancestral place? When
and why did they
come here? Where do
LET’S THINK they live? How many
According to the official figures published people share the
about the land distribution in Zimbabwe, accommodation?
some 4,400 white families owned 32 What kinds of facilities
per cent of agricultural land that is about are available to them?
10m hectares. About one million black Do their children
peasant families own just 16m hectares attend school?
that is the 38 per cent of the land. While
the land that is with the white families is
fertile and irrigated, the land in the hands
of black population is less fertile and
unirrigated. While tracing the history of
land ownership, it is very obvious that a
LET’S DO IT Do
century ago the whites had taken the Find out about
fertile land from the native people. Whites the street vendors
have now been in Zimbabwe for (Protection of
generations and consider themselves as Livelihood and
Zimbabweans. The total population of Regulation of
whites in Zimbabwe is just 0.06 per cent Street Vending)
of the population. In the year 1997, Act, 2014.
the President of Zimbabwe, Mugabe
announced the plans to take over around
1500 farms.
What ideas from citizenship would
you use to support or oppose the claims
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6.4 CITIZEN AND NATION
Political Theory

The concept of nation state evolved in the modern period. One of

the earliest assertions regarding the sovereignty of the nation state
and democratic rights of citizens was made by the revolutionaries
in France in 1789. Nation states claim that their boundaries define
not just a territory but also a unique culture and shared history.
The national identity may be expressed through symbols like a flag,
national anthem, national language, or certain ceremonial practices,
among other things.
Most modern states include people of different religions,
languages, and cultural traditions. But the national identity of a
democratic state is supposed to provide citizens with a political
identity that can be shared by all the members of the state.
Democratic states usually try to define their identity so that it is as
inclusive as possible — that is, which allows all citizens to identify
themselves as part of the nation. But in practice, most countries
tend to define their identity in a way which makes it easier for some
citizens to identify with the state than others. It may also make it
easier for the state to extend citizenship to some people and not
others. This would be as true of the United States, which prides
itself on being a country of immigrants, as any other country.
France, for instance, is a country which claims to be both secular
and inclusive. It includes not only people of European origin but
also citizens who originally came from other areas such as North
Africa. Culture and language are important features of its national
identity and all citizens are expected to assimilate into it in the
public aspects of their lives. They may, however, retain their personal
beliefs and practices in their private lives. This may seem like a
reasonable policy but it is not always simple to define what is public
and what is private and this has given rise to some controversies.
Religious belief is supposed to belong to the private sphere of citizens
but sometimes religious symbols and practices may enter into their
public lives. You may have heard about the demand of Sikh school
boys in France to wear the turban to school, and of Muslim girls to
wear the head scarf with their school uniforms. This was disallowed
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by some schools on the ground that it involved bringing religious
symbols into the public sphere of state education. Those whose
religions did not demand such practices naturally did not face the
same problem. Clearly, assimilation into the national culture would
be easier for some groups than for others.
The criteria for granting citizenship to new applicants varies
from country to country. In countries such as Israel, or Germany,
factors like religion, or ethnic origin, may be given priority when
granting citizenship. In Germany there has been a persistent demand
from Turkish workers, who were at one time encouraged to come
and work in Germany, that their children who have been born and
brought up in Germany should automatically be granted citizenship.
This is still being debated. These are only a few examples of the
kinds of restrictions which may be placed on citizenship even in
democratic countries which pride themselves on being inclusive.
India defines itself as a secular, democratic, nation state. The
movement for independence was a broad based one and deliberate
attempts were made to bind together people of different religions,
regions and cultures. True, Partition of the country did take place
in 1947 when differences with the Muslim League could not be
resolved, but this only strengthened the resolve of Indian national
leaders to maintain the secular and inclusive character of the Indian
nation state they were committed to build. This resolve was embodied
in the Constitution.
The Indian Constitution attempted to accommodate a very diverse
society. To mention just a few of these diversities, it attempted to
provide full and equal citizenship to groups as different as the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, many women who had not
previously enjoyed equal rights, some remote communities in the
Andaman and Nicobar islands who had had little contact with modern
civilization, and many others. It also attempted to find a place for the
different languages, religions and practices found in different parts of
the country. It had to provide equal rights to all without at the same
time forcing people to give up their personal beliefs, languages or
cultural practices. It was therefore a unique experiment which was
undertaken through the Constitution. The Republic Day parade in
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Delhi symbolises the attempt of the state to include

people of different regions, cultures and religions.

“”
The provisions about citizenship in the
Constitution can be found in Part Two and in
LET’S DEBATE subsequent laws passed by Parliament. The
Constitution adopted an essentially democratic and
It is not appropriate for inclusive notion of citizenship. In India, citizenship
schools, or any other can be acquired by birth, descent, registration,
public agencies like naturalisation, or inclusion of territory. The rights
the army, to insist on and obligations of citizens are listed in the
a common unifor m Constitution. There is also a provision that the state
and to ban the display should not discriminate against citizens on grounds
of religious symbols
only of religion, race, caste, sex, place of birth, or
such as the turban.
any of them. The rights of religious and linguistic
minorities are also protected.

However, even such inclusive provisions have given rise to

struggles and controversies. The women’s movement, the dalit
movement, or struggles of people displaced by development projects,
represent only a few of the struggles being waged by people who
feel that they are being denied full rights of citizenship. The
experience of India indicates that democratic citizenship in any
country is a project, an ideal to work towards. New issues are
constantly being raised as societies change and new demands are
made by groups who feel they are being marginalised. In a
democratic state these demands have to be negotiated.

6.5 UNIVERSAL CITIZENSHIP

When we think of refugees, or illegal migrants, many images may
come to mind. One may be of people from Asia or Africa who have
paid agents to smuggle them into Europe or America. The risks are
high but they seem willing to make the effort. Another image may
be of people displaced by war or famine. Such images are often
shown on the television. Refugees in the Darfur region of Sudan,
Palestinians, Burmese or Bangladeshis, the examples are many.
All these are people who have been forced to become refugees in
their own, or neighbouring countries.
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We often assume that full membership of a state should be
available to all those who ordinarily live and work in the country as
well as to those who apply for citizenship. But although many states
may support the idea of universal and inclusive citizenship, each of
them also fixes criteria for the grant of citizenship. These would
generally be written into the Constitution and laws of the country.
States use their power to keep unwanted visitors out.
However, in spite of restrictions, even the building of walls or
fences, considerable migration of peoples still takes place in the
world. People may be displaced by wars, or persecution, famine, or
other reasons. If no state is willing to accept them and they cannot
return home, they become stateless peoples or refugees. They may
be forced to live in camps, or as illegal migrants. Often they cannot
legally work, or educate their children, or acquire property. The
problem is so great that the U.N. has appointed a High Commissioner
for Refugees to try to help them.
Decisions regarding how many people can be absorbed as citizens
in a country poses a difficult humanitarian and political problem for
many states. Many countries have a policy of accepting those fleeing
from persecution or war. But they may not want to accept
unmanageable number of people or expose the country to security
risks. India prides itself on providing refuge to persecuted peoples,
as it did with the Dalai Lama and his followers in 1959. Entry of
people from neighbouring countries has taken place along all the
borders of the Indian state and the process continues. Many of these
people remain as stateless peoples for many years or generations,
living in camps, or as illegal migrants. Only a relatively few of them
are eventually granted citizenship. Such problems pose a challenge
to the promise of democratic citizenship which is that the rights and
identity of citizen would be available to all people in the contemporary
world. Although many people cannot achieve citizenship of a state of
their choice, no alternative identity exists for them.

The problem of stateless people is an important one confronting

the world today. Borders of states are still being redefined by war
or political disputes and for the people caught up in such disputes
the consequences may be severe. They may lose their homes, political 93

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Citizenship
identities, and security, and be forced
to migrate. Can citizenship provide a
solution to the problems of such LET’S DO IT
Political Theory

Do
people? If not, what kind of alternative
List some of the
identity can be provided today? Do we
stateless people living
need to try and evolve a more genuinely
in India today. Write a
universal identity than national short note on any of
citizenship? Suggestions for a notion of them.
global citizenship are sometimes put
forward. The possibilities will be
discussed in the next section.

6.6 GLOBAL CITIZENSHIP

Consider the following statements:
o There was an outpouring of sympathy and help for the victims of
the tsunami which affected a number of countries in South Asia
in 2004.
o International networks link terrorists today.
o The United Nations is working with different states to try and
prevent the spread of bird flu and the possible emergence of a
human viral pandemic.
What is common to the statements given above? What do they
tell us about the world in which we live today?
We live today in an interconnected world. New means of
communication such as the internet, and television, and cell phones,
have brought a major change in the way in which we understand
our world. In the past it might have taken months for news about
developments in one part of the world to become known in other
parts. But new modes of communication have put us into immediate
contact with developments in different parts of the globe. We can
watch disasters and wars on our television screens as they are taking
place. This has helped to develop sympathies and shared concerns
among people in different countries of the world.
Supporters of global citizenship argue that although a world
94 community and global society does not yet exist, people already feel

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Citizenship
linked to each other across national boundaries. They would say that
the outpouring of help from all parts of the world for victims of the
Asian tsunami and other major calamities is a sign of the emergence
of a global society. They feel that we should try to strengthen this
feeling and work towards a concept of global citizenship.
The concept of national citizenship assumes that our state can
provide us with the protection and rights which we need to live
with dignity in the world today. But states today are faced with
many problems which they cannot tackle by themselves. In this
situation are individual rights, guaranteed by the state, sufficient
to protect the freedom of people today? Or has the time come to
move to a concept of human rights and global citizenship?
One of the attractions of the notion of global citizenship is that
it might make it easier to deal with problems which extend across
national boundaries and which therefore need cooperative action
by the people and governments of many states. For instance, it
might make it easier to find an acceptable solution to the issue of
migrants and stateless peoples, or at least to ensure them basic
rights and protection regardless of the country in which they may
be living.
In the previous section, we saw that equal citizenship within a
country can be threatened by the socio-economic inequalities or
other problems which might exist. Such problems can ultimately
only be solved by the governments and people of that particular
society. Therefore, full and equal membership of a state remains
important for people today. But the
concept of global citizenship reminds
us that national citizenship might need
to be supplemented by an awareness
LET’S DO IT Do
Find out about Global
that we live in an interconnected world Citizenship Education
and that there is also a need for us to (GCED) from https://
strengthen our links with people in en.unesco.org/themes
different parts of the world and be ready /gced and https://
to work with people and governments www.gcedclearing
across national boundaries. house.org

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1. Citizenship as full and equal membership of a political community

involves both rights and obligations. Which rights could citizens expect
to enjoy in most democratic state today? What kind of obligation will
they have to their state and fellow citizens?

2. All citizens may be granted equal rights but all may not be able to
equally exercise them. Explain.
Exercises

3. Write a short note on any two struggles for full enjoyment of citizen
rights which have taken place in India in recent years. Which rights
were being claimed in each case?

4. What are some of the problems faced by refugees? In what ways could
the concept of global citizenship benefit them?

5. Migration of people to different regions within the country is often

resisted by the local inhabitants. What are some of the contributions
that the migrants could make to the local economy?

6. “Democratic citizenship is a project rather than an accomplished fact

even in countries like India which grant equal citizenship”. Discuss
some of the issues regarding citizenship being raised in India today.

96 Credit: Image on opening page: Shweta Rao

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Chapter 7

Nationalism
Overview
This chapter will introduce and discuss the ideas of nationalism and nation. Our
concern will be not so much to understand why nationalism has arisen, or what
functions it serves; rather our concern would be to think carefully about nationalism
and assess its claims and aspirations. After studying this chapter you should be
able to:
o understand the concepts of nation and nationalism.
o acknowledge the strengths and limitations of nationalism.
o appreciate the need for ensuring a link between democracy and nationalism.

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7.1 INTRODUCING NATIONALISM
Political Theory

If we were to take a quick poll of what people commonly understand

by the term nationalism we are likely to get responses which talk
about patriotism, national flags, sacrificing for the country, and the
like. The Republic Day parade in Delhi is a striking symbol of Indian
nationalism and it brings out the sense of power, strength, as well as
diversity which many associate with the Indian nation. But if we try
to go deeper we will find that it is difficult to arrive at a precise and
widely accepted definition of the term nationalism. This need not
mean that we should abandon the effort. Nationalism needs to be
studied because it plays such an important role in world affairs.
During the last two centuries or more, nationalism has emerged
as one of the most compelling of political creeds which has helped to
shape history. It has inspired intense loyalties as well as deep hatreds.
It has united people as well as divided them, helped to liberate them
from oppressive rule as well as been the cause of conflict and
bitterness and wars. It has been a factor in the break up of empires
and states. Nationalist struggles have contributed to the drawing
and redrawing of the boundaries of states and empires. At present a
large part of the world is divided into different nation-states although
the process of re-ordering of state boundaries has not come to an
end and separatist struggles within existing states are common.
Nationalism has passed through many phases. For instance, in
the nineteenth century Europe, it led to the unification of a number
of small kingdoms into larger nation-states. The present day German
and Italian states were formed through such a process of unification
and consolidation. A large number of new states were also founded
in Latin America. Along with the consolidation of state boundaries,
local dialects and local loyalties were also gradually consolidated into
state loyalties and common languages. The people of the new states
acquired a new political identity which was based on membership of
the nation-state. We have seen a similar process of consolidation
taking place in our own country in the last century or more.
But nationalism also accompanied and contributed to the break
98 up of large empires such as the Austro-Hungarian and Russian

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empires in the early twentieth century in Europe as well as the
break-up of the British, French, Dutch and Portuguese empires in
Asia and Africa. The struggle for freedom from colonial rule by India
and other former colonies were nationalist struggles, inspired by the
desire to establish nation-states which would be independent of
foreign control.
The process of redrawing state boundaries continues to take
place. Since 1960, even apparently stable nation-states have been
confronted by nationalist demands put forward by groups or regions
and these may include demands for separate statehood. Today, in
many parts of the world we witness nationalist struggles that
threaten to divide existing states. Such separatist movements have
developed among the Quebecois in Canada, the Basques in northern
Spain, the Kurds in Turkey and Iraq, and the Tamils in Sri Lanka,
among others. The language of nationalism is also used by some
groups in India. Arab nationalism today may hope to unite Arab
countries in a pan Arab union but separatist movements like the
Basques or Kurds struggle to divide existing states.
We may all agree that nationalism is a powerful force in the
world even today. But it is more difficult to arrive at agreement
regarding the definition of terms like nation or nationalism. What
is a nation? Why do people form nations and to what do nations
aspire? Why are people ready to sacrifice and even die for their
nation? Why, and in what way, are claims to nationhood linked to
claims to statehood? Do nations have a right to statehood or national
self-determination? Or can the claims of nationalism be met without
conceding separate statehood? In this chapter we will explore some
of these issues.

In this age of globalisation, the world

is shrinking. We are living in a global
village. Nations are irrelevant.

That’s not the case. Nationalism is still

relevant. You can see this when Indian
team goes out to play cricket. Or when
you discover that Indians living abroad
still watch Bollywood films.
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7.2 NATIONS AND NATIONALISM
Political Theory

A nation is not any casual collection of people. At the same time it is

also different from other groups or communities found in human
society. It is different from the family which is based on face-to-face
relationships with each member having direct personal knowledge
of the identity and character of others. It is also different from tribes
and clans and other kinship groups in which ties of marriage and
descent link members to each other so that even if we do not
personally know all the members we can, if need be, trace the links
that bind them to us. But as a member of a nation we may never
come face to face with most of our fellow nationals nor need we
share ties of descent with them. Yet nations exist, are lived in and
valued by their members.
It is commonly believed that nations are constituted by a group
who share certain features such as descent, or language, or religion
or ethnicity. But there is in fact no common set of characteristics
which is present in all nations. Many nations do not have a common
language, Canada is an example here. Canada includes English
speaking as well as French speaking peoples. India also has a large
number of languages which are spoken
in different regions and by different
communities. Nor do many nations have

LET’S DO IT Do a common religion to unite them. The

same could be said of other
characteristics such as race or descent.
Identify any patriotic
song in your language. What then constitutes a nation? A
How is the nation nation is to a great extent an ‘imagined’
described in this song? community, held together by the
Identify and watch
collective beliefs, aspirations and
any patriotic films
imaginations of its members. It is based
in your language. How
has nationalism been on certain assumptions which people
portrayed and its make about the collective whole with
complexities worked which they identify. Let us identify and
out in these films? understand some of the assumptions
which people make about the nation.
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Shared Beliefs
Nationalism
First, a nation is constituted by belief. Nations are not like mountains,
rivers or buildings which we can see and feel. They are not things
which exist independent of the beliefs that people have about them.
To speak of a people as a nation is not to make a comment about
their physical characteristics or behaviour. Rather, it is to refer to the
collective identity and vision for the future of a group which aspires
to have an independent political existence. To this extent, nations
can be compared with a team. When we speak of a team, we mean a
set of people who work or play together and, more importantly,
conceive of themselves as a collective group. If they did not think of
themselves in this way they would cease to be a team and be simply
different individuals playing a game or undertaking a task. A nation
exists when its members believe that they belong together.

Why don t you cheer for our team?

Don t you have any nationalist spirit?

I am as much a nationalist as anyone

else. I cast my vote; I pay my taxes and I
respect the laws of our country. I am also
proud to belong to this country.

History
Second, people who see themselves as a nation also embody a sense
of continuing historical identity. That is, nations perceive themselves
as stretching back into the past as well as reaching into the future.
They articulate for themselves a sense of their own history by drawing
on collective memories, legends, historical records, to outline the
continuing identity of the nation. Thus nationalists in India invoked
its ancient civilisation and cultural heritage and other achievements
to claim that India has had a long and continuing history as a
civilisation and that this civilisational continuity and unity is the
basis of the Indian nation. Jawaharlal Nehru, for instance, wrote in
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his book The Discovery of India, “Though outwardly there was diversity
and infinite variety among the people, everywhere there was that
tremendous impress of oneness, which held all of us together in
ages past, whatever political fate or misfortune had befallen us”.

Territory
Third, nations identify with a particular territory. Sharing a common
past and living together on a particular territory over a long period
of time gives people a sense of their collective identity. It helps
them to imagine themselves as one people. It is therefore not
surprising that people who see themselves as a nation speak of a
homeland. The territory they occupied and the land on which they
have lived has a special significance for them, and they claim it as
their own. Nations however characterise the homeland in different
ways, for instance as motherland, or fatherland, or holy land. The
Jewish people for instance, in spite of being dispersed and scattered
in different parts of the world always claimed that their original
homeland was in Palestine, the ‘promised land’. The Indian nation
identifies with the rivers, mountains and regions of the Indian
subcontinent. However, since more than one set of people may lay
claim to the same territory, the aspiration for a homeland has been
a major cause of conflict in the world.
Shared Political Ideals
Fourth, while territory and shared historical identity play an important
role in creating a sense of oneness, it is a shared vision of the future
and the collective aspiration to have an independent political existence
that distinguishes groups from nations. Members of a nation share
a vision of the kind of state they want to build. They affirm among
other things a set of values and principles such as democracy,
secularism and liberalism. These ideals represent the terms under
which they come together and are willing to live together. It represents,
in other words, their political identity as a nation.
In a democracy, it is shared commitment to a set of political
values and ideals that is the most desirable basis of a political
community or a nation-state. Within it, members of political
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arise from the recognition of the rights of each other as citizens. A
nation is strengthened when its people acknowledge and accept
their obligations to their fellow members. We might even say that
recognition of this framework of obligations is the strongest test of
loyalty to the nation.

Common Political Identity

Many people believe that a shared political vision about the state
and society we wish to create is not enough to bind individuals
together as a nation. They seek instead a shared cultural identity,
such as a common language, or common descent. There is no doubt
that speaking the same language makes it easier for us to
communicate with each other and sharing the same religion gives
us a set of common beliefs and social practices. Observing the same
festivals, seeking the same holidays, and holding the same symbols
valuable can bring people together, but it can also pose a threat to
the values that we cherish in a democracy.
There are two reasons for this. One, all major religions in the
world are internally diverse. They have survived and evolved through
a dialogue within the community. As a result there exists within
each religion a number of sects who differ significantly in their
interpretation of the religious texts and norms. If we ignore these
differences and forge an identity on the basis of a common religion
we are likely to create a highly authoritative and oppressive society.
Two, most societies are culturally diverse. They have people
belonging to different religions and languages living together in the
same territory. To impose a single religious or linguistic identity as
a condition of belonging to a particular state would necessarily
exclude some groups. It might restrict the religious liberty of the
excluded group or disadvantage those who do not speak the national
language. Either way, the ideal that we cherish most in democracy
– namely, equal treatment and liberty for all – would be severely
limited. For both these reasons it is desirable to imagine the nation
in political rather than cultural terms. That is, democracies need
to emphasise and expect loyalty to a set of values that may be
enshrined in the Constitution of the country rather than adherence
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We have identified above some of the ways in which nations

express their sense of collective identity. We have also seen why
democratic states need to forge this identity on the basis of shared
political ideals. But we are still left with an important question,
namely, why do people imagine themselves as a nation? What are
some of the aspirations of different nations? In the next two sections
we shall try to address these questions.

7.3 NATIONAL SELF-DETERMINATION

Nations, unlike other social groups, seek the right to govern
themselves and determine their future development. They seek, in
other words, the right to self-determination. In making this claim a
nation seeks recognition and acceptance by the international
community of its status as a distinct political entity or state. Most
often these claims come from people who have lived together on a
given land for a long period of time and who have a sense of common
identity. In some cases such claims to self-determination are linked
also to the desire to form a state in which the culture of the group is
protected if not privileged.
Claims of the latter kind were frequently made in the nineteenth
century in Europe. The notion of one culture - one state began to
gain acceptability at the time. Subsequently, the idea of one culture-
one state was employed while reordering state boundaries after
World War I. The Treaty of Versailles established a number of small,
newly independent states, but it proved virtually impossible to
satisfy all the demands for self determination which were made at
the time. Besides, re-organisation of state boundaries to satisfy
the demands of one culture - one state, led to mass migration of
population across state boundaries. Millions of people as a
consequence were displaced from their homes and expelled from
the land which had been their home for generations. Many others
became victims of communal violence.
Humanity paid a heavy price for re-organising boundaries in a
way that culturally distinct communities could form separate
nation-states. Besides, even in this effort it was not possible to ensure
104 that the newly created states contained only one ethnic community.

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DEMAND FOR NATIONAL S ELF- DETERMINATION IN BASQUE

Demands for national

self-determination have
been raised in different
parts of the World.
Let us look at one
such case.
Basque is a hilly and
prosperous region in
Spain. This region is
recognised by the
Spanish government as an ‘autonomous’ region within the Spanish federation. But
the leaders of Basque Nationalist Movement are not satisfied with this autonomy.
They want this region to become a separate country. Supporters of this movement
have used constitutional and, till recently, violent means to press for this demand.
Basque Nationalists say that their culture is very different from the Spanish
culture. They have their own language that does not resemble Spanish at all.
Only one-third of the people in Basque understand that language today. The
hilly terrain makes the Basque region geographically distinct from the rest of the
Spain. Ever since the Roman days, the Basque region never surrendered its
autonomy to the Spanish rulers. Its systems of justice, administration and finance
were governed by its own unique arrangements.
The modern Basque Nationalist Movement started when, around the end of
nineteenth century, the Spanish rulers tried to abolish this unique political-
administrative arrangement. In the twentieth century, the Spanish dictator Franco
further cut down this autonomy. He went as far as to ban the use of Basque
language in public places and even homes. These repressive measures have now
been withdrawn. But the leaders of Basque movement continue to be suspicious
of the motives of the Spanish government and fearful of the entry of ‘outsiders’ in
their region. Their opponents say that Basque separatists are trying to make
political gains out of an issue already resolved. Do you think Basque nationalists
are justified in demanding a separate nation? Is Basque a nation? What more
would you like to know before you can answer this question? Can you think of
similar examples from different parts of the world? Can you think of regions and
groups in our country where such demands have been made?
Source: Multiple Resources including www.en.wikipedia.org

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Indeed most states had more than one ethnic and cultural
Political Theory

community living within its boundaries. These communities, which

were often small in number and constituted a minority within the
state were often disadvantaged. Hence, the problem of
accommodating minorities as equal citizens remained. The only
positive aspect of these developments was that it granted political
recognition to various groups who saw themselves as distinct nations
and wanted the opportunity to govern themselves and determined
their own future.
The right to national self-determination has also been asserted
by national liberation movements in Asia and Africa when they
were struggling against colonial domination. Nationalist movements
maintained that political independence would provide dignity and
recognition to the colonised people and also help them to protect
the collective interests of their people. Most national liberation
movements were inspired by the goal of bringing justice and rights
and prosperity to the nation. However, here also, it proved almost
impossible to ensure that each cultural group, some of whom
claimed to be distinct nations, could achieve political independence
and statehood. As a result, migration of populations, border wars,
and violence have continued to plague many countries in the region.
Thus we have the paradoxical situation of nation-states which
themselves had achieved independence through struggle now acting
against minorities within their own territories who claim the right
to national self- determination.

Virtually every state in the world today faces the dilemma of

how to deal with movements for self-determination and this has
raised questions about the right to national self-determination.
More and more people are beginning to realise that the solution
does not lie in creating new states but in making existing states
more democratic and equal. That is, in ensuring that people
with different cultural and ethnic identities live and co-exist as
partners and equal citizens within the country. This may be
essential not only for resolving problems arising from new claims
for self-determination but also for building a strong and united
state. After all, a nation-state which does not respect the rights
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and cultural identity of minorities within the
state would find it difficult to gain the loyalty
of its members.

7.4 NATIONALISM AND PLURALISM LET’S DO IT Do

Cut out clippings from
Once we abandon the idea of one-culture-one- various newspapers and
state, it becomes necessary to consider ways magazines related to the
by which different cultures and communities demands of various
can survive and flourish within a country. It is gr oups in India and
in pursuit of this goal that many democratic abroad for the right to
societies today have introduced measures for self-determination. Form
recognising and protecting the identity of an opinion about the
cultural minority communities living within following:
their territory. The Indian constitution has an o What are the reasons
elaborate set of provisions for the protection of behind these demands?
religious, linguistic and cultural minorities. o What strategies have
they employed?
The kinds of group rights which have been
o Ar e their claims
granted in dif ferent countries include
justified?
constitutional protection for the language,
o What do you think
cultures and religion, of minority groups and their
could be the possible
members. In some cases identified communities
solution?
also have the right to representation as a group
in legislative bodies and other state institutions.
Such rights may be justified on the grounds that
they provide equal treatment and protection of the law for members
of these groups as well as protection for the cultural identity of the
group. Different groups need to be granted recognition as a part of
the national community. This means that the national identity has
to be defined in an inclusive manner which can recognise the
importance and unique contribution of all the cultural communities
within the state.
Although it is hoped that granting groups recognition and
protection would satisfy their aspirations, some groups may continue
to demand separate statehood. This may seem paradoxical when
globalisation is also spreading in the world but nationalist
aspirations continue to motivate many groups and communities.
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TAGORE’S CRITIQUE OF NATIONALISM
Political Theory

”Patriotism cannot
be our final
spiritual shelter; my
refuge is humanity.
I will not buy glass
for the price of
diamonds, and I
will never allow
patriotism to
triumph over
humanity as long as
I live.”
This was said by Rabindranath Tagore.
He was against colonial rule and asserted
India’s right to independence. He felt that
in the British administration of the colonies,
there was no place for ‘upholding of dignity
of human relationships,’ an idea which was
otherwise cherished in the British
civilisation. Tagore made a distinction
between opposing western imperialism and
rejecting western civilisation. While Indians
should be rooted in their own culture and
heritage, they should not resist learning
freely and profitably from abroad.
A critique of what he called ‘patriotism’
is a persistent theme in his writings. He
was very critical of the narrow expressions
of nationalism that he found at work in
parts of our independence movement. In
particular, he was afraid that a rejection of
the west in favour of what looked like Indian
traditions was not only limiting in itself; it
could easily turn into hostility to other
influences fr om abroad, including
Christianity, Judaism, Zoroastrianism and
Islam which have been present in our
108 country.

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Considerable generosity and skill is needed for countries to be able
to deal with such demands in a democratic manner.
To sum up, the right to national self-determination was often
understood to include the right to independent statehood for
nationalities. But not only would it be impossible to grant
independent statehood to every group that sees itself as a distinct
cultural group, or nation, it would probably also be undesirable. It
might lead to the formation of a number of states too small to be
economically and politically viable and it could multiply the problems
of minorities. The right has now been reinterpreted to mean granting
certain democratic rights for a nationality within a state.
The world we live in is one that is deeply conscious of the
importance of giving recognition to identities. Today we witness
many struggles for the recognition of group identities, many of which
employ the language of nationalism. While we need to acknowledge
the claims of identity, we should be careful not to allow identity
claims to lead to divisions and violence in the society. We need to
remember that each person has many identities. For instance, a
person may have identities based on gender, caste, religion,
language, or region, and may be proud of all of them. So long as
each person feels that he/she can freely express the different
dimensions of his/her personality, they may not feel the need to
make claims on the state for political recognition and concessions
for any one identity. In a democracy the political identity of citizen
should encompass the different identities which people may have.
It would be dangerous if intolerant and homogenising forms of
identity and nationalism are allowed to develop.

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1. How is a nation different from other forms of collective belonging?

2. What do you understand by the right to national self-determination?

How has this idea resulted in both formation of and challenges to
nation-states?
Exercises

3. “We have seen that nationalism can unite people as well as divide
them, liberate them as well as generate bitterness and conflict”.
Illustrate your answer with examples.

4. Neither descent, nor language, nor religion or ethnicity can claim to

be a common factor in nationalisms all over the world. Comment.

5. Illustrate with suitable examples the factors that lead to the emergence
of nationalist feelings.

6. How is a democracy more effective than authoritarian governments in

dealing with conflicting nationalist aspirations?

7. What do you think are the limitations of nationalism?

110 Credit: Image on opening page: Shweta Rao

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Secularism
Political Theory

Chapter 8

Secularism
Overview
When different cultures and communities exist within the same country, how should a
democratic state ensure equality for each of them? This is the question that emerged in
the previous chapter. In this chapter we will try and see how the concept of secularism
may be applied to answer that concern. In India, the idea of secularism is ever present in
public debates and discussions, yet there is something very perplexing about the state
of secularism in India. On the one hand, almost every politician swears by it. Every
political party professes to be secular. On the other hand, all kinds of anxieties and
doubts beset secularism in India. Secularism is challenged not only by clerics and
religious nationalists but by some politicians, social activists and even academics.
In this chapter we will engage in this ongoing debate by asking the following questions:
o What is the meaning of secularism?
o Is secularism a western implant on Indian soil?
o Is it suitable for societies where religion continues to exercise a strong influence on
individual lives?
o Does secularism show partiality? Does it ‘pamper’ minorities?
o Is secularism anti-religious?
At the end of this chapter you should be able to understand and appreciate the
importance of secularism in a democratic society like India, and learn something about
the distinctiveness of Indian secularism. 111

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8.1 WHAT IS SECULARISM?
Political Theory

Though Jews faced discrimination for centuries throughout Europe,

in the present state of Israel, A rab minorities, both Christian and
Muslims, are excluded from social, political and economic benefits
available to Jewish citizens. Subtle forms of discrimination also
continue to persist against non-Christians in several parts of
Europe. The condition of religious minorities in the neighbouring
states of Pakistan and Bangladesh has also generated considerable
concern. Such examples remind us of the continuing importance
of secularism for people and societies in today’s world.
Inter-religious Domination
In our own country, the Constitution declares that every Indian citizen
has a right to live with freedom and dignity in any part of the country.
Yet in reality, many forms of exclusion and discrimination continue
to persist. Consider three most stark examples:
o More than 2,700 Sikhs were massacred in Delhi and many other
parts of the country in 1984. The families of the victims feel that
the guilty were not punished.
o Several thousands of Hindu Kashmiri pandits have been forced
to leave their homes in the Kashmir valley; they have not been
able to return to their homes for more than two decades.
o More than 1,000 persons were killed during the post-Godhra
riots in Gujarat in 2002. The surviving members of many of
these families could not go back to the villages in which they
lived.
What do these examples have in common? They all have to do
with discrimination in one form or the other. In each case members
of one community are targeted and victimised on account of their
religious identity. In other words, basic freedoms of a set of citizens
are denied. Some might even say that these incidents are instances
of religious persecution and they reflect inter-religious domination.
Secularism is first and foremost a doctrine that opposes all such
forms of inter-religious domination. This is however only one crucial
aspect of the concept of secularism. An equally important dimension
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of secularism is its opposition to intra-religious domination. Let us
get deeper into this issue.

Intra-religious Domination
Some people believe that religion is merely the ‘opium of the masses’
and that, one day, when the basic needs of all are fulfilled and they
lead a happy and contented life, religion will disappear. Such a
view comes from an exaggerated sense of human potential. It is
unlikely that human beings will ever be able to fully know the world
and control it. We may be able to prolong our life but will never
become immortal. Disease can never be entirely eliminated, nor
can we get rid of an element of accident and luck from our lives.
Separation and loss are endemic to the human condition. While a
large part of our suffering is man-made and hence eliminable, at
least some of our suffering is not made by man. Religion, art and
philosophy are responses to such sufferings. Secularism too accepts
this and therefore it is not anti-religious.
However, religion has its share of some deep-rooted problems.
For example, one can hardly think of a religion that treats its male
and female members on an equal footing. In religions such as
Hinduism, some sections have faced persistent discrimination. For
example dalits have been barred from entering Hindu temples. In
some parts of the country, Hindu woman cannot enter temples.
When religion is organised, it is frequently taken over by its most
conservative faction, which does not tolerate any dissent. Religious
fundamentalism in parts of the US has become a big problem and
endangers peace both within the country and outside. Many religions
fragment into sects which leads to frequent sectarian violence and
persecution of dissenting minorities.
Thus religious domination cannot be identified only with inter-
religious domination. It takes another conspicuous form, namely,
intra-religious domination. As secularism is opposed to all forms of
institutionalised religious domination, it challenges not merely inter-
religious but also intra-religious domination.

We now possess a general idea of secularism. It is a normative

doctrine which seeks to realise a secular society, i.e., one devoid of 113

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either inter-religious or intra-religious domination. Put positively,

it promotes freedom within religions, and equality between, as well
as within, religions. Within this larger framework, let us now consider
a narrower and more specific question, namely: What kind of state
is necessary to realise these goals? In other words, let us consider
how a state committed to the ideal of secularism should relate to
religion and religious communities.

8.2 SECULAR STATE

Perhaps one way of preventing religious discrimination is to work
together for mutual enlightenment. Education is one way of helping
to change the mindset of people. Individual examples of sharing
and mutual help can also contribute towards reducing prejudice
and suspicion between communities. It is always inspiring to read
stories of Hindus saving Muslims or Muslims saving Hindus in the
midst of a deadly communal riot. But it is unlikely

LET’S DO IT Do that mere education or the goodness of some persons

will eliminate religious discrimination. In modern
societies, states have enormous public power. How
List some of the ways in they function is bound to make a crucial difference to
which you feel communal the outcome of any struggle to create a society less
har mony could be ridden with inter-community conflict and religious
promoted. discrimination. For this reason, we need to see what
kind of state is needed to prevent religious conflict
and to promote religious harmony.
How should a state prevent domination by any religious group?
For a start, a state must not be run by the heads of any particular
religion. A state governed directly by a priestly order is called
theocratic. Theocratic states, such as the Papal states of Europe in
medieval times or in recent times the Taliban-controlled state,
lacking separation between religious and political institutions, are
known for their hierarchies, and oppressions, and reluctance to
allow freedom of religion to members of other religious groups. If
we value peace, freedom and equality, religious institutions and
state institutions must be separated.
Some people think that the separation of state and religion is
114 sufficient for the existence of a secular state. This does not appear

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to be so. Many states which are non-theocratic continue to have a
close alliance with a particular religion. For example, the state in
England in the sixteenth century was not run by a priestly class
but clearly favoured the Anglican Church and its members. England
had an established Anglican religion, which was the official religion
of the state. Today Pakistan has an official state religion, namely
Sunni Islam. Such regimes may leave little scope for internal dissent
or religious equality.
To be truly secular, a state must not only refuse to be theocratic
but also have no formal, legal alliance with any religion. The
separation of religion-state is, however, a necessary but not a
sufficient ingredient of a secular state. A secular state must be
committed to principles and goals which are at least partly derived
from non-religious sources. These ends should include

“”
peace, religious freedom, freedom from religiously
grounded oppression, discrimination and exclusion,
as also inter-religious and intra-religious equality.
LET’S DEBATE
To promote these ends the state must be separated
Learning more about
from organised religion and its institutions for the sake
other religions is the
of some of these values. However, there is no reason to first step towards
suggest that this separation should take a particular learning to respect and
form. In fact the nature and extent of separation may accept other people and
take different forms, depending upon the specific values their beliefs. But that
it is meant to promote and the way in which these need not mean that we
values are spelt out. We will now consider two such should not be able to
conceptions: the mainstream western conception best stand up for what we
feel are basic human
represented by the American state, and an alternative
values.
conception best exemplified by the Indian state.

8.3 THE WESTERN MODEL OF SECULARISM

All secular states have one thing in common: they are neither
theocratic nor do they establish a religion. However, in most commonly
prevalent conceptions, inspired mainly by the American model,
separation of religion and state is understood as mutual exclusion:
the state will not intervene in the affairs of religion and, in the same
manner, religion will not interfere in the affairs of the state. Each 115

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KEMAL ATATURK’S SECULARISM
Political Theory

Let us look at a very different kind of secularism practised in Turkey in the first
half of the twentieth century. This secularism was not about principled distance
from organised religion, instead it involved, active intervention in and suppression
of, religion. This version of secularism was propounded and practised by Mustafa
Kemal Ataturk.
He came to power after the First World War. He was determined to put an
end to the institution of Khalifa in the public life of Turkey. Ataturk was convinced
that only a clear break with traditional thinking and expressions could elevate
Turkey from the sorry state it was in. He set out in an aggressive manner to
modernise and secularise Turkey. Ataturk changed his own name from Mustafa
Kemal Pasha to Kemal Ataturk (Ataturk translates as Father of the Turks). The
Fez, a traditional cap worn by Muslims, was banned by the Hat Law. Western
clothing was encouraged for men and women. The Western (Gregorian) calendar
replaced the traditional Turkish calendar. In 1928, the new Turkish alphabet (in
a modified Latin form) was adopted.
Can you imagine a secularism that does not give you the freedom to keep the
name you are identified with, wear the dress you are used to, change the language
you communicate in? In what ways do you think Ataturk’s secularism is different
from Indian secularism ?

has a separate sphere of its own with independent jurisdiction. No

policy of the state can have an exclusively religious rationale. No
religious classification can be the basis of any public policy. If this
happened there is illegitimate intrusion of religion in the state.
Similarly, the state cannot aid any religious institution. It cannot
give financial support to educational institutions run by religious
communities. Nor can it hinder the activities of religious communities,
as long as they are within the broad limits set by the law of the land.
For example, if a religious institution forbids a woman from becoming
a priest, then the state can do little about it. If a religious community
excommunicates its dissenters, the state can only be a silent witness.
If a particular religion forbids the entry of some of its members in the
sanctum of its temple, then the state has no option but to let the
matter rest exactly where it is. On this view, religion is a private
matter, not a matter of state policy or law.
This common conception interprets freedom and equality in an
116 individualist manner. Liberty is the liberty of individuals. Equality

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is equality between individuals. There is no scope for the idea that
a community has the liberty to follow practices of its own choosing.
There is little scope for community-based rights or minority rights.
The history of western societies tells us why this is so. Except for
the presence of the Jews, most
western societies were marked NEHRU ON SECULARISM’
by a great deal of religious
‘Equal protection by the State to all religions’.
homogeneity. Given this fact, This is how Nehru responded when a student
they naturally focused on intra- asked him to spell out what secularism
religious domination. While meant in independent India. He wanted a
strict separation of the state secular state to be one that “protects all
from the church is emphasised religions, but does not favour one at the
to realise among other things, expense of others and does not itself adopt
individual freedom, issues of any religion as the state religion”. Nehru was
inter-religious (and therefore of the philosopher of Indian secularism.
Nehru did not practise any religion, nor
minority rights) equality are
did he believe in God. But for him secularism
often neglected.
did not mean hostility to religion. In that sense
Nehru was very different from Ataturk in
Finally, this form of
Turkey. At the same time Nehru was not in
mainstream secularism has no favour of a complete separation between
place for the idea of state- religion and state. A secular state can interfere
supported religious reform. This in matters of religion to bring about social
feature follows directly from its reform. Nehru himself played a key role in
understanding that the enacting laws abolishing caste discrimination,
separation of state from church/ dowry and sati, and extending legal rights and
religion entails a relationship of social freedom to Indian women.
mutual exclusion. While Nehru was prepared to be
flexible on many counts, there was one
8.4 THE INDIAN MODEL thing on which he was always firm and
uncompromising. Secularism for him meant
OF SECULARISM
a complete opposition to communalism of
Sometimes it is said that Indian all kinds. Nehru was particularly severe in
secularism is an imitation of his criticism of communalism of the
western secularism. But a majority community. Secularism for him
was not only a matter of principles, it was
careful reading of our
also the only guarantee of the unity and
Constitution shows that this is
integrity of India.
not the case. Indian secularism
is fundamentally dif ferent
from Western secularism.
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Indian secularism does not focus only on church-state separation

and the idea of inter-religious equality is crucial to the Indian
conception. Let us elaborate this further.
What makes Indian secularism distinctive? For a start it arose
in the context of deep religious diversity that predated the advent of
Western modern ideas and nationalism. There was already a culture
of inter-religious ‘tolerance’ in India. However, we must not forget
that tolerance is compatible with religious domination. It may allow
some space to everyone but such freedom is usually limited. Besides,
tolerance allows you to put up with people whom you find deeply
repugnant. This is a great virtue if a society is recovering from a
major civil war but not in times of peace where people are struggling
for equal dignity and respect.

Do you remember the heated debate in

France over the French government's
decision to ban the usage of religious
markers like turbans and veils in
educational institutions?

Yes I remember. Isn't it strange that both

India and France are secular, but in India
there is no prohibition on wearing or
displaying such religious markers in public
institutions.

That is because the ideal of

secularism envisaged in India is
different from that of France.

The advent of western modernity brought to the fore hitherto

neglected and marginalised notions of equality in Indian thought. It
sharpened these ideas and helped us to focus on equality within the
community. It also ushered ideas of inter-community equality to
replace the notion of hierarchy. Thus Indian secularism took on a
distinct form as a result of an interaction between what already existed
in a society that had religious diversity and the ideas that came from
the west. It resulted in equal focus on intra-religious and inter-
religious domination. Indian secularism equally opposed the
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oppression of dalits and women within Hinduism, the
discrimination against women within Indian Islam or

”
Christianity, and the possible threats that a majority

“
community might pose to the rights of the minority religious
communities. This is its first important difference from
mainstream western secularism.
LET’S DEBATE
Connected to it is the second difference. Indian
secularism deals not only with religious freedom of Religious identities
individuals but also with religious freedom of minority and differences have
communities. Within it, an individual has the right to no significance for the
profess the religion of his or her choice. Likewise, religious young.
minorities also have a right to exist and to maintain their
own culture and educational institutions.
A third difference is this. Since a secular state must be concerned
equally with intra-religious domination, Indian secularism has made
room for and is compatible with the idea of state-supported religious
reform. Thus, the Indian constitution bans untouchability. The
Indian state has enacted several laws abolishing child marriage and
lifting the taboo on inter-caste marriage sanctioned by Hinduism.
The question however that arises is: can a state initiate or even
support religious reforms and yet be secular? Can a state claim to be
secular and not maintain separation of religion from state? The secular
character of the Indian state is established by virtue of the fact that
it is neither theocratic nor has it established any one or multiple
religions. Beyond that it has adopted a very sophisticated policy in
pursuit of religious equality. This allows it either to disengage with
religion in American style, or engage with it if required.
The Indian state may engage with religion negatively to oppose
religious tyranny. This is reflected in such actions as the ban on
untouchability. It may also choose a positive mode of engagement.
Thus, the Indian Constitution grants all religious minorities the
right to establish and maintain their own educational institutions
which may receive assistance from the state. All these complex
strategies can be adopted by the state to promote the values of
peace, freedom and equality.
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Political Theory

Is secularism compatible with the following?

o Subsidising a pilgrimage for a minority community.
o Performing religious rituals in government offices.

It should be clear by now why the complexity of

LET’S DO IT Do Indian secularism cannot be captured by the phrase

“equal respect for all religions”. If by this phrase is
meant peaceful coexistence of all religions or inter-
o Watch films such as religious toleration, then this will not be enough
Bombay and Garam because secularism is much more than mere peaceful
Hawa? What ideals coexistence or toleration. If this phrase means equal
of secularism do feeling of respect towards all established religions and
they depict? their practices, then there is an ambiguity that needs
o Read a short story
clearing. Indian secularism allows for principled state
‘Name’ in Forsaking
intervention in all religions. Such intervention betrays
Paradise: Stories
disrespect to some aspects of every religion. For
from Ladakh by example, religiously sanctioned caste-hierarchies are
Abdul Ghani Sheikh not acceptable within Indian secularism. The secular
[Published by Katha) state does not have to treat every aspect of every
religion with equal respect. It allows equal disrespect
for some aspects of organised religions.

8.5 CRITICISMS OF INDIAN SECULARISM

Indian secularism has been subjected to fierce criticism. What are
these criticisms? Can we defend secularism from them?
Anti-religious
First, it is often argued that secularism is anti-religious. We hope
to have shown that secularism is against institutionalised religious
domination. This is not the same as being anti-religious.
Similarly, it has been argued by some that secularism threatens
religious identity. However, as we noted earlier, secularism promotes
religious freedom and equality. Hence, it clearly protects religious
120 identity rather than threatens it. Of course, it does undermine

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some forms of religious identity: those, which are dogmatic, violent,
fanatical, exclusivist and those, which foster hatred of other religions.
The real question is not whether something is undermined but
whether what is undermined is intrinsically worthy or unworthy.

Western Import
A second criticism is that secularism is a Western concept and,
therefore, unsuited to Indian conditions. On the surface, this is a
strange complaint. For there are millions of things in India today,
from trousers to the internet and parliamentary democracy, that
have their origins in the west. One response, therefore, could be:
so what? Have you heard a European complain that because zero
was invented in India, they will not work with it?
However, this is a somewhat shallow response. The more
important and relevant point is that for a state to be truly secular,
it must have ends of its own. Western states became secular when,
at an important level, they challenged the control of established
religious authority over social and political life. The western model
of secularism is not, therefore, a product of the Christian world.
What of the claim that it is western? The mutual exclusion of religion
and state, which is supposed to be the ideal of western secular
societies, is also not the defining feature of all secular states. The
idea of separation can be interpreted differently by different societies.
A secular state may keep a principled distance from religion to
promote peace between communities and it may also intervene to
protect the rights of specific communities.
This exactly is what has happened in India. India evolved a variant
of secularism that is not just an implant from the west on Indian
soil. The fact is that the secularism has both western and non-
western origins. In the west, it was the Church-state separation
which was central and in countries such as India, the idea of peaceful
coexistence of different religious communities has been important.
Minoritism
A third accusation against secularism is the charge of minoritism.
It is true that Indian secularism advocates minority rights so the
question is: Is this justified? Consider four adults in a compartment 121

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of a train travelling at the fastest speed imaginable. In the middle of

the journey, one of the four passengers expresses a desire to smoke.
The second one complains that he cannot bear cigarette smoke.
The other two passengers smoke too but say nothing. Clearly there
is a conflict here between two passengers. A suggestion is made
that it be resolved by vote. The two mild smokers go along with the
addict and the non-smoker is defeated by a margin of two votes.
The person in the minority loses but the result appears fair because
a proper democratic procedure adopted by common agreement was
followed.
Now alter the situation a bit. Suppose that the non-smoker
suffers from asthma. Smoking can induce a life-threatening attack
in him. His preference that the other person does not smoke
expresses now his fundamental and very urgent interest. Would
the procedure previously followed, of going with the decision of the
majority, be fair in such a context? Do you not think
that the addicted smoker should refrain till the train
reaches its destination? You will agree that when it
comes to fundamental interests, voting as a democratic
procedure is inappropriate. A person has a prior right
to the satisfaction of his or her significant interests.
What holds true of individuals also holds for
communities. The most fundamental interest of
I thought treating minorities must not be harmed and must be protected
everyone in exactly
by constitutional law. This is exactly how it is in the
the same way is
Indian Constitution. Minority rights are justified as long
not always fair!
as these rights protect their fundamental interests.
At this point someone might still say that minority
rights are special privileges which come with some costs to others.
Why then should such special privilege be given? This question
can be best answered by another example. Consider that a film is
being shown in an auditorium on the first floor. The auditorium is
accessible by a staircase. Everyone is free to buy a ticket, go up the
stairs and see the film. Or, are they? Is everyone really free? Suppose
that among avid film-goers are some old people, some who have
recently broken a leg and others who have long been physically
122 challenged. None of them can really climb up the stairs. Do you

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think it would be wrong if a lift or a ramp was provided for people in
wheel chairs? Doing so enables them to achieve exactly what others
routinely procure through the staircase. Yet, this group in minority
needs a different mode of getting to the first floor. If all spaces are
structured in such a way that they suit only young, able-bodied
persons, then some category of persons will forever be excluded
from a simple benefit such as watching a film. To make a separate
arrangement for them is not to accord them any special treatment.
It is to treat them with the same respect and dignity with which all
others are being treated. The lesson is that minority rights need
not be nor should be viewed as special privileges.
Interventionist
A fourth criticism claims that secularism is coercive and
that it interferes excessively with the religious freedom
of communities. This misreads Indian secularism. It is
true that by rejecting the idea of separation as mutual
exclusion, Indian secularism rejects non-interference
in religion. But it does not follow that it is excessively
interventionist. Indian secularism follows the concept
of principled distance which also allows for non- How can a State
inter ference. Besides, inter ference need not treat all religions
automatically mean coercive intervention. equally? Would
granting equal
It is of course true that Indian secularism permits number of holidays
state-supported religious reform. But this should not to each religion
be equated with a change imposed from above, with help? Or would
coercive intervention. But it might be argued: does it banning any
do this consistently? Why have personal laws of all religious ceremony
religious communities not been reformed? This is the on public occasions
big dilemma facing the Indian state. A secularist might be a way of doing
see the personal laws (laws concerning marriage, this?
inheritance and other family matters which are
governed by different religions) as manifestations of community-
specific rights that are protected by the Constitution. Or he might
see these laws as an affront to the basic principles of secularism
on the ground that they treat women unequally and therefore
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from inter-religious domination or as instances of intra-religious

domination.
Such internal conflicts are part and parcel of any complex
doctrine but they are not something that we need to live with
forever. Personal laws can be reformed in such a way that they
continue to exemplify both minority rights and equality between
men and women. But such reform should neither be brought
about by State or group coercion nor should the state adopt a
policy of total distance from it. The state must act as a facilitator
by supporting liberal and democratic voices within every religion.
Vote Bank Politics
Fifth, there is the argument that secularism encourages the politics
of vote banks. As an empirical claim, this is not entirely false.
However, we need to put this issue in perspective. First, in a
democracy politicians are bound to seek votes. That is part of
their job and that is what democratic politics is largely about. To
blame a politician for pursuing a group of people or promising to
initiate a policy with the motivation to secure their votes is unfair.
The real question is what precisely the vote is sought for. Is it to
promote solely his self-interest or power or is it also for the welfare
of the group in question? If the group which voted for the politician
does not get any benefit from this act, then surely the politician
must be blamed. If secular politicians who sought the votes of
minorities also manage to give them what they want, then this is a
success of the secular project which aims, after all, to also protect
the interests of the minorities.
But what if the welfare of the group in question is sought at
the cost of the welfare and rights of other groups? What if the
interests of the majority are undermined by these secular
politicians? Then a new injustice is born. Can you think of such
examples? In theory, there may not be anything wrong with vote
bank politics but only when vote bank politics leads to the
mobilisation of a social group to vote en masse for a particular
candidate or political party during elections, this distorts electoral
politics. Here, the important feature is that the whole group works
as a single monolithic unit during voting. Despite the diversity
within the unit, the party or leader pursuing such vote bank
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group is one. In effect, by doing this, the political parties’ priorities
short- term electoral gains over the long- term development and
governance needs of society. In India it has been observed that
political parties neglecting substantive issues have often focused
on emotive issues for electoral gains, neglecting genuine problems
faced by the community. Competitive vote bank politics has the
potential to exacerbate social division by portraying different groups
as rivals vying for limited resources. In India, the vote bank politics
is also associated with minority appeasement. This means that
the political parties disregard the principles of equality of all citizens
and give priority to the interests of a minority group. Ironically,
this has led to further alienation and marginalization of the minority
group. As vote bank politics fails to acknowledge diversity within
the minority group taking up issues of social reform within these
groups has also proved difficult.
Impossible Project
A final, cynical criticism might be this: Secularism cannot work
because it tries to do too much, to find a solution to an intractable
problem. What is this problem? People with deep religious
differences will never live together in peace. Now, this is an empirically
false claim. The history of Indian civilisation shows that this kind
of living together is realisable. It was realised elsewhere too. The
Ottoman Empire is a stirring example. But now critics might say
that co-existence under conditions of inequality was indeed possible.
Everyone could find a place in a hierarchically arranged order. The
point, they claim, is that this will not work today when equality is
increasingly becoming a dominant cultural value.
There is another way of responding to this criticism. Far from
pursuing an impossible objective Indian secularism mirrors the
future of the world. A great experiment is being carried out in
India watched with razor-sharp eyes and with great interest by the
whole world. It is doing so because with the migration of people
from the former colonies to the west, and the increased movement
of people across the globe with the intensification of globalisation,
Europe and America and some parts of the Middle-East are
beginning to resemble India in the diversity of cultures and religions
which are present in their societies. These societies are watching
the future of the Indian experiment with keen interest.
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Read out the list of gazetted holidays in India. Does it uphold

the case of Secularism in India? Give your arguments.

Name of the holiday Date according to

Gregorian Calendar
(for 2019)

Republic Day January 26

Maha Shivaratri March 4
Holi March 21
Mahavir Jayanti April 17
Good Friday April 19
Buddha Purnima May 18
Id-ul-Fitr June 5
Id-ul-Zuha (Bakrid) August 12
Independence Day August 15
Janmashtami August 24
Muharram September 10
Mahatma Gandhi’s Birthday October 2
Dussehra October 8
Diwali (Deepavali) October 27
Milad-un-Nabi/Id-e-Milad
(Birthday of Prophet Mohammad) November 10
Guru Nanak’s Birthday November 12
Christmas Day December 25

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1. Which of the following do you feel are compatible with the idea of
secularism? Give reasons.
(a) Absence of domination of one religious group by another.
(b) Recognition of a state religion.
(c) Equal state support to all religions.
(d) Mandatory prayers in schools.
(e) Allowing separate educational institutions for any minority
community.
(f) Appointment of temple management bodies by the government.

Exercises
(g) Intervention of state to ensure entry of Dalits in temples.

2. Some of the key characteristics of western and Indian model of

secularism have got mixed up. Separate them and make a new table.

Western Secularism Indian Secularism

Strict non-interference of State supported religious
religion and state in each reforms allowed
other’s affairs
Equality between different Equality between different
religious groups is a key concern sects of a religion is
emphasised
Attention to minority rights Less attention to community
based rights
Individual and his rights at the Rights of both individual and
centre religious community
protected.
127

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 Secularism
Secularism
Exercises Political Theory

3. What do you understand by secularism? Can it be equated with

religious tolerance?

4. Do you agree with the following statements? Give reasons for

supporting or opposing any of them.
(a) Secularism does not allow us to have a religious identity.
(b) Secularism is against inequality within a religious group or between
different religious groups.
(c) Secularism has a western-Christian origin. It is not suitable for
India.

5. Indian secularism focuses on more than the religion-state separation.

Explain.

6. Explain the concept of principled distance.

Credit: Images on opening page: Sanjeev Chetan

128

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 Politics in India since
Independence
Textbook in political science for Class XII

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12119 – Politics in India since Independence ISBN 81-7450-763-9
Textbook for Class XII

First Edition
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
June 2007 Jyaistha 1928
 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system
Reprinted or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
February 2008, January 2009, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the
publisher.
January 2010, December 2010,
 This book is sold subject to the condition that it shall not, by way of trade,
November 2012, January 2014, be lent, re-sold, hired out or otherwise disposed of without the publisher’s
December 2014, December 2015, consent, in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is published.

February 2017, December 2017,  The correct price of this publication is the price printed on this page, Any revised
price indicated by a rubber stamp or by a sticker or by any other means is
January 2019, February 2020, incorrect and should be unacceptable.
March 2021, July 2021 and
December 2021
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 iii

FOREWORD
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) 2005 recommends that
children’s life at school must be linked to their life outside the school.
This principle marks a departure from the legacy of bookish learning
which continues to shape our system and causes a gap between the
school, home and community. The syllabi and textbooks developed
on the basis of NCF signify an attempt to implement this basic idea.
They also attempt to discourage rote learning and the maintenance
of sharp boundaries between different subject areas. We hope these
measures will take us significantly further in the direction of a
child-centred system of education outlined in the National Policy on
Education (1986).
The success of this effort depends on the steps that school principals
and teachers will take to encourage children to reflect on their own
learning and to pursue imaginative activities and questions. We must
recognise that, given space, time and freedom, children generate
new knowledge by engaging with the information passed on to them
by adults. Treating the prescribed textbook as the sole basis of
examination is one of the key reasons why other resources and sites
of learning are ignored. Inculcating creativity and initiative is possible
if we perceive and treat children as participants in learning, not as
receivers of a fixed body of knowledge.
These aims imply considerable change in school routines and mode of
functioning. Flexibility in the daily time-table is as necessary as rigour
in implementing the annual calendar so that the required number of
teaching days is actually devoted to teaching. The methods used for
teaching and evaluation will also determine how effective this textbook
proves for making children’s life at school a happy experience, rather
than a source of stress or boredom. Syllabus designers have tried
to address the problem of curricular burden by restructuring and
reorienting knowledge at different stages with greater consideration
for child psychology and the time available for teaching. The textbook
attempts to enhance this endeavour by giving higher priority and
space to opportunities for contemplation and wondering, discussion
in small groups, and activities requiring hands-on experience.
NCERT appreciates the hard work done by the textbook development
committee responsible for this book. We wish to thank the Chairperson
of the Advisory Group on Social Science, Professor Hari Vasudevan
and the Chief Advisors for this book, Shri Yogendra Yadav and
Professor Suhas Palshikar for guiding the work of this committee.
Several teachers contributed to the development of this textbook;
we are grateful to their principals for making this possible. We are
indebted to the institutions and organisations which have generously
permitted us to draw upon their resources, material and personnel.
We are especially grateful to the members of the National Monitoring

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 iv

Committee, appointed by the Department of Secondary and

Higher Education, Ministry of Human Resource Development
under the Chairpersonship of Professor Mrinal Miri and
Professor G. P. Deshpande, for their valuable time and contribution.
As an organisation committed to systemic reform and continuous
improvement in the quality of its products, NCERT welcomes
comments and suggestions which will enable us to undertake further
revision and refinement.

Director
New Delhi National Council of Educational
20 December 2006 Research and Training

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 v

Letter to the readers

As India completes sixty years as an independent and democratic
country, it is time to look back and reflect on this period. So much
of the trends and patterns of our politics as well as the strengths
and weaknesses of our democracy have been shaped during these
six decades. Yet it is surprising how little the younger citizens of our
country know about this history. You would have a good idea of the
freedom struggle because you study that in the History textbooks.
You would also know something about our contemporary politics
from the media. But very few young citizens know much about the
period that connects the freedom movement to contemporary politics.
This is the gap the present book seeks to fill. It tells you the story of
the journey of our democracy during the last sixty years so that you
can make sense of the political reality that surrounds all of us.
This book is not a chronicle of all or even main events during the past
six decades. We have tried to weave the history of the last sixty years
around some major issues and themes. The first eight chapters of the
book cover a certain period of this history, but in a selective manner
by focussing on one issue or theme that dominated those years. The
final chapter offers an overview of various issues that have emerged
in the most recent period.
Politics is often understood as a power game played by some big
leaders. Politics is, of course, about power. But politics is also about
taking collective decisions, about sorting out differences, about
reaching consensus. That is why we simply cannot run our collective
affairs without politics. Similarly, big leaders no doubt influence
the course of politics. But politics is much more than a story of
individual ambitions and frustrations. That is why you will not find
much emphasis on personalities in this book. You will find some
biographical sketches so as to give you a rich sense of those times.
But we do not expect you to memorise these biographical details.
In order to give you a feel of the times, we have included many
photographs, cartoons, maps and other images. As in other books,
Unni and Munni are there to share their innocent yet irreverent
questions and comments with you. By now you know that what Unni
and Munni say is not the opinion of the textbook. You, and even
the authors, may or may not agree with Unni and Munni. But you
should, like them, begin to question everything.
This book refrains from passing judgement on events and personalities
of this period. The objective of this book is to equip you with information
and perspectives so that you can take more informed and well thought
out positions on politics, either as students of Political Science or as
citizens of the country. That is why we tell the story in an open-ended
and non-partisan manner. This has not been easy, for there is no way

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 vi

a book like this can side-step all the ‘controversial’ issues. Many of
the significant issues of this period were and continue to be subjects
of deep political differences.
The Team that prepared this book decided to follow certain norms
to ensure non-partisan treatment of the subject. Firstly, it presents
more than one viewpoint when dealing with controversial subjects.
Secondly, wherever available, it uses authentic sources like the
reports of various Commissions or court judgements, to reconstruct
crucial details. Thirdly, it uses a variety of sources from scholarly
writings to different newspapers and magazines, etc. to tell the story.
Fourthly, the book avoids detailed discussion of the role of political
leaders who are still active in politics.
Writing this textbook turned out to be particularly challenging for
we do not have sufficient information on this period. Most of the
archival material is still closed to the researchers. There are not many
standard histories of this period that a textbook like this can draw
upon. The Textbook Development Committee turned this challenge
into an opportunity. We are grateful to the Team members who spared
their valuable time for preparing the drafts of the various chapters.
We would like to place on record our gratitude to Professors Rekha
Chowdhary and Surinder Jodhka for contributing drafts for the
sections on Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab respectively.
Given the significance and the sensitive nature of the book, it was
decided to put the drafts through many rounds of scrutiny by a
group of Political Scientists and historians. We decided to request
three ‘readers’ – Dr. Ramchandra Guha, Professor Sunil Khilnani
and Dr. Mahesh Rangarajan – to read an early draft of this text for
accuracy and non-partisan treatment of the subject. We are very
grateful that all of them accepted our request and took out time to
read and comment on the drafts. Their remarks encouraged us; their
suggestions saved us from many errors. We owe a special debt to
Ramchandra Guha, since we have liberally drawn upon his book,
India after Gandhi. Dr. Philip Oldenberg also read parts of the book
and made valuable comments. We were fortunate in having a group
of eminent scholars, Professors Mrinal Miri, G.P. Deshpande and
Gopal Guru, who constituted a special sub-committee of the National
Monitoring Committee and read the book at least thrice. We wish
to thank Professor Krishna Kumar, Director NCERT and Professor
Hari Vasudevan, Chairperson, Advisory Committee for Textbooks, for
their support, advice and guidance at different stages of this delicate
project. We are also thankful to Professor Yash Pal for his interest in
and support to this book.
We are thankful to Lokniti Programme of the CSDS, Delhi which for
the last one year provided a home and resource base for the work on
this textbook. Various memebers of the CSDS family who went out
of their way to support this work include Sanjeer Alam, Avinash Jha,

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 vii

Balaji Madiq and Himanshu Bhattacharya at Lokniti and Ravikant

and Mohammad Qureshi at Sarai. We would also like to thank the
authorities of the Philately Bureau, especially Kaveri Banerji and
Niraj Kumar and Sandhya R. Kanneganti of Indian Postal Service, for
helping us to access and allowing us to reproduce a large number of
postal stamps; Milind Champanerkar for helping us in the selection of
the films; Radhika Menon for critical inputs; Vipul Mudgal, Ritu and
Dharamveer for helping us to access the rich collection of Hindustan
Times Photo Library; Bhaanu Choube and Abhay Chhajalani for
opening the archives of Nai Dunia; Rajendra Babu for helping us with
clippings and images from The Hindu Library and authorities of the
University of Michigan Library and Nehru Memorial museum and
Library, New Delhi.
Alex George, Pankaj Pushkar, K. K. Kailash, and M. Manisha formed
the backbone of the team that worked on this book in various ways –
doing archival research, hunting for visuals, checking facts. But for
their multi-faceted support, and especially the untiring devotion of
Pankaj Pushkar, this book would not have been what it is. We are
thankful to Anupama Roy for her generous help with proof reading.
The look and feel of the book is the product of the artistic skills
of Irfaan Khan, the creator of Unni-Munni, graphics and maps by
ARK Grafix, and the aesthetic sensibility of Shweta Rao who designed
the book. We thank them all for sharing the spirit of this project. We
would like to place on record our gratitude to Shveta Uppal, Chief
Editor, NCERT, who went beyond the call of her duty in working with
this book, for her exemplary patience and professionalism.
This book is a tribute to the maturity of Indian democracy and
is intended as a small contribution to enriching the democratic
deliberations in our country. We sincerely hope that this book will
be received in this spirit and will be useful not only for students of
Political Science but also to a wider group of young citizens of our
country.

Ujjwal Kumar Singh Suhas Palshikar and Yogendra Yadav

Advisor Chief Advisors

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 viii

If you would like to know

more, read...
Granville Austin.1999. Working a Democratic Constitution: The Indian
Experience. Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Paul R. Brass.1994 (second edition). The Politics of India since
Independence. Cambridge University Press (published in India by
Foundation Books), New Delhi.
Bipan Chandra, Mridula Mukherjee and Aditya Mukherjee. 2000.
India after Independence (1947-2000). Penguin Books, Delhi
Partha Chatterjee (ed). 1997. State and Politics in India. Oxford
University Press, Delhi.
Francine R. Frankel. 2005. India’s Political Economy (1947-2004).
Oxford University Press, Delhi.
Ramachandra Guha. 2007. India After Gandhi: History of the World’s
Largest Democracy. Picador India, Delhi.
Niraja Gopal Jayal (ed). 2001. Democracy in India. Oxford University
Press. Delhi.
Sudipta Kaviraj (ed). 1997. Politics in India. Oxford University Press,
Delhi.
Sunil Khilnani. 2003 (paperback). The Idea of India. Penguin, London.
Rajni Kothari. 1985. Politics in India. Orient Longman, Delhi.
Pratap Bhanu Mehta. 2003. The Burden of Democracy. Penguin
Books, Delhi.
Achin Vanaik. 1990. The Painful Transition: Bourgeois Democracy in
India. Verso, London and New York.

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 ix

Textbook Development Committee

Chairperson, Advisory Committee for Textbooks at the Senior

Secondary Level
Hari Vasudevan, Professor, Department of History, University of
Calcutta, Kolkata

Chief Advisors
Suhas Palshikar, Professor, Department of Political Science,
University of Pune, Pune
Yogendra Yadav, Senior Fellow, Centre for the Study of Developing
Societies (CSDS), Delhi

Advisor
Ujjwal Kumar Singh, Reader, Department of Political Science,
University of Delhi, Delhi

Members
Aditya Nigam, Fellow, CSDS, Delhi
Akhil Ranjan Dutta, Lecturer in Political Science, Gauhati University,
Guwahati
Alex George, Independent Researcher, Eruvatty, Kerala.
Anuradha Sen, Principal, The Srijan School, New Delhi
Bharani N. Faculty, International Academy of Creative Teaching (IACT),
Bangalore
Dwaipayan Bhattacharya, Fellow, CSSS, Kolkata
Kailash K.K., Lecturer in Political Science, Panjab University, Chandigarh
M. Manisha, Sr. Lecturer in Political Science, Loretto College, Kolkata
Manjari Katju, Reader in Political Science, University of Hyderabad,
Hyderabad
Pankaj Pushkar, Sr. Lecturer, Lokniti, CSDS, Delhi
Malla V.S.V. Prasad, Lecturer, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi
Rajeshwari Deshpande, Reader in Political Science, University of Pune, Pune
Sajal Nag, Professor of History, Assam University, Silchar
Sandeep Shastri, Director, IACT, Bangalore
Shailendra Kharat, Lecturer in Political Science, Shinde Sarkar College,
Kolhapur, Maharashtra
Srilekha Mukherji, PGT, St Paul School, New Delhi

Member-coordinator
Sanjay Dubey, Reader, DESSH, NCERT, New Delhi

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 x

Rationalisation of Content
in the Textbooks
In view of the COVID-19 pandemic, it is imperative to
reduce content load on students. The National Education
Policy 2020, also emphasises reducing the content load and
providing opportunities for experiential learning with creative
mindset. In this background, the NCERT has undertaken
the exercise to rationalise the textbooks across all classes.
Learning Outcomes already developed by the NCERT across
classes have been taken into consideration in this exercise.
Contents of the textbooks have been rationalised in view
of the following:
• Overlapping with similar content included in other subject
areas in the same class
• Similar content included in the lower or higher class in the
same subject
• Difficulty level
• Content, which is easily accessible to students without
much interventions from teachers and can be learned by
children through self-learning or peer-learning
• Content, which is irrelevant in the present context

This present edition is a reformatted version after carrying

out the changes given above.

request for Feedback

How did you like this textbook? What was your experience in reading
or using this? What were the difficulties you faced? What changes
would you like to see in the next version of this book?
Write to us on all these and any other matter related to the textbook.
You could be a teacher, a parent, a student or just a general reader.
We value any and every feedback.
Please write to:
Coordinator (Political Science)
DESS, NCERT, Sri Aurobindo Marg, New Delhi 110 016

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 xi

Acknowledgements
We wish to acknowledge the following for the stamps, cartoons,
newspaper clippings, pictures and extracts of texts used in this book.

Postal stamps
The National Philately Bureau, Department of Post and Telegraph,
Government of India for all the postal stamps used throughout this
book.

Cartoons
Shankar Narayanan and Times of India for cartoons by R. K.
Laxman on pages 18, 60, 61, 72, 75, 83, 88, 95, 98, 99, 104, 107,
109, 117, 133, and 138. The Children’s Book Trust for cartoons
by Shankar on pages 21, 22, 26, 28 and 40. Laughing with
Kutty, Free Press for cartoons by Kutty on pages 80, 85, and 88.
Sudhir Dar, Sudhir Tailang and UNDP & Planning Commission
for cartoons on page 50 . Janaki Abraham for cartoon by
Abu on page 93. India Today for cartoons by Atanu Roy on page 107,
Ajit Ninan on pages 136 and 142. HT Book of Cartoons for cartoons
by Rambabu Mathur on page 130 and Sudhir Tailang on page 140.

Pictures
Sunil Janah for pictures on pages 2 and 13. The Hindu for pictures
on pages 7, 33, and 116. DPA/PIB for pictures on pages 9 and 17.
Hindustan Times for pictures on pages 47, 105, and the collage on
the cover page. Nehru Memorial Museum and Library for pictures
on pages 3, 10 and 54. Sabeena Gadihoke for pictures by Homai
Vyarawalla on pages 6, 7, 41 and 59. Raghu Rai for pictures on pages
76 and 130. Outlook Classic and www.thesouthasian.org for pictures
on the back cover.

Press clippings
The Hindustan Times for the clippings (from History in the Making:
75 years of the Hindustan Times) on pages 4, 49, 59, 65, 67, 73, 85,
100, 118, 130 and 145. Times of India for the clippings on page 7, 65,
67, 99, 117, 120, 124, 125, 128 and 133. The Hindu for clippings on
pages 32 and 33 and news on page 45. Nai Dunia for the clippings on
pages 33, 61, 92, 99, 100, 123, 130 and 145.

Posters/Advertisements
GCMMF India for Amul advertisements on pages 61, 81, 100,
130, 137 and 138. Uttarakhand Sanskritik Morcha for poster on
page 112.

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 xii

Sources of extracts and citations from reports and books

Ramchandra Guha, India after Gandhi, Picador India, 2007, for
the quotations on pages 25, 29, 30, 67, 68, 72 and 88. Sundeep
Dougal, translation of Faiz Ahmend Faiz, Subh-e-azadi on the
website http://members.tripod.com/~SundeepDougal/Faiz.html.
Umair Raja, translation of Amrita Pritam’s poem “Today I Call Waris
Shah” at www.chowk.com. Text and translation of Sadat Hasan
Manto, ‘Kasre-Nafsi’ (Hospitality Delayed), Mushirul Hasan, ed.
2000. Inventing Boundaries: Gender, Politics and the Partition of
India. Oxford University Press, New Delhi Fanishwarnath Renu,
Maila Anchal translation from Indira Junghare, The Soiled Border.
Shrilal Shukla, Rag Darbari translation by Gillian Wright, Penguin
Books India, 1992. Translation of Namdeo Dhasal’s Marathi poem
in Golpitha, translated by Jayant Karve and Eleanor Zelliot, in
Mulk Raj Anand and Eleanor Zelliot (ed), An Anthology of Dalit
Literature, New Delhi, Gyan Books, 1992. Rajni Kothari. Politics in
India, Third reprint, Orient Longman, Delhi, pages 155-156. Partha
Chatterjee (ed.) State and Politics in India, Oxford University Press,
New Delhi, 1997 for extracts from Rajni Kothari on page 448; David
Butler, Ashok Lahiri, Prannoy Roy on page 149; Sudipta Kaviraj on
page 74; Sanjib Baruah, on page 507. Jawaharlal Nehru’s Speeches,
Sept 1957-April 1961, Delhi, GoI, Ministry of Information and
Broadcasting, Publication Division, Vol 4, page 381. Francine
R. Frankel, 2005, India’s Political Economy (1947-2004), Oxford
University Press, Delhi, page 71; Zoya Hasan, Parties and Party
Politics in India. Oxford University Press, Delhi, 2004, pages 33-34;
Anand Chakravarti, ‘A Village in Chomu Assembly Constituency in
Rajasthan’ in A.M. Shah (ed), The Grassroots of Democracy, Permanent
Black, Delhi, 2007; Report of the Justice Nanavati Commission of
Inquiry, Vol.I, 2005, page 180; National Human Rights Commission,
Annual Report 2001-2002, pages 317-318 and Shah Commission,
Interim Report, pages 96-101, 120-139.
The Council acknowledges the contributions of the following review
committee members towards the rationalisation of the textbook:
Kavita Jain, PGT, Political Science, Delhi; Maneesha Pandey,
Department of Political Science, Hindu College, Delhi University,
New Delhi; Shankar Sharan, Professor, DESS, NCERT; Vanthangpui
Khobung, Assistant Professor, RIE, Bhopal, NCERT; Sunita Kathuria,
PGT, Political Science, New Delhi.

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 xiii

Contents
Foreword  iii
Letter to the Readers  v
Rationalisation of Content in the Textbooks  x

Chapter 1
Challenges of nation building  2

Chapter 2
Era of one-party dominance  26

Chapter 3
Politics of planned development  44

Chapter 4
India’s external relations  54

Chapter 5
Challenges to and restoration of the congress system 72

Chapter 6
The crisis of democratic order  92

Chapter 7
Regional aspirations  112

Chapter 8
Recent developments in indian politics  136

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 Credit: Sunil Janah

In this chapter…
The first few years in the life of independent India were full of challenges.
Some of the most pressing ones concerned national unity and
territorial integrity of India. We begin the story of politics in India since
In a moment of independence by looking at how three of these challenges of nation-
optimism, Hindus and building were successfully negotiated in the first decade after 1947.
Hindus and Muslims in • Freedom came with partition, which resulted in large scale violence
Kolkata in 1947 marked and displacement and challenged the very idea of a secular India.
the end of communal
violence by jointly flying • The integration of the princely states into the Indian union needed
the flags of India and urgent resolution.
Pakistan from trucks
patrolling the city. • The internal boundaries of the country needed to be drawn afresh to
This rare photograph meet the aspirations of the people who spoke different languages.
captured the joy of
freedom and the tragedy In the next two chapters we shall turn to other kinds of challenges faced
of partition in India and by the country in this early phase.
in Pakistan.

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 chapter 1
Challenges of
Nation Building
Challenges for the new nation-state
At the hour of midnight on 14-15 August 1947, India attained independence.
Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of free India, addressed a special session of
the Constituent Assembly that night. This was the famous ‘tryst with destiny’ speech
that you are familiar with.
This was the moment Indians had been waiting for. You have read in your history
textbooks that there were many voices in our national movement. But there were
two goals almost everyone agreed upon: one, that after independence, we shall run
our country through democratic government; and two, that the government will be
run for the good of all, particularly the poor and the socially disadvantaged groups.
Now that the country was independent, the time had come to realise the promise of
freedom.
This was not going to be easy. India was born as a nation-state in very difficult
circumstances. Perhaps no other country by then was born in a situation more
difficult than that of India in 1947. Freedom came with the partition of the country.
The year 1947 was a year of unprecedented violence and trauma of displacement. It
was in this situation that independent India started on its journey to achieve several
objectives. Yet the turmoil that accompanied independence did not make our leaders
lose sight of the multiple challenges that faced the new nation.
Credit: PIB

Prime Minister Jawahar

Lal Nehru speaking from
the red fort,
15 August 1947

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 4 Politics in India since Independence

Hindustan Times, 19 July 1947

Three Challenges

“
Broadly, independent India faced three kinds of challenges. The first
and the immediate challenge was to shape a nation that was united,
yet accommodative of the diversity in our society. India was a land
Tomorrow we shall be
of continental size and diversity. Its people spoke different languages

“
free from the slavery of the
British domination. But
at midnight India will be
partitioned. Tomorrow will
thus be a day of rejoicing as
well as of mourning.
and followed different cultures and religions. At that time it was
widely believed that a country full of such kinds of diversity could
not remain together for long. The partition of the country appeared to
prove everyone’s worst fears. There were serious questions about the
future of India: Would India survive as a unified country? Would it do
so by emphasising national unity at the cost of every other objective?
Would it mean rejecting all regional and sub-national identities? And
there was an urgent question: How was integration of the territory of
India to be achieved?
Mahatma Gandhi The second challenge was to establish democracy. You have
14 August 1947,
already studied the Indian Constitution. You know that the
Kolkata.
Constitution granted fundamental rights and extended the right to
vote to every citizen. India adopted representative democracy based
on the parliamentary form of government. These features ensure that
the political competition would take place in a democratic framework.

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 Challenges of Nation Building 5

A democratic constitution is necessary but not sufficient for

establishing a democracy. The challenge was to develop democratic
practices in accordance with the Constitution.
The third challenge was to ensure the development and well-
being of the entire society and not only of some sections. Here
again the Constitution clearly laid down the principle of equality
and special protection to socially disadvantaged groups and
religious and cultural communities. The Constitution also set out
in the Directive Principles of State Policy the welfare goals that
democratic politics must achieve. The real challenge now was to
evolve effective policies for economic development and eradication
of poverty.
I always wanted a time
How did independent India respond to these challenges? To machine, so that I can
what extent did India succeed in achieving the various objectives go back and participate
set out by the Constitution? This entire book is an attempt to in the celebrations of
15 August 1947. But
respond to these questions. The book tells the story of politics in this looks different
India since independence so as to equip you to develop your own from what I thought.
answers to big questions like these. In the first three chapters we
look at how the three challenges mentioned above were faced in
the early years after independence.
In this chapter, we focus on the first challenge of nation-
building that occupied centre-stage in the years immediately after
Independence. We begin by looking at the events that formed the
context of Independence. This can help us understand why the
issue of national unity and security became a primary challenge
at the time of Independence. We shall then see how India chose to
shape itself into a nation, united by a shared history and common
destiny. This unity had to reflect the aspirations of people across
the different regions and deal with the disparities that existed
among regions and different sections of people. In the next two
chapters we shall turn to the challenge of establishing a democracy
and achieving economic development with equality and justice.

These three stamps were issued in 1950 to mark the first republic day on 26 January 1950. What
do the images on these stamps tell you about the challenges to the new republic? If you were asked
to design these stamps in 1950, which images would you have chosen?

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 66 PPolitics in India since Independence

Dawn, Karachi, 14 August 1947

The Dawn of Freedom
Faiz Ahmed Faiz
This scarred, marred brightness,
this bitten-by-night dawn -
The one that was awaited, surely, this is not that dawn.
This is not the dawn yearning for which Faiz Ahmed Faiz (1911-1984) Born
Had we set out, friends, hoping to find in Sialkot; stayed in Pakistan after
sometime, somewhere partition. A leftist in his political
The final destination of stars in the wilderness of the sky. leanings, he opposed the Pakistani
Somewhere, at least, must be a shore for the languid regime and was imprisoned. Collections
waves of the night, of his poetry include Naksh-e-Fariyadi,
Somewhere at least must anchor the sad Dast-e-Saba and Zindan-Nama.
boat of the heart … Regarded as one of the greatest poets
Translation of an extract from urdu poem Subh-e-azadi
of South Asia in the twentieth century.

We should begin to work in that spirit and in course of time all these
angularities of the majority and minority communities, the Hindu community
and the Muslim community – because even as regards Muslims you have
Pathans, Punjabis, Shias, Sunnis and so on and among the Hindus you have
Brahmins, Vaishnavas, Khatris, also Bengalees, Madrasis, and so on – will
vanish. … You are free; you are free to go to your temples, you are free to
go to your mosques or to any other place of worship in this State of Pakistan.
You may belong to any religion or caste or creed – that has nothing to do with
the business of the State.
Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Presidential Address to the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan at
Karachi, 11 August 1947.

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 Challenges of Nation Building 77
The Times of India, Bombay, 15 August 1947

Today I call Waris Shah

Amrita Pritam
Today, I call Waris Shah, “Speak from your grave”
And turn, today, the book of love’s next affectionate page
Once, a daughter of Punjab cried and you wrote a wailing saga
Today, a million daughters, cry to you, Waris Shah
Rise! O’ narrator of the grieving; rise! look at your Punjab
Today, fields are lined with corpses, and blood fills the Chenab Amrita Pritam (1919–2005):
Someone has mixed poison in the five rivers’ flow A prominent Punjabi poet and
Their deadly water is, now, irrigating our lands galore fiction writer. Recipient of Sahitya
This fertile land is sprouting, venom from every pore Akademi Award, Padma Shree and
The sky is turning red from endless cries of gore Jnanapeeth Award. After partition
The toxic forest wind, screams from inside its wake she made Delhi her second home.
Turning each flute’s bamboo-shoot, into a deadly snake … She was active in writing and
editing ‘Nagmani’ a Punjabi monthly
Translation of an extract from a Punjabi poem “Aaj Akhan Waris Shah Nun”
magazine till her last.

We have a Muslim minority who are so large in numbers that they cannot,
even if they want, go anywhere else. That is a basic fact about which there can
be no argument. Whatever the provocation from Pakistan and whatever the
indignities and horrors inflicted on non-Muslims there, we have got to deal with
this minority in a civilised manner. We must give them security and the rights of
citizens in a democratic State. If we fail to do so, we shall have a festering sore
which will eventually poison the whole body politic and probably destroy it.
Jawaharlal Nehru, Letter to Chief Ministers, 15 October 1947.

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 8 Politics in India since Independence

Partition: displacement and rehabilitation

On 14-15 August 1947, not one but two nation-states came into
existence – India and Pakistan. This was a result of ‘partition’,
the division of British India into India and Pakistan. The drawing
of the border demarcating the territory of each country marked the
culmination of political developments that you have read about in
the history textbooks. According to the ‘two-nation theory’ advanced
by the Muslim League, India consisted of not one but two ‘people’,
Hindus and Muslims. That is why it demanded Pakistan, a separate
country for the Muslims. The Congress opposed this theory and the
demand for Pakistan. But several political developments in 1940s, the
political competition between the Congress and the Muslim League
and the British role led to the decision for the creation of Pakistan.

Process of partition
Thus it was decided that what was till then known as ‘India’
would be divided into two countries, ‘India’ and ‘Pakistan’. Such a
division was not only very painful, but also very difficult to decide
and to implement. It was decided to follow the principle of religious
majorities. This basically means that areas where the Muslims were in
majority would make up the territory of Pakistan. The rest was to stay
with India.
The idea might appear simple, but it presented all kinds of
difficulties. First of all, there was no single belt of Muslim majority
areas in British India. There were two areas of concentration, one
in the west and one in the east. There was no way these two parts
could be joined. So it was decided that the new country, Pakistan, will
comprise two territories, West and East Pakistan separated by a long
expanse of Indian territory. Secondly, not all Muslim majority areas
wanted to be in Pakistan. Khan Abdul Gaffar Khan, the undisputed
leader of the North Western Frontier Province and known as ‘Frontier
Gandhi’, was staunchly opposed to the two-nation theory. Eventually,
his voice was simply ignored and the NWFP was made to merge
with Pakistan.
The third problem was that two of the Muslim majority provinces
of British India, Punjab and Bengal, had very large areas where the
non-Muslims were in majority. Eventually it was decided that these
two provinces would be bifurcated according to the religious majority
Oh, now I at the district or even lower level. This decision could not be made
understand! What
was ‘East’ Bengal
by the midnight of 14-15 August. It meant that a large number of
has now become people did not know on the day of Independence whether they were in
Bangladesh. That is India or in Pakistan. The partition of these two provinces caused the
why our Bengal is deepest trauma of Partition.
called ‘West’ Bengal!
This was related to the fourth and the most intractable of all the
problems of partition. This was the problem of ‘minorities’ on both

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 Challenges of Nation Building 9

sides of the border. Lakhs of Hindus and Sikhs in the areas that
were now in Pakistan and an equally large number of Muslims on
the Indian side of Punjab and Bengal (and to some extent Delhi and
surrounding areas) found themselves trapped. They were to discover
that they were undesirable aliens in their own home, in the land where
they and their ancestors had lived for centuries. As soon as it became
clear that the country was going to be partitioned, the violence started
at an unprecedented level against communities who were lesser in
number in their respective areas. No one had quite anticipated the
scale of this problem. No one had any plans for handling this. Initially,
the people and political leaders kept hoping that this violence was
temporary and would be controlled soon. But very soon the violence
went out of control. Such communities on both sides of the border
were often compelled to leave their homes at a few hours’ notice.

Consequences of partition
The year 1947 was the year of one of the largest, most abrupt,
unplanned and tragic transfer of population that human history
has known. There were killings and atrocities on both sides of the
border. In the name of religion people of one community ruthlessly
killed and maimed people of the other community. Cities like Lahore,

Credit: DPA.

A train full of ‘refugees’ in 1947.

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 10 Politics in India since Independence

Amritsar and Kolkata became divided into

Hospitality Delayed ‘communal zones’. Muslims would avoid
Saadat Hasan Manto going into an area where mainly Hindus
or Sikhs lived; similarly the Hindus and
Rioters brought the running train to a halt. Sikhs stayed away from areas of Muslim
People belonging to the other community predominance.
were pulled out and slaughtered with swords
and bullets. Forced to abandon their homes and
move across borders, people went through
The remaining passengers were treated to immense sufferings. Minorities on both
halwa, fruits and milk.
sides of the border fled their home and
The chief organiser said, ‘Brothers and often secured temporary shelter in ‘refugee
sisters, news of this train’s arrival was camps’. They often found unhelpful local
delayed. That is why we have not been administration and police in what was till
able to entertain you lavishly – the way we recently their own country. They travelled
wanted to.’ to the other side of the new border by all
Source: English translation of Urdu short sorts of means, often by foot. Even during
story Kasre-Nafsi this journey they were often attacked,
killed or raped. Thousands of women were
abducted. They were made to convert
to the religion of the abductor and were
forced into marriage. In many cases women were killed by their own
family members to preserve the ‘family honour’. Many children were
separated from their parents. Those who did manage to cross the
border found that they had no home. For lakhs of these ‘refugees’ the
country’s freedom meant
Credit: Nehru Memorial Museum and Library

life in ‘refugee camps’, for

months and sometimes
for years.
Writers, poets and
film-makers in India and
Pakistan have expressed
the ruthlessness of the
killings and the suffering
of displacement and
violence in their novels,
short-stories, poems and
films. While recounting
the trauma of Partition,
they have often used the
phrase that the survivors
themselves used to
describe partition — as
a ‘division of hearts’.
The partition was
not merely a division
Gandhi in Noakhali (now in Bangladesh) in 1947. of properties, liabilities

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 Challenges of Nation Building 11

and assets, or a political division of

Let’s watch a Film

the country and the administrative Garam Hawa
apparatus. What also got divided were
the financial assets, and things like
tables, chairs, typewriters, paper-clips,
books and also musical instruments
of the police band! The employees of
the government and the railways were
also ‘divided’. Above all, it was a violent
separation of communities who had
hitherto lived together as neighbours.
It is estimated that the Partition forced
about 80 lakh people to migrate across
the new border. Between five to ten lakh
people were killed in partition related
violence.
Beyond the administrative concerns
Salim Mirza, a shoe manufacturer
and financial strains, however, the
in Agra, increasingly finds himself
partition posed another deeper issue. a stranger amid the people he
The leaders of the Indian national has lived with all his life. He feels
struggle did not believe in the two-nation lost in the emerging reality after
theory. And yet, partition on religious partition. His business suffers
basis had taken place. Did that make and a refugee from the other side
India a Hindu nation automatically? of partitioned India occupies his
Even after large scale migration of ancestral dwelling. His daughter
Muslims to the newly created Pakistan, too has a tragic end. He believes
that things would soon be normal
the Muslim population in India
again.
accounted for 10-12 per cent of the total
population in 1951. So, how would the
government of India treat its Muslim But many of his family members
citizens and other religious minorities decide to move to Pakistan. Salim
(Sikhs, Christians, Jains, Buddhists, is torn between an impulse to
Parsis and Jews)? The partition had move out to Pakistan and an urge
already created severe conflict between to stay back. A decisive moment
comes when Salim witnesses a
the two communities.
students’ procession demanding
There were competing political fair treatment from the government.
interests behind these conflicts. The His son Sikandar has joined the
Muslim League was formed to protect procession. Can you imagine
the interests of the Muslims in colonial what Mirza Salim finally did? What
do you think you would have done
India. It was in the forefront of the
in these circumstances?
demand for a separate Muslim nation.
Similarly, there were organisations,
Year: 1973
which were trying to organise the
Director: M.S. Sathyu
Hindus in order to turn India into a
Screenplay: Kaifi Azmi
Hindu nation. But most leaders of the Actors: Balraj Sahani, Jalal Aga,
national movement believed that India Farouque Sheikh, Gita Siddharth
must treat persons of all religions

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 12
12 Politics in India since Independence

Mahatma Gandhi’s sacrifice

On the 15th August 1947 Mahatma Gandhi did not
participate in any of the independence day celebrations.
He was in Kolkata in the areas which were torn by
gruesome riots between Hindus and Muslims. He was
saddened by the communal violence and disheartened
that the principles of ahimsa (non-violence) and
satyagraha (active but non-violent resistance) that he
had lived and worked for, had failed to bind the people
in troubled times. Gandhiji went on to persuade the
Hindus and Muslims to give up violence. His presence in
Kolkata greatly improved the situation, and the coming
of independence was celebrated in a spirit of communal
harmony, with joyous dancing in the streets. Gandhiji’s
prayer meetings attracted large crowds. But this was
short lived as riots between Hindus and Muslims erupted
once again and Gandhiji had to resort to a fast to
bring peace.
Next month Gandhiji moved to Delhi where large scale
violence had erupted. He was deeply concerned about
ensuring that Muslims should be allowed to stay in India
with dignity, as equal citizens. He was also concerned
about the relations between India and Pakistan. He was
unhappy with what he saw as the Indian government’s
decision not to honour its financial commitments to
Pakistan. With all this in mind he undertook what turned
out to be his last fast in January 1948. As in Kolkata, his
fast had a dramatic effect in Delhi. Communal tension
and violence reduced. Muslims of Delhi and surrounding
areas could safely return to their homes. The government
of India agreed to give Pakistan its dues.
Gandhiji’s actions were however not liked by all.
Extremists in both the communities blamed him for their
conditions. Despite this he continued to meet everyone
during his prayer meetings. Finally, on 30 January 1948,
one such extremist, Nathuram Vinayak Godse, walked
up to Gandhiji during his evening prayer in Delhi and
fired three bullets at him, killing him instantly. Thus
ended a lifelong struggle for truth, non-violence, justice
and tolerance.

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 Challenges of Nation Building 1313

Janah
: Sunil
Credit

ata.
in Kolk
crowd
t io n d rew a
ssasina
andh i Ji’s a
h e n e ws of G
T

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 14 Politics in India since Independence

equally and that India should not be a country that gave superior
status to adherents of one faith and inferior to those who practiced
another religion. All citizens would be equal irrespective of their
religious affiliation. Being religious or a believer would not be a test
of citizenship. They cherished therefore the ideal of a secular nation.
This ideal was enshrined in the Indian Constitution.

Shweta noticed that her Nana (maternal grandfather) would get very
quiet whenever anyone mentioned Pakistan. One day she decided to
ask him about it. Her Nana told her about how he moved from Lahore to

Let’s re-search
Ludhiana during partition. Both his parents were killed. Even he would
not have survived, but a neighbouring Muslim family gave him shelter
and kept him in hiding for several days. They helped him find some
relatives and that is how he managed to cross the border and start
a new life. Similarly, there are many examples of Hindu families and
others who helped, sheltered, and saved the lives of Muslim families
during the times of crisis and violence caused by Partition. It shows the
importance of compassion and solidarity on religious grounds in both
communities.
Have you heard a similar story? Ask your grandparents or anyone of
that generation about their memories of Independence Day, about the
celebration, about the trauma of partition, about the expectations they
had from independence.
Write down at least two of these stories.

Integration of Princely States

British India was divided into what were called the British Indian
Provinces and the Princely States. The British Indian Provinces
were directly under the control of the British government. On the
other hand, several large and small states ruled by princes, called
the Princely States, enjoyed some form of control over their internal
affairs as long as they accepted British supremacy. This was called
paramountcy or suzerainty of the British crown. Princely States
covered one-third of the land area of the British Indian Empire and
one out of four Indians lived under princely rule.

The problem
Just before Independence it was announced by the British that with
the end of their rule over India, paramountcy of the British crown
over Princely States would also lapse. This meant that all these
states, as many as 565 in all, would become legally independent. The
British government took the view that all these states were free to
join either India or Pakistan or remain independent if they so wished.
This decision was left not to the people but to the princely rulers of
these states. This was a very serious problem and could threaten the
very existence of a united India.
The problems started very soon. First of all, the ruler of Travancore
announced that the state had decided on Independence. The Nizam

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 Challenges of Nation Building 15

Note: This
illustration is not
a map drawn to
scale and should
not be taken to
be an authentic
depiction of
India’s external
boundaries.

Can’t we end the

partition of India Isn’t it better that
and Pakistan the we now learn to
way they did in live and respect
Germany? I want each other as
to have breakfast independent
in Amritsar and nations?
lunch in Lahore!

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 16 Politics in India since Independence

of Hyderabad made a similar announcement the next day. Rulers like

the Nawab of Bhopal were averse to joining the Constituent Assembly.
This response of the rulers of the Princely States meant that after
Independence there was a very real possibility that India would get
further divided into a number of small countries. The prospects of
democracy for the people in these states also looked bleak. This was a
strange situation, since the Indian Independence was aimed at unity,
self-determination as well as democracy. In most of these princely
states, governments were run in a non-democratic manner and the

“
rulers were unwilling to give democratic rights to their populations.

Government’s approach
We are at a momentous The interim government took a firm stance against the possible
stage in the history of India. division of India into small principalities of different sizes. Under
By common endeavour, we the Mountbatten Plan, the Princely states were free to join India
can raise the country to or Pakistan. Sardar Patel was India’s Deputy Prime Minister and
new greatness, while lack the Home Minister during the crucial period immediately following
of unity will expose us to Independence. He played a historic role in negotiating with the rulers
of princely states firmly but diplomatically and bringing most of
unexpected calamities. I
them into the Indian Union. It may look easy now. But it was a very
hope the Indian States will complicated task which required skilful persuasion. For instance,

“
realise fully that if we do
not cooperate and work
together in the general
interest, anarchy and chaos
will overwhelm us all, great
and small, and lead us to
there were 26 small states in today’s Orissa. Saurashtra region of
Gujarat had 14 big states, 119 small states and numerous other
different administrations.
The government’s approach was guided by three considerations.
Firstly, the people of most of the princely states clearly wanted to
become part of the Indian union. Secondly, the government was
prepared to be flexible in giving autonomy to some regions. The idea
total ruin...
was to accommodate plurality and adopt a flexible approach in dealing
with the demands of the regions. Thirdly, in the backdrop of partition
which brought into focus the contest over demarcation of territory,
Sardar Patel the integration and consolidation of the territorial boundaries of the
Letter to Princely rulers, nation had assumed supreme importance.
1947.
Before 15 August 1947, peaceful negotiations had brought almost
all states whose territories were contiguous to the new boundaries of
India, into the Indian Union. The rulers of most of the states signed
a document called the ‘Instrument of Accession’ which meant that
their state agreed to become a part of the Union of India. Accession of
the Princely States of Junagadh, Hyderabad, Kashmir and Manipur
proved more difficult than the rest. The issue of Junagarh was
resolved after a plebiscite confirmed people’s desire to join India. You
will read about Kashmir in Chapter Seven. Here, let us look at the
cases of Hyderabad and Manipur.

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 Challenges of Nation Building 17

Credit: PIB
Sardar Patel with the Nizam of Hyderabad

Hyderabad
Hyderabad, the largest of the Princely States was
surrounded entirely by Indian territory. Some parts of
the old Hyderabad state are today parts of Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Its ruler carried the title,
‘Nizam’, and he was one of the world’s richest men. The
Nizam wanted an independent status for Hyderabad. He Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel
entered into what was called the Standstill Agreement with (1875-1950): Leader of
India in November 1947 for a year while negotiations with the freedom movement;
the Indian government were going on. Congress leader; follower of
In the meantime, a movement of the people of Mahatma Gandhi; Deputy
Hyderabad State against the Nizam’s rule gathered force. Prime Minister and first Home
The peasantry in the Telangana region in particular, was Minister of independent India;
the victim of Nizam’s oppressive rule and rose against him. played an important role in
Women who had seen the worst of this oppression joined the integration of Princely
the movement in large numbers. Hyderabad town was the States with India; member
nerve centre of this movement. The Communists and the of important committees of
Hyderabad Congress were in the forefront of the movement. the Constituent Assembly
The Nizam responded by unleashing a para-military force on Fundamental Rights,
known as the Razakars on the people. The atrocities and Minorities, Provincial
communal nature of the Razakars knew no bounds. They Constitution, etc.

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 18 Politics in India since Independence

murdered, maimed, raped and looted, targeting particularly the non-

Muslims. The central government had to order the army to tackle the
situation. In September 1948, Indian army moved in to control the
Nizam’s forces. After a few days of intermittent fighting, the Nizam
surrendered. This led to Hyderabad’s accession to India.

Manipur
A few days before Independence, the Maharaja of Manipur,
Bodhachandra Singh, signed the Instrument of Accession with the
Indian government on the assurance that the internal autonomy of
Manipur would be maintained. Under the pressure of public opinion,
the Maharaja held elections in Manipur in June 1948 and the state
became a constitutional monarchy. Thus Manipur was the first part
I wonder what of India to hold an election based on universal adult franchise.
happened to all
those hundreds In the Legislative Assembly of Manipur there were sharp differences
of kings, queens, over the question of merger of Manipur with India. While the state
princes and Congress wanted the merger, other political parties were opposed to
princesses. How this. The Government of India succeeded in persuading the Maharaja
did they live
their lives after
into signing a Merger Agreement in September 1949.
becoming just
ordinary citizens?

Credit: R. K. Laxman in the Times of India

This cartoon
comments on the
relation between
the people and
the rulers in the
Princely States,
and also on
Patel’s approach
to resolving this
issue.

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 Challenges of Nation Building 19

Reorganisation of States
The process of nation-building did not come to an end with partition
and integration of Princely States. Now the challenge was to draw the
internal boundaries of the Indian states. This was not just a matter
of administrative divisions. The boundaries had to be drawn in a way
so that the linguistic and cultural plurality of the country could be
reflected without affecting the unity of the nation.
During colonial rule, the state boundaries were drawn either on
administrative convenience or simply coincided with the territories
annexed by the British government or the territories ruled by the
princely powers.
Our national movement had rejected these divisions as artificial
and had promised the linguistic principle as the basis of formation
of states. In fact after the Nagpur session of Congress in 1920 the
principle was recognised as the basis of the reorganisation of the
Indian National Congress party itself. Many Provincial Congress

“
Committees were created by linguistic zones, which did not follow
the administrative divisions of British India.
Things changed after Independence and partition. Our leaders
felt that carving out states on the basis of language might lead to ..if lingusitic
disruption and disintegration. It was also felt that this would draw provinces are formed, it
attention away from other social and economic challenges that the will also give a fillip to
country faced. The central leadership decided to postpone matters.
The need for postponement was also felt because the fate of the
Princely States had not been decided. Also, the memory of partition
was still fresh.
This decision of the national leadership was challenged by the local
leaders and the people. Protests began in the Telugu speaking areas of
“
the regional languages. It
would be absurd to make
Hindustani the medium
of instruction in all the
regions and it is still more
absurd to use English for
the old Madras province, which included present day Tamil Nadu, parts this purpose.
of Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Karnataka. The Vishalandhra movement
(as the movement for a separate Andhra was called) demanded that
the Telugu speaking areas should be separated from the Madras Mahatma Gandhi
province of which they were a part and be made into a separate Andhra January1948
province. Nearly all the political forces in the Andhra region were in
favour of linguistic reorganisation of the then Madras province.
The movement gathered momentum as a result of the Central
government’s vacillation. Potti Sriramulu, a Congress leader and a
veteran Gandhian, went on an indefinite fast that led to his death after
56 days. This caused great unrest and resulted in violent outbursts in
Andhra region. People in large numbers took to the streets. Many were
injured or lost their lives in police firing. In Madras, several legislators
resigned their seats in protest. Finally, the Prime Minister announced
the formation of a separate Andhra state in December 1952.

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 20 Politics in India since Independence

Note: This illustration is not a map drawn to scale and should not be taken to be
an authentic depiction of India’s external boundaries.

Read the map and answer the following questions:

1. Name the original state from which the following states were carved out:
Gujarat Haryana
Meghalaya Chhattisgarh
2. Name two states that were affected by the partition of the country.
3. Name two states today that were once a Union Territory.

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 Challenges of Nation Building 21

Credit: Shankar
“Struggle for Survival” (26 July 1953) captures contemporary impression of the
demand for linguistic states

The formation of Andhra spurred the struggle for

making of other states on linguistic lines in other parts
of the country. These struggles forced the Central
Government into appointing a States Reorganisation
Commission in 1953 to look into the question of
redrawing of the boundaries of states. The Commission
in its report accepted that the boundaries of the state
should reflect the boundaries of different languages. On
the basis of its report the States Reorganisation Act was
passed in 1956. This led to the creation of 14 states and Potti Sriramulu
six union territories. (1901-1952): Gandhian
worker; left government
job to participate in
Salt Satyagraha; also
participated in individual
Satyagraha; went on a
fast in 1946 demanding
that temples in Madras
province be opened to
dalits; undertook a fast unto
Now, isn’t this very interesting? Nehru and other death from 19 October 1952
leaders were very popular, and yet the people did not demanding separate state
hesitate to agitate for linguistic states against the of Andhra; died during the
wishes of the leaders!
fast on 15 December 1952.

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 22 Politics in India since Independence

Credit: Shankar
“Coaxing the Genie back” (5 February 1956) asked if the State Reorganisation Commission could
contain the genie of linguism.

One of the most important concerns in the early years

was that demands for separate states would endanger
the unity of the country. It was felt that linguistic
states may foster separatism and create pressures on
the newly founded nation. But the leadership, under
popular pressure, finally made a choice in favour of
linguistic states. It was hoped that if we accept the
regional and linguistic claims of all regions, the threat of
division and separatism would be reduced. Besides, the
accommodation of regional demands and the formation
of linguistic states were also seen as more democratic.
Now it is more than fifty years since the formation of
linguistic states. We can say that linguistic states and
the movements for the formation of these states changed
the nature of democratic politics and leadership in some
basic ways. The path to politics and power was now
open to people other than the small English speaking
elite. Linguistic reorganisation also gave some uniform
basis to the drawing of state boundaries. It did not lead

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 Challenges of Nation Building 23

to disintegration of the country as many had feared earlier. On the

contrary it strengthened national unity.
Above all, the linguistic states underlined the acceptance of the
principle of diversity. When we say that India adopted democracy, it
does not simply mean that India embraced a democratic constitution,
nor does it merely mean that India adopted the format of elections. The
choice was larger than that. It was a choice in favour of recognising
and accepting the existence of differences which could at times be
oppositional. Democracy, in other words, was associated with plurality
of ideas and ways of life. Much of the politics in the later period was
to take place within this framework.

Fast Forward Creation of new states

The acceptance of the principle of linguistic states did not mean, however, that all states
immediately became linguistic states. There was an experiment of ‘bilingual’ Bombay state,
consisting of Gujarati- and Marathi-speaking people. After a popular agitation, the states of
Maharashtra and Gujarat were created in 1960.
In Punjab also, there were two linguistic groups: Hindi-speaking and Punjabi-speaking. The
Punjabi-speaking people demanded a separate state. But it was not granted with other states
in 1956. Statehood for Punjab came ten years later, in 1966, when the territories of today’s
Haryana and Himachal Pradesh were separated from the larger Punjab state.
Another major reorganisation of states took place in the north-east in 1972. Meghalaya was
carved out of Assam in 1972. Manipur and Tripura too emerged as separate states in the same
year. The states of Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh came into being in 1987. Nagaland had
become a state much earlier in 1963.
Language did not, however, remain the sole basis of organisation of states. In later years
sub-regions raised demands for separate states on the basis of a separate regional culture or
complaints of regional imbalance in development. Three such states, Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand
and Jharkhand, were created in 2000. Telangana has emerged as a new state on 2 June, 2014.
The story of reorganisation has not come to an end. There are many regions in the country
where there are movements demanding separate and smaller states. These include Vidarbha
in Maharashtra, Harit Pradesh in the western region of Uttar Pradesh and the northern region
of West Bengal.

The US has one-fourth

of our population but 50
states. Why can’t India
have more than 100
states?

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 24 Politics in India since Independence

1. Which among the following statements about the partition is incorrect?

(a) Partition of India was the outcome of the “two-nation theory.”
(b) Punjab and Bengal were the two provinces divided on the basis
of religion.
(c) East Pakistan and West Pakistan were not contiguous.
(d) The scheme of partition included a plan for transfer of
population across the border.

2.
Match the principles with the instances:
(a) Mapping of boundaries i. Pakistan and
on religious grounds Bangladesh
(b) Mapping of boundaries on grounds ii. India and
of different languages Pakistan
(c) Demarcating boundaries within a iii. Jharkhand and
country by geographical zones Chhattisgarh
(d) Demarcating boundaries within a iv. Himachal Pradesh
EXERCISES

country on administrative and and Uttarakhand

political grounds

3. Take a current political map of India (showing outlines of states) and

mark the location of the following Princely States.
(a) Junagadh (b) Manipur
(c) Mysore (d) Gwalior

4. Here are two opinions –

Bismay: “The merger with the Indian State was an extension of
democracy to the people of the Princely States.”
Inderpreet: “I am not so sure, there was force being used. Democracy
comes by creating consensus.”
What is your own opinion in the light of accession of Princely States and
the responses of the people in these parts?

5. Read the following very different statements made in August 1947 –

“Today you have worn on your heads a crown of thorns. The seat of
power is a nasty thing. You have to remain ever wakeful on that seat….
you have to be more humble and forbearing…now there will be no end
to your being tested.” — M.K Gandhi
“…India will awake to a life of freedom….we step out from the old to the
new…we end today a period of ill fortune and India discovers herself
again. The achievement we celebrate today is but a step, an opening of
opportunity…” — Jawaharlal Nehru
Spell out the agenda of nation building that flows from these two
statements. Which one appeals more to you and why?

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 Challenges of Nation Building 25

6. What are the reasons being used by Nehru for keeping India secular?
Do you think these reasons were only ethical and sentimental? Or were
there some prudential reasons as well?

7. Bring out two major differences between the challenge of nation

building for eastern and western regions of the country at the time of
Independence.

8. What was the task of the States Reorganisation Commission? What

was its most salient recommendation?

9. It is said that the nation is to a large extent an “ imagined community”

held together by common beliefs, history, political aspirations and
imaginations. Identify the features that make India a nation.

10. Read the following passage and answer the questions below:
“In the history of nation-building only the Soviet experiment bears
comparison with the Indian. There too, a sense of unity had to be forged
between many diverse ethnic groups, religious, linguistic communities
and social classes. The scale – geographic as well as demographic
– was comparably massive. The raw material the state had to work with
was equally unpropitious: a people divided by faith and driven by debt
and disease.” — Ramachandra Guha
(a) List the commonalities that the author mentions between India
and Soviet Union and give one example for each of these from
India.
(b) The author does not talk about dissimilarities between the two
experiments. Can you mention two dissimilarities?
(c) In retrospect which of these two experiments worked better and
why?

LET US DO IT TOGETHER

• Read a novel/ story on partition by an Indian and a Pakistani/

Bangladeshi writer. What are the commonalities of the experience
across the border?
• Collect all the stories from the ‘Let’s Research’ suggestion in
this chapter. Prepare a wallpaper that highlights the common
experiences and has stories on the unique experiences.

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 Credit: Shankar

In this chapter…
The challenge of nation-building, covered in the last chapter, was
This famous sketch accompanied by the challenge of instituting democratic politics. Thus,
by Shankar appeared
electoral competition among political parties began immediately after
on the cover of his
collection – Don’t Spare Independence. In this chapter, we look at the first decade of electoral
Me, Shankar. The politics in order to understand
original sketch was
drawn in the context of
• the establishment of a system of free and fair elections;
India’s China policy. But • the domination of the Congress party in the years immediately
this cartoon captures
after Independence; and
the dual role of the
Congress during the era • the emergence of opposition parties and their policies.
of one-party dominance.

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 chapter 2
era of one-party
dominance
Challenge of building democracy
You now have an idea of the difficult circumstances in which
independent India was born. You have read about the serious
challenge of nation-building that confronted the country right in the

“
beginning. Faced with such serious challenges, leaders in many other
countries of the world decided that their country could not afford
to have democracy. They said that national unity was their first
priority and that democracy will introduce differences and conflicts. In India,….
Therefore many of the countries that gained freedom from colonialism
experienced non-democratic rule. It took various forms: nominal
…hero-worship, plays a part
democracy but effective control by one leader, one party rule or direct
army rule. Non-democratic regimes always started with a promise of
restoring democracy very soon. But once they established themselves,
it was very difficult to dislodge them.
The conditions in India were not very different. But the leaders of
the newly independent India decided to take the more difficult path.
in magnitude by the part
“
in its politics unequalled

it plays in the politics of

any other country….But in
politics, .. ..hero-worship is a
sure road to degradation and
Any other path would have been surprising, for our freedom struggle eventual dictatorship.
was deeply committed to the idea of democracy. Our leaders were
conscious of the critical role of politics in any democracy. They did not
see politics as a problem; they saw it as a way of solving the problems. Babasaheb Dr. B.R.
Every society needs to decide how it will govern and regulate itself. Ambedkar
There are always different policy alternatives to choose from. There Speech in Constituent
are different groups with different and conflicting aspirations. How Assembly
25 November 1949
do we resolve these differences? Democratic politics is an answer to
this question. While competition and power are the two most visible
things about politics, the purpose of political activity is and should be
deciding and pursuing public interest. This is the route our leaders
decided to take.
Last year you studied how our Constitution was drafted.
You would remember that the Constitution was adopted on
26 November 1949 and signed on 24 January 1950 and it came into
effect on 26 January 1950. At that time the country was being ruled
by an interim government. It was now necessary to install the first
democratically elected government of the country. The Constitution
had laid down the rules, now the machine had to be put in place. What’s so special
Initially it was thought that this was only a matter of a few months. The about our being a
Election Commission of India was set up in January 1950. Sukumar democracy? Sooner
or later every country
Sen became the first Chief Election Commissioner. The country’s first has become a
general elections were expected sometime in 1950 itself. democracy, isn’t it?

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 28 Politics in India sinc Independence

But the Election Commission discovered that it was not going to

be easy to hold a free and fair election in a country of India’s size.
Holding an election required delimitation or drawing the boundaries
of the electoral constituencies. It also required preparing the electoral
rolls, or the list of all the citizens eligible to vote. Both these tasks took
a lot of time. When the first draft of the rolls was published, it was
discovered that the names of nearly 40 lakh women were not recorded
in the list. They were simply listed as “wife of …” or “daughter of …”.
The Election Commission refused to accept these entries and ordered
a revision if possible and deletion if necessary. Preparing for the first
That was a good general election was a mammoth exercise. No election on this scale
decision. But what had ever been conducted in the world before. At that time there
about men who still were 17 crore eligible voters, who had to elect about 3,200 MLAs and
refer to a woman as 489 Members of Lok Sabha. Only 15 per cent of these eligible voters
Mrs. somebody, as if were literate. Therefore the Election Commission had to think of some
she does not have a
special method of voting. The Election Commission trained over 3
name of her own?
lakh officers and polling staff to conduct the elections.
It was not just the size of the country and the electorate that made
this election unusual. The first general election was also the first big
test of democracy in a poor and illiterate country. Till then democracy
had existed only in the prosperous countries, mainly in Europe and
North America, where nearly everyone was literate. By that time
many countries in Europe had not given voting rights to all women.
In this context India’s experiment with universal adult franchise
Credit: Shankar, 20 May 1951

A cartoonist’s impression of the election committee formed by the Congress to choose party
candidates in 1951. On the committee, besides Nehru: Morarji Desai, Rafi Ahmed Kidwai,
Dr B.C. Roy, Kamaraj Nadar, Rajagopalachari, Jagjivan Ram, Maulana Azad, D.P. Mishra,
P.D. Tandon and Govind Ballabh Pant.

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 Era of One-party Dominance 29

Changing methods of voting

These days we use an Electronic Voting Machine (EVM) to record voters’

preferences. But that is not how we started. In the first general election, it
was decided to place inside each polling booth a box for each candidate
with the election symbol of that candidate. Each voter was given a blank
ballot paper which they had to drop into the box of the candidate they
wanted to vote for. About 20 lakh steel boxes were used for this purpose.
A presiding officer from Punjab described how he
prepared the ballot boxes—“Each box had to have
its candidate’s symbol, both inside and outside it,
and outside on either side, had to be displayed the
name of the candidate in Urdu, Hindi and Punjabi
along with the number of the constituency, the
polling station and the polling booth. The paper
seal with the numerical description of the candidate,
signed by the presiding officer, had to be inserted in
the token frame and its window closed by its door
A sample of the which had to be fixed in its place at the other end by means
ballot paper of a wire. All this had to be done on the day previous to the
used from
the third to one fixed for polling. To fix symbols and labels the boxes
Electronic Voting
the thirteenth had first to be rubbed with sandpaper or a piece of brick. I Machine
general found that it took about five hours for six persons, including
elections to Lok
Sabha
my two daughters, to complete this work. All this was done
at my house.”

After the first two elections, this method was changed. Now the ballot paper
carried the names and symbols of all the candidates and the voter was required
to put a stamp on the name of the candidate they wanted to vote for. This method
worked for nearly forty years. Towards the end of 1990s the Election Commission
started using the EVM. By 2004 the entire country had shifted to the EVM.
Let’s re-search

Ask the elders in your family and neighbourhood about their

experience of participating in elections.
• Did anyone vote in the first or second general election? Who did
they vote for and why?
• Is there someone who has used all the three methods of voting?
Which one did they prefer?
• In which ways do they find the elections of those days different
from the present ones?

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 30 Politics in India sinc Independence

appeared very bold and risky. An Indian editor called it “the

biggest gamble in history”. Organiser, a magazine, wrote
that Jawaharlal Nehru “would live to confess the failure
of universal adult franchise in India”. A British member of
the Indian Civil Service claimed that “a future and more
enlightened age will view with astonishment the absurd farce
of recording the votes of millions of illiterate people”.
The elections had to be postponed twice and finally held
from October 1951 to February 1952. But this election is
referred to as the 1952 election since most parts of the
Maulana Abul Kalam country voted in January 1952. It took six months for
Azad (1888-1958): the campaigning, polling and counting to be completed.
original name — Abul Elections were competitive – there were on an average more
Kalam Mohiyuddin than four candidates for each seat. The level of participation
Ahmed; scholar of was encouraging — more than half the eligible voters turned
Islam; freedom fighter out to vote on the day of elections. When the results were
and Congress leader; declared these were accepted as fair even by the losers.
proponent of Hindu- The Indian experiment had proved the critics wrong. The
Muslim unity; opposed Times of India held that the polls have “confounded all those
to Partition; member of sceptics who thought the introduction of adult franchise
Constituent Assembly; too risky an experiment in this country”. The Hindustan
Education Minister in Times claimed that “there is universal agreement that the
the first cabinet of free Indian people have conducted themselves admirably in the
India. largest experiment in democratic elections in the history of
the world”. Observers outside India were equally impressed.
India’s general election of 1952 became a landmark in the
history of democracy all over the world. It was no longer
possible to argue that democratic elections could not be held
in conditions of poverty or lack of education. It proved that
democracy could be practiced anywhere in the world.

Congress dominance in the first three

general elections
The results of the first general election did not surprise anyone. The
Indian National Congress was expected to win this election. The
Congress party, as it was popularly known, had inherited the legacy
of the national movement. It was the only party then to have an
organisation spread all over the country. And finally, in Jawaharlal
Nehru, the party had the most popular and charismatic leader in
Indian politics. He led the Congress campaign and toured through
the country. When the final results were declared, the extent of the
victory of the Congress did surprise many. The party won 364 of the
489 seats in the first Lok Sabha and finished way ahead of any other
challenger. The Communist Party of India that came next in terms
of seats won only 16 seats. The state elections were held with the

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 Era of One-party Dominance 31

Note: This illustration is not a map drawn to scale and should not be taken to be
an authentic depiction of India’s external boundaries.

Can you identify the places where the Congress had a strong presence?
In which States, did the other parties perform reasonably well?

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 32 Politics in India sinc Independence

Lok Sabha elections. The Congress scored

big victory in those elections as well. It won
a majority of seats in all the states except
Travancore-Cochin (part of today’s Kerala),
Madras and Orissa. Finally even in these
states the Congress formed the government.
So the party ruled all over the country at the
national and the state level. As expected,
Jawaharlal Nehru became the Prime Minister
after the first general election.
A look at the electoral map on the
previous page would give you a sense of
the dominance of the Congress during
the period 1952-1962. In the second and
the third general elections, held in 1957
indu

and 1962 respectively, the Congress

maintained the same position in the Lok
: The H

Sabha by winning three-fourth of the

seats. None of the opposition parties
Credit

could win even one-tenth of the number

of seats won by the Congress. In the state
assembly elections, the Congress did not get
majority in a few cases. The most significant
of these cases was in Kerala in 1957 when a coalition led by the
CPI formed the government. Apart from exceptions like this, the
Congress controlled the national and all the state governments.
The extent of the victory of the Congress was artificially
boosted by our electoral system. The Congress won three out of
every four seats but it did not get even half of the votes. In 1952,
for example, the Congress obtained 45 per cent of the total votes.
But it managed to win 74 per cent of the seats. The Socialist
Party, the second largest party in terms of votes, secured more
than 10 per cent of the votes all over the country. But it could
Rajkumari Amrit Kaur not even win three per cent of the seats. How did this happen?
(1889-1964): A Gandhian For this, you need to recall the discussion about the first-past-
and Freedom fighter; the-post method in your textbook, Indian Constitution at Work
belonged to the royal last year.
family of Kapurthala; In this system of election, that has been adopted in our
inherited Christian country, the party that gets more votes than others tends to get
religion from her mother; much more than its proportional share. That is exactly what
member of Constituent worked in favour of the Congress. If we add up the votes of all
Assembly; Minister for the non-Congress candidates it was more than the votes of the
Health in independent Congress. But the non-Congress votes were divided between
India’s first ministry; different rival parties and candidates. So the Congress was still
continued as Health way ahead of the opposition and managed to win.
Minister till 1957.

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 Era of One-party Dominance 3333

Communist victory in Kerala

As early as in 1957, the Congress party had the bitter taste of defeat in Kerala.
In the assembly elections held in March 1957, the Communist Party won the
largest number of seats in the Kerala legislature. The party won 60 of the
126 seats and had the support of five independents. The governor invited
E. M. S. Namboodiripad, the leader of the Communist legislature party, to form
the ministry. For the first time in the world, a Communist party government
had come to power through democratic elections.
On losing power in the State, the Congress party began a ‘liberation struggle’
against the elected government. The CPI had come to power on the promise of
carrying out radical and progressive policy measures. The Communists claimed
that the agitation was led by vested interests and religious organisations.
In 1959 the Congress government at
Credit: Hindu

the Centre dismissed the Communist

government in Kerala under Article 356 of
the Constitution. This decision proved very
controversial and was widely cited as one
of the prominent instances of the misuse
of constitutional emergency powers.

E.M.S. Namboodiripad, leading a procession of

Communist Party workers, after his ministry was
dismissed from office in Trivandrum in August
1959.

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 34 34 Politics in India since
sinc Independence
Independence

Socialist Party (SP)

The origins of the Socialist Party can be traced
back to the mass movement stage of the Indian
National Congress in the pre-independence era.
The Congress Socialist party (CSP) was formed
within the Congress in 1934 by a group of young
leaders who wanted a more radical and egalitarian
Congress. In 1948, the Congress amended its
constitution to prevent its members from having a
dual party membership. This forced the Socialists to
form a separate Socialist Party in 1948. The Party’s
electoral performance caused much disappointment
to its supporters. Although the Party had presence in
most of the states of India, it could achieve electoral
success only in a few pockets.
The socialists believed in
the ideology of democratic
socialism which distinguished
them both from the Congress as
well as from the Communists.
They criticised the Congress
for favouring capitalists and
landlords and for ignoring the
workers and the peasants. But
the socialists faced a dilemma
when in 1955 the Congress declared its goal to be the
socialist pattern of society. Thus it became difficult for the
Acharya Narendra socialists to present themselves as an effective alternative
Dev (1889-1956): to the Congress. Some of them, led by Rammanohar Lohia,
Freedom fighter and increased their distance from and criticism of the Congress
founding President of party. Some others like Asoka Mehta advocated a limited
the Congress Socialist cooperation with the Congress.
Party; jailed several
times during the The Socialist Party went through many splits and reunions
freedom movement; leading to the formation of many socialist parties. These
active in peasants’ included the Kisan Mazdoor Praja Party, the Praja Socialist
movement; a scholar Party and Samyukta Socialist Party. Jayaprakash Narayan,
of Buddhism; after Achyut Patwardhan, Asoka Mehta, Acharya Narendra Dev,
independence led the Rammanohar Lohia and S.M. Joshi were among the leaders
Socialist Party and of the socialist parties. Many parties in contemporary India,
later the Praja Socialist like the Samajwadi Party, the Rashtriya Janata Dal, Janata
Party. Dal (United) and the Janata Dal (Secular) trace their origins
to the Socialist Party.

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 Era of One-party Dominance 35

Nature of Congress dominance

India is not the only country to have experienced the dominance of
one party. If we look around the world, we find many other examples

of one-party dominance. But there is a crucial

difference between these and the Indian experience.
In the rest of the cases the dominance of one party
was ensured by compromising democracy. In some
countries like China, Cuba and Syria the constitution
permits only a single party to rule the country. Some
others like Myanmar, Belarus, Egypt, and Eritrea are Babasaheb Bhimrao Ramji
effectively one-party states due to legal and military Ambedkar (1891-1956): Leader
measures. Until a few years ago, Mexico, South of the anti-caste movement and
Korea and Taiwan were also effectively one-party the struggle for justice to the
dominant states. What distinguished the dominance Dalits; scholar and intellectual;
of the Congress party in India from all these cases founder of Independent Labour
was it happened under democratic conditions. Many Party; later founded the
parties contested elections in conditions of free Scheduled Castes Federation;
and fair elections and yet the Congress managed planned the formation of the
to win election after election. This was similar to Republican Party of India;
the dominance the African National Congress has Member of Viceroy’s Executive
enjoyed in South Africa after the end of apartheid. Council during the Second
World War; Chairman, Drafting
The roots of this extraordinary success of the Committee of the Constituent
Congress party go back to the legacy of the freedom Assembly; Minister in Nehru’s
struggle. Congress was seen as inheritor of the first cabinet after independence;
national movement. Many leaders who were in the resigned in 1951 due to
forefront of that struggle were now contesting elections differences over the Hindu Code
as Congress candidates. The Congress was already a Bill; adopted Buddhism in 1956,
very well-organised party and by the time the other with thousands of followers.
parties could even think of a strategy, the Congress

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 36 Politics in India sinc Independence

had already started its campaign. In fact, many parties

were formed only around independence or after that. Thus,
the Congress had the ‘first off the blocks’ advantage. By
the time of independence the party had not only spread
across the length and breadth of the country as we had
seen in the maps but also had an organisational network
down to the local level. Most importantly, as the Congress
was till recently a national movement, its nature was
all-inclusive. All these factors contributed to the
Rafi Ahmed Kidwai dominance of the Congress party.
(1894-1954):
Congress leader from Congress as social and ideological coalition
U.P.; Minister in U.P. You have already studied the history of how Congress
in 1937 and again evolved from its origins in 1885 as a pressure group for the
in 1946; Minister for newly educated, professional and commercial classes to
Communications in a mass movement in the twentieth century. This laid the
the first ministry of basis for its eventual transformation into a mass political
free India; Food and party and its subsequent domination of the political
Agriculture Minister, system. Thus the Congress began as a party dominated by
1952-54. the English speaking, upper caste, upper middle-class and
urban elite. But with every civil disobedience movement
it launched, its social base widened. It brought together
diverse groups, whose interests were often contradictory.
Peasants and industrialists, urban dwellers and villagers,
workers and owners, middle, lower and upper classes and castes, all
found space in the Congress. Gradually, its leadership also expanded
beyond the upper caste and upper class professionals to agriculture
based leaders with a rural orientation. By the time of independence,
the Congress was transformed into a rainbow-like social coalition
broadly representing India’s diversity in terms
of classes and castes, religions and languages Earlier we had
and various interests. coalition in a
party, now we
Many of these groups merged their identity have coalition of
within the Congress. Very often they did not parties. Does it
and continued to exist within the Congress mean that we have
as groups and individuals holding different had a coalition
beliefs. In this sense the Congress was an government since
ideological coalition as well. It accommodated 1952?
the revolutionary and pacifist, conservative and
radical, extremist and moderate and the right,
left and all shades of the centre. The Congress
was a ‘platform’ for numerous groups, interests
and even political parties to take part in the
national movement. In pre-independence days,
many organisations and parties with their
own constitution and organisational structure
were allowed to exist within the Congress.

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 Era of One-party Dominance 37
37

The Communist Party of India (CPI)

In the early 1920s communist groups
emerged in different parts of India taking
inspiration from the Bolshevik revolution
in Russia and advocating socialism as the
solution to problems affecting the country.
From 1935, the Communists worked mainly
from within the fold of the Indian National
Congress. A parting of ways took place in
December 1941, when the Communists
decided to support the British in their war
against Nazi Germany. Unlike other non-
Congress parties the CPI had a well-oiled
party machinery and dedicated cadre
at the time of independence. However,
independence raised different voices in
the party. The basic question that troubled
the party was the nature
of Indian independence.
Was India really free or
was freedom a sham?
Soon after independence,
the party thought that the transfer of power in 1947
was not true independence and encouraged violent
uprisings in Telangana. The Communists failed to
generate popular support for their position and were
crushed by the armed forces. This forced them to
rethink their position. In 1951 the Communist Party
abandoned the path of violent revolution and decided
A.K. Gopalan
to participate in the approaching general elections.
(1904-1977): Communist
In the first general election, CPI won 16 seats and
leader from Kerala,
emerged as the largest opposition party. The party’s
worked as a Congress
support was more concentrated in Andhra Pradesh,
worker initially; joined
West Bengal, Bihar and Kerala.
the Communist Party in
A. K. Gopalan, S.A. Dange, E.M.S. Namboodiripad, 1939; after the split in
P.C. Joshi, Ajay Ghosh and P. Sundarraya were the Communist Party
among the notable leaders of the CPI. The Party went in 1964, joined the
through a major split in 1964 following the ideological CPI (M) and worked
rift between Soviet Union and China. The pro-Soviet for strengthening the
faction remained as the CPI, while the opponents party; respected as a
formed the CPI(M). Both these parties continue to parliamentarian; Member
exist to this day. of Parliament from 1952.

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 38 Politics in India sinc Independence

Some of these, like the Congress

Let’s watch a Film
Socialist Party, later separated from
Simhasan the Congress and became opposition
parties. Despite differences regarding
the methods, specific programmes and
policies the party managed to contain
if not resolve differences and build a
consensus.

Tolerance and management

of factions
This coalition-like character of the
Congress gave it an unusual strength.
Firstly, a coalition accommodates all
those who join it. Therefore, it has
to avoid any extreme position and
strike a balance on almost all issues.
This Marathi film, based on Arun Compromise and inclusiveness are the
Sadhu’s two novels ‘Simhasan’
hallmarks of a coalition. This strategy
and ‘Mumbai Dinank’, depicts
the tussle for the post of Chief
put the opposition in a difficulty.
Minister in Maharashtra. The story Anything that the opposition wanted
is told through journalist Digu to say, would also find a place in
Tipnis as the silent ‘Sutradhar’. It the programme and ideology of the
tries to capture the intense power Congress. Secondly, in a party that
struggle within the ruling party has the nature of a coalition, there is a
and the secondary role of the greater tolerance of internal differences
Opposition. and ambitions of various groups
and leaders are accommodated. The
Finance Minister, Vishwasrao Congress did both these things during
Dabhade is making all-out efforts the freedom struggle and continued
to unseat the incumbent Chief doing this even after Independence.
Minister. Both contenders are That is why, even if a group was not
trying to woo trade union leader happy with the position of the party
D’Casta to obtain his support. In or with its share of power, it would
this factional fight, other politicians
remain inside the party and fight the
too seek to obtain maximum
other groups rather than leaving the
advantage while bargaining with
both sides. Smuggling in Mumbai party and becoming an ‘opposition’.
and the grim social reality in rural These groups inside the party are
Maharashtra form the sub-plots in called factions. The coalitional nature
this film.
of the Congress party tolerated and
in fact encouraged various factions.
Year: 1981
Some of these factions were based
Director: Jabbar Patel
Screenplay: Vijay Tendulkar on ideological considerations but
Cast: Nilu Phule, Arun Sarnaik, very often these factions were rooted
Dr.Shreeram Lagoo, Satish in personal ambitions and rivalries.
Dubashi, Datta Bhat, Madhukar Instead of being a weakness, internal
Toradmal, Madhav Watve, Mohan factionalism became a strength of
Agashe

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 Era of One-party Dominance 39
39

Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS)

The Bharatiya Jana Sangh was
formed in 1951 with Shyama
Prasad Mukherjee as its founder-
President. Its lineage however
can be traced back to the
Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh
(RSS) and the Hindu Mahasabha
before independence.
The Jana Sangh was different from
other parties in terms of ideology
and programmes. It emphasised
the idea of one country, one
culture and one nation and
believed that the country could
become modern,
progressive and strong
on the basis of Indian
culture and traditions. The
party called for a reunion
of India and Pakistan
in Akhand Bharat. The
party was in forefront of
the agitation to replace
English with Hindi as the
official language of India
and was also opposed to the granting of concessions Deen Dayal
to religious and cultural minorities. The party was Upadhyaya
a consistent advocate of India developing nuclear (1916-1968): full-
weapons especially after China carried out its atomic time RSS worker
tests in 1964. since 1942; founder
member of the
In the 1950s Jana Sangh remained on the margins Bharatiya Jana
of the electoral politics and was able to secure only 3 Sangh; General
Lok Sabha seats in 1952 elections and 4 seats in 1957 Secretary and
general elections to Lok Sabha. In the early years its later President of
support came mainly from the urban areas in the Hindi Bharatiya Jana
speaking states like Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Delhi Sangh; initiated the
and Uttar Pradesh. The party’s leaders included Shyama concept of integral
Prasad Mukherjee, Deen Dayal Upadhyaya and Balraj humanism.
Madhok. The Bharatiya Janata Party traces its roots to
the Bharatiya Jana Sangh.

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 40 Politics in India sinc Independence

the Congress. Since there was room within the party for various
factions to fight with each other, it meant that leaders representing
different interests and ideologies remained within the Congress
rather than go out and form a new party.
Most of the state units of the Congress were made up of
numerous factions. The factions took different ideological positions
making the Congress appear as a grand centrist party. The other
parties primarily attempted to influence these factions and thereby
indirectly influenced policy and decision making from the “margins”.
They were far removed from the actual exercise of authority. They
were not alternatives to the ruling party; instead they constantly
pressurised and criticised, censured and influenced the Congress.
The system of factions functioned as balancing mechanism within
the ruling party. Political competition therefore took place within the
Congress. In that sense, in the first decade of electoral competition
I thought factions
were a disease that the Congress acted both as the ruling party as well as the opposition.
needed to be cured. That is why this period of Indian politics has been described as the
You make it sound ‘Congress system’.
as if factions are
normal and good.

Emergence of opposition parties

As we have noted above, it is not that India did
not have opposition parties during this period.
Credit: Shankar

While discussing the results of the elections,

we have already come across the names of
many parties other than the Congress. Even
then India had a larger number of diverse and
vibrant opposition parties than many other
multi-party democracies. Some of these had
come into being even before the first general
election of 1952. Some of these parties played
an important part in the politics of the country
in the ’sixties and ’seventies. The roots of almost
all the non-Congress parties of today can be
traced to one or the other of the opposition
parties of the 1950s.
All these opposition parties succeeded in
gaining only a token representation in the
Lok Sabha and state assemblies during this
period. Yet their presence played a crucial role
in maintaining the democratic character of the
“Tug of War” (29 August 1954) is a cartoonist’s system. These parties offered a sustained and
impression of the relative strength of the opposition often principled criticism of the policies and
and the government. Sitting on the tree are Nehru practices of the Congress party. This kept the
and his cabinet colleagues. Trying to topple the
ruling party under check and often changed
tree are opposition leaders A. K. Gopalan, Acharya
Kripalani, N.C. Chatterjee, Srikantan Nair and the balance of power within the Congress. By
Sardar Hukum Singh. keeping democratic political alternative alive,

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 Era of One-party Dominance 41

“
these parties prevented the resentment with the system from
turning anti-democratic. These parties also groomed the leaders
who were to play a crucial role in the shaping of our country.
……Tandon’s
election is considered
In the early years there was a lot of mutual respect between
the leaders of the Congress and those of the opposition. The
interim government that ruled the country after the declaration of
Independence and the first general election included opposition
leaders like Dr. Ambedkar and Shyama Prasad Mukherjee in
the cabinet. Jawaharlal Nehru often referred to his fondness for
the Socialist Party and invited socialist leaders like Jayaprakash
“
(by Congress members)
more important than my
presence in the Govt or the
Congress….. .. .. … ..I have
completely exhausted my
utility both in the Congress
Narayan to join his government. This kind of personal relationship and Govt.
with and respect for political adversaries declined after the party
competition grew more intense.
Thus this first phase of democratic politics in our country was Jawaharlal Nehru
quite unique. The inclusive character of the national movement in a letter to Rajaji, after
the election of Tandon
led by the Congress enabled it to attract different sections, groups as Congress president
and interests making it a broad based social and ideological against his wishes.

Nehru’s Cabinet after the swearing-in of Chakravarti Rajagopalachari as Governor-General in 1948.

Sitting from left to right: Rafi Ahmad Kidwai, Baldev Singh, Maulana Azad, Prime Minister Nehru,
Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur, Mr. John Matthai
and Jagjivan Ram. Standing from left to right: Mr. Gadgil, Mr. Neogi, Dr. Ambedkar, Shyama
Prasad Mukherji, Mr. Gopalaswamy Iyengar and Mr. Jayramdas Daulatram.

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 42 Politics in India sinc Independence

coalition. The key role of the Congress in

Shyama Prasad Mukherjee the freedom struggle thus gave it a head
(1901-1953): Leader of start over others. As the ability of the
Hindu Mahasabha; founder Congress to accommodate all interests
of Bharatiya Jana Sangh; and all aspirants for political power
Minister in Nehru’s first cabinet steadily declined, other political parties
after independence; resigned started gaining greater significance.
in 1950 due to differences Thus, Congress dominance constitutes
over relations with Pakistan; only one phase in the politics of the
Member of Constituent country. We shall come to the other
Assembly and later, the first Lok Sabha; phases in later parts of this textbook.
was opposed to India’s policy of autonomy
to Jammu & Kashmir; arrested during Jana
Sangh’s agitation against Kashmir policy; died
during detention.

1. Choose the correct option to fill in the blanks.

(a) The First General Elections in 1952 involved simultaneous
elections to the Lok Sabha and ………………….(The President of
India/ State Assemblies/ Rajya Sabha/ The Prime Minister)
(b) The party that won the second largest number of Lok Sabha seats
in the first elections was the………………….(Praja Socialist Party/
Bharatiya Jana Sangh/ Communist Party of India/Bharatiya Janata
EXERCISES

Party)
(c) One of the guiding principles of the ideology of the Swatantra
Party was………………….(Working class interests/ protection of
Princely States / economy free from State control / Autonomy of
States within the Union)

2. Match the following leaders listed in List A with the parties in List B.
List A List B
(a) S. A. Dange i. Bharatiya Jana Sangh
(b) Shyama Prasad Mukherjee ii. Swatantra Party
(c) Minoo Masani iii. Praja Socialist Party
(d) Asoka Mehta iv. Communist Party of India

3. Four statements regarding one- party dominance are given below. Mark
each of them as true or false.
(a) One-party dominance is rooted in the absence of strong alternative
political parties.
(b) One-party dominance occurs because of weak public opinion.
(c) One-party dominance is linked to the nation’s colonial past.
(d) One-party dominance reflects the absence of democratic ideals in
a country.

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 Era of One-party Dominance 43
43

4. Take a political map of India (with State outlines) and mark:

(a) two states where Congress was not in power at some point
during 1952-67.
(b) two states where the Congress remained in power through
this period.

5. Read the following passage and answer the questions below:

“Patel, the organisational man of the Congress, wanted to purge the
Congress of other political groups and sought to make of it a cohesive
and disciplined political party. He …. sought to take the Congress away
from its all-embracing character and turn it into a close-knit party of
disciplined cadres. Being a ‘realist’ he looked more for discipline than
for comprehension. While Gandhi took too romantic a view of “carrying
on the movement,” Patel’s idea of transforming the Congress into
strictly political party with a single ideology and tight discipline showed
an equal lack of understanding of the eclectic role that the Congress,
as a government, was to be called upon to perform in the decades to
follow.” — Rajni Kothari
(a) Why does the author think that Congress should not have been
a cohesive and disciplined party?
(b) Give some examples of the eclectic role of the Congress party
in the early years.
(c) Why does the author say that Gandhi’s view about
Congress’ future was romantic?

LET US DO IT TOGETHER

Make a chart of elections and governments in your State since 1952.

The chart could have the following columns: year of election, name of
the winning party, name of ruling party or parties, name of the Chief
Minister(s).

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 In this chapter…
In the last two chapters we have studied how the leaders of independent
India responded to the challenges of nation-building and establishing
democracy. Let us now turn to the third challenge, that of economic
Stamps like these, development to ensure well-being of all. As in the case of the first two
issued mostly between challenges, our leaders chose a path that was different and difficult. In
1955 and 1968,
this case their success was much more limited, for this challenge was
depicted a vision of
planned development. tougher and more enduring.
Left to right, top to In this chapter, we study the story of political choices involved in some
bottom: Damodar
Valley, Bhakra
of the key questions of economic development.
Dam, Chittaranjan • What were the key choices and debates about development?
Locomotives, Gauhati
Refinery, Tractor, Sindri • Which strategy was adopted by our leaders in the first two
Fertilisers, Bhakra Dam, decades? And why?
Electric Train, Wheat
Revolution, Hirakud • What were the main achievements and limitations of this strategy?
Dam, Hindustan Aircraft
Factory • Why was this development strategy abandoned in later years?

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 chapter 3
pOLITICS OF PLANNED
DEVELOPMENT
As the global demand for steel increases, Orissa, which has one of
the largest reserves of untapped iron ore in the country, is being
seen as an important investment destination. The State government
hopes to cash in on this unprecedented demand for iron ore and
has signed Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with both
international and domestic steel makers. The government believes
that this would bring in necessary capital investment and proivde a
lot of employment opportunities. The iron ore resources lie in some
of the most underdeveloped and predominantly tribal districts of the
state. The tribal population fears that the setting up of industries
would mean displacement from their home and livelihood. The
environmentalists fear that mining and industry would
pollute the environment. The central government feels
that if the industry is not allowed it would set a bad
Orissa villagers protest
example and discourage investments in the country. against POSCO plant
Can you identify the various interests involved in this Staff Reporter
case? What are their key points of conflict? Do you think BHUBANESWAR: People facing
there are any common points on which everyone can displacement by the proposed
agree? Can this issue be resolved in a way which satisfies POSCO-India steel plant in
all the various interests? As you ask these questions, you Jagatsinghpur district staged
would find yourself facing yet bigger questions. What a demonstration outside the
kind of development does Orissa need? Indeed, whose Korean company’s office here on
need can be called Orissa’s need? Thursday. They were demanding
cancellation of the memorandum of
Political contestation understanding signed between the
These questions cannot be answered by an expert. company and the Orissa government
Decisions of this kind involve weighing the interests of one year ago.
one social group against another, present generation More than 100 men and women
against future generations. In a democracy such major from the gram panchayats of
decisions should be taken or at least approved by the Dhinkia, Nuagaon and Gadakujanga
people themselves. It is important to take advice from tried to enter the office premises
experts on mining, from environmentalists and from but the police prevented them.
economists. Yet the final decision must be a political Raising slogans, the protesters
decision, taken by people’s representatives who are in said the company should not be
touch with the feelings of the people. allowed to set up its plant at the cost
After Independence our country had to make a series of their lives and livelihood. The
of major decisions like this. Each of these decisions could demonstration was organised by the
not be made independent of other such decisions. All Rashtriya Yuva Sangathan and the
these decisions were bound together by a shared vision or Nabanirman Samiti.
model of economic development. Almost everyone agreed The Hindu, 23 June 2006

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 46 Politics in India since Independence

that the development of India should

mean both economic growth and
What is Left and what is Right? social and economic justice. It was
In the politics of most countries, you will always also agreed that this matter cannot
come across references to parties and groups be left to businessmen, industrialists
with a left or right ideology or leaning. These terms and farmers themselves, that the
characterise the position of the concerned groups or government should play a key role
parties regarding social change and role of the state in this. There was disagreement,
in effecting economic redistribution. Left often refers to however, on the kind of role that the
those who are in favour of state control of the economy government must play in ensuring
and prefers state regulation over free competition. The growth with justice. Was it necessary
Right refers to those who believe that free competition to have a centralised institution to
and market economy alone ensure progress and that plan for the entire country? Should
the government should not unnecessarily intervene in the government itself run some key
the economy. industries and business? How much
importance was to be attached to the
Can you tell which of the parties in the 1960s were needs of justice if it differed from the
Rightist and which were the Left parties? Where requirements of economic growth?
would you place the Congress party of that time?
Each of these questions involved
contestation which has continued
ever since. Each of the decision
had political consequence. Most of these issues involved political
judgement and required consultations among political parties and
approval of the public. That is why we need to study the process of
development as a part of the history of politics in India.

Ideas of development
Very often this contestation involves the very idea of development. The
example of Orissa shows us that it is not enough to say that everyone
wants development. For ‘development’ has different meanings for
different sections of the people. Development would mean different
things for example, to an industrialist who is planning to set up a
steel plant, to an urban consumer of steel and to the Adivasi who
lives in that region. Thus any discussion on development is bound to
generate contradictions, conflicts and debates.
The first decade after independence witnessed a lot of debate
around this question. It was common then, as it is even now, for people
to refer to the ‘West’ as the standard for measuring development.
‘Development’ was about becoming more ‘modern’ and modern was
about becoming more like the industrialised countries of the West. This
is how common people as well as the experts thought. It was believed
that every country would go through the process of modernisation
as in the West, which involved the breakdown of traditional social
structures and the rise of capitalism and liberalism. Modernisation
was also associated with the ideas of growth, material progress
and scientific rationality. This kind of idea of development allowed

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 Politics of Planned Development 47

everyone to talk about different countries as developed, developing or

underdeveloped.
Are you saying
On the eve of Independence, India had before it, two models we don’t have
of modern development: the liberal-capitalist model as in much of to be western
Europe and the US and the socialist model as in the USSR. You have in order to be
modern? Is that
already studied these two ideologies and read about the ‘cold war’
possible?
between the two super powers. There were many in India then who
were deeply impressed by the Soviet model of development. These
included not just the leaders of the Communist Party of India, but
also those of the Socialist Party and leaders like Nehru within the
Congress. There were very few supporters of the American style
capitalist development.
This reflected a broad consensus that had developed during
the national movement. The nationalist leaders were clear that the
economic concerns of the government of free India would have to
be different from the narrowly defined commercial functions of the
colonial government. It was clear, moreover, that the task of poverty
alleviation and social and economic redistribution was being seen
primarily as the responsibility of the government. There were debates
among them. For some, industrialisation seemed to be the preferred
path. For others, the development of agriculture and in particular
alleviation of rural poverty was the priority.

Planning
Despite the various differences, there was a consensus on one point:
that development could not be left to private actors, that there was the
need for the government to develop a design or plan for development.
Credit: Hindustan Times

Nehru
addressing
the staff of
the Planning
Commission

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 Credit:Ninan 48 Politics in India since Independence

Planning Commission
Do you recall any reference to the Planning Commission in your book
Constitution at Work last year? Actually there was none, for the Planning
Commission is not one of the many commissions and other bodies set up by
the Constitution. The Planning Commission was set up in March, 1950 by a
I wonder if the Planning
Commission has
simple resolution of the Government of India. It has an advisory role and its
actually followed these recommendations become effective only when the Union Cabinet approved
objectives in practice. these. The resolution which set up the Commission defined the scope of its
work in the following terms :
Fast Forward “The Constitution of India has guaranteed certain Fundamental Rights to the
citizens of India and enunciated certain Directive Principles of State Policy,
Niti Aayog in particular, that the State shall strive to promote the welfare of the people
by securing and protecting….a social order in which justice, social, economic
The Government of India and political, shall …….. …. direct its policy towards securing, among other
replaced the Planning things,
Commission with a new
institution named NITI (a) that the citizens, men and women equally, have the right to an
Aayog (National Institution adequate means of livelihood ;
for Transforming India).
(b) that the ownership and control of the material resources of the
This came into existence
on 1 January 2015. Find community are so distributed as best to subserve the common good;
out about its objectives and
and composition from the (c) that the operation of the economic system does not result in
website, http://niti.gov.in the concentration of wealth and means of production to the common
detriment.

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 Politics of Planned Development 49

In fact the idea of planning as a process of rebuilding economy earned

a good deal of public support in the 1940s and 1950s all over the
world. The experience of Great Depression in Europe, the inter-war
reconstruction of Japan and Germany, and most of all the spectacular
economic growth against heavy odds in the Soviet Union in the 1930s
and 1940s contributed to this consensus.
Thus the Planning Commission was not a sudden invention. In fact,
it has a very interesting history. We commonly assume that private
investors, such as industrialists and big business entrepreneurs,
are averse to ideas of planning: they seek an open economy without
any state control in the flow of capital. That was not what happened
here. Rather, a section of the big industrialists got together in 1944
and drafted a joint proposal for setting up a planned economy in the
country. It was called the Bombay Plan. The Bombay Plan wanted
the state to take major initiatives in industrial and other economic
investments. Thus, from left to right, planning for development was
the most obvious choice for the country after Independence. Soon
after India became independent, the Planning Commission came into
being. The Prime Minister was its Chairperson. It became the most
influential and central machinery for deciding what path and strategy
India would adopt for its development.

The Early Initiatives

As in the USSR, the Planning Commission of India opted for five year
plans (FYP). The idea is very simple: the Government of India prepares
a document that has a plan for all its income and expenditure for the
next five years. Accordingly the budget of the central and all the State

governments is divided into two parts: ‘non-plan’ budget that is spent

on routine items on a yearly basis and ‘plan’ budget that is spent on

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 50 Politics in India since Independence

Credit: Sudhir Dar/UNDP and Planning Commission

a five year basis as per the priorities fixed by the plan. A five year
plan has the advantage of permitting the government to focus on
the larger picture and make long-term intervention in the economy.
The draft of the First Five Year Plan and then the actual Plan
Document, released in December 1951, generated a lot of excitement
in the country. People from all walks of life – academics, journalists,
government and private sector employees, industrialists, farmers,
politicians etc. – discussed and debated the documents extensively.
The excitement with planning reached its peak with the launching
of the Second Five Year Plan in 1956 and continued somewhat
till the Third Five Year Plan in 1961. The Fourth Plan was due to
start in 1966. By this time, the novelty of planning had declined
considerably, and moreover, India was facing acute economic
crisis. The government decided to take a ‘plan holiday’. Though
many criticisms emerged both about the process and the priorities
of these plans, the foundation of India’s economic development was
First Five Year Plan
document
firmly in place by then.

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 Politics of Planned Development 51

The First Five Year Plan

The First Five Year Plan (1951–1956) sought to get the country’s
economy out of the cycle of poverty. K.N. Raj, a young economist
involved in drafting the plan, argued that India should ‘hasten
slowly’ for the first two decades as a fast rate of development
might endanger democracy. The First Five Year Plan addressed,
mainly, the agrarian sector including investment in dams and
irrigation. Agricultural sector was hit hardest by Partition and
needed urgent attention. Huge allocations were made for large-
scale projects like the Bhakhra Nangal Dam. The Plan identified
the pattern of land distribution in the country as the principal
obstacle in the way of agricultural growth. It focused on land
reforms as the key to the country’s development.
Tenth Five Year Plan
One of the basic aims of the planners was to raise the level of document
national income, which could be possible only if the people saved
more money than they spent. As the basic level of spending was
very low in the 1950s, it could not be reduced any more. So the
planners sought to push savings up. That too was difficult as
the total capital stock in the country was rather low compared
to the total number of employable people. Nevertheless, people’s
savings did rise in the first phase of the planned process until
the end of the Third Five Year Plan. But, the rise was not as
spectacular as was expected at the beginning of the First Plan.
Later, from the early 1960s till the early 1970s, the proportion of
savings in the country actually dropped consistently.

Rapid Industrialisation
The Second FYP stressed on heavy industries. It was drafted
by a team of economists and planners under the leadership of
P. C. Mahalanobis. If the first plan had preached patience, the
P.C. Mahalanobis
second wanted to bring about quick structural transformation
(1893-1972):
by making changes simultaneously in all possible directions.
Scientist and
Before this plan was finalised, the Congress party at its session
statistician of
held at Avadi near the then Madras city, passed an important
international repute;
resolution. It declared that ‘socialist pattern of society’ was its
founder of Indian
goal. This was reflected in the Second Plan. The government
Statistical Institute
imposed substantial tariffs on imports in order to protect
(1931); architect of
domestic industries. Such protected environment helped
the Second Plan;
both public and private sector industries to grow. As savings
supporter of rapid
and investment were growing in this period, a bulk of these
industrialisation and
industries like electricity, railways, steel, machineries and
active role of the
communication could be developed in the public sector. Indeed,
public sector.
such a push for industrialisation marked a turning point in
India’s development.

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 52 Politics in India since Independence

It, however, had its problems as well. India was technologically

backward, so it had to spend precious foreign exchange to buy
technology from the global market. That apart, as industry attracted
more investment than agriculture, the possibility of food shortage
loomed large. The Indian planners found balancing industry and
agriculture really difficult. The Third Plan was not significantly
different from the Second. Critics pointed out that the plan
strategies from this time around displayed an unmistakable
“urban bias”. Others thought that industry was wrongly given
priority over agriculture. There were also those who wanted focus on
agriculture-related industries rather than heavy ones.

1. Which of these statements about the Bombay Plan is incorrect?

(a) It was a blueprint for India’s economic future.
(b) It supported state-ownership of industry.
(c) It was made by some leading industrialists.
(d) It supported strongly the idea of planning.n

2. Which of the following ideas did not form part of the early phase of
India’s development policy?
(a) Planning (c) Cooperative Farming
EXERCISES

(b) Liberalisation (d) Self sufficiency

3.
The idea of planning in India was drawn from
(a) the Bombay plan (c) Gandhian vision of
society
(b) experiences of the Soviet (d) Demand by peasant
bloc countries organisations
i. b and d only iii. a and b only
ii. d and c only iv. all the above

4. Match the following.

(a) Charan Singh i. Industrialisation
(b) P C Mahalanobis ii. Zoning
(c) Bihar Famine iii. Farmers
(d) Verghese Kurien iv. Milk Cooperatives

5. What were the major differences in the approach towards development

at the time of Independence? Has the debate been resolved?

6. What was the major thrust of the First Five Year Plan? In which ways
did the Second Plan differ from the first one?

7. Read the following passage and answer the questions below:

“In the early years of Independence, two contradictory tendencies
were already well advanced inside the Congress party. On the one

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 Politics of Planned Development 53

hand, the national party executive endorsed socialist principles

of state ownership, regulation and control over key sectors of the
economy in order to improve productivity and at the same time curb
economic concentration. On the other hand, the national Congress
government pursued liberal economic policies and incentives to
private investment that was justified in terms of the sole criterion of
achieving maximum increase in production. “ — Francine Frankel
(a) What is the contradiction that the author is talking about?
What would be the political implications of a contradiction like
this?
(b) If the author is correct, why is it that the Congress was
pursuing this policy? Was it related to the nature of the
opposition parties?
(c) Was there also a contradiction between the central leadership
of the Congress party and its Sate level leaders?

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 Credit: NMML
In this chapter…
Thus far we have focussed in this book on the developments within
the country and on domestic challenges. We now turn to the external
challenges. Here too our leaders faced the challenge with an innovative
response by way of the policy of non-alignment. But they also found
themselves in conflict with neighbours. This led to three wars in 1962,
Nehru with Nkrumah 1965 and 1971. These wars, and the external relations in general, were
from Ghana, Nasser shaped by and had their impact on the politics in the country.
from Egypt, Sukarno
from Indonesia and In this chapter we study the story of this relationship between the
Tito from Yugoslavia external and the internal politics by focussing on
at a meeting of non-
aligned nations, New • the international context that shaped India’s external relations;
York, October 1960. • the operational principles that informed the country’s foreign
These five comprised the
policy;
core leadership of the
Non-Aligned Movement • the history of India’s relations with China and Pakistan; and
(NAM).
• the evolution of India’s nuclear policy.

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 chapter 4
India’s external
relations
International context
India was born as an independent nation-state in a very trying
and challenging international context. The world had witnessed a
devastating war and was grappling with issues of reconstruction; yet
another attempt to establish an international body was underway;
many new countries were emerging as a result of the collapse of
colonialism; and most new nations were trying to come to terms with
the twin challenges of welfare and democracy. Free India’s foreign
policy reflected all these concerns in the period immediately after
independence. Apart from these factors at the global level, India

“
had its own share of concerns. The British government left behind
the legacy of many international disputes; partition created its own
pressures, and the task of poverty alleviation was already waiting
for fulfilment. This was the overall context in which India started What does
participating in the world affairs as an independent nation-state. independence consist of?
As a nation born in the backdrop of the world war, India decided It consists fundamentally
to conduct its foreign relations with an aim to respect the sovereignty and basically of foreign
of all other nations and to achieve security through the maintenance relations. That is the test
of peace. This aim finds an echo in the Directive Principles of State
Policy.
Just as both internal and external factors guide the behaviour of an
individual or a family, both domestic and international environment
influence the foreign policy of a nation. The developing countries
lack the required resources to effectively advocate their concerns in
“
of independence. All else is
local autonomy. Once foreign
relations go out of your
hands into the charge of
somebody else, to that extent
and in that measure you are
the international system. So they pursue more modest goals than
not independent.
the advanced states. They focus more on peace and development in
their own neighbourhood. Moreover, their economic and security
dependence on the more powerful states occasionally influences
Jawaharlal Nehru
their foreign policy. In the period immediately after the second world during a debate in the
war, many developing nations chose to support the foreign policy Constituent Assembly in
preferences of the powerful countries who were giving them aid or March 1949.
credits. This resulted in the division of countries of the world into
two clear camps. One was under the influence of the United States
and its western allies and the other was under the influence of the
then Soviet Union. There was also the experiment called Non- Aligned
Movement in which India had played an important role. However, the
end of the Cold War changed the context of international relations
entirely. But when India achieved its freedom and started framing

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 56 Politics in India since Independence

The Constitutional principles

Article 51 of the Indian Constitution lays down some Directive Principles of State Policy on
‘Promotion of international peace and security’.
“The State shall endeavour to –
(a) Promote international peace and security
(b) Maintain just and honourable relations between nations
(c) Foster respect for international law and treaty obligations in the dealings of organised
people with one another; and
(d) Encourage settlement of international disputes by arbitration.”
How well did the Indian state live up to these principles in the first two decades after
Independence? You may come back to this question after reading the chapter.

its foreign policy, the Cold War was just beginning and the world
was getting divided into these two camps. Did India belong to any of
these two camps in global politics of the fifties and the sixties? Was
it successful in conducting its foreign policy peacefully and avoiding
international conflicts?

The Policy of non-alignment

The Indian national movement was not an isolated process. It was a
part of the worldwide struggle against colonialism and imperialism.
It influenced the liberation movements of many Asian and African
countries. Prior to India’s independence, there were contacts between
the nationalist leaders of India and those of other colonies, united
as they were in their common struggle against colonialism and
imperialism. The creation of the Indian National Army (INA) by Netaji
Subhash Chandra Bose during the Second World War was the clearest
manifestation of the linkages established between India and overseas
Indians during the freedom struggle.
The foreign policy of a nation reflects the interplay of domestic
and external factors. Therefore, the noble ideals that inspired India’s
struggle for freedom influenced the making of its foreign policy. But
India’s attainment of independence coincided with the beginning
It’s the fourth of the Cold War era, a period which was marked by the political,
chapter and it’s Nehru
once again! Was he a
economic, and military confrontation at the global level between the
superman or what? two blocs led by the superpowers, the US and the USSR. The same
Or has his role been period also witnessed developments like the establishment of the
glorified? UN, the creation of nuclear weapons, the emergence of Communist

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 India’s external relations 57

China, and the beginning of decolonisation. So India’s leadership had

to pursue its national interests within the prevailing international
context.

Nehru’s role
The first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru played a crucial role in
setting the national agenda. He was his own foreign minister. Thus
both as the Prime Minister and the Foreign Minister, he exercised
profound influence in the formulation and implementation of India’s
foreign policy from 1946 to 1964. The three major objectives of
Nehru’s foreign policy were to preserve the hard-earned sovereignty,
protect territorial integrity, and promote rapid economic development.

“
Nehru wished to achieve these objectives through the strategy of non-
alignment. There were, of course, parties and groups in the country
that believed that India should be more friendly with the bloc led by
the US because that bloc claimed to be pro-democracy. Among those Our general
who thought on these lines were leaders like Dr Ambedkar. Some
political parties, which were opposed to communism, also wanted
policy is to avoid
India to follow a pro-US foreign policy. These included the Bharatiya entanglement in power
Jan Sangh and later the Swatantra Party. But Nehru possessed politics and not to join
considerable leeway in formulating foreign policy. any group of powers as
against any other group.
Distance from two camps The two leading groups
The foreign policy of independent India vigorously pursued the dream today are the Russian
of a peaceful world by advocating the policy of non-alignment, by bloc and the Anglo-
reducing Cold War tensions and by contributing human resources American bloc. We must
to the UN peacekeeping operations. You might ask why India did not be friendly to both and
join either of the two camps during the Cold War era. India wanted yet not join either. Both
to keep away from the military alliances led by US and Soviet Union
against each other. During the Cold War, the US-led North Atlantic
America and Russia
Treaty Organisation (NATO) and the Soviet-led Warsaw Pact came are extraordinarily
into existence. India advocated non-alignment as the ideal foreign suspicious of each other
policy approach. This was a difficult balancing act and sometimes the as well as of other
balance did not appear perfect. In 1956 when Britain attacked Egypt
over the Suez Canal issue, India led the world protest against this
neo-colonial invasion. But in the same year when the USSR invaded
Hungary, India did not join its public condemnation. Despite such
a situation, by and large India did take an independent stand on
various international issues and could get aid and assistance from
members of both the blocs.
countries. This makes
our path difficult
and we may well be
suspected by each of
leaning towards the
other. This cannot be
“
helped.
While India was trying to convince the other developing countries
about the policy of non-alignment, Pakistan joined the US-led military
alliances. The US was not happy about India’s independent initiatives Jawaharlal Nehru
Letter to K .P. S.
and the policy of non-alignment. Therefore, there was a considerable Menon, January
1947.

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 58 Politics in India since Independence

unease in Indo-US relations during the 1950s. The US also resented

India’s growing partnership with the Soviet Union.
You have studied in the last chapter, the strategy of planned
economic development adopted by India. This policy emphasised
import-substitution. The emphasis on developing a resource base also
meant that export oriented growth was limited. This development
strategy limited India’s economic interaction with the outside world.

Afro-Asian unity
Yet, given its size, location and power potential, Nehru envisaged a
major role for India in world affairs and especially in Asian affairs.
His era was marked by the establishment of contacts between India
Did we have more
recognition and power and other newly independent states in Asia and Africa. Throughout
in the world when we the 1940s and 1950s, Nehru had been an ardent advocate of Asian
were younger, poorer unity. Under his leadership, India convened the Asian Relations
and more vulnerable Conference in March 1947, five months ahead of attaining its
than now? Isn’t that independence. India made earnest efforts for the early realisation of
strange?
freedom of Indonesia from the Dutch colonial regime by convening
an international conference in 1949 to support its freedom struggle.

“
India was a staunch supporter of the decolonisation process and
firmly opposed racism, especially apartheid in South Africa. The Afro-
Asian conference held in the Indonesian city of Bandung in 1955,
commonly known as the Bandung Conference, marked the zenith of
a country without India’s engagement with the newly independent Asian and African
material, men or money nations. The Bandung Conference later led to the establishment

“
– the three means of power
– is now fast coming to be
recognised as the biggest
moral power in the civilised
world …her word listened to
with respect in the councils
of the NAM. The First Summit of the NAM was held in Belgrade in
September 1961. Nehru was a co-founder of the NAM.

Peace and conflict with China

Unlike its relationship with Pakistan, free India began its relationship
of the great. with China on a very friendly note. After the Chinese revolution in
1949, India was one of the first countries to recognise the communist
government. Nehru felt strongly for this neighbour that was coming out
C. Rajagopalachari of the shadow of western domination and helped the new government
Letter to Edwina in international fora. Some of his colleagues, like Vallabhbhai Patel,
Mountbatten, 1950. were worried about a possible Chinese aggression in future. But Nehru
thought it was ‘exceedingly unlikely’ that India will face an attack
from China. For a very long time, the Chinese border was guarded by
para-military forces, not the army.
The joint enunciation of Panchsheel, the Five Principles of Peaceful
Coexistence, by the Indian Prime Minister Nehru and the Chinese
Premier Zhou Enlai on 29 April 1954 was a step in the direction of
stronger relationship between the two countries. Indian and Chinese
leaders visited each other’s country and were greeted by large and
friendly crowds.

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 India’s external relations 59

TIBET
The plateau of the central Asian region called Tibet

lla
is one of the major issues that historically caused

rawa
tension between India and China. From time to
time in history, China had claimed administrative

i Vya
control over Tibet. And from time to time, Tibet was

a
: Hom
independent too. In 1950, China took over control
of Tibet. Large sections of the Tibetan population

Credit
opposed this takeover. India tried to persuade Dalai L
ama en
China to recognise Tibet’s claims for independence. ters Ind
ia with
his foll
When the Panchsheel agreement was signed owers.
between India and China in 1954, through one of
its clauses about respecting each other’s territorial
integrity and sovereignty, India conceded China’s
claim over Tibet. The Tibetan spiritual leader Dalai Lama accompanied the Chinese Premier Zhou
Enlai during the official Chinese visit to India in 1956. He informed Nehru about the worsening situation
in Tibet. But China had already assured India that Tibet will be given greater autonomy than enjoyed
by any other region of China. In 1958, there was armed uprising in Tibet against China’s occupation.
This was suppressed by the Chinese forces. Sensing that the situation had become worse, in 1959, the
Dalai Lama crossed over into the Indian border and sought asylum which was granted. The Chinese
government strongly protested against this. Over the last half century, a large number of Tibetans have
also sought refuge in India and many other countries of the world. In India, particularly in Delhi, there
are large settlements of Tibetan refugees. Dharmashala in Himachal Pradesh is perhaps the largest
refuge settlement of Tibetans in India. The Dalai Lama has also made Dharmashala his home in India.
In the 1950s and 1960s many political leaders and parties in India including the Socialist Party and the
Jan Sangh supported the cause of Tibet’s independence.
China has created the Tibet autonomous region, which is an integral part of China. Tibetans oppose the
Chinese claim that Tibet is part of Chinese territory. They also oppose the policy of bringing into Tibet
more and more Chinese settlers. Tibetans dispute China’s claim that autonomy is granted to the region.
They think that China wants to undermine the traditional religion and culture of Tibet.

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 60 Politics in India since Independence

Note: This
illustration
is not a map
drawn to
scale and
should not
be taken
to be an
authentic
depiction
of India’s
external
boundaries.

Border disputes with

China erupted in 1960. Talks
between Nehru and Mao Tsetung
proved futile.

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 India’s external relations 61
61

1962

xman
Credit: R. K. La
er
China roll
evid en ce
V.K. Krishna
under
constructio
n. Menon
(1897-1974):
Diplomat and
minister; active
in the Labour
Party in UK
between 1934-
1947; Indian High
Commissioner in UK and later head
of India’s delegation to UN; Rajya
Sabha MP and later Lok Sabha MP;
member of the Union Cabinet from
1956; Defence Minsiter since 1957;
considered very close to Nehru;
resigned after the India-China war in
1962.

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 62 Politics in India since Independence

The Chinese invasion, 1962

“
Two developments strained this relationship. China annexed Tibet in
1950 and thus removed a historical buffer between the two countries.

“
Frankly ...my
impression (of Zhou Enlai)
was very favourable. ….the
Chinese premier is, I believe
a good type of man and
Initially, the government of India did not oppose this openly. But as
more information came in about the suppression of Tibetan culture,
the Indian government grew uneasy. The Tibetan spiritual leader, the
Dalai Lama, sought and obtained political asylum in India in 1959.
China alleged that the government of India was allowing anti-China
activities to take place from within India.
trustworthy. A little earlier, a boundary dispute had surfaced between India
and China. India claimed that the boundary was a matter settled in
colonial time, but China said that any colonial decision did not apply.
C. Rajagopalachari The main dispute was about the western and the eastern end of the
In a letter, December 1956
long border. China claimed two areas within the Indian territory:
Aksai-chin area in the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir and
much of the state of Arunachal Pradesh in what was then called
NEFA (North Eastern Frontier Agency). Between 1957 and 1959,
the Chinese occupied the Aksai-chin area and built a strategic road
there. Despite a very long correspondence and discussion among top
leaders, these differences could not be resolved. Several small border
skirmishes between the armies of the two countries took place.
Around this time, while the entire world’s attention was on the
Cuban Missile crisis involving the two superpowers, China launched
a swift and massive invasion in October 1962 on both the disputed
regions. The first attack lasted one week and Chinese forces captured
some key areas in Arunachal Pradesh. The second wave of attack
came next month. While the Indian forces could block the Chinese
advances on the western front in Ladakh, in the east the Chinese
managed to advance nearly to the entry point of Assam plains.
Finally, China declared a unilateral ceasefire and its troops withdrew
I heard
it from my
to where they were before the invasion began.
grandfather. Nehru The China war dented India’s image at home and abroad. India
Ji cried in public when
had to approach the Americans and the British for military assistance
Lata Mangeshkar sang
“Ai mere watan ke logo…” to tide over the crisis. The Soviet Union remained neutral during
after the 1962 war. the conflict. It induced a sense of national humiliation and at the
same time strengthened a spirit of nationalism. Some of the top army
commanders either resigned or were retired. Nehru’s close associate
and the then Defence Minister, V. Krishna Menon, had to leave the
cabinet. Nehru’s own stature suffered as he was severely criticised
for his naïve assessment of the Chinese intentions and the lack of
military preparedness. For the first time, a no-confidence motion
against his government was moved and debated in the Lok Sabha.
Soon thereafter, the Congress lost some key by-elections to Lok
Sabha. The political mood of the country had begun to change.

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 India’s external relations 63

Fast Forward

Let’s watch a Film

Haqeeqat
Sino-Indian relations since 1962
It took more than a decade for India and
China to resume normal relations. It was
in 1976 that full diplomatic relations were
restored between the two countries. Atal
Behari Vajpayee was the first top level
leader (he was then External Affairs
Minister) to visit China in 1979. Later,
Rajiv Gandhi became the first Prime
Minister after Nehru to visit China. Since
then, the emphasis is more on trade
relations between the two countries. In
the book, Contemporary World Politics,
you have already read about these A small platoon of Indian army
developments. is rescued by the gypsies in
Ladakh region. The enemy has
The Sino-Indian conflict affected the surrounded their post. Capt.
opposition as well. This and the growing Bahadur Singh and his gypsy
rift between China and the Soviet Union girlfriend Kammo help the
created irreconcilable differences within jawans vacate their posts. Both
the Communist Party of India (CPI). The Bahadur Singh and Kammo die
pro-USSR faction remained within the while resisting the Chinese but
the jawans too, are overpowered
CPI and moved towards closer ties with
by the enemy and lay down their
the Congress. The other faction was for
lives for the country.
sometime closer to China and was against
any ties with the Congress. The party
split in 1964 and the leaders of the latter Set in the backdrop of the China
faction formed the Communist Party of war of 1962, this film portrays
India (Marxist) (CPI-M). In the wake of the soldier and his travails as its
the China war, many leaders of what central theme. It pays tribute to
became CPI (M) were arrested for being the soldiers while depicting their
pro-China. plight, and the political frustration
over the betrayal by the Chinese.
The war with China alerted the Indian The film uses documentary
leadership to the volatile situation in footage of war scenes and is
the Northeast region. Apart from being considered as one of the early
isolated and extremely underdeveloped, war films made in Hindi.
this region also presented India with
the challenge of national integration
and political unity. The process of its Year: 1964
reorganisation began soon after the China Director: Chetan Anand
war. Nagaland was granted statehood; Actors: Dharmendra, Priya
Manipur and Tripura, though Union Rajvansh, Balraj Sahni, Jayant,
Territories, were given the right to elect Sudhir, Sanjay Khan, Vijay
their own legislative assemblies. Anand

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 64 Politics in India since Independence

Wars and Peace with Pakistan

In the case of Pakistan, the conflict started just after partition over
the dispute on Jammu and Kashmir. You will read more about the
dispute in Chapter 7. A proxy war broke out between the Indian and
Pakistani armies in Jammu and Kashmir during 1947 itself. But this
did not turn into a full war. The issue was then referred to the UN.
Pakistan soon emerged as a critical factor in India’s relations with the
US and subsequently with China.
The Kashmir conflict did not prevent cooperation between the
governments of India and Pakistan. Both the governments worked
together to restore the women abducted during partition to their
original families. A long-term dispute about the sharing of river
waters was resolved through mediation by the World Bank. The India-
Pakistan Indus Waters Treaty was signed by Nehru and General Ayub
Khan in 1960. Despite all ups and downs in the Indo-Pak relations,
this treaty has worked well.
A more serious armed conflict between the two countries began
in 1965. As you would read in the next chapter, by then Lal Bahadur
Shastri had taken over as the Prime Minister. In April 1965 Pakistan
launched armed attacks in the Rann of Kutch area of Gujarat. This
was followed by a bigger offensive in Jammu and Kashmir in August-
September. Pakistani rulers were hoping to get support from the local
population there, but it did not happen. In order to ease the pressure
on the Kashmir front, Shastri ordered Indian troops to launch a
counter-offensive on the Punjab border. In a fierce battle, the Indian
army reached close to Lahore.
The hostilities came to an end with the UN intervention. Later,
Indian Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri and Pakistan’s General
Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement, brokered by the Soviet
Union, in January 1966. Though India could inflict considerable
military loss on Pakistan, the 1965 war added to India’s already
Why do
we say India
difficult economic situation.
and Pakistan had
a war? Leaders quarrel Bangladesh war, 1971
and armies fight wars.
Most ordinary citizens Beginning in 1970, Pakistan faced its biggest internal crisis. The
have nothing to do country’s first general election produced a split verdict – Zulfikar Ali
with these. Bhutto’s party emerged a winner in West Pakistan, while the Awami
League led by Sheikh Mujib-ur Rahman swept through East Pakistan.
The Bengali population of East Pakistan had voted to protest against
years of being treated as second class citizens by the rulers based
in West Pakistan. The Pakistani rulers were not willing to accept the
democratic verdict. Nor were they ready to accept the Awami League’s
demand for a federation.
Instead, in early 1971, the Pakistani army arrested Sheikh Mujib
and unleashed a reign of terror on the people of East Pakistan. In

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 India’s external relations 65
65

1965

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 66 Politics in India since Independence

response to this, the people started a struggle to liberate ‘Bangladesh’

from Pakistan. Throughout 1971, India had to bear the burden of
about 80 lakh refugees who fled East Pakistan and took shelter in
This the neighbouring areas in India. India extended moral and material
sounds like
joining the Soviet
support to the freedom struggle in Bangladesh. Pakistan accused
bloc. Can we say that India of a conspiracy to break it up.
we were non-aligned
Support for Pakistan came from the US and China. The US-China
even after signing this
treaty with the Soviet rapprochement that began in the late 1960s resulted in a realignment
Union? of forces in Asia. Henry Kissinger, the adviser to the US President
Richard Nixon, made a secret visit to China via Pakistan in July
1971. In order to counter the US-Pakistan-China axis, India signed a
20-year Treaty of Peace and Friendship with the Soviet Union in
August 1971. This treaty assured India of Soviet support if the country
faced any attack.
After months of diplomatic tension and military build-up, a
full-scale war between India and Pakistan broke out in December
1971. Pakistani aircrafts attacked Punjab and Rajasthan, while the
army moved on the Jammu and Kashmir front. India retaliated with
an attack involving the air force, navy and the army on both the
Western and the Eastern front. Welcomed and supported by the local
population, the Indian army made rapid progress in East Pakistan.
Within ten days the Indian army had surrounded Dhaka from three
sides and the Pakistani army of about 90,000 had to surrender. With
Bangladesh as a free country, India declared a unilateral ceasefire.
Later, the signing of the Shimla Agreement between Indira Gandhi and
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto on 3 July 1972 formalised the return of peace.
A decisive victory in the war led to national jubiliation. Most people
in India saw this as a moment of glory and a clear sign of India’s
growing military prowess. As you would read in the next chapter,
Indira Gandhi was the Prime Minister at this time. She had already
won the Lok Sahba elections in 1971. Her personal popularity soared

Fast Forward Kargil Confrontation

In the early part of 1999 several points on the Indian side of the LoC in the Mashkoh, Dras, Kaksar
and Batalik areas were occupied by forces claiming to be Mujahideens. Suspecting involvement
of the Pakistan Army, Indian forces started reacting to this occupation. This led to a confrontation
between the two countries. This is known as the Kargil conflict. This conflict went on during May
and June 1999. By 26 July 1999, India had recovered control of many of the lost points. The Kargil
conflict drew attention worldwide for the reason that only one year prior to that, both India and
Pakistan had attained nuclear capability. However, this conflict remained confined only to the Kargil
region. In Pakistan, this conflict has been the source of a major controversy as it was alleged later
that the Prime Minister of Pakistan was kept in the dark by the Army Chief. Soon after the conflict,
the government of Pakistan was taken over by the Pakistan Army led by the Army Chief, General
Parvez Musharraf.

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 India’s external relations 67
67

1971

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 68 Politics in India since Independence

further after the 1971 war. After the war, assembly elections in most
States took place, bringing large majorities for the Congress party in
many states.
India, with its limited resources, had initiated development
planning. However, conflicts with neighbours derailed the five-year
plans. The scarce resources were diverted to the defence sector especially
after 1962, as India had to embark on a military modernisation drive.
The Department of Defence Production was established in November
1962 and the Department of Defence Supplies in November 1965.
The Third Plan (1961-66) was affected and it was followed by three
Annual Plans and the Fourth Plan could be initiated only in 1969.
India’s defence expenditure increased enormously after the wars.

India’s nuclear policy

Another crucial development of this period was the first nuclear
explosion undertaken by India in May 1974. Nehru had always put
his faith in science and technology for rapidly building a modern
India. A significant component of his industrialisation plans was the
nuclear programme initiated in the late 1940s under the guidance of
Homi J. Bhabha. India wanted to generate atomic energy for peaceful
purposes. Nehru was against nuclear weapons. So he pleaded with
the superpowers for comprehensive nuclear disarmament. However,
the nuclear arsenal kept rising. When Communist China conducted
nuclear tests in October 1964, the five nuclear weapon powers, the
US, USSR, UK, France, and China (Taiwan then represented China) –
also the five Permanent Members of the UN Security Council – tried to
impose the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty (NPT) of 1968 on the rest
of the world. India always considered the NPT as discriminatory and
had refused to sign it. When India conducted its first nuclear test, it
was termed as peaceful explosion. India argued that it was committed
to the policy of using nuclear power only for peaceful purposes.
I am The period when the nuclear test was conducted was a difficult
confused! Isn’t
period in domestic politics. Following the Arab-Israel War of 1973, the
it all about atom
bombs? Why don’t entire world was affected by the Oil Shock due to the massive hike in
we say so? the oil prices by the Arab nations. It led to economic turmoil in India
resulting in high inflation. As you will read in Chapter Six, many
agitations were going on in the country around this time, including a
nationwide railway strike.
Although there are minor differences among political parties about
how to conduct external relations, Indian politics is generally marked
by a broad agreement among the parties on national integration,
protection of international boundaries, and on questions of national
interest. Therefore, we find that in the course of the decade of
1962-1971, when India faced three wars, or even later, when different
parties came to power from time to time, foreign policy has played
only a limited role in party politics.

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 India’s external relations 69

Fast Forward India’s Nuclear Programme

India has opposed the international treaties aimed at non-proliferation since
they were selectively applicable to the non-nuclear powers and legitimised
the monopoly of the five nuclear weapons powers. Thus, India opposed
the indefinite extension of the NPT in 1995 and also refused to sign the
Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT).
India conducted a series of nuclear tests in May 1998, demonstrating its
capacity to use nuclear energy for military purposes. Pakistan soon followed,
thereby increasing the vulnerability of the region to a nuclear exchange. The
international community was extremely critical of the nuclear tests in the
subcontinent and sanctions were imposed on both India and Pakistan, which
were subsequently waived. India’s nuclear doctrine of credible minimum
nuclear deterrence professes “no first use” and reiterates India’s commitment
to global, verifiable and non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament leading to a
nuclear weapons free world.

Shifting alliances in world politics

As you will read in Chapter Six and also in Chapter Eight, many non-Congress governments
came to power in the period starting 1977. This was also the time when world politics was
changing dramatically. What did it mean for India’s external relations?
The Janata Party government that came to power in 1977 announced that it would
follow genuine non-alignment. This implied that the pro-Soviet tilt in the foreign policy
will be corrected. Since then, all governments (Congress or non-Congress) have taken
initiatives for restoring better relations with China and entering into close ties with US. In
Indian politics and in popular mind, India’s foreign policy is always very closely linked to
two questions. One is India’s stand vis-à-vis Pakistan and the other is Indo-US relations.
In the post-1990 period the ruling parties have often been criticised for their pro-US
foreign policy.
Foreign policy is always dictated by ideas of national interest. In the period after 1990,
Russia, though it continues to be an important friend of India, has lost its global pre-
eminence. Therefore, India’s foreign policy has shifted to a more pro-US strategy. Besides,
the contemporary international situation is more influenced by economic interests than by
military interests. This has also made an impact on India’s foreign policy choices. At the
same time, Indo-Pakistan relations have witnessed many new developments during this
period. While Kashmir continues to be the main issue between the two countries, there
have been many efforts to restore normal relations. This means that cultural exchanges,
movement of citizens and economic cooperation would be encouraged by both countries.
Do you know that a train and a bus service operate between these two countries? This
has been a major achievement of the recent times. But that could not avoid the near-war
situation from emerging in 1999. Even after this setback to the peace process, efforts at
negotiating durable peace have been going on.

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 70 Politics in India since Independence

1. Write ‘true’ or ‘false’ against each of these statements.

(a) Non-alignment allowed India to gain assistance both from USA and
USSR.
(b) India’s relationship with her neighbours has been strained from the
beginning.
(c) The cold war has affected the relationship between India and
Pakistan.
(d) The treaty of Peace and Friendship in 1971 was the result of India’s
closeness to USA.

2. Match the following

(a) The goal of India’s foreign i. Tibetan spiritual leader who
policy in the period 1950-1964 crossed over to India
(b) Panchsheel ii. Preservation of territorial
integrity, sovereignty and
economic development
(c) Bandung Conference iii. Five principles of peaceful
EXERCISES

coexistence
(d) Dalai Lama iv. Led to the establishment of
NAM

3. Why did Nehru regard conduct of foreign relations as an essential

indicator of independence? State any two reasons with examples to
support your reading.

4. “The conduct of foreign affairs is an outcome of a two-way interaction

between domestic compulsions and prevailing international climate”.
Take one example from India’s external relations in the 1960s to
substantiate your answer.

5. Identify any two aspects of India’s foreign policy that you would like to
retain and two that you would like to change, if you were to become a
decision maker. Give reasons to support your position.

6. Write short notes on the following.

(a) India’s Nuclear policy
(b) Consensus in foreign policy matters

7. India’s foreign policy was built around the principles of peace and
cooperation. But India fought three wars in a space of ten years
between 1962 and 1971. Would you say that this was a failure of the
foreign policy? Or would you say that this was a result of international
situation? Give reasons to support your answer.

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 India’s external relations 71

8. Does India’s foreign policy reflect her desire to be an important regional

power? Argue your case with the Bangladesh war of 1971 as an
example.

9. How does political leadership of a nation affect its foreign policy?

Explain this with the help of examples from India’s foreign policy.

10. Read this passage and answer the questions below:

“Broadly, non-alignment means not tying yourself off with military
blocs….It means trying to view things, as far as possible, not from
the military point of view, though that has to come in sometimes,
but independently, and trying to maintain friendly relations with all
countries.” — Jawaharlal Nehru
(a) Why does Nehru want to keep off military blocs?
(b) Do you think that the Indo-Soviet friendship treaty violated the
principle of non-alignment? Give reasons for your answer.
(c) If there were no military blocs, do you think non-alignment would
have been unnecessary?

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 a
Times of Indi
t: R . K . La xman in the
Cre di
In this chapter…
In Chapter Two we read about the emergence of the Congress
system. This system was first challenged during the 1960s. As political
competition became more intense, the Congress found it difficult to
retain its dominance. It faced challenges from the opposition that was
more powerful and less divided than before. The Congress also faced
challenges from within, as the party could no longer accommodate all
kinds of differences. In this chapter we pick the story from where we left
it in Chapter Two, in order to
Originally the election • understand how the political transition took place after Nehru;
symbol of the Congress
was a pair of bullocks. • describe how the opposition unity and the Congress split posed a
This famous cartoon challenge to Congress dominance;
depicts the changes
within the Congress • explain how a new Congress led by Indira Gandhi overcame these
leading to a head- challenges; and
on confrontation in
the 22nd year after • analyse how new policies and ideologies facilitated the restoration
Independence. of the Congress system.

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 chapter 5
Challenges to and
Restoration of the
Congress System

Challenge of Political Succession

Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru passed away in May 1964. He
had been unwell for more than a year. This had generated a lot of
speculation about the usual question of succession: after Nehru,
who? But in a newly independent country like India, this situation
gave rise to a more serious question: after Nehru, what?
The second question arose from the serious doubts that many When
outsiders had about whether India’s democratic experiment will France
survive after Nehru. It was feared that like so many other newly or Canada have
similar problems, no
independent countries, India too would not be able to manage a one talks about failure
democratic succession. A failure to do so, it was feared, could lead or disintegration. Why are
to a political role for the army. Besides, there were doubts if the new we under this constant
leadership would be able to handle the multiple crises that awaited suspicion?
a solution. The 1960s were labelled as the ‘dangerous decade’ when

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 74 Politics in India since Independence

unresolved problems like poverty, inequality, communal and regional

divisions etc. could lead to a failure of the democratic project or even
the disintegration of the country.

From Nehru to Shastri

The ease with which the succession after Nehru took place proved all
the critics wrong. When Nehru passed away, K. Kamraj, the president
of the Congress party consulted party leaders and Congress members
Lal Bahadur of Parliament and found that there was a consensus in favour of Lal
Shastri Bahadur Shastri. He was unanimously chosen as the leader of the
(1904-1966): Congress parliamentary party and thus became the country’s next
Prime Minister of Prime Minister. Shastri was a non-controversial leader from Uttar
India; participated Pradesh who had been a Minister in Nehru’s cabinet for many years.
in the freedom Nehru had come to depend a lot on him in his last year. He was
movement since known for his simplicity and his commitment to principles. Earlier
1930; minister he had resigned from the position of Railway Minister accepting moral
in UP cabinet; responsibility for a major railway accident.
General Secretary
Shastri was the country’s Prime Minister from 1964 to 1966.
of Congress;
During Shastri’s brief Prime Ministership, the country faced two
Minister in Union
major challenges. While India was still recovering from the economic
Cabinet from
implications of the war with China, failed monsoons, drought and
1951 to 1956 when
serious food crisis presented a grave challenge. As discussed in the
he resigned taking
previous chapter, the country also faced a war with Pakistan in
responsibility for
1965. Shastri’s famous slogan ‘Jai Jawan Jai Kisan’, symbolised the
the railway accident
country’s resolve to face both these challenges.
and later from 1957
to 1964; coined the Shastri’s Prime Ministership came to an abrupt end on 10 January
famous slogan ‘Jai 1966, when he suddenly expired in Tashkent, then in USSR and
Jawan-Jai Kisan’. currently the capital of Uzbekistan. He was there to discuss and sign
an agreement with Muhammad Ayub Khan, the then President of

“
Pakistan, to end the war.

From Shastri to Indira Gandhi

…new Prime
Thus the Congress faced the challenge of political succession for the
“
Minister of India, in spite
of all forebodings, had been
named with more dispatch,
and much more dignity,
than was the new Prime
Minister of Britain.
second time in two years. This time there was an intense competition
between Morarji Desai and Indira Gandhi. Morarji Desai had earlier
served as Chief Minister of Bombay state (today’s Maharashtra and
Gujarat) and also as a Minister at the centre. Indira Gandhi, the
daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru, had been Congress President in the
past and had also been Union Minister for Information in the Shastri
cabinet. This time the senior leaders in the party decided to back
Indira Gandhi, but the decision was not unanimous. The contest
was resolved through a secret ballot among Congress MPs. Indira
Editorial in The Guardian,
London, 3 June 1964, Gandhi defeated Morarji Desai by securing the support of more than
comparing the political two-thirds of the party’s MPs. A peaceful transition of power, despite
succession after Nehru intense competition for leadership, was seen as a sign of maturity of
with the succession drama
after Harold Macmillan in
India’s democracy.
Britain.

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 Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System 75

Credit: R. K. Laxman in The Times of India, 18 January 1966

It took some time before the new Prime Minister could settle down.
While Indira Gandhi had been politically active for very long, she had
served as a minister under Lal Bahadur Shastri only for a short period.
The senior Congress leaders may have supported Indira Gandhi in the
belief that her administrative and political inexperience would compel
her to be dependent on them for support and guidance. Within a
year of becoming Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi had to lead the party
in a Lok Sabha election. Around this time, the economic situation in
the country had further deteriorated, adding to her problems. Faced
with these difficulties, she set out to gain control over the party and
to demonstrate her leadership skills.

Indira Gandhi (1917-1984): Prime Minister of India from 1966 to 1977

and 1980 to 1984; daughter of Jawaharlal Nehru; participated in the
freedom struggle as a young Congress worker; Congress President
in 1958; minister in Shastri’s cabinet from 1964-66; led the Congress
party to victory in 1967, 1971 and 1980 general elections; credited with
the slogan ‘garibi hatao’, victory in 1971 war and for policy initiatives
like abolition of Privy Purse, nationalisation of banks, nuclear test and
environmental protection; assassinated on 31 October 1984.

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 76 Politics in India since Independence

Credit: Raghu Rai

It must have
been difficult for
her – one woman in a
world dominated by men.
Why don’t we have more
women in positions
like that?

Fourth General Elections, 1967

The year 1967 is considered a landmark year in India’s political and
electoral history. In Chapter Two you read about how the Congress
party was the dominant political force throughout the country from
1952 onwards. This trend was to undergo significant changes with
the 1967 elections.

Context of the elections

In the years leading up to the fourth general elections, the country
witnessed major changes. Two Prime Ministers had died in quick
succession, and the new Prime Minister, who was being seen as a
political novice, had been in office for less than a year. You will recall
from the discussion in Chapter Three and in the previous section of
this chapter that the period was fraught with grave economic crisis
resulting from successive failure of monsoons, widespread drought,

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 Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System 77

decline in agricultural production,

serious food shortage, depletion of
foreign exchange reserves, drop in
Election in a Rajasthan Village
industrial production and exports, This is a story about 1967
combined with a sharp rise in assembly elections. In
military expenditure and diversion the Chomu constituency,
of resources from planning and the main parties in the
economic development. One of the fray were Congress and
first decisions of the Indira Gandhi the Swatantra party.
government was to devaluate the But village Devisar had
Indian rupee, under what was seen to its own local political
be pressure from the US. Earlier one dynamics and it got mixed
US dollar could be purchased for less up with the competition
than Rs. 5; after devaluation it cost between the two parties.
more than Rs. 7. Sher Singh, traditionally
dominated village politics,
The economic situation triggered but gradually his nephew,
off price rise. People started protesting Bhim Singh was emerging
against the increase in prices of as the more popular
essential commodities, food scarcity, leader and rival. Though both were Rajputs, Bhim
growing unemployment and the Singh cultivated the support of many non-Rajputs in
overall economic condition in the the village by attending to their requirements after
country. Bandhs and hartals were becoming the panchayat Pradhan. So, he struck a new
called frequently across the country. equation—the alliance of Rajputs and non-Rajputs.
The government saw the protests as
a law and order problem and not as He proved to be more adept in building alliances
expressions of people’s problems. This across the village by supporting candidates in other
further increased public bitterness villages for the posts of village Pradhan. In fact, he took
and reinforced popular unrest. an initiative and took a delegation to the State Chief
Minister and Congress leader Mohan Lal Sukhadia
The communist and socialist for pressing the name of one of his friends from a
parties launched struggles for nearby village as Congress candidate in the Assembly
greater equality. You will read in the election. When Sukhadia convinced him of some other
next chapter about how a group of name, Bhim Singh, in turn, convinced many others
communists who separated from the that they should work for the party candidate. Bhim
Communist Party of India (Marxist) Singh knew that if the party candidate won from this
to form the Communist Party of India constituency, that candidate would become a minister
(Marxist-Leninist) led armed agrarian and thus, he would have direct contacts with a minister
struggles and organised peasant for the first time!
agitations. This period also witnessed
some of the worst Hindu-Muslim riots Sher Singh had no option but to work for the Swatantra
since Independence. candidate, who was a jagirdar. He kept telling people
that the jagirdar would help build the village school and
use his resources for the development of the locality.
Non-Congressism
At least in Devisar village, the Assembly election had
This situation could not have turned into a factional fight between uncle and nephew.
remained isolated from party politics
Based on Anand Chakravarti, ‘A Village in Chomu
in the country. Opposition parties
Assembly Constituency in Rajasthan.’
were in the forefront of organising
public protests and pressurising the

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 78 Politics in India since Independence

“
government. Parties opposed to
...in India, as the Congress realised that the
present trends continue… division of their votes kept the
maintenance of an ordered Congress in power. Thus parties
structure of society is going that were entirely different and
disparate in their programmes
to slip out of reach of an
and ideology got together to
ordered structure of civil form anti-Congress fronts in
government and the army some states and entered into
will be only alternative electoral adjustments of sharing
source of authority
and order. …the great
“
experiment of developing
India within a democratic
framework has failed.
seats in others. They felt that the
inexperience of Indira Gandhi
and the internal factionalism
within the Congress provided
them an opportunity to topple
the Congress. The socialist
C. Natarajan Annadurai
(1909-1969): Chief Minister
of Madras (Tamil Nadu)
from 1967; a journalist,
popular writer and orator;
initially associated with the
leader Ram Manohar Lohia Justice Party in Madras
gave this strategy the name province; later joined Dravid
of ‘non-Congressism’. He also Kazagham (1934); formed
Neville Maxwell DMK as a political party in
‘India’s Disintegrating
produced a theoretical argument
in its defence: Congress rule was 1949; a proponent of Dravid
Democracy’ an article
undemocratic and opposed to the culture, he was opposed to
published in the London
Times, 1967. interests of ordinary poor people; imposition of Hindi and led
therefore, the coming together the anti-Hindi agitations;
of the non-Congress parties supporter of greater
was necessary for reclaiming autonomy to States.
democracy for the people.

Ram Manohar
Lohia (1910-1967): Electoral verdict
Socialist leader and It was in this context of heightened popular
thinker; freedom discontent and the polarisation of political forces
fighter and among that the fourth general elections to the Lok Sabha
the founders of the and State Assemblies were held in February 1967.
Congress Socialist The Congress was facing the electorate for the first
Party; after the time without Nehru.
split in the parent
The results jolted the Congress at both the
party, the leader of the Socialist Party
national and state levels. Many contemporary
and later the Samyukta Socialist
political observers described the election results as
Party; Member, Lok Sabha, 1963-
a ‘political earthquake’.The Congress did manage
67; founder editor of Mankind and
to get a majority in the Lok Sabha, but with its
Jan, known for original contribution
lowest tally of seats and share of votes since 1952.
to a non-European socialist theory;
Half the ministers in Indira Gandhi’s cabinet were
as political leader, best known for
defeated. The political stalwarts who lost in their
sharp attacks on Nehru, strategy
constituencies included Kamaraj in Tamil Nadu,
of non-Congressism, advocacy of
S.K. Patil in Maharashtra, Atulya Ghosh in West
reservation for backward castes and
Bengal and K. B. Sahay in Bihar.
opposition to English.

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 Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System 79

Note: This Is non-Congressism

illustration is not relevant today? Can it be
a map drawn to applied against Left Front in
scale and should today’s West Bengal?
not be taken to
be an authentic
depiction of
India’s external
boundaries.

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 80 Politics in India since Independence

The dramatic nature of the political change would be more

apparent to you at the State level. The Congress lost majority in as
many as seven States. In two other States defections prevented it
from forming a government. These nine States where the Congress
lost power were spread across the country – Punjab, Haryana, Uttar
Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissa, Madras and
Kerala. In Madras State (now called Tamil Nadu), a regional party —
the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) – came to power by securing
a clear majority. The DMK won power after having led a massive
anti-Hindi agitation by students against the centre on the issue of
imposition of Hindi as the official language. This was the first time any
non-Congress party had secured a majority of its own in any State. In
the other eight States, coalition governments consisting of different
non-Congress parties were formed. A popular saying was that one
could take a train from Delhi to Howrah and not pass through a
single Congress ruled State. It was a strange feeling for those who
were used to seeing the Congress in power. So, was the domination
of the Congress over?

What’s
so unusual in
Coalitions
hung assemblies The elections of 1967 brought into picture the phenomenon of
and coalition coalitions. Since no single party had got majority, various non-
governments? We
see them all
Congress parties came together to form joint legislative parties (called
the time. Samyukt Vidhayak Dal in Hindi) that supported non-Congress
governments. That is why these governments came to be described
as SVD governments. In most of these cases the coalition partners
were ideologically incongruent. The SVD government in Bihar, for
instance, included the two socialist parties – SSP and the PSP – along
with the CPI on the left and Jana Sangh on the right. In Punjab it
was called the ‘Popular United Front’ and comprised the two rival
Akali parties at that time – Sant group and the Master group – with
both the communist parties – the CPI and the CPI(M), the SSP, the
Republican Party and the Bharatiya Jana Sangh.
Credit: Kutty

A cartoonist’s reading of Charan Singh’s attempt to build a United Front of non-communist

parties in 1974

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 Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System 81

Defection
Another important feature of the politics after the 1967 election was the
role played by defections in the making and unmaking of governments
in the States. Defection means an elected representative leaves the
party on whose symbol he/she was elected and joins another party.
After the 1967 general election, the breakaway Congress legislators
played an important role in installing non-Congress governments in
three States - Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. The
constant realignments and shifting political loyalties in this period
gave rise to the expression ‘Aya Ram, Gaya Ram’.

The story of ‘Aya Ram, Gaya Ram’

The expression ‘aya ram, gaya ram’ became
popular in the political vocabulary in India
to describe the practice of frequent floor-
crossing by legislators. Literally translated the
terms meant, Ram came and Ram went. The
expression originated in an amazing feat of
floor crossing achieved by Gaya Lal, an MLA in
Haryana, in 1967. He changed his party thrice in
a fortnight, from Congress to United Front, back to
Congress and then within nine hours to United Front again! It is said that when Gaya Lal declared
his intention to quit the United Front and join the Congress, the Congress leader, Rao Birendra
Singh brought him to Chandigarh press and declared “Gaya Ram was now Aya Ram”.
Gaya Lal’s feat was immortalised in the phrase “Aya Ram, Gaya Ram” which became the subject
of numerous jokes and cartoons. Later, the Constitution was amended to prevent defections.

Split in the Congress K. Kamaraj

(1903-1975): Freedom
We saw that after the 1967 elections, the
fighter and Congress
Congress retained power at the Centre but with
President; Chief
a reduced majority and lost power in many
Minister of Madras
States. More importantly, the results proved that
(Tamil Nadu); having
the Congress could be defeated at the elections.
suffered educational
But there was no substitute as yet. Most non-
deprivation, made
Congress coalition governments in the States did
efforts to spread
not survive for long. They lost majority, and either
education in Madras province;
new combinations were formed or President’s
introduced mid-day meal scheme for
rule had to be imposed.
schoolchildren; in 1963 he proposed that
all senior Congressmen should resign
Indira vs. the ‘Syndicate’ from office to make way for younger
The real challenge to Indira Gandhi came not party workers—this proposal is famous
from the opposition but from within her own as the ‘Kamaraj plan.’

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 82 Politics in India since Independence

The Congress ‘Syndicate’

Syndicate was the informal name given to a group of Congress
leaders who were in control of the party’s organisation. It was led by
K. Kamraj, former Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu and then the president
of the Congress party. It included powerful State leaders like S. K.
Patil of Bombay city (later named as Mumbai), S. Nijalingappa of
Mysore (later Karnataka), N. Sanjeeva Reddy of Andhra Pradesh
and Atulya Ghosh of West Bengal. Both Lal Bahadur Shastri and
S. Nijalingappa
later Indira Gandhi owed their position to the support received from
(1902-2000):
the Syndicate. This group had a decisive say in Indira Gandhi’s first
Senior Congress
Council of Ministers and also in policy formulation and implementation.
leader; Member
After the Congress split the leaders of the syndicate and those owing
of Constituent
allegiance to them stayed with the Congress (O). Since it was Indira
Assembly; member
Gandhi’s Congress (R) that won the test of popularity, all these big
of Lok Sabha; Chief
and powerful men of Indian politics lost their power and prestige
Minister of the then
after 1971.
Mysore (Karnataka)
State; regarded as
the maker of modern
party. She had to deal with Karnataka; President
So, the ‘syndicate’, a group of
there is nothing
of Congress during
new about State
powerful and influential 1968-71.
level leaders being leaders from within the
the king-makers at Congress. The Syndicate
the centre. I thought had played a role in the
it happened only in installation of Indira Gandhi as the Prime Minister by
the 1990s. ensuring her election as the leader of the parliamentary
party. These leaders expected Indira Gandhi to follow
their advise. Gradually, however, Indira Gandhi
attempted to assert her position within the government
and the party. She chose her trusted group of advisers
from outside the party. Slowly and carefully,
Karpoori Thakur she sidelined the Syndicate.
(1924-1988): Chief Indira Gandhi thus faced two challenges.
Minister of Bihar between She needed to build her independence from the
December 1970 and June Syndicate. She also needed to work towards
1971 and again between regaining the ground that the Congress had
June 1977 and April 1979; lost in the 1967 elections. Indira Gandhi
Freedom Fighter and adopted a very bold strategy. She converted
socialist leader; active a simple power struggle into an ideological
in labour and peasant struggle. She launched a series of initiatives to
movements; staunch give the government policy a Left orientation.
follower of Lohia; participated in the movement She got the Congress Working Committee to
led by JP; known for his decision to introduce adopt a Ten Point Programme in May 1967.
reservations for the backward classes in Bihar This programme included social control of
during his second Chief Ministership; strong banks, nationalisation of General Insurance,
opponent of the use of English Language. ceiling on urban property and income,

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 Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System 83

public distribution of food grains, land reforms and

provision of house sites to the rural poor. While the V.V. Giri
‘syndicate’ leaders formally approved this Left-wing (1894-1980):
programme, they had serious reservations about President of
the same. India from
1969 to 1974;
Presidential election, 1969 Congress
worker and
The factional rivalry between the Syndicate and labour leader
Indira Gandhi came in the open in 1969. Following from Andhra
President Zakir Hussain’s death, the post of Pradesh; Indian
President of the India fell vacant that year. Despite High Commissioner to Ceylon
Mrs Gandhi’s reservations the ‘syndicate’ managed (Sri Lanka); Labour Minister in
to nominate her long time opponent and then Union cabinet; Governor of U.P.,
speaker of the Lok Sabha, N. Sanjeeva Reddy, as Kerala, Mysore (Karnataka);
the official Congress candidate for the ensuing Vice-President (1967-1969) and
Presidential elections. Indira Gandhi retaliated by acting President after the death of
encouraging the then Vice-President, V.V. Giri, to President Zakir Hussain; resigned
file his nomination as an independent candidate. and contested presidential election
She also announced several big and popular policy as independent candidate;
measures like the nationalisation of fourteen leading received support from Indira
private banks and the abolition of the ‘privy purse’ Gandhi for his election as
or the special privileges given to former princes. President.
Morarji Desai was the Deputy Prime Minister and

Credit: R. K. Laxman in The TImes of India, 21 August 1969

“The Left Hook” was published after the victory of V.V. Giri, (the boxer with the garland)
over the nominee of the Syndicate, represented here by Nijalingappa (on his knees).

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 84 Politics in India since Independence

“
Finance Minister. On both the above issues serious differences
emerged between him and the Prime Minister resulting in Desai
History … is leaving the government.
replete with instances of Congress had seen differences of this kind in the past. But
the tragedy that overtakes this time both the parties wanted a showdown which took place
democracy when a leader during the Presidential elections. The then Congress President
who has risen to power on S. Nijalingappa issued a ‘whip’ asking all the Congress MPs and MLAs
the crest of a popular wave to vote in favour of Sanjeeva Reddy, the official candidate of the party.
Supporters of Indira Gandhi requisitioned a special meeting of the
or with the support of a
AICC (that is why this faction came to be known as ‘requisitionists’)
“
democratic organisation
becomes a victim of
political narcissism
and is egged on by a
coterie of unscrupulous
but this was refused. After silently supporting V.V. Giri, the Prime
Minister openly called for a ‘conscience vote’ which meant that the
MPs and MLAs from the Congress should be free to vote the way they
want. The election ultimately resulted in the victory of V.V. Giri, the
independent candidate, and the defeat of Sanjeeva Reddy, the official
Congress candidate.
sycophants…...
The defeat of the official Congress candidate formalised the split
in the party. The Congress President expelled the Prime Minister
S Nijalingappa from the party; she claimed that her group was the real Congress. By
Letter to Indira Gandhi November 1969, the Congress group led by the ‘syndicate’ came to be
expelling her from the
referred to as the Congress (Organisation) and the group led by Indira
party, 11 November
1969. Gandhi came to be called the Congress (Requisitionists). These two
parties were also described as Old Congress and New Congress. Indira
Gandhi projected the split as an ideological divide between socialists
and conservatives, between the pro-poor and the pro-rich.

Abolition of Privy Purse

In Chapter One you have read about the integration of the Princely States. This integration was
preceded by an assurance that after the dissolution of princely rule, the then rulers’ families
would be allowed to retain certain private property, and given a grant in heredity or government
allowance, measured on the basis of the extent, revenue and potential of the merging state.
This grant was called the privy purse. At the time of accession, there was little criticism of these
privileges since integration and consolidation was the primary aim.
Yet, hereditary privileges were not consonant with the principles of equality and social and economic
justice laid down in the Constitution of India. Nehru had expressed his dissatisfaction over the
matter time and again. Following the 1967 elections, Indira Gandhi supported the demand that the
government should abolish privy purses. Morarji Desai, however, called the move morally wrong
and amounting to a ‘breach of faith with the princes’.
The government tried to bring a Constitutional amendment in 1970, but it was not passed in Rajya
Sabha. It then issued an ordinance which was struck down by the Supreme Court. Indira Gandhi
made this into a major election issue in 1971 and got a lot of public support. Following its massive
victory in the 1971 election, the Constitution was amended to remove legal obstacles for abolition
of ‘privy purse’.

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 Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System 85
Credit: Vijayan, Shankar’s Weekly

20 July 1969

A cartoonist’s impression of the leadership rivalry in the Congress Party in 1969.

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 86 Politics in India since Independence

The 1971 Election and Restoration of Congress

The split in the Congress reduced Indira Gandhi Government to a
minority. Yet her government continued in office with the issue-based
support of a few other parties including the Communist Party of India
and the DMK. During this period the government made conscious
attempts to project its socialist credentials. This was also a phase when
Indira Gandhi vigorously campaigned for implementing the existing
land reform laws and undertook further land ceiling legislation. In
order to end her dependence on other political parties, strengthen
her party’s position in the Parliament, and seek a popular mandate
for her programmes, Indira Gandhi’s government recommended the
dissolution of the Lok Sabha in December 1970. This was another
surprising and bold move. The fifth general election to Lok Sabha
were held in February 1971.

The contest
The electoral contest appeared to be loaded against Congress(R).
After all, the new Congress was just one faction of an already weak
party. Everyone believed that the real organisational strength of the
Congress party was under the command of Congress(O). To make
matters worse for Indira Gandhi, all the major non-communist,
non-Congress opposition parties formed an electoral alliance known
as the Grand Alliance. The Samyukta Socialist Party (SSP), Praja
Socialist Party (PSP), Bharatiya Jana Sangh (BJS), Swatantra
Party (SWA) and the Bharatiya Kranti Dal (BKD) came together
under this umbrella. The ruling party had an alliance with the
Communist Party of India (CPI).
Yet the new Congress had something that its big opponents
lacked – it had an issue, an agenda and a positive slogan. The Grand
Almost four Alliance did not have a coherent political programme. Indira Gandhi
decades after giving the
slogan of Garibi Hatao, we
said that the opposition alliance had only one common programme:
still have much poverty Indira Hatao (Remove Indira). In contrast to this, she put forward
around! Was the slogan a positive programme captured in the famous slogan: Garibi Hatao
only an election (Remove Poverty). She focused on the growth of the public sector,
gimmick? imposition of ceiling on rural land holdings and urban property,
removal of disparities in income and opportunity, and abolition
of princely privileges. Through garibi hatao Indira Gandhi tried to
generate a support base among the disadvantaged, especially among
the landless labourers, Dalits and Adivasis, minorities, women and
the unemployed youth. The slogan of garibi hatao and the programmes
that followed it were part of Indira Gandhi’s political strategy of
building an independent nationwide political support base.

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 Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System 87

The outcome and after

The results of the Lok Sabha elections of 1971, were as dramatic
as was the decision to hold these elections. The Congress(R)-CPI
alliance won more seats and votes than the Congress had ever won
in the first four general elections. The combine won 375 seats in Lok
Sabha and secured 48.4 per cent votes. Indira Gandhi’s Congress(R)
won 352 seats with about 44 per cent of the popular votes on its own.
Contrast this with the performance of the Congress(O): the party
with so many stalwarts could get less than one-fourth of the votes
secured by Indira Gandhi’s party and win merely 16 seats. With this
the Congress party led by Indira Gandhi established its claim to being
the ‘real’ Congress and restored to it the dominant position in Indian
politics. The Grand Alliance of the opposition proved a grand failure.
Their combined tally of seats was less than 60.
Credit: R. K. Laxman in The Times of India

“The Grand Finish” is how a cartoonist interpreted the outcome of the 1971 elections.
Players on the ground are the then leading opposition figures.

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 88 Politics in India since Independence

Soon after the 1971 Lok Sabha elections,

Credit: R. K. Laxman in the Times of India

a major political and military crisis broke

out in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). As
you have read in Chapter Four, the 1971
elections were followed by the crisis in East
Pakistan and the Indo-Pak war leading to the
establishment of Bangladesh. These events
added to the popularity of Indira Gandhi.
Even the opposition leaders admired her
statesmanship. Her party swept through all
the State Assembly elections held in 1972.
She was seen not only as the protector of
the poor and the underprivileged, but also a
p
The cu ers strong nationalist leader. The opposition to
e
that h
c her, either within the party or outside of it,
simply did not matter.
With two successive election victories,
one at the centre and other at the State level,
the dominance of the Congress was restored.
The Congress was now in power in almost all
the States. It was also popular across different social sections. Within
a span of four years, Indira Gandhi had warded off the challenge to
her leadership and to the dominant position of the Congress party.

Credit: Kutty

The new manner of choosing CMs by Indira Gandhi inspired this cartoon.

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 Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System 89

Let’s watch a Film

Restoration?
But does it mean that the Congress system Zanjeer
was restored? What Indira Gandhi had
done was not a revival of the old Congress
party. In many ways she had re-invented
the party. The party occupied a similar
position in terms of its popularity as in
the past. But it was a different kind of a
party. It relied entirely on the popularity
of the supreme leader. It had a somewhat
weak organisational structure. This
Congress party now did not have many
factions, thus it could not accommodate
all kinds of opinions and interests. While
it won elections, it depended more on
some social groups: the poor, the women,
Dalits, Adivasis and the minorities. This Vijay, a young police officer is
was a new Congress that had emerged. framed in false charges and sent
Thus Indira Gandhi restored the Congress to jail while fighting gangsters.
system by changing the nature of the Released from jail, Vijay is
Congress system itself. determined to take revenge. He
fights all odds and vanquishes
Despite being more popular, the new the villains. Even while he is
Congress did not have the kind of capacity engaged in taking revenge, Vijay
to absorb all tensions and conflicts that is fighting the anti-social element
the Congress system was known for. While and gets the tacit support of many
the Congress consolidated its position others from within the system.
and Indira Gandhi assumed a position
of unprecedented political authority,
the spaces for democratic expression of This film portrayed the erosion
people’s aspirations actually shrank. The of moral values and the deep
popular unrest and mobilisation around frustrations arising from that
issues of development and economic quite forcefully. It represents the
deprivation continued to grow. In the indifference of the system and
next chapter you will read about how this the harsh and volcanic eruption
led to a political crisis that threatened of protest through the anger of
Vijay. The film set the trend of
the very existence of constitutional
what was later to be known as
democracy in the country.
the ‘angry young man’ of the
seventies.
That
is like
changing the top
and legs of a table Year: 1973
and still calling it the Director: Prakash Mehra
old table! What was Screenplay: Salim Khan-Javed
common between the Akhtar
Old and the New Cast: Amitabh Bachchan, Ajit,
Congress? Jaya Bhaduri, Pran

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 90 Politics
PoliticsininIndia
Indiasince
sinceIndependence
Independence

1. Which of these statements about the 1967 elections is/are correct?

(a) Congress won the Lok Sabha elections but lost the Assembly
elections in many states.
(b) Congress lost both Lok Sabha and Assembly elections.
(c) Congress lost majority in the Lok Sabha but formed a coalition
government with the support of some other parties.
(d) Congress retained power at the Centre with an increased majority.

2. Match the following:

(a) Syndicate i. An elected representative
leaving the party on whose
ticket s/he has been elected
(b) Defection ii. A catchy phrase that attracts
public attention
(c) Slogan iii. parties with different
ideological position coming
EXERCISES

together to oppose Congress

and its policies
(d) Anti-Congressism iv. A group of powerful and
influential leaders within
the Congress

3. Whom would you identify with the following slogans/phrases?

(a) Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan
(b) Indira Hatao!
(c) Garibi Hatao!

4. Which of the following statement about the Grand Alliance of 1971 is

correct?
The Grand Alliance …..
(a) was formed by non-Communist, non-Congress parties.
(b) had a clear political and ideological programme.
(c) was formed by all non-Congress parties.

5. How should a political party resolve its internal differences? Here are
some suggestions. Think of each and list out their advantages and
shortcomings.
(a) Follow the footsteps of the party president
(b) Listen to the majority group
(c) Secret ballot voting on every issue
(d) Consult the senior and experienced leaders of the party

6. State which of these were reasons for the defeat of the Congress in
1967. Give reasons for your answer.
(a) The absence of a charismatic leader in the Congress party
(b) Split within the Congress party
(c) Increased mobilisation of regional, ethnic and communal groups

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 Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System 91

(d) Increasing unity among non-Congress parties

(e) Internal differences within the Congress party

7. What were the factors which led to the popularity of Indira Gandhi’s
Government in the early 1970s?

8. What does the term ‘syndicate’ mean in the context of the Congress
party of the sixties? What role did the Syndicate play in the Congress
party?

9. Discuss the major issue which led to the formal split of the Congress
Party in 1969.

10. Read the passage and answer the questions below:

…Indira Gandhi changed the Congress into highly cerntalised and
undemocratic party organisation, from the earlier federal, democratic
and ideological formation that Nehru had led…..But this… could not
have happened had not Indira Gandhi changed the entire nature of
politics. This new, populist politics turned political ideology ……. into
a mere electoral discourse, use of various slogans not meant to be
translated into government policies…… During its great electoral
victories in early 1970s, amidst the celebration, the Congress party as a
political organisation died….. — Sudipta Kaviraj
(a) What according to the author is the difference between the
strategies of Nehru and Indira Gandhi?
(b) Why does the author say that the Congress party ‘died’ in the
seventies?
(c) In what way, did the change in the Congress party affect other
political parties also?

LET US DO IT TOGETHER

• Make a list of slogans coined by political parties.

• Do you see any similarities between advertisements and
manifestoes, slogans and advertisements of political parties?
• Have a discussion on how price rise affects the political fortunes of
the political parties.

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 In this chapter…
We have seen in the last chapter that the Congress recovered after
1971, but was not the same kind of party. The difference became
clear in a series of events between 1973 and 1975 that brought new
challenges to India’s democratic politics and the institutional balance
sought by the Constitution. These developments led to the imposition of
‘emergency’ in June 1975. Normally, we would associate ‘emergency’
with war and aggression or with natural disaster. But this ‘emergency’
was imposed because of the perceived threat of internal disturbance.
The editorial page of The Emergency ended as dramatically as it had begun, resulting in a
‘Nai Dunia’ of 27 June defeat of the Congress in the Lok Sabha elections of 1977.
1975 was like any other
day, except that the In this chapter we focus on this crucial phase in the history of democracy
space for editorial was in India and ask some questions that have remained controversial after
left blank. The editorial all these years.
was “censored” using
emergency powers. • Why was Emergency imposed? Was it necessary?
Many other newspapers
also carried such blank • What did the imposition of Emergency mean in practice?
spaces–sometimes
to protest against
• What were the consequences of Emergency on party politics?
emergency. Later, leaving • What are the lessons of Emergency for Indian democracy?
blank space was also
banned.

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 chapter 6
The Crisis of
Democratic Order
Background to Emergency
We have already studied the changes that were taking place in Indian
politics since 1967. Indira Gandhi had emerged as a towering leader
with tremendous popularity. This was also the period when party
competition became bitter and polarised. This period also witnessed
tensions in the relationship between the government and the judiciary.
The Supreme Court found many initiatives of the government to be
violative of the Constitution. The Congress party took the position
that this stand of the Court was against principles of democracy
and parliamentary supremacy. The Congress also alleged that the
Court was a conservative institution and it was becoming an obstacle
in the way of implementing pro-poor welfare programmes. The
parties opposed to the Congress felt that politics was becoming too
personalised and that governmental authority was being converted
into personal authority. The split in the Congress had sharpened the
divisions between Indira Gandhi and her opponents.

Economic context

Credit: Abu
PM says

In the elections of 1971, Congress had given the slogan

of garibi hatao (remove poverty). However, the social and
economic condition in the country did not improve much
after 1971-72. The Bangladesh crisis had put a heavy strain
on India’s economy. About eight million people crossed
over the East Pakistan border into India. This was followed
by war with Pakistan. After the war the U.S government
stopped all aid to India. In the international market, oil
prices increased manifold during this period. This led to
an all-round increase in prices of commodities. Prices
increased by 23 per cent in 1973 and 30 per cent in 1974.
Such a high level of inflation caused much hardship to
the people.
Industrial growth was low and unemployment was
very high, particularly in the rural areas. In order to
reduce expenditure the government froze the salaries
of its employees. This caused further dissatisfaction
among government employees. Monsoons failed in 1972-
1973. This resulted in a sharp decline in agricultural
productivity. Food grain output declined by 8 per cent.

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 94 Politics in India since Independence

There was a general atmosphere of dissatisfaction with the prevailing

economic situation all over the country. In such a context non-
Congress opposition parties were able to organise popular protests
effectively. Instances of students’ unrests that had persisted from
the late 1960s became more pronounced in this period. There was
also an increase in the activities of Marxist groups who did not
believe in parliamentary politics. These groups had taken to arms
and insurgent techniques for the overthrow of the capitalist order
Poor
people must have
and the established political system. Known as the Marxist-Leninist
had a tough time. What (now Maoist) groups or Naxalites, they were particularly strong in
happened to the promise West Bengal, where the State government took stringent measures to
of garibi hatao? suppress them.

Gujarat and Bihar movements

Students’ protests in Gujarat and Bihar, both of which were Congress
ruled States, had far reaching impact on the politics of the two States
and national politics. In January 1974 students in Gujarat started
an agitation against rising prices of food grains, cooking oil and
other essential commodities, and against corruption in high places.
The students’ protest was joined by major opposition parties and
became widespread leading to the imposition of President’s rule in the
state. The opposition parties demanded fresh elections to the state
legislature. Morarji Desai, a prominent leader of Congress (O), who

“
was the main rival of Indira Gandhi when he was in the Congress,
announced that he would go on an indefinite fast if fresh elections

“
hamara hai [With Total
Revolution as our motto, the
future belongs to us]
were not held in the State. Under intense pressure from students,
Sampoorna Kranti supported by the opposition political parties, assembly elections
ab nara hai, bhavi itihas were held in Gujarat in June 1975. The Congress was defeated in
this election.
In March 1974 students came together in Bihar to protest against
rising prices, food scarcity, unemployment and corruption. After
a point they invited Jayaprakash Narayan (JP), who had given up
active politics and was involved in social work, to lead the student
A slogan of the Bihar
movement, 1974 remain non-violent and will not limit “
movement. He accepted it on the condition that the movement will

“
itself to Bihar. Thus the students’
movement assumed a political
character and had national appeal.
People from all walks of life now
Indira is India,
entered the movement. Jayaprakash India is Indira
Narayan demanded the dismissal of
the Congress government in Bihar
and gave a call for total revolution
in the social, economic and political
A slogan given by
spheres in order to establish what he
D. K. Barooah, President of the
considered to be true democracy. A Congress, 1974
series of bandhs, gehraos, and strikes

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 The Crisis of Democratic Order 95

Credit: R. K. Laxman in The Times of India, 16 April 1974

were organised in protest against the
Bihar government. The government, Loknayak
however, refused to resign. Jayaprakash
Narayan (JP)
The movement was beginning to (1902-1979):
influence national politics. Jayaprakash A marxist in his
Narayan wanted to spread the Bihar youth; founder
movement to other parts of the general secretary
country. Alongside the agitation led by of the Congress
Jayaprakash Narayan, the employees of Socialist Party
the Railways gave a call for a nationwide and the Socialist Party; a hero of the 1942 Quit
strike. This threatened to paralyse the India movement; declined to join Nehru’s cabinet;
country. In 1975, JP led a peoples’ after 1955 quit active politics; became a Gandhian
march to the Parliament. This was one and was involved in the Bhoodan movement,
of the largest political rallies ever held negotiations with the Naga rebels, peace initiative
in the capital. He was now supported in Kashmir and ensured the surrender of decoits in
by the non-Congress opposition parties Chambal; leader of Bihar movement, he became
like the Bharatiya Jana Sangh, the the symbol of opposition to Emergency and was the
Congress (O), the Bharatiya Lok Dal, moving force behind the formation of Janata Party.
the Socialist Party and others. These

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 96 Politics in India since Independence

parties were projecting JP as an alternative to Indira Gandhi. However,

there were many criticisms about his ideas and about the politics of
mass agitations that he was employing. Both the Gujarat and Bihar
agitations were seen as anti-Congress and rather than opposing the
State governments, they were seen as protests against the leadership
of Indira Gandhi. She believed that the movement was motivated by
personal opposition to her.

Railway Strike of 1974

What would happen when the railways stop running? Not for one or
two days, but for more than a week? Of course, many people would be
inconvenienced; but more than that, the economy of the country would
come to a halt because goods are transported from one part to another
by trains.
Do you know that such a thing actually happened in 1974? The National
Coordination Committee for Railwaymen’s Struggle led by George
Fernandes gave a call for nationwide strike by all employees of the
Railways for pressing their demands related to bonus and service
conditions. The government was opposed to these demands. So, the
employees of India’s largest public sector undertaking went on a strike in
May 1974. The strike by the Railway employees added to the atmosphere
of labour unrest. It also raised issues like rights of the workers and whether
employees of essential services should adopt measures like strikes.
The government declared the strike illegal. As the government refused
to concede the demands of the striking workers, arrested many of their
leaders and deployed the territorial army to protect railway tracks, the
strike had to be called off after twenty days without any settlement.

Conflict with Judiciary

This was also the period when the government and the ruling party
had many differences with the judiciary. Do you remember the
discussion about the long drawn conflict between the Parliament and
the judiciary? You have studied this last year. Three constitutional
issues had emerged. Can the Parliament abridge Fundamental Rights?
Do ‘committed The Supreme Court said it cannot. Secondly, can the Parliament
judiciary’ and curtail the right to property by making an amendment? Again, the
‘committed bureaucracy’ Court said that Parliament cannot amend the Constitution in such
mean that the judges a manner that rights are curtailed. Thirdly, the Parliament amended
and government officials
the Constitution saying that it can abridge Fundamental Rights for
should be loyal to the
ruling party? giving effect to Directive Principles. But the Supreme Court rejected
this provision also. This led to a crisis as far as the relations between
the government and the judiciary were concerned. You may remember

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 The Crisis of Democratic Order 97

that this crisis culminated in the famous Kesavananda Bharati Case. In

this case, the Court gave a decision that there are some basic features
of the Constitution and the Parliament cannot amend these features.
Two developments further added to the tension between the
judiciary and the executive. Immediately after the Supreme Court’s
decision in 1973 in the Keshavananda Bharati case, a vacancy arose
for the post of the Chief Justice of India. It had been a practice to
appoint the senior-most judge of the Supreme Court as the Chief
Justice. But in 1973, the government set aside the seniority of
three judges and appointed Justice A. N. Ray as the Chief Justice
of India. The appointment became politically controversial because
all the three judges who were superseded had given rulings against
the stand of the government. Thus, constitutional interpretations
and political ideologies were getting mixed up rapidly. People
close to the Prime Minister started talking of the need for a
judiciary and the bureaucracy ‘committed’ to the vision of the
executive and the legislature. The climax of the confrontation was
of course the ruling of the High Court declaring Indira Gandhi’s
election invalid.

Declaration of Emergency
On 12 June 1975, Justice Jagmohan Lal Sinha of the Allahabad High
Court passed a judgment declaring Indira Gandhi’s election to the
Lok Sabha invalid. This order came on an election petition filed by
Raj Narain, a socialist leader and a candidate who had contested
against her in 1971. The petition, challenged the election of Indira
Gandhi on the ground that she had used the services of government
servants in her election campaign. The judgment of the High Court
meant that legally she was no more an MP and therefore, could not
remain the Prime Minister unless she was once again elected as an
MP within six months. On June 24, the Supreme Court granted her a
partial stay on the High Court order – till her appeal was decided, she
could remain an MP but could not take part in the proceedings of the
Lok Sabha.
That is like asking
the army to disobey
Crisis and response the government! Is
The stage was now set for a big political confrontation. The opposition that democratic?
political parties led by Jayaprakash Narayan pressed for Indira
Gandhi’s resignation and organised a massive demonstration in
Delhi’s Ramlila grounds on 25 June 1975. Jayaprakash announced
a nationwide satyagraha for her resignation and asked the army, the
police and government employees not to obey “illegal and immoral
orders”. This too threatened to bring the activities of the government
to a standstill. The political mood of the country had turned against
the Congress, more than ever before.

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 98 Politics in India since Independence

The response of the government was to declare a state of emergency.

On 25 June 1975, the government declared that there was a threat
of internal disturbances and therefore, it invoked Article 352 of the
Constitution. Under the provision of this article the government could
declare a state of emergency on grounds of external threat or a threat
of internal disturbances. The government decided that a grave crisis
had arisen which made the proclamation of a state of emergency
necessary. Technically speaking this was within the powers of the
government, for our Constitution provides for some special powers to
the government once an emergency is declared.
Once an emergency is proclaimed, the federal distribution of powers
remains practically suspended and all the powers are concentrated in
the hands of the union government. Secondly, the government also
gets the power to curtail or restrict all or any of the Fundamental
Rights during the emergency. From the wording of the provisions
of the Constitution, it is clear that an Emergency is seen as an
Credit: R. K. Laxman in The Times of India, 26 June 1975

This cartoon appeared few days before the declaration of Emergency and captures the sense of impending
political crisis. The man behind the chair is D. K. Barooah, the Congress President.

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 99 Crisis of Democratic Order
The 99

ber 1975
11 Decem

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 100 Politics in India since Independence
100

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 The Crisis of Democratic Order 101

extraordinary condition in which normal democratic politics cannot

function. Therefore, special powers are granted to the government.
On the night of 25 June 1975, the Prime Minister recommended
the imposition of Emergency to President Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed. He
issued the proclamation immediately. After midnight, the electricity
to all the major newspaper offices was disconnected. In the early
morning, a large number of leaders and workers of the opposition
parties were arrested. The Cabinet was informed about it at a special
meeting at 6 a.m. on 26 June, after all this had taken place.

Consequences
Should
This brought the agitation to an abrupt stop; strikes were banned; the President
many opposition leaders were put in jail; the political situation became have declared
very quiet though tense. Deciding to use its special powers under Emergency without any
recommendation from
Emergency provisions, the government suspended the freedom of the
the Cabinet?
Press. Newspapers were asked to get prior approval for all material
to be published. This is known as press censorship. Apprehending
social and communal disharmony, the government banned Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and Jamait-e-Islami. Protests and strikes
and public agitations were also disallowed. Most importantly, under
the provisions of Emergency, the various Fundamental Rights of
citizens stood suspended, including the right of citizens to move the
Court for restoring their Fundamental Rights.
Now,
The government made extensive use of preventive detention. Under even the
this provision, people are arrested and detained not because they have Supreme Court
committed any offence, but on the apprehension that they may commit gave in! What
an offence. Using preventive detention acts, the government made was happening to
large scale arrests during the Emergency. Arrested political workers everyone in those
days?
could not challenge their arrest through habeas corpus petitions.
Many cases were filed in the High Courts and the Supreme Court by
and on behalf of arrested persons, but the government claimed that it
was not even necessary to inform the arrested persons of the reasons
and grounds of their arrest. Several High Courts gave judgments that
even after the declaration of Emergency the courts could entertain a
writ of habeas corpus filed by a person challenging his/her detention.
In April 1976, the constitution bench of the Supreme Court over-ruled
the High Courts and accepted the government’s plea. It meant that
during Emergency the government could take away the citizen’s right
to life and liberty. This judgment closed the doors of judiciary for the
citizens and is regarded as one of the most controversial judgments
of the Supreme Court.
There were many acts of dissent and resistance to the Emergency.
Many political workers who were not arrested in the first wave,
went ‘underground’ and organised protests against the government.
Newspapers like the Indian Express and the Statesman protested
against censorship by leaving blank spaces where news items had
been censored. Magazines like the Seminar and the Mainstream

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 102 Politics in India since Independence

chose to close down rather than submit to censorship. Many

journalists were arrested for writing against the Emergency. Many
underground newsletters and leaflets were published to bypass
censorship. Kannada writer Shivarama Karanth, awarded with
Padma Bhushan, and Hindi writer Fanishwarnath Renu, awarded
with Padma Shri, returned their awards in protest against the
suspension of democracy. By and large, though, such open acts of
defiance and resistance were rare.
The Parliament also brought in many new changes to the
Let Constitution. In the background of the ruling of the Allahabad
us not
talk about the
High Court in the Indira Gandhi case, an amendment was made
few who protested. declaring that elections of Prime Minister, President and Vice-
What about the rest? President could not be challenged in the Court. The forty-second
All the big officials, amendment was also passed during the Emergency. You have
intellectuals, social already studied that this amendment consisted of a series of
and religious leaders, changes in many parts of the Constitution. Among the various
citizens… What were
they doing?
changes made by this amendment, one was that the duration
of the legislatures in the country was extended from five to six
years. This change was not only for the Emergency period, but
was intended to be of a permanent nature. Besides this, during
an Emergency, elections can be postponed by one year. Thus,
effectively, after 1971, elections needed to be held only in 1978;
instead of 1976.

“
Lessons of the Emergency
“
… death of
D. E. M. O’Cracy, mourned by
his wife T. Ruth, his son
L. I. Bertie, and his
daughters Faith, Hope and
The Emergency at once brought out both the weaknesses and the
strengths of India’s democracy. Though there are many observers
who think that India ceased to be democratic during the Emergency,
it is noteworthy that normal democratic functioning resumed
within a short span of time. Thus, one lesson of Emergency is that
it is extremely difficult to do away with democracy in India.
Justice.

“
Secondly, it brought out some
ambiguities regarding the Emergency
An anonymous
advertisement in the Times
of India, soon after the
declaration of Emergency,
1975.
provision in the Constitution that have
been rectified since. Now, ‘internal’
Emergency can be proclaimed only
on the grounds of ‘armed rebellion’
and it is necessary that the advice to
the President to proclaim Emergency
“
Today is India’s
Independence Day…Don’t
Let the Lights Go Out on
India’s Democracy
must be given in writing by the
Union Cabinet.
Thirdly, the Emergency made An advertisement in The
everyone more aware of the value Times, London,
of civil liberties. The Courts too, 15 August 1975 by
‘Free JP Campaign’.
have taken an active role after the
Emergency in protecting the civil
liberties of the individuals. This is
a response to the inability of the

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 The Crisis of Democratic Order 103

judiciary to protect civil liberties effectively during the emergency.

Many civil liberties organisations came up after this experience.
However, the critical years of emergency brought many issues
that have not been adequately grappled with. We have noted in
this chapter that there is a tension between routine functioning of
a democratic government and the continuous political protests by
parties and groups. What is the correct balance between the two?
Should the citizens have full freedom to engage in protest activity or
should they have no such right at all? What are the limits to such a
protest?
Secondly, the actual implementation of the Emergency rule took
place through the police and the administration. These institutions
could not function independently. They were turned into political
instruments of the ruling party and according to the Shah Commission
Report, the administration and the police became vulnerable to
political pressures. This problem did not vanish after the Emergency.

Politics after Emergency

The most valuable and lasting lesson of the Emergency was learnt
as soon as the Emergency was over and the Lok Sabha
elections were announced. The 1977 elections turned
into a referendum on the experience of the Emergency, at
least in north India where the impact of the Emergency
was felt most strongly. The opposition fought the election
on the slogan of ‘save democracy’. The people’s verdict
was decisively against the Emergency. The lesson
was clear and has been reiterated in many state level
elections thereafter– governments that are perceived to be
anti-democratic are severely punished by the voters. In this
sense the experience of 1975–77 ended up strengthening Morarji Desai
the foundations of democracy in India. (1896-1995): Freedom
fighter; a Gandhian
Lok Sabha Elections, 1977 leader; Proponenet of
Khadi, naturopathy and
In January 1977, after eighteen months of Emergency, the prohibition; Chief Minister
government decided to hold elections. Accordingly, all the of Bombay State; Deputy
leaders and activists were released from jails. Elections were Prime Minister (1967-
held in March 1977. This left the opposition with very little 1969); joined Congress
time, but political developments took place very rapidly. The (O) after the split in the
major opposition parties had already been coming closer party; Prime Minister from
in the pre-Emergency period. Now they came together on 1977 to 1979—first Prime
the eve of the elections and formed a new party, known as Minister belonging to a
the Janata Party. The new party accepted the leadership of non-Congress party.
Jayaprakash Narayan. Some leaders of the Congress who
were opposed to the Emergency also joined this new party.

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 104 Politics in India since Independence

in The Times of India

Credit: R. K. Laxman

29 March 1977

A cartoonist’s
reading of who
won and what
was defeated in
the 1977 election.
Those standing
with the common
man include
Jagjivan Ram,
Morarji Desai,
Charan Singh
and Atal Behari
Vajpayee.

Some other Congress leaders also came out and formed a separate party
under the leadership of Jagjivan Ram. This party named as Congress
for Democracy, later merged with the Janata Party.
The Janata Party made this election into a referendum on the
Emergency. Its campaign was focused on the non-democratic character
of the rule and on the various excesses that took place during this
period. In the backdrop of arrests of thousands of persons and the
censorship of the Press, the public opinion was against the Congress.
Jayaprakash Narayan became the popular symbol of restoration of
democracy. The formation of the Janata Party also ensured that non-
Congress votes would not be divided. It was evident that the going was
tough for the Congress.
Yet the final results took everyone by surprise. For the first time
since Independence, the Congress party was defeated in the Lok Sabha
elections. The Congress could win only 154 seats in the Lok Sabha.
Its share of popular votes fell to less than 35 per cent. The Janata
Party and its allies won 330 out of the 542 seats in the Lok Sabha;
Janata Party itself won 295 seats and thus enjoyed a clear majority.
In north India, it was a massive electoral wave against the Congress.
The Congress lost in every constituency in Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi,
Haryana and the Punjab and could win only one seat each in Rajasthan
and Madhya Pradesh. Indira Gandhi was defeated from Rae Bareli, as
was her son Sanjay Gandhi from Amethi.

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 The Crisis of Democratic Order 105

But if you look at the map showing the result of this election, you
will notice that Congress did not lose elections all over the country.
It retained many seats in Maharashtra, Gujarat and Orissa and
virtually swept through the southern States. There are many reasons
for this. To begin with, the impact of Emergency was not felt equally
in all the States. The forced relocation and displacements, the forced
sterilisations, were mostly concentrated in the northern States.
But more importantly, north India had experienced some long term
changes in the nature of political competition. The middle castes from
north India were beginning to move away from the Congress and the
Janata party became a platform for many of these sections to come
together. In this sense, the elections of 1977 were not merely about
the Emergency.

Janata Government
The Janata Party government that came to power after the 1977 elections
was far from cohesive. After the election, there was stiff competition
among three leaders for the post of Prime Minister – Morarji Desai, who
was the rival to Indira Gandhi ever since 1966-67; Charan Singh, leader
of the Bharatiya Lok Dal and a farmers’ leader from UP; and Jagjivan
Ram, who had vast experience as a senior minister in the Congress
governments. Eventually Morarji Desai became the Prime Minister but
that did not bring the power struggle within the party to an end.

Oath taking by the first non-congress government at the centre in 1977. In the picture are
Jayaprakash Narayan, J. B. Kriplani, Morarji Desai and Atal Behari Vajpayee.

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 106 Politics in India since Independence

Note: This illustration is not a map drawn to scale and should not be taken to
be an authentic depiction of India’s external boundaries.

How can Read this map and identify the states where
we talk about a – Congress lost,
mandate or verdict in – Congress lost very badly and
1977 when the north – those states where Congress and its allies nearly
and the south voted so swept the polls.
differently?
Which are the constituencies in north India that the
Congress managed to win?

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 The Crisis of Democratic Order 107
Credit: Atanu Roy/India Today

Chaudhary
Charan Singh
(1902-1987):
Prime Minister
of India between
Credit: R. K. Laxman in The Times of India, 13 November 1979

July1979 - January
1980; freedom
fighter; active
in the politics of
Uttar Pradesh;
proponent of rural
and agricultural
development; left
Congress party
and founded
Bharatiya Kranti
Dal in 1967; twice
Chief Minister
of U.P.; later he
was one of the
founders of the
Janata Party in
1977 and became
Deputy Prime
Minister and
Home Minister
Credit: R. K. Laxman in the Times of India

I got it!
(1977-79);
Emergency founder of
was like a Lok Dal.
vaccination
against
dictatorship. It
was painful and
caused fever, but
strengthened
the resistance
of our
democracy.

Janata Party’s faction fight inspired many cartoons at that time. Here is a selection.

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 108 Politics in India since Independence

The opposition to emergency could keep the Janata Party together

only for a while. Its critics felt that the Janata Party lacked direction,
leadership, and a common programme. The Janata Party government
could not bring about a fundamental change in policies from those
pursued by the Congress. The Janata Party split and the government
which was led by Morarji Desai lost its majority in less than 28
months. Another government headed by Charan Singh was formed on
the assurance of the support of the Congress party. But the Congress
party later decided to withdraw its support with the result that the
Charan Singh government could remain in power for just about 4
months. Fresh Lok Sabha elections were held in January 1980 in
which the Janata Party suffered a comprehensive defeat, especially
in north India where it had swept the polls in 1977. Congress
party led by Indira Gandhi nearly repeated its great victory in 1971.
It won 353 seats and came back to power. The experience of
1977–79 taught another lesson in democratic politics:
governments that are seen to be unstable and quarrelsome are
severely punished by the voters.

Legacy
But was it only a case of return of Indira Gandhi? Between
the elections of 1977 and 1980 the party system had changed
dramatically. Since 1969, the Congress party had starting
shedding its character as an umbrella party which accommodated
leaders and workers of different ideological dispensations and
Jagjivan Ram view points. The Congress party now identified itself with a
(1908–1986): particular ideology, claiming to be the only socialist and pro-poor
Freedom fighter and party. Thus with the early nineteen seventies, the Congress’s
Congress leader from political success depended on attracting people on the basis
Bihar; Deputy Prime of sharp social and ideological divisions and the appeal of one
Minister of India leader, Indira Gandhi. With the change in the nature of the
(1977-79); member Congress party, other opposition parties relied more and more
of Constituent on what is known in Indian politics as ‘non-Congressism’. They
Assembly; also also realised the need to avoid a division of non-Congress votes
a Member of in the election. This factor played a major role in the elections
Parliament since of 1977.
1952 till his death;
Labour Minister in the In an indirect manner the issue of welfare of the backward
first ministry of free castes also began to dominate politics since 1977. As we saw
India; held various above, the results of 1977 elections were at least partly due to
other ministries from a shift among the backward castes of north India. Following the
1952 to 1977; a Lok Sabha elections, many states also held Assembly elections
scholar and astute in 1977. Again, the northern States elected non-Congress
administrator. governments in which the leaders of the backward castes played
an important role. The issue of reservations for ‘other backward
classes’ became very controversial in Bihar and following this,
the Mandal Commission was appointed by the Janata party

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 The Crisis of Democratic Order 109

Credit: India Today

Credit: R. K. Laxman in the Times of India

This cartoon appeared after the election results of 1980.

government at the centre. You will read more about this and about
the role of the politics of backward castes, in the last chapter. The
elections after the Emergency set off the process of this change in the
party system.
The Emergency and the period around it can be described as
a period of constitutional crisis because it had its origins in the
constitutional battle over the jurisdiction of the Parliament and the
judiciary. On the other hand, it was also a period of political crisis. The

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 110 Politics in India since Independence

party in power had absolute majority and

Let’s watch a Film

yet, its leadership decided to suspend

Hazaron Khwaishein Aisi the democratic process. The makers
of India’s Constitution trusted that all
political parties would basically abide by
the democratic norm. Even during the
Emergency, when the government would
use extraordinary powers, its use would
be within the norms of the rule of law.
This expectation led to the wide and open
ended powers given to the government
in times of Emergency. These were
abused during the Emergency. This
political crisis was more serious than
the constitutional crisis.
Another critical issue that emerged
during this period was the role and extent
Siddharth, Vikram and Geeta of mass protests in a parliamentary
are three spirited and socially democracy. There was clearly a tension
engaged students. Graduating between institution-based democracy
from Delhi, they follow different and democracy based on spontaneous
paths. While Siddharth is a strong popular participation. This tension may
supporter of the revolutionary be attributed to the inability of the party
ideology of social transformation,
system to incorporate the aspirations of
Vikram is in favour of achieving
success in life, whatever the cost.
the people. In the next chapter we shall
The film narrates the story of their study some of the manifestations of this
journeys towards their goals and tension, in particular, debates around
the underlying disappointments. regional identity.

The film is set in the backdrop of the

seventies. The young characters
are products of the expectations
and idealism of that period.
Siddharth is not successful in his
ambition to stage a revolution, but
is so involved in the plight of the
poor that he begins valuing their
uplift more than revolution. On
the other hand, Vikram becomes
a typical political fixer but is
constantly ill at ease.

Year: 2005
Director: Sudhir Mishra
Screenplay: Sudhir Mishra
Ruchi Narain
Shivkumar Subramaniam
Cast: Kay Kay Menon, Shiney
Ahuja, Chitrangada Singh

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 The Crisis of Democratic Order 111

1. State whether the following statements regarding the Emergency are

correct or incorrect.
(a) It was declared in 1975 by Indira Gandhi.
(b) It led to the suspension of all fundamental rights.
(c) It was proclaimed due to the deteriorating economic conditions.
(d) Many Opposition leaders were arrested during the emergency.
(e) CPI supported the proclamation of the Emergency.
2. Find the odd one out in the context of proclamation of Emergency
(a) The call for ‘Total Revolution.
(b) The Railway Strike of 1974
(c) The Naxalite Movement
(d) The Allahbad High Court verdict
(e) The findings of the Shah Commission Report
3. Match the following
(a) Total Revolution i. Indira Gandhi
(b) Garibi hatao ii. Jayaprakash Narayan

EXERCISES
(c) Students’ Protest iii. Bihar Movement
(d) Railway Strike iv. George Fernandes
4. What were the reasons which led to the mid-term elections in 1980?
5. The Shah Commission was appointed in 1977 by the Janata Party
Government. Why was it appointed and what were its findings?
6. What reasons did the Government give for declaring a National
Emergency in 1975?
7. The 1977 elections for the first time saw the Opposition coming into
power at the Centre. What would you consider as the reasons for this
development?
8. Discuss the effects of Emergency on the following aspects of our polity.
• Effects on civil liberties for citizens.
• Impact on relationship between the Executive and Judiciary
• Functioning of Mass Media
• Working of the Police and Bureaucracy.
9. In what way did the imposition of Emergency affect the party system in
India? Elaborate your answer with examples.
10. Read the passage and answer the questions below:
Indian democracy was never so close to a two-party system as it was
during the 1977 elections. However, the next few years saw a complete
change. Soon after its defeat, the Indian National Congress split into
two groups……….. … … …The Janata Party also went through major
convulsions…..David Butler, Ashok Lahiri and Prannoy Roy. — Partha
Chatterjee
(a) What made the party system in India look like a two-party system in
1977?
(b) Many more than two parties existed in 1977. Why then are the
authors describing this period as close to a two-party system?
(c) What caused splits in Congress and the Janata parties?

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 In this chapter…
In the first chapter of this book we studied the
process of ‘nation-building’ in the first decade
after Independence. But nation-building is
not something that can be accomplished
once and for all times to come. In the course
of time new challenges came up. Some of the
old problems had never been fully resolved.
As democratic experiment unfolded, people
from different regions began to express
their aspirations for autonomy. Sometimes
these aspirations were expressed outside
the framework of the Indian union. These
involved long struggles and often aggressive
and armed assertions by the people.
This new challenge came to the fore in the
1980s, as the Janata experiment came to an
end and there was some political stability at
the centre. This decade will be remembered
for some major conflicts and accords in the
various regions of the country, especially
in Assam, the Punjab, Mizoram and the
developments in Jammu and Kashmir. In
this chapter we study these cases so as to
Regional aspirations
ask some general questions.
are usually expressed
in the language of the • Which factors contribute to the tensions
region and addressed arising out of regional aspirations?
to the local population
or the rulers. This • How has the Indian state responded to
unusual poster from these tensions and challenges?
Uttarakhand movement
appeals to all the • What kind of difficulties are faced in
Indian citizens in seven balancing democratic rights and national
different languages unity?
and thus underscores
the compatibility of the • What are the lessons here for achieving
regional aspirations with unity with diversity in a democracy?
nationalist sentiments.

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 chapter 7
regional
aspirations
Region and the Nation
1980s may be seen as a period of rising regional aspirations for
autonomy, often outside the framework of the Indian Union. These
movements frequently involved armed assertions by the people,
their repression by the government, and a collapse of the political
and electoral processes. It is also not surprising that most of these
struggles were long drawn and concluded in negotiated settlements
or accords between the central government and the groups leading
the movement for autonomy. The accords were reached after a
process of dialogue that aimed to settle contentious issues within the
constitutional framework. Yet the journey to the accord was always
tumultuous and often violent.

Indian approach
In studying the Indian Constitution and the process of nation-building
we have repeatedly come across one basic principle of the Indian
approach to diversity – the Indian nation shall not deny the rights of
different regions and linguistic groups to retain their own culture. We
decided to live a united social life without losing the distinctiveness
of the numerous cultures that constituted it. Indian nationalism
sought to balance the principles of unity and diversity. The nation
would not mean the negation of the region. In this sense the Indian Does it mean
approach was very different from the one adopted in many European that regionalism is
countries where they saw cultural diversity as a threat to the nation. not as dangerous as
communalism? Or may
India adopted a democratic approach to the question of diversity. be, not dangerous at
Democracy allows the political expressions of regional aspirations all?
and does not look upon them as anti-national.
Besides, democratic politics allows parties and groups
to address the people on the basis of their regional
identity, aspiration and specific regional problems.
Thus, in the course of democratic politics, regional
aspirations get strengthened. At the same time,
democratic politics also means that regional issues
and problems will receive adequate attention and
accommodation in the policy making process.
Such an arrangement may sometimes lead to
tensions and problems. Sometimes, the concern for
national unity may overshadow the regional needs

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 114 Politics in India since Independence

and aspirations. At other times a concern for region alone may

blind us to the larger needs of the nation. Therefore, political
conflicts over issues of power of the regions, their rights and
their separate existence are common to nations that want to
respect diversity while trying to forge and retain unity.

Areas of tension
In the first chapter you have seen how immediately after
Independence our nation had to cope with many difficult issues
like Partition, displacement, integration of Princely States,
reorganisation of states and so on. Many observers, both within
the country and from outside, had predicted that India as one
unified country cannot last long. Soon after Independence,
the issue of Jammu and Kashmir came up. It was not only a
conflict between India and Pakistan. More than that, it was a
question of the political aspirations of the people of Kashmir
valley. Similarly, in some parts of the north-east, there was no
consensus about being a part of India. First Nagaland and then
Mizoram witnessed strong movements demanding separation
from India. In the south, some groups from the Dravid movement
briefly toyed with the idea of a separate country.
These events were followed by mass agitations in many parts
for the formation of linguistic States. Today’s Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Gujarat were among the regions
affected by these agitations. In some parts of southern India,
particularly Tamil Nadu, there were protests against making
Hindi the official national language of the country. In the
north, there were strong pro-Hindi agitations demanding that
Why does the
challenge always
Hindi be made the official language immediately. From the late
come from the border 1950s, people speaking the Punjabi language started agitating
States? for a separate State for themselves. This demand was finally
accepted and the States of Punjab and Haryana were created
in 1966. Later, the States of Chhattisgarh, Uttarakhand and
Jharkhand were created. Thus the challenge of diversity was
met by redrawing the internal boundaries of the country.
Yet this did not lead to resolution of all problems and for
all times. In some regions, like Kashmir and Nagaland, the
challenge was so complex that it could not be resolved in the
first phase of nation-building. Besides, new challenges came
up in States like Punjab, Assam and Mizoram. Let us study
these cases in some detail. In this process let us also go back
to some of the earlier instances of difficulties of nation building.
The successes and failures in these cases are instructive not
merely for a study of our past, but also for an understanding
of India’s future.

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 Regional Aspirations 115

Jammu and Kashmir Union Territories of Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh
As you have studied in the
previous year, Jammu and
Kashmir had a special status
under Article 370 of the Indian
Constitution. However, in spite
of it, Jammu and Kashmir
experienced violence, cross
border terrorism and political
instability with internal
and external ramifications.
It also resulted in the loss of
many lives including that of
innocent civilians, security
personnel and militants.
Besides, there was also a
large scale displacement of
Kashmiri Pandits from the
Kashmir valley.
Jammu and Kashmir
comprises three social and Source: https://pib.gov.in
political regions — Jammu,
Kashmir and Ladakh. The Jammu region is a mix of foothills and
plains. It is predominantly inhabited by the Hindus. Muslims, Sikhs
and people of other denominations also reside in this region. The
Kashmir region mainly comprises of the Kashmir valley. It is inhabited
mostly by Kashmiri Muslims with the remaining being Hindus, Sikhs,
Buddhists and others. The Ladakh region is mainly mountainous.
It has very little population which is almost equally divided between
Buddhists and Muslims.

Roots of the Problem

Before 1947, Jammu and Kashmir (J&K) was a Princely State. Its
ruler, Maharaja Hari Singh did not want to merge either with India
or Pakistan but to have an independent status for his state. The
Pakistani leaders thought that Kashmir region ‘belonged’ to Pakistan,
since the majority population of the State was Muslim. But this is
not how the people of the state themselves saw it— they thought of
themselves as Kashmiris above all. This issue of regional aspiration
is known as Kashmiriyat. The popular movement in the State, led
by Sheikh Abdullah of the National Conference, wanted to get rid
of the Maharaja, but was against joining Pakistan. The National
Conference was a secular organisation and had a long association
with the Congress. Sheikh Abdullah was a personal friend of some of
the leading nationalist leaders including Nehru.

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 116
116 Politics in India since Independence

E.V. Dravidian movement

Ramasami ‘Vadakku Vaazhgiradhu; Therkku Thaeikiradhu’
Naicker [The north thrives even as the south decays].
(1879-1973): This popular slogan sums up the dominant
Known as sentiments of one of India’s most effective
Periyar (the regional movements, the Dravidian movement,
respected); at one point of time. This was one of the
strong first regional movements in Indian politics.
supporter of Though some sections of this movement
atheism; famous for his anti- had ambitions of creating a Dravida nation,
caste struggle and rediscovery the movement did not take to arms. It used
of Dravidian identity; initially democratic means like public debates and the
a worker of the Congress electoral platform to achieve its ends. This
party; started the self-respect strategy paid off as the movement acquired
movement (1925); led the political power in the State and also became
anti-Brahmin movement; influential at the national level.
worked for the Justice party
and later founded Dravidar The Dravidian movement led to the formation of
Kazhagam; opposed to Hindi Dravidar Kazhagam [DK] under the leadership
and domination of north India; of Tamil social reformer E.V. Ramasami
propounded the thesis that ‘Periyar’. The organisation strongly opposed
north Indians and Brahmins the Brahmins’ dominance and affirmed
are Aryans. regional pride against the political, economic
and cultural domination of the North. Initially,
the Dravidian movement spoke in terms of
whole
the wh
whol e of south
ole o th India;
sou Ind ia; however
ndia
ia how
ho w lack of support from other States limited the

indu
movement to Tamil Nadu.
The DK split and the political
pol icall legacy
olitittic leg accy of the
egac the
he

: The H
movement was transferred r ed to
rr to Dravida
D avvid
Dr da
Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK). MKK).
)

Credit
The DMK made its
entry into politics
with a three pronged
agitation in 1953-54.
First, it demanded the
restoration of the original
name of Kallakudi railway
station which had been
renamed Dalmiapuram,
after an industrial house e
from the North. This demand d
brought out its opposition to
to
the North Indian economic mc
mi
and cultural symbols. The he
second agitation was for forr
1965
Nadu,
n in Tamil
indi agitatio
Anti-H

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 Regional Aspirations 117
117

giving Tamil cultural history greater importance in school curricula.

The third agitation was against the craft education scheme of the State
government, which it alleged was linked to the Brahmanical social
outlook. It also agitated against making Hindi the country’s official
language. The success of the anti-Hindi agitation of 1965 added to the
DMK’s popularity.
Sustained political agitations brought the DMK to power in the Assembly
elections of 1967. Since then, the Dravidian parties have dominated
the politics of Tamil Nadu. Though the DMK split after the death of
its leader, C. Annadurai, the influence of Dravidian parties in Tamil
politics actually increased. After the split there were two parties – the
DMK and the All India Anna DMK (AIADMK) – that claimed Dravidian
legacy. Both these parties have dominated politics in Tamil Nadu for
the last four decades. Since 1996, one of these parties has been a part
of the ruling coalition at the Centre. In the 1990s, many other parties
have emerged. These include Marumalarchchi Dravida Munnetra
Kazhagam (MDMK), Pattali Makkal Katchi (PMK) and Desiya Murpokku
Dravidar Kazhagam (DMDK). All these parties have kept alive the issue
of regional pride in the politics of Tamil Nadu. Initially seen as a threat
to Indian nationalism, regional politics in Tamil Nadu is a good example
of the compatibility of regionalism and nationalism.

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 118 Politics in India since Independence

Credit: Hindustan Times

Sheikh In October 1947, Pakistan sent tribal infiltrators
Mohammad from its side to capture Kashmir. This forced the
Abdullah Maharaja to ask for Indian military help. India extended
(1905-1982): the military support and drove back the infiltrators
Leader of Jammu from Kashmir valley, but only after the Maharaja
and Kashmir; had signed an ‘Instrument of Accession’ with the
proponent of Government of India. However, as Pakistan continued
autonomy and to control a sizeable part of the state, the issue was
secularism for taken to the United Nations Organisation, which in its
Jammu and Kashmir; led the resolution dated 21 April 1948 recommended a three
popular struggle against princely step process to resolve the issue. Firstly, Pakistan
rule; opposed to Pakistan due to had to withdraw its entire nationalities, who entered
its non-secular character; leader into Kashmir. Secondly, India needed to progressively
of the National Conference; Prime reduce its forces so as to maintain law and order.
Minister of J&K immediately Thirdly, a plebiscite was to be conducted in a free
after its accession with India in and impartial manner. However, no progress could
1947; dismissed and jailed by be achieved under this resolution. In the meanwhile,
Government of India from 1953 to Sheikh Abdullah took over as the Prime Minister of
1964 and again from 1965 to 1968; the State of J&K in March 1948 while India agreed to
became Chief Minister of the State grant it provisional autonomy under the Article 370.
after an agreement with Indira The head of the government in the State was then
Gandhi in 1974. called Prime Minister.

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 Regional Aspirations 119

External and internal disputes

Let’s watch a Film

Since then the politics of Jammu and Roja
Kashmir remained controversial and
conflict-ridden both for external and
internal reasons. Externally, Pakistan has
always claimed that Kashmir valley should
be part of Pakistan. As we noted above,
Pakistan sponsored a tribal invasion of
the State in 1947, as a consequence of
which one part of the State came under
Pakistani control. However, it is the Indian
territory which is under illegal occupation
of Pakistan called as Pakistan occupied
Jammu and Kashmir (POJK). Ever since
1947, Kashmir has remained a major issue
of conflict between India and Pakistan.
Internally, there is a dispute about
the status of Kashmir within Indian
union. You have studied about the special Tamil film depicting the travails
provisions under Articles 370 and 371 of Roja, a newly wed and doting
last year in Indian Constitution at Work. wife when her husband, Rishi, is
This special status had provoked two abducted by militants. Rishi is a
opposite reactions. There is a section of cryptologist who is assigned duty
people outside of J&K that believed that in Kashmir to decode the enem’s
messages. As love blossoms
the special status of the State conferred by
between the husband and the
Article 370 did not allow full integration wife, the husband is kidnapped.
of the State with India. This section felt The kidnappers demand that
that Article 370 be revoked and J&K be their jailed leader, be set free in
treated like any other state of India. exchange of Rishi.
Another section, mostly Kashmiris,
believe that the autonomy conferred by
Article 370 is not enough. They had at Roja’s world is shattered and she
is seen knocking at the doors of
least three major grievances. First, the
officials and politicians. Since the
promise that Accession would be referred film has the background of Indo-
to the people of the State after the Pakistan dispute, it made instant
situation created by tribal invasion was appeal. The film was dubbed
normalised, has not been fulfilled. This in Hindi and many other Indian
generated the demand for a plebiscite. languages.
Secondly, there was a feeling that the
special federal status guaranteed by
Article 370, had been eroded in practice.
Year: 1992
This had led to the demand for restoration
Director: Maniratnam
of autonomy or ‘Greater State Autonomy’. Screenplay: Maniratnam
Thirdly, it was felt that democracy which Cast (Hindi version): Madhu,
is practiced in the rest of India has not Arvind Swamy, Pankaj Kapoor,
been similarly institutionalised in the Janagaraj
State of Jammu and Kashmir.

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 120 Politics in India since Independence

Politics since 1948

After taking over as the Prime Minister, Sheikh Abdullah initiated
major land reforms and other policies which benefitted ordinary
people. But there was a growing difference between him and the
central government about his position on Kashmir’s status. He was
dismissed in 1953 and kept in detention for a number of years.
The leadership that succeeded him did not enjoy as much popular
support and was able to rule the State mainly due to the support of
the Centre. There were serious allegations of malpractices and rigging
in various elections.
During most of the period between 1953 and 1974, the Congress
party exercised influence on the politics of the State. A truncated
National Conference (minus Sheikh Abdullah) remained in power
with the active support of Congress for some time but later it merged
with the Congress. Thus, the Congress gained direct control over
the government in the state and brought about the changes. In
the meanwhile, there were several attempts to reach an agreement
between Sheikh Abdullah and the Government of India. A change in
the provision of the Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir was made in
1965 by which the Prime Minister of the state was designated as Chief
Minister of the state. Accordingly, Ghulam Mohammed Sadiq of the
Indian National Congress became the first Chief Minister of the state.

Credit: The Times of India

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 Regional Aspirations 121

In 1974 Indira Gandhi reached an agreement with Sheikh Abdullah

and he became the Chief Minister of the State. He revived the National
Conference which was elected with majority in the assembly elections
held in 1977. Sheikh Abdullah died in 1982 and the leadership of the
National Conference went to his son, Farooq Abdullah, who became
the Chief Minister. But he soon was dismissed by the Governor and
a breakaway faction of the National Conference came to power for a
brief period.
The dismissal of Farooq Abdullah’s government due to the
intervention of the Centre generated a feeling of resentment in
Kashmir. The confidence that Kashmiris had developed in the
democratic processes after the accord between Indira Gandhi and
Sheikh Abdullah, received a setback. The feeling that the Centre was
intervening in politics of the State was further strengthened when the
National Conference in 1986 agreed to have an electoral alliance with
the Congress, the ruling party in the Centre.

Insurgency and After

It was in this environment that the 1987 Assembly election took
place. The official results showed a massive victory of the National
Conference— Congress alliance and Farooq Abdullah returned as
Chief Minister. But it was widely believed that the results did not
reflect popular choice, and that the entire election process was
rigged. A popular resentment had already been brewing in the State
against the inefficient administration since early 1980s. This was
now augmented by the commonly prevailing feeling that democratic
processes were being undermined by the state at the behest of the
Centre. This generated a political crisis in Kashmir which became
severe with the rise of insurgency.
By 1989, the State had come in the grip of a militant movement
mobilised around the cause of a separate Kashmiri nation. The
insurgents got moral, material and military support from Pakistan. For
a number of years the State was under President’s rule and effectively
under the control of the armed forces. Throughout the period from
1990, Jammu and Kashmir experienced extraordinary violence at the
hands of the insurgents and through army action. Assembly elections
in the State were held only in 1996 in which the National Conference
led by Farooq Abdullah came to power with a demand for regional
autonomy for Jammu and Kashmir. At the end of its term, elections
were held in the State in 2002. The National Conference failed to win
a majority and was replaced by a coalition government of People’s
Democratic Party (PDP) and Congress.

2002 and Beyond

As per the coalition agreement, Mufti Mohammed headed the
government for the first three years succeeded by Ghulam Nabi Azad

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 122 Politics in India since Independence

This of the Indian National Congress who however could not complete
is all about the term as president rule was imposed in the state in July 2008.
governments, officials, The next election was held in November-December 2008. Another
leaders, terrorists… but
coalition government (composed of NC and INC) came into power
what about the people in
Jammu and Kashmir? In headed by Omar Abdullah in 2009. However, the state continued
a democracy we must go to witness disturbances led by the Hurriyat Conference. In 2014,
by what they want, the state went into another election, which recorded the highest
shouldn’t we? voters’ turnout in 25 years. Consequently a coalition government
led by Mufti Mohammed Sayeed of the PDP came into power with
the BJP as its partner. After Mufti Mohammed Sayeed died, his
daughter Mahbooba Mufti became the first woman Chief Minister
of the state in April 2016. During the tenure of Mahbooba Mufti,
major acts of terrorism, mounting external and internal tensions
were witnessed. The President’s rule was imposed in June 2018
after BJP withdrew its support to the Mufti government. On 5
August 2019, Article 370 was abolished by the Jammu & Kashmir
Reorganisation Act 2019 and the state was constituted into two
Union Territories, viz., Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh.
Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh are living examples of plural
society in India. Not only are there diversities of all kind (religious,
cultural, linguistic, ethnic and tribal) but there are also divergent
political and developmental aspirations, which have been sought
to be achieved by the latest Act.

Master Tara Singh

Punjab
The decade of 1980s also witnessed major developments in the
(1885–1967):
State of Punjab. The social composition of the State changed first
Prominent Sikh
with Partition and later on after the carving out of Haryana and
religious and political
Himachal Pradesh. While the rest of the country was reorganised
leader; one of the
on linguistic lines in 1950s, Punjab had to wait till 1966 for the
early leaders of the
creation of a Punjabi speaking State. The Akali Dal, which was
Shiromani Gurudwara
formed in 1920 as the political wing of the Sikhs, had led the
Prabandhak
movement for the formation of a ‘Punjabi suba’. The Sikhs were
Committee (SGPC);
now a majority in the truncated State of Punjab.
leader of the Akali
movement; supporter
of the freedom Political context
movement but After the reorganisation, the Akalis came to power in 1967
opposed to Congress’ and then in 1977. On both the occasions it was a coalition
policy of negotiating government. The Akalis discovered that despite the redrawing
only with the Muslims; of the boundaries, their political position remained precarious.
after Independence, Firstly, their government was dismissed by the Centre mid-way
he was the senior through its term. Secondly, they did not enjoy strong support
most advocate of among the Hindus. Thirdly, the Sikh community, like all other
formation of separate religious communities, was internally differentiated on caste and
Punjab State. class lines. The Congress got more support among the Dalits,
whether Hindu or Sikh, than the Akalis.

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 Regional Aspirations 123

It was in this context that during the 1970s a section of Akalis

began to demand political autonomy for the region. This was
reflected in a resolution passed at their conference at Anandpur
Sahib in 1973. The Anandpur Sahib Resolution asserted regional
autonomy and wanted to redefine centre-state relationship in the
country. The resolution also spoke of the aspirations of the Sikh
qaum (community or nation) and declared its goal as attaining the
bolbala (dominance or hegemony) of the Sikhs. The Resolution was
a plea for strengthening federalism in India.
The Resolution had a limited appeal among the Sikh masses. A Sant Harchand
few years later, after the Akali government had been dismissed in Singh Longowal
1980, the Akali Dal launched a movement on the question of the (1932–1985):
distribution of water between Punjab and its neighbouring States. Sikh political
A section of the religious leaders raised the question of autonomous and religious
Sikh identity. leader; began his
political career
Cycle of violence in mid-sixties as
an Akali leader;
Soon, the leadership of the movement passed from the moderate became president
Akalis to the extremist elements and took the form of armed of Akali Dal in
insurgency. These militants made their headquarters inside the 1980; reached an
Sikh holy shrine, the Golden Temple in Amritsar, and turned it agreement with
into an armed fortress. In June 1984, the Government of India Prime Minister
carried out ‘Operation Blue Star’, code name for army action Rajiv Gandhi on
in the Golden Temple. In this operation, the government could key demands
successfully flush out the militants, but it also damaged the of Akalis;
historic temple and deeply hurt the sentiments of the Sikhs. A assassinated by
large proportion of Sikhs in India and abroad saw the military unidentified Sikh
operation as an attack on their faith and this gave further impetus youth.
to militant and extremist groups.
Still more tragic turn of events complicated the Punjab problem
further. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated on
31 October 1984 outside her residence by her
bodyguards. Both
the assassins were
Sikhs and wanted
to take revenge for
Operation Blue Star.
While the entire country
was shocked by this
development, in Delhi
and in many parts of
northern India violence
broke out against the
Sikh community. The
violence against the Sikhs

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 124 Politics in India since Independence

“
There is also
evidence to show that on
31-10-84 either meetings

hu Rai
were held or persons who
could organise attacks

Credit : Rag
were contacted and
continued for almost a week. More e
were given instructions than two thousand Sikhs were e
to kill Sikhs and loot killed in the national capital, the e
their houses and shops. area worst affected by this violence.
e.
The attacks were made Hundreds of Sikhs were killed in n
in a systematic manner other parts of the country, especially
ly
and without much fear in places like Kanpur, Bokaro and nd

“
of the police, almost
suggesting that they were
assured that they would
not be harmed while
committing those acts or
Chas. Many Sikh families lost their
male members and thus suffered
great emotional and heavy financial
loss. What hurt the Sikhs most was
eir

that the government took a long time

in restoring normalcy and that the
ed
ial

me

even after. perpetrators of this violence were not

effectively punished. Twenty years ears
later, speaking in the Parliamentt in
Justice Nanavati 2005, Prime Minister Manmohan han
Commission of Inquiry,
Singh expressed regret over these hese
Report, Vol. I, 2005 painting
ing at a wall
killings and apologised to the nation
ation Women look sassination.
in g In di ra Gandhi’s as
for the anti-Sikh violence. depict

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 Regional Aspirations 125

“
I have
no hesitation in
Credit : Times of India

apologising not only to

The Times of the Sikh community
India brought but the whole Indian
out a special
mid-day nation because what
edition on the took place in 1984 is
day Indira the negation of the
Gandhi was
assassinated. concept of nationhood
and what is enshrined
Road to peace in our Constitution.
After coming to power following the election in 1984, the new Prime So, I am not standing
Minister Rajiv Gandhi initiated a dialogue with moderate Akali on any false prestige.
leaders. In July 1985, he reached an agreement with Harchand On behalf of our
Singh Longowal, then the President of the Akali Dal. This agreement, Government, on behalf
known as the Rajiv Gandhi - Longowal Accord or the Punjab Accord, of the entire people of
was a step towards bringing normalcy to Punjab. It was agreed that
Chandigarh would be transferred to Punjab, a separate commission
this country, I bow my
would be appointed to resolve the border dispute between Punjab head in shame that
and Haryana, and a tribunal would be set up to decide the sharing such thing took place.
of Ravi-Beas river water among Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan. The But, Sir, there are ebbs,
agreement also provided for compensation to and better treatment of there are tides in the
those affected by the militancy in Punjab and the withdrawal of the affairs of nations. The
application of Armed Forces Special Powers Act in Punjab. past is with us. We
However, peace did not come easily or immediately. The cycle cannot rewrite the
of violence continued nearly for a decade. Militancy and counter
insurgency violence led to excesses by the police and violations of
human rights. Politically, it led to fragmentation of the Akali Dal. The
central government had to impose President’s rule in the State and
the normal electoral and political process was suspended. It was not
easy to restore the political process in the atmosphere of suspicion
“
past. But as human
beings, we have the
willpower and we have
the ability to write
better future for all
and violence. When elections were held in Punjab in 1992, only 24 of us.
per cent of the electors tuned out to vote.
Militancy was eventually eradicated by the security forces. But Prime Minister
the losses incurred by the people of Punjab – Sikhs and Hindus alike Dr. Manmohan Singh
intervening in Rajya
– were enormous. Peace returned to Punjab by the middle of 1990s.
Sabha debate on
The alliance of Akali Dal (Badal) and the BJP scored a major victory 11 August 2005
in1997, in the first normal elections in the State in the post-militancy
era. The State is once again preoccupied with questions of economic
development and social change. Though religious identities continue
to be important for the people, politics has gradually moved back
along secular lines.

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 126 Politics in India since Independence

The North-East
In the North-East, regional aspirations reached a turning point in
1980s. This region now consists of eight States. Arunachal Pradesh,
Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram and Meghalaya, which
earlier constituted the North-East region, are often called “the seven
sisters”. Sikkim, which has been added to the list is – referred to as the
‘Brother’ to those seven states. The region has only 4 per cent of the
country’s population but about twice as much share of its area. A small
corridor of about 22 kilometers connects the region to the rest of the
country. Otherwise the region shares boundaries with China, Myanmar
and Bangladesh and serves as India’s gateway to South East Asia.
The region has witnessed a lot of change since 1947. Tripura,
Manipur and Khasi Hills of Meghalaya were erstwhile Princely States
which merged with India after Independence. The entire region of
North-East has undergone considerable political reorganisation.
Nagaland State was created in 1963; Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya
in 1972 while Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh became separate
States only in 1987. The Partition of India in 1947 had reduced the
Note: This illustration North-East to a land locked region and affected its economy. Cut off
is not a map drawn to from the rest of India, the region suffered neglect in developmental
scale and should not be terms. Its politics too remained insulated. At the same time, most
taken to be an authentic
States in this region underwent major demographic changes due to
depiction of India’s
external boundaries. influx of migrants from neighbouring States and countries.
The isolation of the region, its complex social character and its
backwardness compared to other parts of the country have all resulted
in the complicated set of demands from
different states of the North-East. The
vast international border and weak
communication between the North-East
and the rest of India have further added
to the delicate nature of politics there.
Three issues dominate the politics of
North-East: demands for autonomy,
movements for secession, and opposition
to ‘outsiders’. Major initiatives on the
first issue in the 1970s set the stage
for some dramatic developments on the
second and the third in the 1980s.

Demands for autonomy

At independence the entire region except
Manipur and Tripura comprised the
State of Assam. Demands for political
autonomy arose when the non-Assamese
felt that the Assam government was
imposing Assamese language on them.

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 Regional Aspirations 127

There were opposition and protest riots throughout the State. Leaders
of the major tribal communities wanted to separate from Assam. They My friend
formed the Eastern India Tribal Union which later transformed into a Chon said that
people in Delhi know
more comprehensive All Party Hill Leaders Conference in 1960. They more about the map of
demanded a tribal State to be carved out of Assam. Finally instead of Europe than about the
one tribal State, several States got carved out of Assam. At different North-East in our country.
points of time the Central Government had to create Meghalaya, I think she is right at least
Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh out of Assam. Tripura and Manipur about my schoolmates.
were upgraded into States too.
The reorganisation of the North-East was completed by 1972. But
this was not the end of autonomy demands in this region. In Assam,
for example, communities like the Bodos, Karbis and Dimasas wanted
separate States. They worked for this demand by mobilising public
opinion and popular movement as well as through insurgency. Often
the same area was claimed by more than one community. It was not
possible to go on making smaller and yet smaller States. Therefore,
some other provisions of our federal set up were used to satisfy their
autonomy demands while remaining in Assam. Karbis and Dimasas
have been granted autonomy under District Councils while Bodos
were recently granted Autonomous Council.

Secessionist movements
Demands for autonomy were easier to respond to, for these involved
using the various provisions in the Constitution for accommodation of
diversities. It was much more difficult when some groups demanded
a separate country, not in momentary anger but consistently as a Laldenga
principled position. The country’s leadership faced this problem for a (1937-1990):
very long time in at least two States in the North-East. A comparison Founder and
of these two cases offers us a lesson in democratic politics. leader of the
Mizo National
After independence, the Mizo Hills area was made an autonomous Front; turned into
district within Assam. Some Mizos believed that they were never a a rebel after the
part of British India and therefore did not belong to the Indian union. experience of the
But the movement for secession gained popular support after the famine in 1959;
Assam government failed to respond adequately to the great famine led an armed
of 1959 in Mizo hills. The Mizos’ anger led to the formation of the Mizo struggle against
National Front (MNF) under the leadership of Laldenga. India for two
In 1966 the MNF started an armed campaign for independence. decades; reached
Thus, started a two decade long battle between Mizo insurgents and a settlement
the Indian army. The MNF fought a guerilla war, got support from and signed an
Pakistani government and secured shelter in the then East Pakistan. agreement with
The Indian security forces countered it with a series of repressive Prime Minister
measures of which the common people were the victims. At one point Rajiv Gandhi in
even Air Force was used. These measures caused more anger and 1986; became the
alienation among the people. chief minister of
the newly created
At the end of two decades of insurgency everyone was a loser. State of Mizoram.
This is where maturity of the political leadership at both ends made

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 128 Politics in India since Independence
Credit : Times of India

a difference. Laldenga came back from exile in Pakistan and started

negotiations with the Indian government. Rajiv Gandhi steered these
negotiations to a positive conclusion. In 1986 a peace agreement
was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Laldenga. As per this accord
Mizoram was granted full-fledged statehood with special powers and
the MNF agreed to give up secessionist
struggle. Laldenga took over as the
Chief Minister. This accord proved
a turning point in the history of
Mizoram. Today, Mizoram is one
of the most peaceful places in the
region and has taken big strides in
literacy and development.
The story of Nagaland is similar
to Mizoram, except that it started
much earlier and has not yet had
such a happy ending. Led by Angami
Zapu Phizo, a section of the Nagas
declared independence from India
way back in 1951. Phizo turned
down many offers of negotiated
settlement. The Naga National
Council launched an armed
struggle for sovereignty of
Nagas. After a period of violent
insurgency a section of the
NF Nagas signed an agreement
e by M
n o f c ease fir with the government of India
Dec laratio

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 Regional Aspirations 129

but this was not acceptable to other rebels. The problem in Nagaland
still awaits a final resolution.

Movements against outsiders

The large scale migration into the North-East gave rise to a speciall
kind of problem that pitted the ‘local’ communities against people
who were seen as ‘outsiders’ or migrants. These latecomers, eitherr
from India or abroad are seen as encroachers on scarce resources Angami Zapu
like land and potential competitors to employment opportunities and Phizo
political power. This issue has taken political and sometimes violentt (1904-1990):
form in many States of the North-East. Leader of the
The Assam Movement from 1979 to 1985 is the best example movement for
of such movements against ‘outsiders’. The Assamese suspected independent
that there were huge numbers of illegal Bengali Muslim settlers Nagaland;
from Bangladesh. They felt that unless these foreign nationals are president of Naga
detected and deported they would reduce the indigenous Assamese National Council;
into a minority. There were other economic issues too. There was began an armed
widespread poverty and unemployment in Assam despite the struggle against the
existence of natural resources like oil, tea and coal. It was felt thatt Indian state; went
these were drained out of the State without any commensurate ‘underground’,
benefit to the people. stayed in Pakistan
and spent the last
In 1979 the All Assam Students’ Union (AASU), a students’
three decades of
group not affiliated to any party, led an anti-foreigner movement.
his life in exile in
The movement was against illegal migrations, against domination n UK.
of Bengalis and other outsiders, and against faulty voters’ registerr
that included the names of lakhs of immigrants. The movementt
demanded that all outsiders who had entered the State after 1951
should be sent back. The agitation followed many novel methods
and mobilised all sections of Assamese people, drawing support
across the State. It also involved many tragic and violent incidents
leading to loss of property and human lives. The movement also
tried to blockade the movement of trains and the supply of oil from
I’ve never
Assam to refineries in Bihar. understood this
Eventually after six years of turmoil, the Rajiv Gandhi-led insider-outsider
business. It’s like the
government entered into negotiations with the AASU leaders,
train compartment.
leading to the signing of an accord in 1985. According to this Someone who got
agreement those foreigners who migrated into Assam during and in before others
after Bangladesh war and since, were to be identified and deported. treats others as
With the successful completion of the movement, the AASU and the outsiders.
Asom Gana Sangram Parishad organised themselves as a regional
political party called Asom Gana Parishad (AGP). It came to power
in 1985 with the promise of resolving the foreign national problem
as well as to build a ‘Golden Assam’.
Assam accord brought peace and changed the face of politics in
Assam, but it did not solve the problem of immigration. The issue of
the ‘outsiders’ continues to be a live issue in the politics of Assam

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 130 Politics in India since Independence

and many other places in the

North-East. This problem
is particularly acute, for
example, in Tripura as the
original inhabitants have
been reduced to being a
minority in their own land.
The same feeling informs
the hostility of the local
population to Chakma
refugees in Mizoram and
Arunachal Pradesh.

r u
bu Math
Ramba on
of Carto
d it : H T book
Cr e

e
ok at th
s , h e r e is a lo ur regions...
the new rists in the fo am
To end ro or
s of ter lhi, Miz
activitie arjeeling, De
,D
Punjab

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 Regional Aspirations 131

Sikkim’s merger
At the time of independence, Sikkim was a ‘protectorate’ of
India. It meant that while it was not a part of India, it was also
not a fully sovereign country. Sikkim’s defence and foreign
relations were looked after by India, while the power of internal
administration was with the Chogyal, Sikkim’s monarch. This
arrangement ran into difficulty as the Chogyal was unable to deal
with the democratic aspirations of the people. An overwhelming Kazi Lhendup Dorji
majority of Sikkim’s population was Nepali. But the Chogyal was Khangsarpa (1904):
seen as perpetuating the rule of a small elite from the minority Leader of democracy
Lepcha-Bhutia community. The anti-Chogyal leaders of both the movement in Sikkim;
communities sought and got support from the government of founder of Sikkim Praja
India. Mandal and later leader of
The first democratic elections to Sikkim assembly in 1974 were the Sikkim State Congress;
swept by Sikkim Congress which stood for greater integration in 1962 founded the Sikkim
with India. The assembly first sought the status of ‘associate National Congress; after an
state’ and then in April 1975 passed a resolution asking for electoral victory, he led the
full integration with India. This was followed by a hurriedly movement for integration
organised referendum that put a stamp of popular approval on of Sikkim with India; after
the assembly’s request. The Indian Parliament accepted this the integration, Sikkim
request immediately and Sikkim became the 22nd State of Congress merged with the
the Indian union. Chogyal did not accept this merger and his Indian National Congress.
supporters accused the government of India of foul play and
use of force. Yet the merger enjoyed popular support and did not
become a divisive issue in Sikkim’s politics.

Accommodation and National Integration

These cases have shown us that even after 75 years of independence,
some of the issues of national integration are not fully resolved. We
have seen that regional aspirations ranging from demands of statehood
and economic development to autonomy and separation keep coming
up. The period since 1980 accentuated these tensions and tested the
capacity of democratic politics to accommodate the demands of diverse
sections of the society. What lessons can we draw from these examples?
First and the most elementary lesson is that regional aspirations
are very much a part of democratic politics. Expression of regional
issues is not an aberration or an abnormal phenomenon. Even
in smaller countries like the United Kingdom there are regional
aspirations in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Spain faces
secessionist movement from the Basques and so does Sri Lanka from
the Tamils. A large and diverse democracy like India must deal with
regional aspirations on a regular basis. Nation building is an ongoing
process.

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132 Politics in India since Independence

The second lesson is that the best way to respond to regional

aspirations is through democratic negotiations rather than through
suppression. Look at the situation in the eighties – militancy had
erupted in Punjab; problems were persisting in the North-East;
students in Assam were agitating; Kashmir valley was on the
boil. Instead of treating these as simple law and order problems,
the Government of India reached negotiated settlement with
regional movements. This produced a reconciliation which
reduced the tensions existing in many regions. The example of
Mizoram shows how political settlement can resolve the problem
of separatism effectively.
Rajiv Gandhi The third lesson is about the significance of power sharing. It
(1944–1991): Prime is not sufficient to have a formal democratic structure. Besides
Minister of India that, groups and parties from the region need to be given share
between 1984 and in power at the State level. Similarly, it is not sufficient to say
1989; son of Indira that the states or the regions have autonomy in their matters.
Gandhi; joined active The regions together form the nation. So, the regions must have
politics after 1980; a share in deciding the destiny of the nation. If regions are not
reached agreements given a share in the national level decision making, the feeling of
with militants in injustice and alienation can spread.
Punjab, Mizoram and
the students’ union in The fourth lesson is that regional imbalance in economic
Assam; pressed for a development contributes to the feeling of regional discrimination.
more open economy Regional imbalance is a fact of India’s development experience.
and computer Naturally, the backward states or backward regions in some
technology; sent states feel that their backwardness should be addressed on
Indian Army priority basis and that the policies of the Indian government have
contingent on caused this imbalance. If some states remain poor and others
the request develop rapidly, it leads to regional imbalances and inter-regional
of Sri Lankan migrations.
government, to sort Finally, these cases make us appreciate the farsightedness
out the Sinhala- of the makers of our Constitution in dealing with questions
Tamil conflict; of diversity. The federal system adopted by India is a flexible
assassinated by arrangement. While most of the states have equal powers, there
suspected LTTE are special provisions for some states like J&K and the states
suicide bomber. in the North-East. However, Article 370 that contains special
provisions for J&K, was abrogated in August 2019. The Sixth
Schedule of the Constitution allows different tribes complete
autonomy of preserving their practices and customary laws.
These provisions proved crucial in resolving some very complex
political problems in the North-East.
What distinguishes India from many other countries that face
similar challenges is that the constitutional framework in India
is much more flexible and accommodative. Therefore, regional
aspirations are not encouraged to espouse separatism. Thus,
politics in India has succeeded in accepting regionalism as part
and parcel of democratic politics.

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 Regional Aspirations 133
133

Goa’s liberation
Although the British empire in India came to an end in 1947, Portugal refused to withdraw from
the territories of Goa, Diu and Daman which were under its colonial rule since the sixteenth
century. During their long rule, the Portuguese suppressed the people of Goa, denied them
civil rights, and carried out forced religious conversions. After India’s Independence, the Indian
government tried very patiently to persuade the Portuguese government to withdraw. There
was also a strong popular movement within Goa for freedom. They were strengthened by
socialist satyagrahis from Maharashtra. Finally, in December 1961, the Government of India
sent the army which liberated these territories after barely two days of action. Goa, Diu and
Daman became Union Territory.
Another complication arose soon. Led by the Maharashtrawadi Gomanatak Party (MGP)
one section desired that Goa, as a Marathi speaking area should merge with Maharashtra.
However, many Goans were keen to retain a separate Goan identity and culture, particularly
the Konkani language. They were led by the United Goan Party (UGP). In January 1967,
the Central Government held a special ‘opinion poll’ in Goa asking people to decide if they
wanted to be part of Maharashtra or remain separate. A referendum-like procedure was used
to ascertain people’s wishes on this issue. The majority voted in favour of remaining outside
of Maharashtra. Thus, Goa continued as a Union Territory. Finally, in 1987, Goa became a
State of the Indian Union.

Credit: R.K. Laxman in The Times of India,

21 April 1954

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 134 Politics in India since Independence

1. Match the following.

A B
Nature of regional aspirations States
(a) Socio-religious identity i. Nagaland /Mizoram
leading to statehood
(b) Linguistic identity and ii. Jharkhand /Chattisgarh
tensions with Centre
(c) Regional imbalance leading iii. Punjab
to demand for Statehood
(d) Secessionist demands on iv. Tamil Nadu
account of tribal identity

2. Regional aspirations of the people of North-East get expressed

in different ways. These include movements against outsiders,
movement for greater autonomy and movement for separate national
existence. On the map of the North-East, using different shades for
these three, show the States where these expressions are prominently
EXERCISES

found.

3. What were the main provisions of the Punjab accord? In what way
can they be the basis for further tensions between the Punjab and its
neighbouring States?

4. Why did the Anandpur Sahib Resolution become controversial?

5. Explain the internal divisions of the State of Jammu and Kashmir and
describe how these lead to multiple regional aspirations in that State.

6. What are the various positions on the issue of regional autonomy for
Kashmir? Which of these do you think are justifiable? Give reasons for
your answer.

7. The Assam movement was a combination of cultural pride and economic

backwardness. Explain.

8. All regional movements need not lead to separatist demands. Explain

by giving examples from this chapter.

9. Regional demands from different parts of India exemplify the principle

of unity with diversity. Do you agree? Give reasons.

10. Read the passage and answer the questions below:

One of Hazarika’s songs.. … dwells on the unity theme; the seven
states of north-eastern India become seven sisters born of the same
mother. …. ‘Meghalaya went own way…., Arunachal too separated

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 Regional Aspirations 135

and Mizoram appeared in Assam’s gateway as a groom to marry

another daughter.’ ….. …. .. The song ends with a determination to
keep the unity of the Assamese with other smaller nationalities that are
left in the present-day Assam – ‘the Karbis and the Missing brothers
and sisters are our dear ones.’ — S B
(a) Which unity is the poet talking about?
(b) Why were some States of North-East created separately out of
the erstwhile State of Assam?
(c) Do you think that the same theme of unity could apply to all the
regions of India? Why?

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 In this chapter…
In this last chapter we take a synoptic view of the last two decades of
politics in India. These developments are complex, for various kinds of
factors came together to produce unanticipated outcomes in this period.
The new era in politics was impossible to foresee; it is still very difficult to
understand. These developments are also controversial, for these involve
deep conflicts and we are still too close to the events. Yet we can ask
some questions central to the political change in this period.
• What are the implications of the rise of coalition politics for our
democracy?
• What is Mandalisation all about? In which ways will it change the
nature of political representation?
Ups and downs of
various political parties • What is the legacy of the Ram Janmabhoomi movement?
in the 1990s appeared • What does the rise of a new policy consensus do to the nature of
to many, like this
cartoon drawn in 1990,
political choices?
as a roller coaster ride. The chapter does not answer these questions. It simply gives you the
Riding the roller coaster
necessary information and some tools so that you can ask and answer
are Rajiv Gandhi, V.
P. Singh, L. K. Advani, these questions when you are through with this book. We cannot avoid
Chandrashekhar, Jyoti asking these questions just because they are politically sensitive, for the
Basu, N. T. Rama Rao, whole point of studying the history of politics in India since Independence
Devi Lal, P. K. Mahanta is to make sense of our present.
and K. Karunanidhi.

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 chapter 8
Recent Developments
in Indian Politics
Context of the 1990s
You have read in the last chapter that Rajiv Gandhi became the Prime
Minister after the assassination of Indira Gandhi. He led the Congress
to a massive victory in the Lok Sabha elections held immediately
thereafter in 1984. As the decade of the eighties came to a close, the
country witnessed five developments that were to make a long-lasting
impact on our politics.

F
irst the most crucial development of this period was the defeat
of the Congress party in the elections held in 1989. The party
that had won as many as 415 seats in the Lok Sabha in 1984
was reduced to only 197 in this election. The Congress improved
its performance and came back to power soon after the mid-term
elections held in 1991. But the elections of 1989 marked the end of
what political scientists have called the ‘Congress system’. To be sure,
the Congress remained an important party and ruled the country
more than any other party even in this period since 1989. But it lost
the kind of centrality it earlier enjoyed in the party system.

I wish to find
out if the Congress
can still bounce back
to its old glory.

Congress leader Sitaram Kesri withdrew the crutches of support from Deve
Gowda’s United Front Government.

S
econd development was the rise of the ‘Mandal issue’ in national
politics. This followed the decision by the new National Front
government in 1990, to implement the recommendation of
the Mandal Commission that jobs in central government should be
reserved for the Other Backward Classes. This led to violent ‘anti-
Mandal’ protests in different parts of the country. This dispute between
the supporters and opponents of OBC reservations was known as the
‘Mandal issue’ and was to play an important role in shaping politics
since 1989.

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 138 Politics in India since Independence

ure
to be s on
I wish men
pheno m A reaction to Mandalisation.
if this e a long-ter

T
ld h a v
wou hird, the economic policy followed by the various governments
effect. took a radically different turn. This is known as the initiation
of the structural adjustment programme or the new economic
reforms. Started by Rajiv Gandhi, these changes first became very
visible in 1991 and radically changed the direction that the Indian
economy had pursued since Independence. These policies have been
widely criticised by various movements and organisations. But the
various governments that came to power in this period have continued
to follow these.
Credit: R. K. Laxman in the Times of India

I am n
if this ot clear
will m
differe ake a
especia nce to politic
lly if e s
the sa veryon ,
me po e h as
licy.

Manmohan Singh, the then Finance Minister, with Prime Minister Narsimha Rao, in
the initial phase of the ‘New Economic Policy’.

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 Recent Developments in Indian Politics 139

F
ourth, the centuries old legal and political dispute over the
Ram Janmabhoomi Temple in Ayodhya started influencing the
politics of India which gave birth to various political changes.
The Ram Janmabhoomi Temple Movement, becoming the central
issue, transformed the direction of the discourse on secularism and
democracy. These changes culminated in the construction of the Ram
Temple at Ayodhya following the decision of the constitutional bench
of the Supreme Court (which was announced on November 9, 2019).

er how
I wond affect
ill
this w ies!
al part
politic

Message of Harmony

F
inally, the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in May 1991 led to a
change in leadership of the Congress party. He was assassinated
by a Sri Lankan Tamil linked to the LTTE when he was on
an election campaign tour in Tamil Nadu. In the elections of 1991,
Congress emerged as the single largest party. Following Rajiv Gandhi’s
death, the party chose Narsimha Rao as the Prime Minister.

1 May 1996 25 October 1995 20 August 2001 25 October 2004

Leadership in Congress made many headlines.

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 140 Politics in India since Independence

Era of Coalitions
Elections in 1989 led to the defeat of the Congress party but did not
result in a majority for any other party. Though the Congress was the
largest party in the Lok Sabha, it did not have a clear majority and
therefore, it decided to sit in the opposition. The National Front (which
itself was an alliance of Janata Dal and some other regional parties)
received support from two diametrically opposite political groups: the
BJP and the Left Front. On this basis, the National Front formed a
coalition government, but the BJP and the Left Front did not join in
this government.

Credit: Sudhir Tailang /HT Book of Cartoons

The National
Front
Government
lead by V. P.
Singh was
supported
by the Left
(represented
here by Jyoti
Basu) as well
as the BJP
(represented by
L. K. Advani)

Decline of Congress
The defeat of the Congress party marked the end of Congress dominance
over the Indian party system. Do you remember the discussion in
Chapters about the restoration of the Congress system? Way back in
the late sixties, the dominance of the Congress party was challenged;
but the Congress under the leadership of Indira Gandhi, managed to
re-establish its predominant position in politics. The nineties saw yet
another challenge to the predominant position of the Congress. It did
not, however, mean the emergence of any other single party to fill in
its place.

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 Recent Developments in Indian Politics 141

Thus, began an era of multi-party system. To be sure, a large

number of political parties always contested elections in our country.
Our Parliament always had representatives from several political
parties. What happened after 1989 was the emergence of several
parties in such a way that one or two parties did not get most of
the votes or seats. This also meant that no single party secured a
clear majority of seats in any Lok Sabha election held since 1989 till
2014. This development initiated an era of coalition governments at
the Centre, in which regional parties played a crucial role in forming
ruling alliances but in 2014 and 2019 Lok Sabha election, the BJP
got clear majority on its own.

Let’s re-search
Talk to your parents about their memories of the events happening
since the 1990s. Ask them what they felt were the most significant
events of the period. Sit together in groups and draw a comprehensive
list of the events reported by your parents, see which events get cited
most, and compare them with what the chapter suggests were the
most significant. You can also discuss why some events are more
important for some and not for others.

Alliance politics
The nineties also saw the emergence of powerful parties and movements
that represented the Dalit and backward castes (Other Backward
Classes or OBCs). Many of these parties represented powerful
regional assertion as well. These parties played an important role in
the United Front government that came to power in 1996. The United
Front was similar to the National Front of 1989 for it included Janata
Dal and several regional parties. This time the BJP did not support
the government. The United Front government was supported by
the Congress. This shows how unstable the political equations were.
In 1989, both the Left and the BJP supported the National Front
Government because they wanted to keep the Congress out of power.
In 1996, the Left continued to support the non-Congress government
but this time the Congress, supported it, as both the Congress and
the Left wanted to keep the BJP out of power.
They did not succeed for long, as the BJP continued to
consolidate its position in the elections of 1991 and 1996. It
emerged as the largest party in the 1996 election and was invited
to form the government. But most other parties were opposed to
its policies and therefore, the BJP government could not secure
a majority in the Lok Sabha. It finally came to power by leading

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 142 Politics in India since Independence

a coalition government from May 1998 to June 1999 and was

re-elected in October 1999. Atal Behari Vajpayee was the Prime
Minister during both these NDA governments and his government
formed in 1999 completed its full term.
Credit: Ajit Ninan/India Today

A cartoonist’s depiction of the change from one-party dominance to a multi-party

alliance system.

Thus, with the elections of 1989, a long phase of coalition politics

began in India. Since then, there have been eleven governments at
the Centre, all of which have either been coalition governments or
minority governments supported by other parties, which did not join
the government. In this new phase, any government could be formed
only with the participation or support of many regional parties. This
applied to the National Front in 1989, the United Front in 1996 and
1997, the BJP-led coalition in 1998, the NDA in 1999, the UPA in
2004 and 2009.  However, this trend changed in 2014.
Let us connect this development with what we have learnt so far.
The era of coalition governments may be seen as a long-term trend
resulting from relatively silent changes that were taking place over
the last few decades.
We saw in chapter two that in earlier times, it was the Congress
party itself that was a ‘coalition’ of different interests and different social
strata and groups. This gave rise to the term ‘Congress system’.

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 Recent Developments in Indian Politics 143
CENTRAL GOVERNMENTS SINCE 1989

For more details about the current

and former Prime Ministers, visit
http://pmindia.gov.in/en
Note: The blank space is for you to record more information on the major policies, performance and controversies about that government.

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 144 Politics in India since Independence

We also saw in Chapters that, especially since the late 1960s,

various sections had been leaving the Congress fold and forming
separate political parties of their own. We also noted the rise of many
regional parties in the period after 1977. While these developments
weakened the Congress party, they did not enable any single party to
replace the Congress.

OK, coalitions
are the logic of I am
democratic politics in not worried
our kind of society. Does about whether
that mean that we will it is a single
always have coalitions? Or party or coalition
can the national parties government. I am
consolidate their more worried about
positions again? what they do. Does a
coalition government
involve more
compromises? Can
we not have bold and
imaginative policies
in a coalition?

Political Rise of Other Backward Classes

One long-term development of this period was the rise of Other
Backward Classes as a political force. You have already come across
this term ‘OBC’. This refers to the administrative category ‘Other
Backward Classes’. These are communities other than SC and ST
who suffer from educational and social backwardness. These are also
referred to as ‘backward castes’. We have already noted in Chapter
Six that the support for the Congress among many sections of the
‘backward castes’ had declined. This created a space for non-Congress
parties that drew more support from these communities. You would
recall that the rise of these parties first found political expression
at the national level in the form of the Janata Party government in
1977. Many of the constituents of the Janata Party, like the Bharatiya
Kranti Dal and the Samyukta Socialist Party, had a powerful rural
base among some sections of the OBC.

‘Mandal’ implemented
In the 1980s, the Janata Dal brought together a similar combination
of political groups with strong support among the OBCs. The decision
of the National Front government to implement the recommendations

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 Recent Developments in Indian Politics 145

of the Mandal Commission further helped in shaping the politics of

‘Other Backward Classes’. The intense national debate for and against
reservation in jobs made people from the OBC communities more
aware of this identity. Thus, it helped those who wanted to mobilise
these groups in politics. This period saw the emergence of many
parties that sought better opportunities for OBCs in education and
employment and also raised the question of the share of power enjoyed
by the OBCs. These parties claimed that since OBCs constituted a
large segment of Indian society, it was only democratic that the OBCs
should get adequate representation in administration and have their
due share of political power.

Implementation of Mandal Commission report sparked off agitations and political upheavals.

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 146 Politics in India since Independence

The Mandal Commission

Reservations for the OBC were in existence in southern States since the 1960s,
if not earlier. But this policy was not operative in north Indian States. It was
during the tenure of Janata Party government in 1977-79 that the demand for
reservations for backward castes in north India and at the national level was
strongly raised. Karpoori Thakur, the then Chief Minister of Bihar, was a pioneer
in this direction. His government had introduced a new policy of reservations for
OBCs in Bihar. Following this, the central government appointed a Commission
in 1978 to look into and recommend ways to improve the conditions of the
backward classes. This was the second time since Independence that the
government had appointed such a commission. Therefore, this commission
was officially known as the Second Backward Classes Commission. Popularly,
the commission is known as the Mandal Commission, after the name of its
Chairperson, Bindeshwari Prasad Mandal.
The Mandal Commission was set up to
investigate the extent of educational and social
backwardness among various sections of Indian
society and recommend ways of identifying these
‘backward classes’. It was also expected to give
its recommendations on the ways in which this
backwardness could be ended. The Commission
gave its recommendations in 1980. By then the Janata
government had fallen. The Commission advised
that ‘backward classes’ should be understood to
mean ‘backward castes’, since many castes, other
B.P. Mandal than the Scheduled Castes, were also treated as
(1918-1982): M.P. from low in the caste hierarchy. The Commission did a
Bihar for 1967-1970 survey and found that these backward castes had
and 1977-1979; chaired a very low presence in both educational institutions
the Second Backward and in employment in public services. It therefore
Classes Commission recommended reserving 27 per cent of seats in
that recommended educational institutions and government jobs for
reservations for Other these groups. The Mandal Commission also made
Backward Classes; a many other recommendations, like, land reform, to
socialist leader from Bihar; improve the conditions of the OBCs.
Chief Minister of Bihar for
just a month and a half in In August 1990, the National Front government
1968; joined the Janata decided to implement one of the recommendations
Party in 1977. of Mandal Commission pertaining to reservations
for OBCs in jobs in the central government and its
undertakings. This decision sparked agitations and
violent protests in many cities of north India. The
decision was also challenged in the Supreme Court and came to be known
as the ‘Indira Sawhney case’, after the name of one of the petitioners. In
November 1992, the Supreme Court gave a ruling upholding the decision of
the government. There were some differences among political parties about
the manner of implementation of this decision. But now the policy of reservation
for OBCs has support of all the major political parties of the country.

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 Recent Developments in Indian Politics 147

Political fallouts
The 1980s also saw the rise of political organisation of the Dalits.
In 1978 the Backward and Minority Communities Employees
Federation (BAMCEF) was formed. This organisation was not an
ordinary trade union of government employees. It took a strong
position in favour of political power to the ‘bahujan’ – the SC,
ST, OBC and minorities. It was out of this that the subsequent
Dalit Shoshit Samaj Sangharsh Samiti and later the Bahujan
Samaj Party (BSP) emerged under the leadership of Kanshi
Ram. The BSP began as a small party supported largely by Dalit
voters in Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. But in 1989 and
the 1991 elections, it achieved a breakthrough in Uttar Pradesh.
This was the first time in independent India that a political
party supported mainly by Dalit voters had achieved this kind of
political success.
In fact, the BSP, under Kanshi Ram’s leadership was envisaged
as an organisation based on pragmatic politics. It derived
confidence from the fact that the Bahujans (SC, ST, OBC and
religious minorities) constituted the majority of the population,
and were a formidable political force on the strength of their
numbers. Since then the BSP has emerged as a major political
player in the State and has been in government on more than one
occasion. Its strongest support still comes from Dalit voters, but
it has expanded its support now to various other social groups. In
many parts of India, Dalit politics and OBC politics have developed Kanshi Ram
independently and often in competition with each other. (1934-2006):
Proponent
Will of Bahujan
this benefit empowerment and
leaders of all the founder of Bahujan
backward and Dalit Samaj Party (BSP);
communities? Or will the left his central
gains be monopolised by some
powerful castes and families
government job for
within these groups? social and political
work; founder of
BAMCEF, DS-4
and finally the
The real point BSP in 1984;
is not the leaders but astute political
the people! Will this lead strategist, he
to better policies and effective regarded political
implementation for the really power as master
deprived people? Or will it remain
key to attaining
just a political game?
social equality;
credited with Dalit
resurgence in north
Indian States.

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 148 Politics in India since Independence

Communalism, Secularism, Democracy

The other long-term development during this period was the visible
rise of politics based on religious identity leading to a debate
about secularism and democracy. We noted in Chapter Six that
in the aftermath of the Emergency, the Bharatiya Jana Sangh had
merged with the Janata Party. After the fall of the Janata Party and
its break-up, the supporters of erstwhile Jana Sangh formed the
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) in 1980. Initially, the BJP adopted
a broader political platform than that of the Jana Sangh. BJP
embraced ‘Gandhian’ Socialism’ along with cultural nationalism as
its ideology. But it did not get much success in the elections held in
1984. After 1986, the party began to emphasise nationalism as the
core of its ideology. The BJP also pursued the politics of ‘Hindutva’
for political mobilisation.
Hindutva was popularised by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, as the
basis of Indian nationhood. It basically meant that to be an Indian,
one must accept India as their ‘fatherland’ (pitrubhu) as well as their
holy land (punyabhu). Believers of ‘Hindutva’ argue that a strong
nation can be built on the basis of a united national culture. They
also believe that in the case of India, Hindutva can provide this base.
Two developments around 1986 became central to the politics of
BJP. The first was the Shah Bano case in 1985. In this case a 62-
year old divorced Muslim woman, had filed a case for maintenance
from her former husband. The Supreme Court ruled in favour of
Shah Bano. The orthodox Muslims saw the Supreme Court’s order
as an interference in Muslim Personal Law. On the demand of
some Muslim leaders, the government passed the Muslim Women
(Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act, 1986 that nullified the Supreme
Court’s judgement. This action of the government was opposed
by many women’s organisations, many Muslim groups and most
of the intellectuals. The BJP criticised this action of the Congress
government as an unnecessary concession and ‘appeasement’ of the
minority community.

Do you know? Ayodhya Issue

There is a very The Ayodhya issue, as the second significant development, was
interesting incident deeply rooted in socio- cultural and political history of the country
dated November 28 pertaining to different perspectives from various stakeholders. It
1858, when Nihang involved contentions regarding the birth place of Shri Ram, one of
Sikhs captured the most holy religious sites, and its legal ownership.
the Janmabhoomi
site and performed The significance of Ayodhya Ram Janmabhoomi site can be
Puja and Havan, judged by the fact that the 500-year long history, starting from 1528,
before being forcibly is marked by numerous conflicts which are also documented in
ousted by colonial Lucknow, Barabanki and Faizabad district Gazetteers. A three-dome
administration.

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Recent Developments in Indian Politics 149

structure was built at the site of Shri Ram’s birth place in 1528,
but the structure had visible display of Hindu symbols and relics in
its interior as well as its exterior portions. Therefore, Ayodhya Ram
Janmabhoomi issue got linked to the national pride in its ancient
civilization. Over the years, this issue evolved into a prolonged legal
battle, leading to the structure being sealed in 1949 due to the onset
of court proceedings.
In 1986, the situation regarding the three-dome structure took a
significant turn when the Faizabad (now Ayodhya) district court ruled
to unlock the structure, allowing people to worship there. The dispute
had been going on for many decades as it was believed that the three-
dome structure was built at Shri Ram’s birthplace after demolition
of a temple. However, although Shilaanyas for the temple was done,
further construction remained prohibited. The Hindu community
felt that their concerns related to the birth place of Shri Ram were
overlooked, while the Muslim community sought assurance of their
possession over the structure. Subsequently, tensions heightened
between both communities over ownership rights, resulting in
numerous disputes and legal conflicts. Both communities desired
a fair resolution to the longstanding issue. In 1992, following the
demolition of the structure, some critics contended that it presented
a substantial challenge to the principles of Indian democracy.

From Legal Proceedings to Amicable Acceptance

It is important to note that in any society conflicts are bound to take
place. However, in a multi -religious and multi-cultural democratic
society, these conflicts are usually resolved following the due process
of law. Through a number of democratic and legal procedures
including court hearings, mediation attempts, popular movements,
and finally with a 5-0 verdict of a constitutional bench of the Supreme
Court on November 9, 2019, the Ayodhya issue was resolved. This
verdict sought to reconcile the conflicting interests of the various
stakeholders involved in the dispute.
The verdict allotted the disputed site to the Shri Ram
Janmabhoomi Teertha Kshetra Trust for the construction of Ram
temple and directed the concerned government to allot appropriate
site for the construction of a Mosque to the Sunni Central Waqf
Board. In this way, democracy gives room for conflict resolution
in a plural society like ours, upholding the inclusive spirit of the
Constitution. This issue was resolved following the due process of
law based on evidences such as archaeological excavations and
historical records. The Supreme Court’s decision was celebrated by
the society at large. It is a classic example of consensus building
on a sensitive issue that shows the maturity of democratic ethos
which are civilizationally ingrained in India.

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150 Politics in India since Independence

The excerpts referring to the Judgment of the constitutional Bench of the Supreme Court

“
(November 9,2019)

“...At the heart of the Constitution is a commitment to equality upheld and enforced by the rule of law.
Under our Constitution, citizens of all faiths, beliefs and creeds seeking divine provenance are both subject to the law
and equal before the law. Every judge of this Court is not merely tasked with but sworn to uphold the Constitution
and its values. The Constitution does not make a distinction between the faith and belief of one religion and
another. All forms of belief, worship and prayer are equal...”
(For details see, Supreme Court Judgments, November 9, 2019, p. 920, https://main.sci.gov.in/
supremecourt/2010/36350/36350_2010_1_1502_18205_Judgement_09-Nov-2019.pdf)
“
“It is thus concluded … that faith and belief of Hindus since prior to construction of Mosque and subsequent thereto
has always been that Janmaasthan of Lord Ram is the place where Babri Mosque has been constructed which faith
and belief is proved by documentary and oral evidence discussed above.”
(For details see, Supreme Court Judgments, November 9, 2019, p. 1045, https://main.sci.gov.in/
supremecourt/2010/36350/36350_2010_1_1502_18205_Judgement_09-Nov-2019.pdf)

Emergence of a new consensus

The period after 1989 is seen sometimes as the period of decline of
Congress and rise of BJP. If you want to understand the complex
nature of political competition in this period, you have to compare the
electoral performances of the Congress and the BJP.

Party Position (Number of seats won) in Lok Sabha

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 Recent Developments in Indian Politics 151

Vote Share
per cent of vote share

Now let us try to understand the meaning of the information given in

the figure.
• You will notice that BJP and Congress were engaged in a tough
competition in this period. What is the difference between their
electoral fortunes if you compare these with the 1984 elections?
.• You will notice that since the 1989 election, the votes polled by
the two parties, Congress and the BJP, most of the time, add up
to more than fifty per cent except in 1996, 2004 and 2009.
• Look at both the charts showing Congress and Janata ‘family’ of
parties. Which among the parties that exist today are neither part
of Congress family of parties nor part of Janata family of parties?
• The political competition during the nineties is divided between
the coalition led by BJP and the coalition led by the Congress. Can
you list the parties that are not part of any of these two coalitions?

Lok Sabha Elections (2004-2019)

In the elections of 2004, the Congress party too entered into coalitions
in a big way. The National Democratic Alliance (NDA) was defeated
and a new coalition government led by the Congress, known as the
United Progressive Alliance (UPA) came to power. This government
received support from the Left Front parties. The elections of 2004
also witnessed the partial revival of Congress party. It could increase

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 152 Politics in India since Independence

its seats once again after 1991. However, in the 2004 elections, there
was a negligible difference between the votes polled by the Congress
and its allies and the BJP and its allies.
The Congress led UPA government completed its term despite Left
parties withdrawing the support in July 2008 on the issue of Indo-
US nuclear deal. Elections for 15th Lok Sabha were held in 2009.
Results witnessed a rise in the number of seats (from 145 in 2004 to
206 in 2009) of the Indian National Congress (INC) and Congress led
UPA Government. Dr. Manmohan Singh was sworn as Prime Minister
for the second term, heading the coalition government of UPA again.
Bhartiya Janata Party declared Narendra Modi (then the Chief
Minister of Gujrat) as its Prime Ministerial candidate in September
2013. BJP under the leadership of Narendra Modi got a clear majority
in 16th Lok Sabha elections held in 2014. BJP won 282 seats on its
own, becoming the first party to gain single party majority after 30
years. Despite single-party majority of its own, BJP did choose to
form the NDA government with its coalition partners.
Year 2014 was a proverbial watershed moment of Indian politics.
Narendra Modi led NDA government rapidly took decisions in social
sector, foreign policy and economic policy.
The BJP again emerged victorious with 303 seats of its own in
2019 Lok Sabha election. Even when BJP is getting full majority,
the recognition of coalition politics is still relevant. Thus, the party
system has now changed almost dramatically from what it was till
the seventies.

Growing consensus
However, on many crucial issues, a broad agreement has emerged
among most parties. In the midst of severe competition and many
conflicts, a consensus appears to have emerged among most parties.
This consensus consists of four elements.

F
irst, agreement on new economic policies – while many groups
are opposed to the new economic policies, most political parties
are in support of the new economic policies. Most parties believe
that these policies would lead the country to prosperity and a status
of economic power in the world.

S
econd, acceptance of the political and social claims of the
backward castes – political parties have recognised that the
social and political claims of the backward castes need to be
accepted. As a result, all political parties now support reservation
of seats for the ‘backward classes’ in education and employment.

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 Recent Developments in Indian Politics 153

Note: This illustration is not a map drawn to scale and should not be taken to be an authentic
depiction of India’s external boundaries.

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 154 Politics in India since Independence

Political parties are also willing to ensure that the OBCs get adequate
share of power.

T
hird, acceptance of the role of State level parties in governance
of the country – the distinction between State level and national
level parties is fast becoming less important. As we saw in this
chapter, State level parties are sharing power at the national level
and have played a central role in the country’s politics of last twenty
years or so.

F
ourth, emphasis on pragmatic considerations rather than
ideological positions and political alliances without ideological
agreement – coalition politics has shifted the focus of political
parties from ideological differences to power sharing arrangements.
Thus, most parties of the NDA did not agree with the ‘Hindutva’
ideology of the BJP. Yet, they came together to form a government
and remained in power for a full term.
All these are momentous changes and are going to shape politics
in the near future. We started this study of politics in India with the
discussion of how the Congress emerged as a dominant party. From
that situation, we have now arrived at a more competitive politics,
but politics that is based on a certain implicit agreement among the
main political actors. Thus, even as political parties act within the
sphere of this consensus, popular movements and organisations
are simultaneously identifying new forms, visions and pathways of
development. Issues like poverty, displacement, minimum wages,
livelihood and social security are being put on the political agenda
by peoples’ movements, reminding the state of its responsibility.
Similarly, issues of justice and democracy are being voiced by the
people in terms of class, caste, gender and regions. We cannot predict
the future of democracy. All we know is that democratic politics is
here to stay in India and that it will unfold through a continuous
churning of some of the factors mentioned in this chapter.

As you know around the time of India’s independence, many other

countries also became independent and adopted democracy. However,
even India emerged as a mature democracy playing a great role in
promoting social equality and national development, the same has not
been the case in some of those countries.
Discuss amongst yourselves the factors that have enabled democracy to
thrive in India.

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 Recent Developments in Indian Politics 155

Party Position in 17th Lok Sabha

Others
20%

Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)

2%
Biju Janata Dal (BJD)
2%
Bharatiya Janata Janata Dal United (JD-U)
Party (BJP) 3%
56%
Shiv Sena (SS)
3%
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK)
4%

Indian National Congress (INC)

10%

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) 303

Indian National Congress (INC) 52

Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) 24

Shiv Sena (SS) 18

Janata Dal (United) [JD(U)] 16

Biju Janata Dal (BJD) 12

Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) 10

Other Parties 108

Source: http://loksabha.nic.in

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156 Politics in India since Independence

1. Unscramble a bunch of disarranged press clipping file of Unni-Munni…

and arrange the file chronologically.
(a) Implementation of the recommendation of the Mandal Commission
(b) Formation of the Janata Dal
(c) Supreme court Judgment on the Ram Janmabhoomi
(d) Assassination of Indira Gandhi
(e) The formation of NDA government
(f) Formation of the UPA government

2. Match the following.

(a) Politics of Consensus i. Shah Bano case
(b) Caste based parties ii. Rise of OBCs
(c) Personal Law and iii. Coalition government
Gender Justice iv. Agreement on Economic
(d) Growing strength of policies
Regional parties
EXERCISES

3. State the main issues in Indian politics in the period after 1989. What
different configurations of political parties these differences lead to?
4. “In the new era of coalition politics, political parties are not aligning or re-
aligning on the basis of ideology.” What arguments would you put forward
to support or oppose this statement?
5. Trace the emergence of BJP as a significant force in post-Emergency
politics.
6. In spite of the decline of Congress dominance, the Congress party
continues to influence politics in the country. Do you agree? Give reasons.
7. Many people think that a two-party system is required for successful
democracy. Drawing from India’s experience of last 30 years, write an
essay on what advantages the present party system in India has.
8. Read the passage and answer the questions below:
Party politics in India has confronted numerous challenges. Not only
has the Congress system destroyed itself, but the fragmentation of the
Congress coalition has triggered a new emphasis on self-representation
which raises questions about the party system and its capacity to
accommodate diverse interests, …. . An important test facing the polity is
to evolve a party system or political parties that can effectively articulate
and aggregate a variety of interests. — Zoya Hasan

(a) Write a short note on what the author calls challenges of the
party system in the light of what you have read in this chapter.
(b) Given an example from this chapter of the lack of accommodation
and aggregation mentioned in this passage.
(c) Why is it necessary for parties to accommodate and aggregate
variety of interests?

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Recent Developments in Indian Politics 157

LET US DO IT TOGETHER
• This chapter covers the major developments in Indian politics until
the 2004 Elections (14th Lok Sabha). Subsequently, the Lok Sabha
elections were held in 2009, during which the UPA led by the Congress
won. In the 2014 and 2019 Elections, the NDA led by the BJP emerged
victorious. The position of various parties in the 17th Lok Sabha is given
on page 155.
• A detailed study of Members of the 17th Lok Sabha is available on the
website of the Lok Sabha (http://loksabha.nic.in).
• Compare and contrast the electoral performances of various political
parties since 2004. The table given below can be used for this. You can
also collect the data about the results from the website of the Election
Commission of India (http://eci.nic.in).
• Prepare a timeline of the major political events in India since 2004.
Share and discuss it in your classroom.

EXERCISES
Party Positions in Indian Parliament since 2004

Party 2004 2009 2014 2019

1 Aam Aadmi Party (AAP) - - 4 1
2 All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam 0 9 37 1
(AIADMK)
3 Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) 19 21 - 10
4 Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) 138 116 282 303
5 Biju Janata Dal (BJD) 11 14 20 12
6 Communist Party of India – Marxist (CPI-M) 43 16 9 3
7 Communist Party of India (CPI) 10 4 1 2
8 Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) 16 18 - 24
9 Indian National Congress(INC) 145 206 44 52
10 Janata Dal - United (JD -U) 8 20 2 16
11 Janata Dal -Secular (JD - S) 3 3 2 1
12 Lok Jan Shakti Party (LJSP) 4 - 6 6
13 Nationalist Congress Party (NCP) 9 9 6 5
14 Rashtriya Janata Dal (RJD) 24 4 4 -
15 Rashtriya Lok Dal (RLD) 3 5 1 -
16 Samajwadi Party (SP) 36 23 5 5
17 Shiromani Akali Dal (SAD) 8 4 4 2
18 Shiv Sena (SS) 12 11 18 18
19 Others 54 60 98 82
Total 543 543 543 543
Total Seats in Indian Parliament : 543 (530 from States and 13 from UTs)

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 Source: Election Commission of India

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 Notes

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