GS3 Disaster Management – Part 1

Team Shashank Sajwan

DISASTERS
• A disaster is a sudden natural or man-made (technological) hazard resulting in an event
of substantial extent causing significant physical damage or destruction, loss of lite,
wealth and environment as well.
• All hazards need not turn into disasters and it is difficult to eliminate disasters, the next
best option is mitigation and preparedness.

DISASTERS AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS

• The United Nations defines disaster as the occurrence of sudden or major misfortunate
which disrupts the basic fabric and normal functioning of society or community.
• Important characteristics of disasters are given below
o Hazard is a threat, a dangerous physical condition or event. Disaster is a calamity or a
consequence of a hazard. Natural hazards that cause great loss to human life and
economy are called disasters and catastrophes. A disaster disrupts the normal
functioning of the society.
o Earthquakes, floods, volcanic eruption, landslides, droughts, etc. are called natural
hazards before they cause loss of life and damage to property.
o A natural hazard may cause injury, loss of life or damage of property in a small scale.
While a disaster causes widespread loss to life and property. The magnitude, intensity,
frequency and damages caused by natural disasters have increased over the years.
• A disaster is assessed on the following basis
o Disruption to normal pattern of life, which is usually severe, sudden and may be
unexpected.
o Community needs such as shelter, food, clothing, medical assistance and social care in
case of disaster. The damage to infrastructure, buildings, communications and other
essential services.
o Human effects such as loss of life, livelihood and property.

FACTORS OF DISASTERS
• Vulnerability is defined as 'the extent to which a community, structure, services or
geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by the impact of particular hazard.
It depends on their nature, construction and proximity to hazardous terrains or a
disaster-prone area. It can be categorized into physical and socio-economic vulnerability.
Disasters occur when hazards meet vulnerability.
• The aggravating factors of disasters are as follows

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(i) Environmental Degradation Many disasters are either caused or aggravated by
environmental degradation. e.g., deforestation leads to rapid runoff which contributes
to soil erosion and flooding.
(ii) Poverty The wealthier ones among the population are less affected and also able to
recover quickly from disasters. However, poverty generally makes people more
vulnerable to all the impacts of disasters.
(iii) Population Growth Increasing number of people compete for limited resources which
can lead to crisis-induced migration. This aggravates the disasters in developing
countries.
(iv) Transitions in Social Practices Some societies are under a state of transition which is
often disruptive and uneven. It leaves gaps in social coping mechanisms and available
technology.
(v) Rapid and Unplanned Urbanization Rapid and unplanned urbanization makes the poor
people to live at unsafe places and with least resources at their disposal.
(vi) Lack of Awareness and Information Lack of awareness and proper information usually
converts a hazard into a disaster. This ignorance may not necessary be due to poverty
but due to lack of awareness of what measures can be taken to build safe structures on
safe locations.

CLASSIFICATION OF DISASTER
• Disasters are mainly classified into two categories-Natural disasters and Man-made
disasters.

1. Natural Disasters
• Natural disasters are caused because of natural phenomena which may be
meteorological, geological or biological.
• Examples of natural disasters are earthquake, cyclones, tsunami and volcanic eruption
which are exclusively of natural origin.
• Some of the major natural disasters are given as under

Earthquake
• An earthquake is a vibration or oscillation of the surface of the Earth caused by the
elasticity or the isostatic adjustment of the rocks, beneath the surface of the Earth.
• Main features of earthquakes are given as under
o In the last few years, the country has experienced many major earthquakes that have
resulted in over thousands deaths.
- The entire Himalayan belt is prone to earthquakes of high magnitude.
o Earthquakes that are of tectonic origin have proved to be the most devastating and their
area of influence is also quite large.
o As compared to these, the earthquakes associated with volcanic eruption, rock fall,
landslides, subsidence, particularly in the mining areas, impounding of dams and
reservoirs, etc. have limited area of influence and the scale of damage.

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o The Richter scale of earthquake, magnitude was devised by Charles F Richter to indicate
the quantity of energy released by a single earthquake.

Earthquake Zones of India

• India has been divided into tour seismic zones viz. Zone-II, III, IV and V unlike its previous
version which consisted of five zones for the country.
• After some revisions in the previous zoning, Zone I was altogether removed. This zoning
has been done on the basis of MSK-64 scale and an IS Code Zone factor has been
assigned by the BIS to each of them.

Consequences of Earthquakes
• Earthquake is often associated with fear and horror due to the scale, magnitude and
suddenness at which it strikes the surface of the Earth.
• The major impacts of earthquakes are given as under
(i) Damage of Property Underground pipelines and railway lines are damaged or broken.
Dams on river collapse and resultant floods cause havoc and buildings collapse.
(ii) Human Loss In the 2015 earthquake of Nepal nearly 10000 people died. In Bihar
earthquake of 1934 and in Kangra earthquake of 1905, 10,000 and 20,000 people died
respectively.
(iii) Changes in River Courses Sometimes River channels are blocked or their courses are
changed due to the impact of earthquake.
(iv) Tsunamis It wreaks havoc on settlement of coastal areas. It sinks large ships. Tsunami
that occurred on 26th December, 2004 near coast of Sumatra (Indonesia) destroyed
property worth billions of rupees.
(v) Fountains of Mud Sometimes, due to the intense impact of earthquake, hot water and
mud appear on the surface and take a form of fountain. In Bihar earthquake of 1934,
some cracks and fissures had developed. The fields of farmer also were covered by knee-
deep mud and the crops were destroyed. Landslides and avalanches are also triggered
by earthquakes.

Mitigation Measures of Earthquakes

• Earthquake monitoring centres (seismological centres) for regular monitoring and fast
dissemination of information among the people in the vulnerable areas has been
established.
(i) Community preparedness is vital for mitigating earthquake impact. Most effective way
to save you even in a slightest shaking is drop cover and hold.
(ii) Planning The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes and guidelines for
safe construction of buildings against earthquakes. Many existing lifeline buildings need
to be upgraded by retrofitting techniques.
(iii) Public Education On causes and characteristics of an earthquake and preparedness
measures. It can be created through sensitization and training programme for
community, architects, engineers, builders, masons, teachers, government
functionaries, teachers and students.

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(iv) Engineered Structures Buildings need to be designed and constructed as per the
building codes to withstand ground shaking. The soil type needs to be analyzed before
construction. Building structures on soft soil should be avoided.

India's Preparedness for Mitigating Impacts of Earthquakes

• India installed its first earthquake early warning system in Uttarakhand.
o It has been installed for the first time in India to detect earthquakes and disseminate
warnings in Uttarakhand.
o All sensor system that warn of earthquakes are based on the detection of P and S waves
generated during an earthquake
o The first earthquake early warning system has been installed in Dehradun and the
second will be established at Pithoragarh in the Kumaon region.
o Earthquake early warning systems have been deployed in only a handful of the world's
seismic hot zones e.g., Mexico, Japan, USA, etc.

Floods
• Floods are sudden and temporary inundation of a large area by overflowing rivers or
reservoirs. Unlike other natural disasters, the causes of floods are well established.
• Unlike other natural disasters, human beings play an important role in the genesis as
well as spread of floods.

Causes of Floods
• The causes of flood are as follows
(i) Heavy Rainfall Heavy rain in the catchment area of a river causes water to overflow its
banks. which results in the flooding of nearby areas. Example-Kerala in 2018.
(ii) Sediment Deposition Riverbeds become shallow due to sedimentation. The water
carrying capacity of such river is reduced. As a result, the heavy rainwater overflow the
river banks. Example-Bihar in 2019.
(iii) Deforestation Vegetation hampers the flow of water and forces it to percolate in the
ground. As a result of deforestation, the land becomes obstruction free and water flows
with greater speed into the rivers and causes flood.
(iv) Cyclone Cyclone generated seawaves of abnormal height spread the water in the
adjoining coastal areas. In 2019, Fani Cyclone in Odisha and Maha in Gujarat generated
severe floods and caused unprecedented loss of life and property.
(v) Interference in Drainage System Drainage congestion caused by badly planned
construction of bridges, roads, railway tracks, canals, etc. hampers the flow of water and
the result is flood. Example-Mumbai Floods, 2017.
(vi) Change in the Course of the River Meanders and change in the course of the river cause
floods.
(vii) Tsunami Large coastal areas are flooded by rising sea water, when a tsunami strikes
the coast. Example-Fukushima 2012, Indian Ocean in 2005.

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 Flood Prone Areas of India
• The flood prone areas of India are as follows
o The most flood prone areas are the Brahmaputra, Ganga and Indus basins. As far as
states are concerned, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal and Odisha are the most flood
affected states followed by Haryana, Punjab and Andhra Pradesh.
o Now-a-days, Rajasthan and Gujarat also bear the fury of floods. Karnataka and
Maharashtra are no longer immune to floods.

Impacts of Floods
• The impacts of floods are as follows
o Frequent inundation of agricultural land and human settlement have serious
consequences on the national economy and society.
o Floods not only destroy valuable crops every year but also damage physical
infrastructure. Such as roads, rails, bridges and human settlements, with spread of
diseases like cholera in the flood-affected areas.

Mitigation and Control Measures

• The mitigation and control measures are as follows
(i) Warning With the advancement of technology such as satellite and remote-sensing
equipment, flood waves can be tracked as the water level rises. Heavy precipitation will
give sufficient warning of the coming river flood.
o Warning is issued by the Central Water Commission (CWC), Irrigation and Flood Control
Department and Water Resources Department.
(ii) Vulnerability Mapping of the Flood Prone Areas Historical records give the indication of
the flood inundation areas and the period of occurrence and the extent of the coverage.
(iii) Land Use Control It will reduce danger of life and property when water inundate the
floodplains and the coastal areas.
o No major development should be permitted in the areas which are subjected to high
flooding.
(iv) Flood Control It aims to reduce flood damage. This can be done by decreasing the
amount of runoff with the help of reforestation protection of vegetation, clearing of
debris from streams and other water holding areas, conservation of ponds and lakes,
etc.
o Dams can store water and can release water at a manageable rate.
(v) Flood Proofing It reduces the risk of damage. Measures include use of sand bags to keep
flood water away, blocking or sealing of doors and windows of houses, etc. Houses may
be elevated by building houses on raised land.
(vi) Restoration of Original Drainage System Drainage system is generally choked by the
construction of roads, canals, railway tracks, etc.
o Floods could be checked if the original form of drainage system is restored.

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 Urban Floods
• Flood is defined as an overflow of a large body of water over areas not usually
inundated.
• Thus, flooding in urban areas is caused by intense and prolonged rainfall, which
overwhelms the capacity of the drainage system.
• The coastal urban flooding is a complex phenomenon which may occur in various forms
such as: urban flooding due to high intensity rainfall; due to inadequate drainage and
flooding caused by overtopping in the channels or rivers; flooding due to high tides, etc.

Reasons for Urban Flooding

• Meteorological Factors It include heavy rainfall, cyclonic storms and thunderstorms.
Example, Coastal regions of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
• Hydrological Factors It include presence or absence of overbank flow channel networks
and occurrence of high tides impeding the drainage in coastal cities.
• Human Factors It include land use changes, surface sealing due to urbanization (which
increases run-off), occupation of flood plains and obstruction of flood flows, urban heat
island effect etc. Example, Chennai floods of 2017, Mumbai Floods.
• Urbanization Rapid urbanization combined with a lack of efficient waste disposal
systems has left several water bodies in the cities in poor condition. Blocked waterways
and reduced width and depth of canals, reduces the permeability of the ground.
• Improper Drainage In Indian cities and towns, large habitations are coming up in low-
lying areas, often encroaching over drainage channels.
• Population Growth Most of our cities have reached a saturation point in terms of
population growth and accommodation, and the developmental activities have now
shifted to low-lying areas and areas next to the riverbanks.

Measures to Prevent Urban Flooding

• Early Warning System and Communication Dissemination of flood warnings must be
carried out, using a wide range of latest technologies. This would help in giving real time
data where traditional systems fail.
• Design and Management of Urban Drainage System Proper management of drainage
system is necessary to ensure that the water does not get stored in one place.
• Rainwater Harvesting Due to urbanization, groundwater recharge has decreased and
the peak runoff from rainfall and consequent flooding has increased.
• Conservation of Water Bodies Urban water bodies like lakes, tanks and ponds also play
a very important role in the management of urban flooding by reducing the storm water
run-off by capturing it.
o Some recent examples of Urban Floods include those in Bihar and Assam in 2019; Kerala
in 2018; Bengaluru in 2017; Chennai in 2017; Mumbai in 2017 etc.

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 Cloudburst
• A cloudburst is a sudden downpour within a radius of few kilometers. It usually lasts no
longer than few minutes but is capable of flooding the area.
• Rainfall from a cloudburst is usually over 100 mm per hour.

Causes of Cloudburst
• The causes of cloudburst are as follows
o The cumulonimbus is a tall cloud that contains very high amount of moisture. Such
clouds are associated with thunderstorms. Typically, these are the clouds which are
usually responsible for cloudbursts.
o Most cloudbursts occur in association with thunderstorms. In such type of storms, there
are strong upward rushes of air. These updrafts are filled with turbulent wind pockets
that shove the small raindrops around leading to collisions between raindrops.
o The forceful upward rush of air also prevents the condensing raindrops from falling
downwards. So, instead of falling down to Earth, the water droplets are pushed upwards
till a large amount of water accumulates at a high level.
o Hilly areas are more prone to cloudburst. The topographical conditions like steep hills
favour the formation of these clouds.
o As water flowing down the steep slopes bring debris, boulders and uprooted trees with
great velocity, they damage any structure that comes in their way.

Cloudbursts in India
• In one of India's worst cloudbursts, Leh recorded over 12 mm of rainfall in just few
minutes on 6th August, 2010.
• It left at least 1000 dead and hundreds injured.
• A very fine network of radars is required to detect the likelihood of a cloudburst.
• Much of the damage can be avoided by way of identifying the areas and the
meteorological situations that favour the occurrence of cloudbursts.

Drought
• Drought is either absence or deficiency of rainfall from its normal pattern in a region for
an extended period of time leading to general suffering in the society.
• It is an interplay between demand that people place on natural supply of water and
natural processes that provide the water in a given geographical region.
• Drought is a complex phenomenon as it involves elements like precipitation,
evaporation, evapotranspiration. ground water, soil moisture, storage and surface run-
off agricultural practices particularly the types of crops grown. socio-economic practices
and ecological conditions.

Types of Droughts
• The drought is broadly divided into five parts

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(i) Meteorological Drought When there is a prolonged period of inadequate rainfall poorly
distributed over time and space, rainfall less than 90 per cent of average is categorized
as meteorological drought.
(ii) Agricultural Drought It is characterized by low soil moisture that is necessary to support
the crops. An extreme agricultural drought can lead to famine, which is a prolonged
shortage of food in a restricted region causing widespread disease and death from
starvation.
(iii) Hydrological Drought When the availability of water in different storages and reservoirs
like aquifers, lakes, reservoirs, etc. falls below what the precipitation can replenish.
(iv) Ecological Drought When the productivity of a natural ecosystem fails due to shortage
of water and as a consequence of ecological distress, damages are induced in the
ecosystem.
(v) Socio-Economic Drought It correlates the supply and demand of goods and services with
the four above-mentioned types of droughts.

Consequences of Drought
• Following are the consequences of drought
o Crops fail due to scarcity of water.
o Droughts cause scarcity of food and water.
o People die of hunger, malnutrition and epidemics.
o People are forced to migrate from their area of residence
o Farmers are deprived of their employment.
o Cattle die because fodder and water are not easily available.

Drought Prone Areas in India

• According to some estimates, nearly 42 per cent of the total geographical area of the
country and 40 per cent of its total population suffer due to drought every year.
• About 30 per cent of the country's total area is identified as drought prone.
• On the basis of severity of droughts, India can be divided into the three regions
(i) Extreme Drought Affected Areas Most parts of Rajasthan, particularly areas to the West
of the Aravalli hills, i.e., Marusthali and Kutch regions of Gujarat fall in this category. The
districts like Jaisalmer and Barmer from the Indian desert that receive less than 90 mm
average annual rainfall, also fall in this category.
(ii) Severe Drought Prone Areas Parts of Eastern Rajasthan, most parts of Madhya Pradesh,
Eastern parts of Maharashtra, interior parts of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka plateau,
Northern parts of interior Tamil Nadu and Southern parts of Jharkhand and interior
Odisha.
(iii) Moderate Drought Affected Areas Northern parts of Rajasthan, Haryana, Southern
districts of Uttar Pradesh, the remaining parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra except Konkan,
Jharkhand and Coimbatore plateau of Tamil Nadu and interior Karnataka.
o It is common that same region faces drought in one season and flood in another season.

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 Mitigation Measures of Drought
(i) Drought Monitoring It is continuous observation of the rainfall situation, availability of
water in the reservoirs, lakes, rivers, etc. and comparing with the existing water needs in
various sectors of the society.
(ii) Drought Planning The basic goal of drought planning is to improve the effectiveness of
preparedness and response efforts by enhancing monitoring, mitigation and response
measures.
o Distribution of safe drinking water, medicines for the victims and availability of fodder
and water for the cattle and shifting of the people and their livestock to safer places.
(iii) Suitable Farming Methods for Arid Areas By adopting these methods, it is possible to
mitigate the intensity of drought.
(iv) Sowing Drought Resistant Crops By sowing drought resistant crops like cotton, moong,
pearl millet, wheat, etc., the impact of drought could be mitigated to a certain extent.
(v) Rainwater Harvesting Collection of each and every drop of rain could help in coping
with the drought. By making high bunds around the fields, adoption of terrace
cultivation, planting trees on the bunds of fields, the use of rainwater can be maximized.

Government's Initiatives to Tackle Drought

• Indian Meteorological Department came up with timely predictions of rainfall, thus
allowing the farmers to plan their crops accordingly.
• Government has been storing foodgrains above the normal level to address any possible
food shortage. Deals are made with various countries like Tanzania, Mozambique,
Kenya, etc. to import pulses and oilseeds in order to avoid food inflation.
• Policies like Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana to address specific problems are
being implemented. Extension of irrigation facilities and encouraging micro-irrigation
e.g., drip and sprinkler irrigation.
• PM Fasal Bima Yojana was expanded to droughts under calamity category.
• PM Jal Jeevan Mission to supply potable water to every household.

Landslides
• The term ‘landslide’ includes all kinds of mass movements of hill slopes and can be
defined as the downward and outward movement of slope forming materials composed
of rocks, soils, artificial fills or combination of all these materials along surfaces of
separation by falling, sliding and flowing, either slowly or quickly from one place to
another.

Causes of Landslides
• Following are the causes of landslides
(i) Heavy Rain Heavy rain can trigger landslides and mudslides because it alters the
pressure within the slope.
(ii) Deforestation Tree, brushes and grasses keep the soil particles compact. Mountain
slope loses their protective cover by felling of trees.
(iii) Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruption Earthquake is a common feature in the Himalaya.

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(iv) Building of Roads During the process of the construction of road, a large amount, of
rocks and debris has to be removed.
(v) Construction of Houses and Other Buildings For giving shelter to the ever-increasing
population and promotion of tourism, more and more houses and hotels are being built.
In building processes, large amount of debris is created. This causes landslides.

Landslides in India
• Landslides and avalanches are among the major hydro-geological hazards that affect
large parts of India.
(i) Very High Vulnerability Zone Highly unstable, relatively young mountainous areas in the
Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar, high rainfall regions with steep slopes in the
Western Ghats and Nilgiris, the North-Eastern regions, along with areas that experience
frequent earthquakes, etc. It is area of intense human activities, particularly those
related to construction of roads, dams, etc.
(ii) High Vulnerability Zone Areas that have almost similar conditions to the very high
vulnerability zone except intensity and frequency as controlling factors.
(iii) Moderate to Low Vulnerability Zone Areas that receive less precipitation such as Trans
Himalayan areas of Ladakh and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh), the Aravalli, rain shadow areas
in the Western and Eastern Ghats and Deccan plateau also experience occasional
landslides. Landslides due to mining and subsidence are most common in states like
Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra etc.
(iv) Other Areas The remaining parts of India particularly states like Rajasthan, Haryana,
Uttar West Bengal, West Bengal (except district Darjeeling), Assam (except district Karbi
Anglong) and coastal regions of the Southern states are safe as far as landslides are
concerned.

Impacts of Landslides
• The impacts of landslides are as follows
o Landslides are degrading the environment of mountains.
o Sources of water are drying up. Diversion of river courses due to landslides can also lead
to flood and hence, loss of life and property.

Mitigation and Management of Landslides

• Mitigation and management of landslides are as follows
o It is always advisable to adopt area specific measures to deal with landslides.
o Hazard mapping should be done to locate areas commonly prone to landslides.
o Restriction on the construction and other developmental activities such as roads and
dams, limiting agriculture to valleys and areas with moderate slopes and control on the
development of large settlements in the high vulnerability zones, should be enforced.
o Promotion of large-scale afforestation programmes and construction of bunds to reduce
the flow of water.
o Terrace farming should be encouraged in the North-Eastern hill states replacing
humming or shifting cultivation.

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o Retaining walls can be built off mountain slopes to stop land from slipping.

Tsunami
• Tsunami is a Japanese word which means ‘harbour waves.’ Earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions that cause the seafloor to move abruptly resulting in sudden displacement of
ocean water in the form of high vertical waves are called tsunamis or seismic sea waves.
o Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and other under water explosions (including
detonations of underwater nuclear devices), landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite
impacts and other disturbances above or below water, all have the potential to generate
a tsunami.
o The passage of a tsunami involves the movement of water from the surface to the
seafloor which means its speed is controlled by water depth. When a tsunami travels
over a long and gradual slope, it allows time for the tsunami to grow in wave height. This
is called shoaling and typically occurs in shallow water less than 100 m deep.
o The speed of wave in the ocean depends upon the depth of water. It is less in the
shallow water than in the ocean deep.

Tsunami in India
• Even though India has not faced frequent tsunamis but there is a need to identify the
areas that are generally affected by tsunamis. The whole of the Indian coastal belt is
prone to tsunami.

Impacts of Tsunami
• After reaching the coast, the tsunami waves release enormous energy stored in them
and water flows turbulently onto the land destroying coastal cities and towns,
structures, buildings and other settlements.
• The loss of life and property is likely to be much higher by a tsunami as compared to
other natural hazards in the coastal areas due to high population density and centre of
economic activities.

Mitigation Measures of Tsunami

• India joined International Tsunami Warning System after the December, 2004 tsunami
disaster.
• Its main features are as follows
o The Government of India has put in place an Early Warning System for mitigation of such
oceanographic disasters under the control of Indian National Center for Ocean
Information Services (INCOIS), Hyderabad.
o A state-of-the-art Early Warning Centre was established that enables reception of real
time data from sensors, analysis of the data, generation and dissemination of tsunami
advisories following a standard operating procedure.
o Seismic and sea level data are continuously monitored in the Early Warning Centre
whenever a pre-set threshold is crossed.

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o The NDMA formulated the Tsunami Risk Management Guidelines to outline interagency
coordination and cooperation.
o Enhancing the mangroove forest cover along coasts to shelter against the tsunami
waves.

Cyclone
• Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high atmospheric
pressure resulting in swirling atmospheric disturbance accompanied by powerful winds
blowing in anti-clockwise direction in the Northern hemisphere and in clockwise
direction in the Southern hemisphere.
• They occur mainly in the tropical and temperate regions of the world.
• Tropical cyclones vary in diameter from 50 to 320 km but their effects dominate
thousands of square kilometers of ocean surface and the lower atmosphere.
• The tropical cyclones are characterized by destructive winds, torrential rainfall and
storm surges which disrupt normal life with the accompanying phenomena of floods due
to the very high level of rainfall and storm surge led inundation into inland areas.

Occurrence of Cyclone in India

• The occurrence of cyclone in India are as follows
o On an average, five to six tropical cyclones form every year, out of which two or three
could be severe. More cyclones occur in the Bay of Bengal than the Arabian Sea and the
ratio is approximately 4:1.
o The Indian sub-continent with a long coastline of 7516 km is exposed to nearly 10 per
cent of the world's tropical cyclones.
o Tropical cyclones occur in the months of May-Tune and October-November. Cyclones of
severe intensity and frequency in the North Indian Ocean are bi-modal in character, with
their primary peak in November and secondary peak in May.
o The disaster potential is particularly high during these months in the Bay of Bengal and
the Arabian Sea due to the destructive wind, storm surges and torrential rainfall.
o Of these, storm surges cause the most damage as sea water inundates low lying areas of
coastal regions and causes heavy floods, erodes beaches and embankments, destroys
vegetation and reduces soil fertility.
o The states which are generally affected in the East coast are West Bengal, Odisha,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and on the West coast are Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa,
Karnataka and Kerala.
o The Odisha cyclone of 1999 was the deadliest cyclone in India with more than 20000
casualities. Cyclone fani, phailin and Ockhi were also in intense category.

Impacts of Cyclones
• The impacts of cyclones are as follows
o The cyclones cause great damage throughout the entire path of its passage. The strong
cyclonic winds that precede and follow the cyclone and the heavy and torrential rains
cause floods, which play havoc all around.

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o The winds passing over ocean or sea give rise to mighty waves called 'storm surges'.
They strike the coastal areas like a huge wall of water and cause damage upto 10-15 km
away from the coast towards the land.
o The landslides prompted by cyclonic conditions become more dangerous and
destructive.
o High winds and rains ruin the standing crop and food stock lying-in low-lying areas. Salt
from the sea water may get deposited on the agricultural land and increase the salinity.
The loss of the crop may lead to acute food shortage.
o Severe disruption in the communication links as the wind may bring down the electricity
and communication towers, telephone poles, telephone lines, antennas and satellite
disk and broadcasting services.

Warning and Risk Reduction Efforts of Cyclone

• Cyclone mitigation encompasses the actions and planning taken before cyclone.
• This also involves early warning system and risk reduction efforts.

Warning
• Low pressure condition and the development of cyclone can be detected hours or days
before it causes damage.
• The satellites track the movement of these cyclones based on which the people are
evacuated from areas likely to be affected.
• The Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) is the Nodal Department for wind
detection, tracking and forecasting cyclones.

Risk Reduction Measures

(i) Coastal Belt Plantation Green belt and mangroove plantation along the coastal line in a
scientific inter-weaving pattern can reduce the effect of the hazard.
o They act as a wide buffer zone against strong winds and flash floods.
(ii) Hazard Mapping Meteorological records of the wind speed and the directions give the
probability of the winds in the region.
o Cyclones can be predicted several days in advance. A hazard map will illustrate the areas
vulnerable to cyclone in any given year.
(iii) Land Use Control The land use must be designed in such a way that least critical
activities are placed in vulnerable areas. Location of settlements in the flood plains is at
utmost risk.
o Policies should be in place to regulate land use and building codes should be enforced.
(iv) Engineered Structures Structures need to be built to withstand wind forces.
Good site selection is also important. Houses can be strengthened to resist wind and
flood damage.
(v) Flood Management Torrential rains, strong wind and storm range lead to flooding in the
cyclone affected areas. There are possibilities of landslides too. Flood mitigation
measures could be incorporated.

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 National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project
• The Government of India had initiated the National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project
(NCRMP) with a view to address cyclone risks in the country.
• National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) under the aegis of Ministry of Home
Affairs (MHA) implements the project in coordination with participating State
Governments and the National Institute for Disaster Management (NIDM).
• The project identified 13 cyclone prone states and Union Territories (UTs), with varying
levels of vulnerability.
• The project development objective of the NCRMP is to reduce vulnerability of coastal
communities to cyclone and other hydro meteorological hazards through
o improved early warning dissemination systems.
o enhanced capacity of local communities to respond to disasters. improved access to
emergency shelter, evacuation, and protection against wind storms, flooding and storm
surge in high areas.
o Strengthening DRM capacity at central, state and local levels in order to enable
mainstreaming of risk mitigation measures into the overall development agenda

Heat Waves
• Heat wave is a continuous spell of abnormally hot weather. It is when the maximum
temperature of a station reaches at least 40°C or more for Plains, 37°C or more for
coastal stations and at least 30°C or more for Hilly regions.
• Heat Waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases even
extend till July.
• Higher daily peak temperatures and longer, more intense heat waves are becoming
increasingly frequent globally due to climate change
• Following criteria are used to declare heat wave
1. Based on Departure from Normal.
o Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5°C to 6.4°C.
o Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is >6.4°C.
2. Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only).
o Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 45°C.
o Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature ≥ 47°C.
• When the actual maximum temperature remains 45°C or more irrespective of normal
maximum temperature, heat waves should be declared.

Heat Waves in India

• In the three-year period of 2014-2017, the average length of heat waves in India ranged
from 3-4 days against the global average of 0.8-1.8 days.
• Indians were exposed to almost 60 million heat wave exposure events in 2016, a jump of
about 40 million from 2012.
• The agriculture sector was more vulnerable compared to the industrial and service
sectors because workers there were more likely to be exposed to heat.

14
• The India Meteorological Department had reported that from 1901 to 2007, there was
an increase of more than 0.5°C in mean temperature, with considerable geographic
variation, and climate forecasts b research groups project a 2.2-5.5°C rise in
temperatures in Northern, Central and Western India by the end of the 21st century.

Impacts of Heat Waves

• Adverse health effects like heat edema, heat stroke and rash, heat syncope, heat
cramps, exhaustion and in extreme cases fatality. For example, in 2019, nearly 200
people perished in India due to severe heat wave conditions.
• In addition to physical stress, excessive heat causes psychological stress which affects
productivity both economic and individual.
• If a heat wave occurs during a drought which dries out vegetation, it can contribute to
bushfires and wildfires. Like the disastrous heat wave that struck Europe in 2003, fires
raged through Portugal, destroying over 3,000 k𝑚2 .
• Heat waves can and do cause roads and highways to buckle and melt, water lines to
burst, and power transformers to detonate, causing fires.
• Heat waves along with droughts can cause severe consequences on environment like
minimizing ecosystem carbon uptake.

Mitigation Measure of Heat Waves

• Identify heat hot-spots through appropriate tracking of meteorological data.
• Promote timely development and implementation of local Heat Action Plans with
strategic inter-agency co-ordination and a response which targets the most vulnerable
groups.
• Review existing occupational health standards, labour laws and sectoral regulations for
worker safety in relation to climatic conditions.

2. Man-made Disasters
• Man-made disasters are caused due to human negligence. They are associated with
industries or energy generation facilities and include explosions, leakage of toxic waste,
pollution, dam failure, wars or civil strife, etc.

Industrial Disasters
• Among the man-made disasters, probably the most devastating (after wars) are
industrial disasters.
• Industrial accidents can occur due to explosion, fire and leakage of toxic or hazardous
chemicals and lead to heavy loss of life and material.
• Many people may die either due to mechanical damage from explosion or fire or due to
toxicity of the poisonous chemicals.
• The routes of exposure to chemical released from accidents are from inhalation, eye
exposure, skin contact and ingestion.

15
• The immediate effects include death or other symptoms like dizziness, headache,
irritation, etc.
• The long-term effects may include cancer, heart failure, brain damage, disfunction of
immune system, deformation, genetic disorders or congenital (by birth) disorders in
children.

Biological Disasters
• Biological disasters are natural scenarios involving disease, disability or death on a large
scale among humans, animals and plants due to micro-organisms like bacteria, or virus
or toxins.
• Biological disasters may be in the form of:
o Epidemic affecting a disproportionately large number of individuals within a population,
community, or region at the same time, examples being Cholera, Plague.
o Pandemic is an epidemic that spreads across a large region, that is, a continent, or even
worldwide of existing, emerging or reemerging diseases and pestilences, example being
Influenza H1N1 (Swine Flu).
• Prevention of Biological Disasters
o Environmental Management like safe water supply, proper maintenance of sewage
pipelines, Awareness of personal hygiene and vector control.
o Post-disaster Epidemics Prevention like the Integrated Disease Surveillance Systems
which monitors the sources, modes of diseases spreading, and investigates the
epidemics.
o Detection and Containment of outbreaks which involves recognizing and diagnosing;
communicating surveillance information and public health measures and delivering
proper medical treatment.

Nuclear and Radioactive Disasters

• The growth in the application of nuclear science and technology in the fields of power
generation, medicine, industry, agriculture, research and defence has led to an increase
in the risk of occurrence of Nuclear and Radiological emergencies.
• However, nuclear emergencies can still arise due to factors beyond the control of the
operating agencies; e.g., human error, system failure, sabotage, earthquake, cyclone,
flood.
• Like the Chernobyl Nuclear Accident of 1986 and the Fukushima Disaster of 2011.
• The International Atomic Energy Agency classifies the above nuclear emergencies under
two broad categories
o A nuclear emergency refers to an emergency situation in which there is, or is presumed
to be, a hazard due to the release of energy along with radiation from a nuclear chain
reaction.
o All other emergency situations, which have the potential hazard of radiation exposure
due to decay of radioisotopes are classified as radiological emergencies
• The Government of India has identified Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) as the nodal
agency for providing the necessary technical inputs to the national or local.

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• The Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal ministry in such emergencies. For this purpose,
a Crisis Management Group has been functioning since 1987 at DAE.

Mitigation and Preparation

• To reduce radiation-induced health effects by preventing.
• To limit the occurrence of stochastic effects in the population.
• Specialized Response Teams are being specially trained by NDMA with assistance from
DAE/DRDO to provide specialized response during a nuclear and radiological disaster.
• Periodic Exercises and Mock Drills on roles and responsibilities resource identification,
use of equipment, understanding the effects of radiation on human beings, animals and
the environment.
• Radiation Detection, Monitoring Instruments and Protective Gear.
• A network of simple environmental monitors the Indian Environmental Radiation
Monitoring Network was established by BARC, Which works on a 24 x 7 basis.

Chemical Disasters
• Chemical disasters are occurrence of emission, fire or explosion involving one or more
hazardous chemicals in the course of industrial activity i.e., handling storage or
transportation or due to natural events.

Factors which Cause Chemical Disaster

• Ageing of the process plants and inadequate pace of modernization in Indian chemical
industry has increased vulnerability to chemical disasters.
• Human errors, as a result of non-compliance with standard operating procedure that
have been put into place by the company. Example, Piper alpha accident of 1988 in
North Sea, Union Carbide disaster in Bhopal in 1984.
• Chemical disasters have also occurred due to defects in design, absence of early
warning, and poor co-ordination between different departments within the chemical
company.
• Natural disasters such as flood and earthquakes have also caused major disasters in
chemical industry. The release of acrylonitrile at Kandla Port in Gujarat, during an
earthquake in 2001.
• Irregular improper maintenance of equipment in chemical industry, due to this
equipment gets malfunction and ultimately fails, resulting in catastrophic explosion.

Mitigation and Preparation

• Identification of hazardous activities, Maintenance of the plant facility and equipment,
compliance with existing rules and regulations and emergency preparedness by the
Industrial Sector.
• Setting up of accident investigation board and chemicals accident data base by
government.

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• Awareness Campaigns, R&D, Offsite Emergency Planning and Emergency Response
during Transportation.

Stampedes
• A stampede is an act of mass impulse among a crowd of people in which the crowd
collectively begins to run with no clear direction or purpose.
• Human stampedes most often occur during religious pilgrimages, professional sporting
or music events as these events tend to involve a large number of people.
• They also occur in times of panic (e.g. as a result of a fire or explosion) as people try to
get away.
• However, more common causes are when the crowd are trying to get towards
something as those in the back continue pushing forward not knowing that those in the
front are being crushed.
• In India, majority of stampedes occur at religious places. e.g., in Kumbh Mela, Chhath
Puja stampede, Varanasi stampede, Nainadevi temple stampede, Mandher Devi temple
stampede.
• Human stampedes can be prevented by organisation and traffic controls, such as
barries.
• At the individual level, warning signs of a crowd crush include density of more than four
people per square meter at which each person is being touched on four sides.
• To avoid or escape from a crowd crush, one is advised to move sideways, particularly
between swells.

Accidents
• Various types of accidents which include rail, road, etc. are another major contributor to
the unwanted casualties across the globe and especially in India.
• In fact, India ranks at the top in such accidents. Traffic rules violation, unmanned and
without protection railway crossings, negligence, etc. are some of the reasons
contributing to such high toll of death and injuries.

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 GS3 Disaster Management – Part 2
Team Shashank Sajwan

DISASTER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA

• India has been traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its unique geo-
climatic conditions.
• Disaster management occupies an important place in the nation's policy framework.
National disaster framework covers institutional mechanisms, disaster prevention
strategy, early warning system, disaster mitigation, preparedness, response and human
resource development.

DISASTER MANAGEMENT
• According to the UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, India suffered or estimated loss
of 80 billion US dollars from 1998-2018, due to natural disasters.
• The disasters for a long time were viewed as a consequence of natural forces and
humans saw themselves as helpless victims. But natural forces are not the only causes of
disasters. Hazards are accentuated into disasters by human activities.
• Human-made disasters have increased both in their numbers and magnitudes over the
years and concerted efforts are on at various levels to prevent and minimize their
occurrences.
• However, very little is possible to prevent natural disasters; therefore, the best way out
is to emphasize on natural disaster mitigation and management.
• Disaster management in India has evolved from an activity-based reactive set up to a
proactive institutionalized structure.

The Disaster Management Act, 2005

• The Act provides for the effective management of disaster and provides institutional
mechanisms for drawing up and monitoring the implementation of the disaster
management.
• The Act also ensures measures by the various wings of the government for prevention
and mitigation of disasters and prompt response to any disaster situation.
• The main provisions of Disaster Management Act, 2005 are as follows
o The Act provides for setting up of a National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
under the Chairmanship of the Prime Minister, State Disaster Management Authorities
(SDMAs) under the Chairmanship of the Chief Ministers, District Disaster Management
Authorities (DDMAs) under the Chairmanship of Collectors/District Magistrates/ Deputy
Commissioners.
o The Act further provides for the constitution of different Executive Committee at
national and state levels. Under its aegis, the National Institute of Disaster Management

1
 (NIDM for capacity building and National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) for response
purpose have been set up.
o It also mandates the concerned Ministries and Departments to draw up their own plans
in accordance with the National Plan.
o The Act further contains the provisions for financial mechanisms such as creation of
funds for response.
o National Disaster Mitigation Fund and similar funds at the state and district levels for the
purpose of disaster management. The Act also provides specific roles to local bodies in
disaster management.

National Executive Committee (NEC)

• A National Executive Committee is constituted under Section 8 of Disaster Management
Act, 2005 to assist the national authority in the performance of its functions.
• NEC consists of Home Secretary as its ex-officio Chairperson, with other Secretaries to
the Government of India as members.
• NEC has been given the responsibility to act as the coordinating and monitoring body for
disaster management, to prepare a National Plan, monitor the implementation of
National Policy, etc.

National and State Disaster Management Authority (NDMA and SDMA)

• The NDMA, as the apex body for disaster management, is headed by the Prime Minister
while SDMA is headed by the Chief Minister of the state.
• The District Disaster Management Authority is Co-chaired by District Collector and
elected local body head
• Its responsibilities are as follows
o Lay down policies on disaster management.
o Approve the National Plan and plans prepared by the Ministries or Departments of the
Government of India in accordance with the National Plan.
o Lay down guidelines to be followed by the State Authorities in drawing up the State
Plan.
o Coordinate the enforcement and implementation of the policy and plan for disaster
management.
o Recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation.
o Provide such support to other countries affected by major disasters as may be
determined by the Central Government.
o Take other measures for the prevention of disaster, or the mitigation or preparedness
and capacity building.
o Lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of the National Institute of
Disaster Management.

State Executive Committee (SEC)

• The Act envisages establishment of State Executive Committee, to be headed by Chief
Secretary of the State Government.

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• It has the responsibility for coordinating and monitoring the implementation of the
National Policy, the National Plan and the State Plan.

Disasters Nodal Ministry

- Natural Disasters (other than - Ministry of Home Affairs
drought)
- Drought - Ministry of Agriculture
- Air Accidents - Ministry of Civil Aviation
- Railway Accidents - Ministry of Railways
- Chemical Disasters - Ministry of Home Affairs
- Biological Disasters - Ministry of Home Affairs
- Nuclear - Ministry of Home Affairs
- Epidemics - Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare

National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)

• Disaster Management Act, 2005 entrusted the institute with numerous responsibilities,
such as
o to develop training modules.
o undertake research and documentation in disaster management.
o Organize training programmes.
o undertake and organize study courses, conferences, lectures and seminars to promote
and institutionalize disaster management.

National Disaster Response Force (NDRF)

• The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) was constituted under the Disaster
Management Act, 2005 by up-gradation/ conversion of eight standard battalions of
Central Para Military Forces i.e., two battalions each from Border Security Force (BS),
Indo-Tibetan Border Police (ITBP), Central Industrial Security Force (CIS and Central
Reserve Police Force (CRPF) as a specialist force to respond to disaster or disaster-like
situations.

National and State Disaster Response Fund

• Disaster Management Act 2005 provides for constitution of NDRF and State Disaster
Response Fund for meeting any threatening disaster management situation or disaster.
• Accordingly, Disaster Management division issued notification for the constitution of
NDRF.
• The Finance Ministry issued guidelines to the state for operation of NDRE.
• The Government of India raised this fund by levying the National Calamity Contingency
Duty on imported petrol and products, crude oil, motor cars, imported multi-utility
vehicles, two wheelers, etc.

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 National Disaster Mitigation Fund
• Section 47 of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 provided for constitution of National
Disaster Mitigation Fund.
• The provisions of the Act are as under
(a) The Central Government may, constitute a fund to be called the National Disaster
Mitigation Fund (NDMF) for project exclusively for the purpose of mitigation.
(b) `The National Disaster Mitigation Fund shall be applied by the National Disaster
Management Authority.
• Over and above the provisions of the SDRE, funding is provided from the NDRF in the
wake of calamities of severe nature.

National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM), 2009

• The policy envisages a safe and disaster resilient India by developing a holistic, proactive,
multi-disaster oriented and technology driven strategy through a culture of prevention,
mitigation, preparedness and response.
• The policy covers all aspects of disaster management including institutional and legal
arrangements, financial arrangements, disaster prevention, mitigation and
preparedness, techno-legal regime, response, relief and rehabilitation, reconstruction
and recovery, capacity development, knowledge management, research and
development.
• It focuses on the areas where action is needed and the institutional mechanism through
which such action can be channelized.
• The NPDM addresses the concerns of all the sections of the society including differently
abled persons, women, children and other disadvantaged groups in terms of granting
relief and formulating measures for rehabilitation of the persons affected by disasters.
• It aims to bring in transparency and accountability in all aspects of disaster management
through involvement of community, community-based organizations, Panchayati Raj
Institutions (PRIs), local bodies and civil society.

National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP), 2016

• The National Disaster Management Plan provides a framework and direction to the
government agencies for all phases of disaster management cycle.
• It recognizes that effective disaster management necessitates a comprehensive
framework encompassing multiple hazards.
• Following are the highlights of NDMP
o It aims to make India disaster resilient and significantly reduces the loss of lives and
assets.
o The plan is based on the four priority themes of the “Sendai Framework,” namely:
understanding disaster risk, improving disaster risk governance, investing in disaster risk
reduction (through structural and non-structural measures) and disaster preparedness.
o The plan covers all phases of disaster management: prevention, mitigation, response
and recovery. It provides for horizontal and vertical integration among all the agencies
and departments of the government.

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o The plan also spells out the roles and responsibilities of all levels of government right up
to Panchayat and Urban Local Body level in a matrix format. The plan has a regional
approach.
o It can be implemented in a scalable manner in all phases of disaster management.
o It also identifies major activities such as early warning, information dissemination,
medical care, fuel, transportation, search and rescue, evacuation, etc. to serve as a
checklist for agencies responding to a disaster.
o It also provides a generalized framework for recovery and offers flexibility to assess a
situation and build back better. To prepare communities to cope with disasters, it
emphasizes on a greater need for information, education and communication activities.

PHASES OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

• Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities, programmes and measures
which can be taken up before, during and after a disaster with the purpose to avoid a
disaster, reduce its impact or recover from its losses.
• The three key stages of activities that are taken up within disaster risk management are
as follows
(i) Before a Disaster (pre-disaster) These are the activities taken to reduce human and
property losses caused by a potential hazard. e.g., carrying out awareness campaigns,
strengthening the existing weak structures, preparation of the disaster management
plans at household and community level, etc. Such risk reduction measures taken under
this stage are termed as mitigation and preparedness activities.
(ii) During a Disaster (disaster occurrence) Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and
provisions of victims are met and suffering is minimised. Activities taken under this stage
are called emergency response activities.
(iii) After a Disaster (post-disaster) Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose
to achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of affected communities, immediately after
a disaster strikes. These are called as response and recovery activities.

PRE-DISASTER PROCESSES
Prevention and Mitigation
• Mitigation embraces measures taken to reduce both the effect of the hazard and the
vulnerable conditions to it in order to reduce the scale of a future disaster.
• Therefore, mitigation activities can be focused on the hazard itself or the elements
exposed to the threat.
• India from 2007 onwards shifted from a response-centric approach to focus on
mitigation and prevention. It is now an obligation to give impetus to projects and
programmes that develop and nurture both the culture of disaster safety and
integration of disaster prevention and mitigation into development processes.
• Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) into the developmental plans is an
important mandate of the Disaster Management Act, 2005
• Disaster Management Act, 2005 also provides for constitution of National Disaster
Mitigation Fund.

5
• Various programmes by Government of India are related to disaster mitigation and
Prevention.
• These are given as under
o National Disaster Management Programme (NDMP)
o Response preparedness planning
o National Cyclone Risk Mitigation Project with World Bank
o National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project
o National Flood Mitigation Project
o National Landslide Mitigation Project
o Expanded Disaster Risk Mitigation Project
o National Disaster Communication Network (NDCN)
o Information, Education and Community (IEC) Programme
o Micro Zonation of Major Cities
o Project Preparation Facility/ Research Programme Studies
o Zero Casuality Programme
o Vulnerability Assessment Schemes
o Pre-Disaster Mitigation (PDM)
o National Flood Insurance Programme (NFIP)

Prevention and Mitigation Measures of Pre-disaster Process

• Risk of destruction and casualties associated with different disasters can substantially be
reduced by introduction of prevention and mitigation measures.
• Mitigation is generally categorized into two main types of activities i.e. structural and
non-structural.
(i) Structural Mitigation refers to any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible
impacts of hazards which include engineering measures and construction of hazard-
resistant protective structures and infrastructure.
(ii) Non-structural Mitigation refers to policies, awareness, knowledge development, public
commitment and methods and operating practices, including participatory mechanisms
and the provision of information which can reduce risk with related impacts.

Initiatives Taken by Government

• Some of the initiatives are described below

National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Project (NERMP)

• The project aimed at strengthening the structural and non-structural earthquake
mitigation efforts and reducing the vulnerability in the high-risk districts prone to
earthquakes.
• The key outcomes were
o National building code.
o Earthquake resitient construction.
o Training programme.
o Capacity building at state/city levels.

6
o Awareness campaigns.

National Building Code (NBC)

• The National Building Code of India (NBC), a comprehensive building code, is a national
instrument providing guidelines for regulating the building construction activities across
the country.
• The salient features of the revised NBC include meeting the challenges posed by natural
calamities and reflecting the state-of-the-art and contemporary applicable international
practices.

Efforts by Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC)

• The BMTPC undertook projects for retrofitting of life-line structures for generating
awareness among the people as well as various government agencies about the need
and techniques of retrofitting.

Initiative by Ministry of Panchayati Raj

• It releases funds under Backward Regions Grant Fund (BRGF) for meeting critical
infrastructural gaps and other developmental requirements.
• The ministry has financed several district plans under the BRGE for construction of
Panchayat buildings, anganwadi centres, school buildings, classrooms, roads, bridges,
culverts, etc.

Preparedness and Response

• This protective process embraces measures which enable governments, communities
and individuals to respond rapidly to disaster situations to cope with them effectively.
• Preparedness includes the formulation of viable emergency plans, the development of
warning systems, the maintenance of inventories and the training of personnel.
• It may also embrace search and rescue measures as well as evacuation plans for areas
that may be at risk from a recurring disaster.

Indian Meteorological Department (IMD)

• IMD is the nodal agency in the country to monitor and predict the cyclonic disturbances
and issue the warning and advisory bulletins. The cyclone warnings are issued to State
Government officials in four stages viz.
o pre-cyclone watch issued 72 hours in advance
o cyclone alert issued at least 48 hours in advance
o cyclone warning issued at least 24 hours in advance and post landfall outlook issued at
least 12 hours in advance of expected time of landfall.

Central Water Commission (CWC)

• Flood forecasting network of the CWC covers the entire major flood prone inter-state
basins in the country.

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• The flood forecasting involves the following four main activities
1. Observation and collection of hydrological and hydro meteorological data
2. Transmission of data to forecasting centres.
3. Analysis of data and formulation of forecast.
4. Dissemination of forecast.

Indian National Centre for Oceanic Information System (INCOIS)

• INCOIS gives information to all responders about the origin, time, location of the
epicentre, magnitude and depth of an earthquake inside the ocean and accordingly
issues bulletins.
• Tsunami Early Warning System (TEWS) at INCOIS is capable of detecting all earthquake
events of more than 6 magnitude occurring in the Indian Ocean in less than 20 minutes
of occurrence and first report on the occurrence of an earthquake in India and the
Indian ocean region is sent to MHA within 25-30 minutes indicating the location and
magnitude of the earthquake.

Geological Survey of India (G1)

• The CSI was designated as nodal agency for coordinating geological studies, landslides
hazard zonation, monitoring landslides, avalanches, studying the factors responsible and
suggesting Precautionary and preventive measures.

Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO)

• The Disaster Management Support (DMS) Programme of ISRO, provides timely support
and services from aero-space systems, both imaging and communications, towards
efficient management of disasters in the country.
• The DMS Programme addresses disasters such as flood, cyclone, drought, forest fire,
landslide and earthquake.
• These include
o Creation of digital database for facilitating hazard zonation, damage assessment, etc.
o Monitoring of major natural disasters using satellite and aerial data.
o Development of appropriate techniques and tools for decision support.
o Establishing satellite based reliable communication network.
o Deployment of emergency communication equipment.
o R&D towards early warning of disasters.

POST DISASTER PROCESSES

Recovery, Reconstruction and Rehabilitation
• The ultimate objective of disaster management is restoration of devastated livelihoods.
It should not only include social, economic and psychological rehabilitation but also
address the underlying cause of disaster.
o Short-term activities for recovery are debris clearance, providing semi-permanent
shelter, ensuring sanitation and restoring life lines.
o Long-term activities involve building a safer and more sustainable livelihood.
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 Guiding Principles of Post Recovery
• Mainstreaming disaster risk reduction in recovery and development process. Improving
coordination. Promoting participatory approaches and decentralizing planning and
programming for recovery.
• Enhancing safety standards and integrating risk reduction in reconstruction and
development.
o Building local and national capacities for increased resilience, risk management and
sustainable development.
o Taking advantage of ongoing initiatives.
o Gender sensibility.
o Demonstrative effects.
o Monitoring, evaluation and learning.

Steps in Post Disaster Processes Assessment

• The first step after stabilizing the situation by providing sufficient relief is to assess the
damage.
• A meticulously executed assessment exercise would provide an ideal base for the
rehabilitation efforts.
• Based on the assessment of the damage and the needs, a recovery strategy has to be
formulated.
• The resources should be identified and the roles and responsibilities of all concerned
should be defined.

Coordination
• Recovery activities are taken up by government agencies, local bodies, international
agencies, voluntary organizations and others, through separate, overlapping and
uncoordinated interventions.
• This leads to imbalances in the scale of operations, duplication of efforts in some areas,
gaps in others and leakage and misuse of resources.
• Therefore, establishing a framework for coordination is necessary for effective recovery.

Shelter
• Shelter is one of the most visible and immediate needs in post-crisis settings. Relief
efforts are often focused on providing shelter quickly, without taking into account the
impact of short-term shelter strategies.
• Long-term shelter strategies help not only to focus on determination and
implementation of realistic and permanent reconstruction plans for the affected
communities but are also concerned with rebuilding community confidence and support
structure for civic responsibility and urban governance, through participatory planning
of reconstruction.

9
 Sustainability in Recovery Process
• It is often observed that post-disaster recovery efforts tend to focus on rapid and visible
solutions to restore normally at the cost of sustainable development.
• The post-disaster recovery phase provides a 'window of opportunity' for disaster risk
reduction.
• Normally, it is also seen that the recovery efforts have a tendency of tapering off with
the passage of time.
• The sustainability component in recovery process is important.

Accountability
• A system of accountability needs to be evolved during the relief and rehabilitation
phase.
• This system should ensure that the relief material reaches the target groups and that the
funds are being utilized efficiently and optimally.
• A grievance redressal mechanism should also be put in place.

Evaluation
• After the recovery phase, it is necessary to conduct a detailed evaluation of all aspects of
crisis management.
• Such an evaluation should be carried out by an independent professional agency like the
NIDM in all major disasters.

CAPACITY BUILDING
• UNDP describes 'capacity building as the creation of an enabling environment with
appropriate policy and legal frameworks, institutional development, including
community participation, human resource development and strengthening of
managerial systems.
• It adds that capacity building is a long-term, continuing process in which all stakeholders
participate.

Vital Components of the Capacity Building

• Training It is a learning process that involves the acquisition of knowledge, sharpening of
skills, concepts, rules or change of attitude and behaviour to enhance the performance
of individuals associated with different departments and institutions.
• Education Amidst changes of the past decades in school education sector, the most
discussed topic of national importance is planning for more contextual, practical and
application-oriented curriculum for students at different levels of schooling.
• Research It is an organized and systematic way of finding answers to questions.
Systematic because there are certain things in the research process which are always
done in order to get most accurate result.
• Awareness It is generally defined as knowledge created through interaction between an
agent and its environment. It cannot be simply referred to as knowing what is going on.

10
 This concept of awareness involves state of knowledge as well as dynamic processes of
perception and action.
• Realizing the importance of Capacity Development of stakeholders in Disaster
Management, NIDM has been given the task of preparing National Human Resource and
Capacity Development Plan which is at the advanced stage of its formulation.

NPDM on Capacity Development

• The National Policy on Disaster Management (NPDM) describes its approach to capacity
development.
• This process comprises awareness generation, education, training, Research and
Development (R&D), etc.
• It further addresses to put in place an appropriate institutional framework, management
systems and allocation of resources for efficient prevention and handling of disasters.
• The approach to capacity development includes:
o According priority to training for developing community-based disaster management
systems for their specific needs in view of the regional diversities and multi-hazard
vulnerabilities.
o Conceptualization of community-based disaster management systems at the national
level through a consultative process. Identification of knowledge-based institutions with
proven performance.
o Promotion of international and regional cooperation. Adoption of traditional and global
best practices and technologies.
o Laying emphasis on table-top exercises, simulations, mock drills and development of
skills to test the plans.
o Capacity analysis of different disaster responder groups at state, district and local levels.
• NPDM has further elaborated on national priorities, institutional capacity development,
training of communities, professional technical education, disaster management
education in schools, training of artisans, training of other groups and licensing and
certification. Besides, NPDM guidelines issued by NDMA also lay emphasis on capacity
development.

ROLE OF SPECIALISED AGENCIES IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

• There are several agencies apart from NDRF, which play an important role in disaster
management and hence they must be mentioned in 'standard operating procedures'
and given designated and specified role.

Armed Forces
• Armed forces have invariably played an important role in rescue and relief operations in
all major disasters in the country.
• The constitution of specialized NDRF battalions would reduce the pressure on the armed
forces.

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• But with widespread presence, availability of highly trained, dedicated and well-
equipped human resources and their capability to react within a short time-frame, the
armed forces continue to play a vital role in rescue and relief during all major crises.
• Territorial Army units should also be incorporated in crisis management planning and
operations.
• They should be mobilized for creating a voluntary disaster task force at the local level.

Civil Defence
• Civil defence means the performance of some or all of the under mentioned
humanitarian tasks intended to protect the civilian population against the dangers and
to help to recover from the immediate effects of hostilities or disasters and also to
provide the conditions necessary for its survival.
• These tasks are as follows
o Warning, Evacuation; Management of shelters:
o Management of blackout measures; Rescue;
o Medical services, including first-aid and religious assistance; Fire-fighting.
o Provision of emergency accommodation and supplies;
o Emergency assistance in the restoration and maintenance of order indistressed areas;
o Emergency repair of indispensable public utilities;
o Complementary activities necessary to carry out any of the tasks mentioned above,
including, but not limited to, planning and organization.
• Although the Civil Defence Act, 1968 is applicable throughout the country, the
organization is only raised in such areas and zones which are tactically and strategically
considered vulnerable from the point of view of enemy aggression.

Home Guards
• The role of Home Guards is to serve as an auxiliary to the police in the maintenance of
internal security, help the community in any kind of emergency such as an air-raid, fire,
cyclone, earthquake, epidemic, etc., help in maintenance of essential services, promote
communal harmony and assist the administration in protecting weaker sections,
participate in socio- economic and welfare activities and perform Civil Defence duties.
• The organization is spreaded in all states and Union Territories except Kerala.
• Home Guards are raised under the Home Guards Act and Rules of the states/Union
Territories.

Police
• The immediate response to any calamity normally comes from the nearest police station
or police outpost.
• It is essential therefore, that policemen at field level, who would be the first responders,
are sufficiently trained.
• The training need not be generic but specific to the types of crisis anticipated in an area.

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 Fire Services
• The fire services have been set up by the State Governments with the Government of
India providing technical and financial support. Although, fire services have been playing
a crucial role in all types of disasters, the focus has been on fire related crises.
• There is an urgent need to train and equip the fire services to handle all types of
crisis/disasters in line with international best practices where they have been
modernized as multi-hazard forces.

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR)

• The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction was created in 1999 as
a successor of the Secretariat of the International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction
in 2001.
• The mission of UNISDR is to be an effective coordinator and guide all its ISDR partners,
globally and regionally, to
• Mobilize political and financial commitments to disaster risk reduction and Hyogo
Framework for Action 2005-2015: Building the Resilience of Nations and Communities to
Disasters (HFA).
• Develop and sustain a robust, multi stakeholder system.
• Provide relevant knowledge and guidance.
• The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) was adopted by United Nations
member states in 2000 and is owned by local, national, regional and international
organizations.
• The mandate of UNISDR is to act as the focal point in the United Nations system for the
coordination of disaster reduction and to ensure that disaster risk reduction becomes
integral part of sound and equitable development, environmental protection and
humanitarian action.

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC)
• The UNDAC team is a stand-by team of disaster management professionals which are
nominated and funded by member 179 International Cooperation Governments, OCHA,
UNDP and Operational Humanitarian United Nations Agencies such as World Food
Programme, United Nations Children's Fund and World Health Organization.
• UNDAC is designed to assist the United Nations and governments of a disaster-affected
country in meeting international needs for early and qualified information during the
first phase of a sudden-onset of emergency as well as in the coordination of incoming
international relief at the national level and at the site of the emergency.
• The Government of India joined the membership of UNDAC system and had paid an
amount of US$ 50,000 in 2001, with UNOCHA the implementing body of UNDAC
programmes

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 International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG)
• INSARAG is a global network of more than 80 countries and disaster response
organizations under the United Nations umbrella. INSARAG deals with Urban Search And
Rescue (USAR) related issues.
• INSARAG aims at establishing standards for international USAR teams and methodology
for international coordination in earthquake response. Members of INSARAG are both
earthquake-prone and responding countries and organizations.
• INSARAG was established in 1991, following initiatives of international search and rescue
teams that responded to the 1988 Armenia earthquake.
• India is a member of INSARAG Asia Pacific Regional Group and has been participating in
the INSARAG meetings at international and regional levels. The INSARAG guidelines
define coordination and cooperation procedures for international and national
responders in major disasters. The following phases are covered in it
o Preparedness.
o Activation.
o Operation.
o Reassignment/stand-down.
o Return to home base

United Nation Disaster Management Team (UNDMT)

• The UNDMT in India is a team comprising of UN agencies such as Food and Agriculture
Organization, ILO International Labour Organization, and United Nations Development
Programme, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, United
Nations Population Fund, United Nations High Commission for Refugees, United Nations
Children's Fund, World Food Programme and World Health Organization.
• The primary purpose of the UNDMT in India is
o To ensure a prompt, effective and concerted country-level support to a governmental
response in the event of a disaster, at the central, state and sub-state levels,
o To coordinate UN assistance to the government with respect to long term recovery,
disaster mitigation and preparedness,
o To coordinate all disaster-related activities, technical advice and material assistance
provided by UN agencies, as well as to take steps for optimal utilization of resources by
UN agencies.

SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC)

• SAARC Disaster Management Centre (SDMC) was set up in October 2006 at the premises
of National Institute of Disaster Management in New Delhi.
• The Centre has the mandate to serve all eight Member Countries of South Asia
Association of Regional Cooperation (SAARC) by providing policy advice and facilitating
capacity building services including strategic learning, research, training, system
development and exchange of information for effective Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
and management in South Asia.

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• The Centre has developed its network with various organizations and institutions in
South Asian countries for research, documentation training and capacity building and to
promote better cooperation and understanding amongst the countries for holistic
management of disasters.

BRICS Ministers Meet for Disaster Management

• The BRICS Ministers for Disaster Management in their first meeting held in April 2016 in
St. Petersburg, Russia, agreed on a joint action plan, comprising of the following
o Official informing about contact persons in BRICS emergency services for establishing
direct ties.
o Participation of specialists of BRICS emergency services in specialized exhibitions to be
held in the BRICS countries.
o Establishment of rapid exchange of information on emergencies.
o Participation of search and rescue teams or observers in the exercises for emergency
response to be held in the territories of the BRICS countries.
o Improvement of response to natural and manmade disasters.
o Training of specialists in the field of prevention and elimination of emergencies.
• BRICS nations decided to set up a dedicated Joint Task Force for Disaster Risk
Management for regular dialogue, exchange, mutual support and collaboration among
them.

Disaster Management Drills and Exercises of India

Exercise/Drill Partner Nation
- Prakampana - Indian Navy for Capacity Building
in navy personnel
- Disaster Management Exercise - BIMSTEC nations
(DMEx)
- SCO Joint Exercise (SCOJtEX) - SCO nations
- South Asian Annual Disaster - SAARC nations
Management Exercise (SAADMex)
- Bio-terrorism Table top Exercise - Switzerland
- INSARAG Asia-Pacific Exercise - INSARAG nations
- Chemical Exercise - Organisation for Prevention of
Chemical Weapons and India

World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction

• The World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction is a series of United Nations
conferences focusing on disaster and climate risk management in the context of
sustainable development. The World Conference has been convened three times, with
each edition to date having been hosted by Japan: in Yokohama in 1994, in Kobe in 2005
and in Sendai in 2015.

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(a) First World Conference on Natural Disasters in Yokohama (1994)
• The First World Conference on Natural Disasters in Yokohama, Japan from 23rd to 27th
May, 1994, adopted the Yokohama Strategy for a Safer World:
• Guidelines for Natural Disaster Prevention, Preparedness and Mitigation and its plan of
action, endorsed by the UN General Assembly in 1994.
• It was the main outcome of the mid-term review of the International Decade of Natural
Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) and established 10 principles for its strategy. a plan of action
and a follow-up.

(b) Second World Conference on Natural Disasters in Kobe (2005)

• The Second World Conference on Disaster Reduction was held from 18th to 22nd
January, 2005, in Kobe, Hyogo, Japan, to coincide with the commemoration of the 10th
anniversary of the Great Hanshin-Awaiji earthquake that occurred on 17th January,
1995.

Hyogo Framework for Action

• The Hyogo Framework for Action (2005-2015): Building the Resilience of Nations and
Communities to Disasters was an outcome of the 2005 conference.
• It was developed and agreed on with many partners to reduce disaster risk -
governments, international agencies, disaster experts and many others - bringing them
into a common system of coordination. The HFA, which ran from 2005 to 2015, set five
specific priorities for action
1. Making disaster risk reduction a priority.
2. Improving risk information and early warning.
3. Building a culture of safety and resilience.
4. Reducing the risks in key sectors.
5. Strengthening preparedness for response.

(c) Third World Conference on Natural Disasters in Sendai (2015)

• The Third United Nations World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction was held in
Sendai, Japan in March 2015.
• The conference included discussion of the aftermath of the Japanese response to the
2011 disaster and how Japan's early warning system can save lives when earthquakes
and tsunamis strike.
• The conference adopted the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030.
• It was endorsed by the UN General Assembly in June 2015.

Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030

• The Sendai Framework is a 15-year non-binding agreement which recognizes that the
state has the primary role to reduce disaster risk but that responsibility should be shared
with other stakeholders including local government and the private sector.
• The Sendai Framework sets four specific priorities for action

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1. Understanding disaster risk.
2. Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk.
3. Investing in disaster risk reduction for resilience.
4. Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response, and to "Build Back Better" in
recovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
• To support the assessment of global progress in achieving the outcome and goal of the
Sendai Framework, seven global targets have been agreed
1. Substantially reduce global disaster mortality by 2030.
2. Substantially reduce the number of affected people globally by 2030.
3. Reduce direct disaster economic loss in relation to global gross domestic product by
2030.
4. Substantially reduce disaster damage to critical infrastructure and disruption of basic
services, among them health and educational facilities, including through developing
their resilience by 2030.
5. Substantially increase the number of countries with national and local disaster risk
reduction strategies by 2020.
6. Substantially enhance international cooperation to developing countries through
adequate and sustainable support to complement their national actions for
implementation of the framework by 2030.
7. Substantially increase the availability of and access to multi-hazard early warning
systems and disaster risk information and assessments to the people by 2030.

Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure

• This coalition was launched by Indian Prime Minister in September, 2019 at the UN
Secretary-General's Climate Action Summit in New York, US.
• It will also create a mechanism to assist countries to upgrade their capacities and
practices, with regard to infrastructure development in accordance with their risk
context and economic needs.
• The work of CDRI is to focus on relevant thematic areas including the four major themes
of:
(a) Risk Assessment for key infrastructure sectors at multiple scales.
(b) Standards, regulation and mechanisms for enforcement.
(c) Role of finance in promoting disaster resilience.
(d) Predictable mechanisms for supporting disaster recovery in key infrastructure sectors.

CHALLENGES IN DISASTER MANAGEMENT

• According to the Global Assessment Report of the UNISDR, India is a highly vulnerable
region due to its population and geographical features.
1. Fragile Institutions The National Policy on Disaster Management, prepared by the
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) approved in 2009 was formulated
with a vision to build a safe and disaster resilient India.

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o The process must have transparency and accountability. The instrument of Good
governance like Right to Information and legal options like Public Interest Litigation can
be used to ensure justice wherever necessary.
2. Weak Compliance of Policies The follow up actions expected from nodal agencies in
preparing plans and corrective actions to address the critical gaps in the existing policies
are not initiated.
3. Systemic Inefficiencies Influencing Process The random audits of proposals on affected
areas and fixing the accountability for financial losses on erring officials is the reason.
4. Need to Adopt Innovative Systems, Techniques and Technologies Some of them are
Geographical Information System (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), Remote
Sensing, and Voice Over Internet Protocol (VOIP), Radio Over Internet Protocol (ROIP),
Scenario Analysis & Modelling, Digital Elevation Models and Bathymetry for tsunami,
Early Warning Systems, etc.
Criticism of National Disaster Management Act
• The implementation of the National Disaster Act, 2005 has been slow and slack.
• On 22nd July, 2013, Supreme Court in response to a Public Interest Litigation issued
notices to the Governments of Uttarakhand, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat, Rajasthan Maharashtra and the Central Government for alleged failure to
implement the Disaster Management Act, 2005.
• Bureaucratic redtapism and implementation leakages.
• Lack of capacity in the volunteers and response forces.
• Lack of modern and innovative technologies to better monitor the disasters.
• The Act has been criticized for marginalizing Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs),
elected local representatives, local communities and civic group and for fostering a
hierarchical, bureaucratic, command and control, 'top down' approach that gives the
central, state and district authorities sweeping powers.

Criticism of Institutional Structure

• The Government of India constituted a Task Force on 23rd December, 2010, to review
the Disaster Management Act, 2005. According to Task Force
o There is a need to redesign the NDMA structure, ensuring greater objectivity and
transparency in selecting members. The NEC, which has been assigned crucial, and
multifarious, activities under the Act, has failed to deliver.
o There is a lack of functional integration between the NDMA and the NEC on the one
hand, and the NDMA and the MHA on the other.
o The NIDM has not been able to fulfil the expectations of states and UTs.
• In view of the above, there is a need to revisit the tole, function and structure of the
NDMA and NEC.
• As regards the role and function, the NDMA should not remain merely a think tank
without any link with ground realities. Its role and functions should cover policies, plans,
guidelines and regulations relating to prevention, mitigation and preparedness.

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 Gender Issues and Vulnerability of Weaker Sections
• Impact of disaster is high on the weaker sections of the community. When developing
countries are disaster prone, the poor suffer the impact acutely.
• Many of the poor are landless or small holders. Women often experience higher rates of
mortality, morbidity and post-disaster reduction in their livelihoods.

Gender Issues
• The basic reason for this situation is the gender disparities which exist in our society
because of which women have little say in decision-making, particularly outside the
household, as they are comparatively lesser literate, have lesser mobility and are
dependent on their male counterpart in most matters.
o Women have specific bodily needs, especially pregnant and lactating women.
o Water and sanitary facilities during relief phase.
o Women's need of privacy.
o Men-women are trained differently in life saving skills.
o Low level of literacy in women.
o Malnourishment and nutritional deficiency.
o Girl students drop out of school after disasters.

Measures to be Taken
• Where gender inequality persists, disasters provide yet another occasion for
discrimination.
• Hence, practical gender needs and strategic gender interests needs to be fulfilled.
• The recommendations of 2nd ARC in this regard are given as under
o The vulnerability analysis should bring out the specific vulnerabilities of women and
these should be addressed in any mitigation effort.
o Rescue and relief operations should focus on the most vulnerable groups -women,
children, the elderly and the physically challenged.
o Relief measures should take into account the special requirements of women and other
vulnerable groups.
o In the recovery phase, efforts should focus on making women economically independent
by offering them opportunities of earning incomes, providing training in new skills,
forming self-help groups, providing micro-finance, marketing facilities, etc.
o The title of new assets created should be in the names of both husband and wife.
o Camp managing committees should have adequate number of women representatives.
o Trauma counselling and psychological care should be provided to widows, women and
other persons in distress.

Second ARC and Disaster Management

• 2nd ARC recommendations regarding disaster management in India are given as under
o Disaster/Crisis management should continue to be the primary responsibility of the
State Governments and the Union Government should play a supportive role.

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o The act should provide categorization of disasters e.g. local, district, state or national
level. This categorization along with intensity of each type of disaster will help in
determining the level of authority primarily responsible for dealing with the disaster as
well as the scale of response and relief. detailed guidelines may be stipulated by the
NDMA on this subject.
o The law should make provisions for stringent punishment for misutilization of funds
meant for crisis/ disaster management.
o The role of the local governments should be brought to the forefront for crisis/disaster
management.
• Recommendations of 2nd ARC for the improvement of Civil Defence in India are given
as under
o The Civil Defence Act should be amended as proposed to cover all types of disasters.
o Civil Defence should be constituted in all districts which are vulnerable not only to
hostile attacks but also to natural calamities.
o The objective should be to include 1 per cent of the population within the fold of Civil
Defence within five years.
o Budgetary allocations relating to Central Financial Assistance for Civil Defence should be
increased substantially.
o Civil Defence set ups at all levels should be permitted to accept donations. The Civil
Defence set up at the state level may be brought under the control of the Crisis/ Disaster
Management set up.

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