Transitions from High School to College

Transitions from High School to College

Andrea Venezia and Laura Jaeger

Summary
The vast majority of high school students aspire to some kind of postsecondary education, yet
far too many of them enter college without the basic content knowledge, skills, or habits of mind
they need to succeed. Andrea Venezia and Laura Jaeger look at the state of college readiness
among high school students, the effectiveness of programs in place to help them transition to
college, and efforts to improve those transitions.

Students are unprepared for postsecondary coursework for many reasons, the authors write,
including differences between what high schools teach and what colleges expect, as well as large
disparities between the instruction offered by high schools with high concentrations of students
in poverty and that offered by high schools with more advantaged students. The authors also
note the importance of noncurricular variables, such as peer influences, parental expectations,
and conditions that encourage academic study.

Interventions to improve college readiness offer a variety of services, from academic prepara-
tion and information about college and financial aid, to psychosocial and behavioral supports,
to the development of habits of mind including organizational skills, anticipation, persistence,
and resiliency. The authors also discuss more systemic programs, such as Middle College High
Schools, and review efforts to allow high school students to take college classes (known as dual
enrollment). Evaluations of the effectiveness of these efforts are limited, but the authors report
that studies of precollege support programs generally show small impacts, while the more sys-
temic programs show mixed results. Dual-enrollment programs show promise, but the evalua-
tion designs may overstate the results.

The Common Core State Standards, a voluntary set of goals and expectations in English and
math adopted by most states, offer the potential to improve college and career readiness, the
authors write. But that potential will be realized, they add, only if the standards are supple-
mented with the necessary professional development to enable educators to help all students
meet academic college readiness standards, a focus on developing strong noncognitive knowl-
edge and skills for all students, and the information and supports to help students prepare and
select the most appropriate postsecondary institution.

www.futureofchildren.org

Andrea Venezia is a senior research associate for WestEd’s Regional Educational Laboratory West in San Francisco. Laura Jaeger is a
research associate at WestEd in San Francisco.

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Andrea Venezia and Laura Jaeger

A
s Sandy Baum, Charles Kurose, Early Assessment Program, and statewide
and Michael McPherson default curricula. Finally, it describes the
discuss in their article in this Common Core State Standards movement
issue, the postsecondary educa- and concludes with a discussion of both the
tion landscape in the United need for more comprehensive and systemic
States has changed dramatically over the past reforms and the challenges related to imple-
half-century.1 The aspirations and actions of menting them.
the vast majority of high school students have
shifted, with greater percentages of students Understanding the Problem
intending to complete some form of postsec- In recent years, roughly 3 million students
ondary education. For example, from 1980 to have been graduating from U.S high schools
2002, the share of tenth graders who aspired annually. According to the National Center
to earn at least a bachelor’s degree rose from for Educational Statistics, more than
41 percent to 80 percent, with the largest 2.9 million students graduated from U.S.
increase coming from low-income students.2 high schools in 2008, the last year for which
Unfortunately, far too many students enter data are available.3 A key question is, how
college without the basic content knowledge, many of these students are prepared for
skills, or habits of mind needed to perform college-level work?
college-level work successfully. As college-
going rates increase, the limitations of the College readiness is commonly understood
traditional and current structures, programs, as the level of preparation a student needs to
and practices designed to promote student enroll and succeed in a college program (cer-
success within both secondary and postsec- tificate, associate’s degree, or baccalaureate)
ondary education systems and institutions without requiring remediation.4 While there
become more visible. is no precise way of knowing how many high
school graduates meet this standard, the
This chapter discusses transitions from high largest nationally representative and continu-
school to college and some of the major ing assessment of what America’s students
efforts under way in states and schools to know and can do in various subject areas—
improve college preparation. It begins with the National Assessment of Educational
an overview of the problem, including esti- Progress (NAEP)—suggests that many
mates of the number of high school graduates students are likely falling short. The NAEP
who are not ready for college and the major determines students’ achievement level—
reasons why they are not. The chapter then basic, proficient, or advanced—based on
explores whether current conceptions of input from a broadly representative panel of
college readiness are adequate and also what teachers, education specialists, and members
it means for students to find the right col- of the general public. Students determined to
lege “fit.” Next, it reviews some of the major be proficient or advanced have demonstrated
interventions designed to improve college a competency over challenging subject
readiness, particularly among low-income matter that would be expected of entering
students: the federal TRIO programs, the college students, including subject-matter
Early College High School (ECHS) and knowledge, application of such knowledge
Middle College High School (MCHS) initia- to real-world situations, and analytical skills
tives, dual-enrollment programs, California’s appropriate to the subject matter. In 2009,

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 Transitions from High School to College

only 38 percent of twelfth-grade students rote memorization of algorithms, rather than

performed at or above the proficient level engaging students in problem-solving and
on NAEP’s reading assessment; even fewer, critical-writing exercises that develop both
26 percent, were at or above the proficient deeper knowledge of the content and the
level in mathematics.5 more general logical and analytical think-
ing skills valued at the postsecondary level.9
Other common assessments used to deter- Most public high schools offer at least one
mine college readiness are the ACT and Advance Placement (AP) or, less commonly,
SAT exams, which are typically adminis- one International Baccalaureate (IB) course.
tered to high school juniors and seniors. In These courses are designed to be more rigor-
2012, only 25 percent of all ACT-tested high ous than a standard high school course and
school graduates met the College Readiness to foster the critical thinking skills expected
Benchmarks in all four subjects, meaning of college students. That said, the College
that they earned the minimum score needed Board, which administers the AP program,
to have a 50 percent chance of obtaining a reports that only 30 percent of 2011 public
“B” or higher in corresponding first-year high school graduates participated in AP
college courses. Fifty-two percent of gradu- courses and only 18.1 percent succeeded in
ates met the ACT’s reading benchmark, scoring 3 or higher (“qualified” to receive
46 percent met the mathematics benchmark, college credit or placement into advanced
and 67 percent met the English benchmark. courses) on at least one AP exam.10
Only 31 percent met the benchmark in sci-
ence.6 Looking at SAT data, among the high The decentralized nature of education in
school graduating class of 2012, only 43 per- the United States—in which states delegate
cent of all SAT takers met the SAT College authority to more than 15,000 local school
& Career Readiness Benchmark, which indi- districts to design and direct programs of
cates a 65 percent likelihood of obtaining a instruction—may partly explain the variation
“B-” average or higher during the first year in what high schools offer and how well they
of college.7 prepare students for college.11 In the 2010–11
academic year, more than 49 million stu-
The reasons why more high school graduates dents were enrolled in public elementary and
are not ready for college are complex and secondary schools.12 The key characteristics
highly dependent upon individual circum- of those schools show disparities by race and
stances. The factors are academic and non- ethnicity and by poverty level. For example,
academic; schools are able to control some of 60 percent of Asian/Pacific Islander and
them but not others, such as family variables just over half of white high school freshmen
and peer influences outside of school. On the attended schools in which the counselors
academic side, many studies over the past reported that the primary goal of the school
ten years have documented the disconnect guidance program was to help students pre-
between what high school teachers teach and pare for college. In contrast, only 44 percent
what postsecondary instructors expect with of black freshmen, 41 percent of Hispanic
regard to students’ preparation for first-year freshmen, and 29 percent of American
credit-bearing courses in college.8 High Indian/Alaskan Native freshmen attended
school courses, such as algebra, often teach such schools.13 White and Asian students are
content such as factoring equations by using more likely to attend low-poverty schools,

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while American Indian/Alaskan Native, Kallick coined the term “habits of mind” to
black, and Hispanic students are more likely describe a series of intelligent behaviors that
to attend high-poverty schools. In 2007–08, would help people be better problem solvers
approximately 91 percent of twelfth-graders and thus have more success in their lives.19
in low-poverty schools graduated with a David Conley refines the concept to describe
diploma, compared with 68 percent of the habits of mind necessary to succeed in
twelfth-graders in high-poverty schools college including critical thinking, an inquisi-
(based on eligibility for free or reduced- tive nature, a willingness to accept critical
price lunch).14 In that same year, 52 percent feedback, an openness to possible failure,
of high school graduates from low-poverty and the ability to cope with frustrating and
schools attended a four-year postsecondary ambiguous learning tasks.20
institution, compared with about 28 percent
of graduates from high-poverty schools.15 Are Current Measures of College
Unfortunately, current disparities could Readiness Adequate?
grow, given recent budget cuts to all levels With larger proportions of underserved stu-
of education—primary, secondary, and dent populations going to college, traditional
postsecondary—that are likely to affect low- indicators of academic preparation such as
income students the most.16 the SAT and ACT have come under fire.
Critics are concerned that wealthier students
As noted, nonacademic factors also affect have better opportunities to prepare for such
college readiness. Students’ families play tests, that the tests do not measure what is
an important role in setting expectations learned in the classroom, and that the tests
and creating conditions—from overseeing are not strong predictors of how students
completion of homework assignments to perform in college.21 In addition, the large
encouraging a variety of learning opportuni- numbers of students who plan to attend com-
ties outside of school—that make it more or munity college generally do not take the SAT
less likely that students will be prepared for or ACT because these tests are not required
college. Not surprisingly, research shows that for admission. Community colleges do use
students whose parents have gone to college standardized tests after matriculation, such
are more likely to attend college themselves.17 as the ACCUPLACER and COMPASS, to
Students are also influenced positively or determine if students need to take remedial
negatively by the people they encounter education in English language arts and math-
at school and in their community. Patricia ematics and then to place students in the
Gándara and Deborah Bial, for example, appropriate courses. As noted in the article in
state that many students face impediments this issue by Eric Bettinger, Angela Boatman,
such as limited cultural supports, commu- and Bridget Terry Long, these tests also have
nity resources, and peer supports, as well as been found to be poor predictors of how
racism, ineffective counseling, and limited students will perform academically.22
networking opportunities with people who
have succeeded in college.18 Finally, college Frustrations with the limitations of standard-
readiness can be influenced by noncogni- ized tests, together with new thinking and
tive skills that differ at the individual level research on what it means to be prepared
and may be related to both schooling and for college or a job right out of high school
family background. Arthur Costa and Bena (commonly referred to as “college and career

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 Transitions from High School to College

readiness”), have led to efforts to develop clear whether a single framework can sup-
new and more comprehensive measures. The port opportunities for students to be ready to
Educational Policy Improvement Center succeed at all postsecondary institutions and
(EPIC), Georgetown’s Center on Education within all workforce opportunities. Finally,
and the Workforce, the Association although these broadened definitions of
for Career and Technical Education, college readiness are intriguing, it is unclear
ConnectEd: the California Center for whether and how these notions may be incor-
College and Career, the Conference Board, porated into state educational policies or the
the National Association of State Directors assessment practices of typical high schools
of Career Technical Education Consortium, or school districts.
the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving
Necessary Skills, and Assessing and Teaching Finding the Right College Fit
21st Century Skills are among the groups A corollary to determining college readi-
and organizations that have developed new ness is the importance of helping students
college and career readiness standards.23 to find the right institutional fit, particularly
These standards include not only the English for students from low-income families or
language arts and mathematics necessary families that do not have experience with
for entering first-year college students to college. “Fit” includes aspects of a postsec-
take college-level credit-bearing courses but ondary institution such as its cost, location,
other competencies as well. For instance, size, student-faculty ratio, counseling and
some focus on twenty-first-century expecta- advising services, student body composition
tions. While these standards vary depending (for example, institutions that primarily serve
on the organization that developed them, students from a particular racial, ethnic,
they generally focus on quantitative STEM or religious background, or single-gender
(science, technology, engineering, and institutions), and areas of study offered or
mathematics) knowledge and skills; technical special areas of focus.25 Many traditionally
content (this area applies to preparation for underserved students often do not have the
career and technical education courses and option to matriculate farther away than the
includes a range of career-specific knowledge closest community college or broad-access
and skills); broad transferable skills (such as university because they need to stay close to
productive dispositions and behaviors); habits home to contain costs or help their family. In
of mind; and preparation for civic life (such addition, all students, but particularly stu-
as knowledge of the democratic process and dents who are traditionally underrepresented
civic engagement).24 These categories are not in college, often do not know enough both
mutually exclusive, and views differ about about themselves and their future goals and
what each category comprises and how much about postsecondary institutions to analyze
weight each component in a category should institutional fit.26
carry. In addition, there is no consensus
about whether college and career readiness An issue closely related to choice and fit is the
are different and, if so, how they differ. If tendency for some students to attend colleges
they are different, the concern is how schools that are less selective than those they are
can avoid curricular tracking by ethnic- qualified to attend. This phenomenon, known
ity and income levels. Moreover, if college as “undermatching,” refers to students who
and career readiness are different, it is not meet the admissions criteria for high-ranking

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colleges and universities based on test scores, in college immediately after high school,
rigorous course taking, and grades but who compared with 84 percent of those from the
instead go to less selective four-year col- most affluent families and 67 percent from
leges, two-year colleges, or no college at middle-income families. These inequalities
all.27 Available research findings suggest that have helped to drive the growth of precollege
undermatching is particularly a problem for outreach programs and large-scale interven-
students of color and from low-income fami- tions and reforms.
lies. A descriptive study that used case studies
to examine how social class and high school Interventions Designed to Boost
guidance operations interact to influence high College Readiness
school students’ educational aspirations found A variety of programs are now available to
that female students, African American stu- help boost the college readiness of today’s
dents, and students from low-socioeconomic high school students. Current interventions
backgrounds are most likely to undermatch.28 and reform efforts use a range of strate-
Analyses of longitudinal data suggest that gies to attempt to address a wide variety of
students who undermatch are significantly student needs regarding college readiness.
less likely to graduate. In their study of sixty- Strategies range from academic preparation
eight public colleges and universities, includ- to psychosocial and behavioral supports and
ing twenty-one flagship institutions in four the development of appropriate habits of
states, William Bowen and colleagues found mind (such as organization, anticipation, per-
that students who attended the most selective sistence, and resiliency). While each inter-
colleges for which they were academically vention tends to focus on a distinct group of
qualified were more likely to graduate than students and to emphasize different aspects
were similar students who undermatched of college readiness, there is considerable
by enrolling in colleges for which they were overlap in the strategies these efforts use in
overqualified.29 helping students have access to, be prepared
for, and succeed in postsecondary school-
These findings, together with the well- ing. In this section, we discuss some of the
documented pattern of students from better-known programs; their strategies are
middle- and upper-income families attend- summarized in table 1.
ing four-year institutions, while low-income
students are concentrated in two-year Federal TRIO Programs
community colleges, reflect major weak- Since 1965, an estimated 2 million students
nesses in the college-choice process for have graduated from college with the spe-
many students, especially minority and cial assistance and support of federal TRIO
low-income students.30 The inequalities in programs, such as Upward Bound and Talent
college-going and success rates by ethnic- Search, which provide outreach and student
ity and income groups are stark. As of 2010, services to individuals from low-income
60.5 percent of the college population was backgrounds, those with disabilities, and
white non-Hispanic students, compared with those who are first-generation college-going to
14.5 percent black students and 13.0 percent help them successfully navigate their educa-
Hispanic students.31 Moreover, in 2009, only tional pathways from middle school through
55 percent of high school graduates from post-baccalaureate programs.32 Upward
the lowest family income quintile enrolled Bound academic preparation provides

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Table 1. Strategies Used by Selected College Readiness Interventions and Reforms

Areas of student need

Better academic Increased Greater Better information Better alignment Development of
preparation psychosocial exposure about college and between appropriate habits
and behavioral to college financial aid high school and of mind
support college
Intervention reform assessment and
strategy curricula

TRIO

Upward Bound    
Talent Search   
GEAR UP     
Early College High School and
Middle College      
High School

Dual Enrollment   
Early Assessment Program  
Default curricula  

Source: Authors.

participants with instruction in mathematics, Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness

laboratory sciences, composition, literature, for Undergraduate Programs (GEAR UP),
and foreign languages. It also offers academic a federal program established by Congress
and social support through tutoring, coun- as part of the 1998 reauthorization of the
seling, mentoring, cultural enrichment, and Higher Education Act, provides six-year
work-study programs, and provides education grants to states and to partnerships (among
to improve the financial and economic literacy local elementary and secondary schools, insti-
of students. Talent Search provides students tutions of higher education, and community
and their parents with information about col- organizations) to serve cohorts of students
attending high poverty schools beginning no
lege admissions requirements, scholarships,
later than the seventh grade and following
and financial aid. It also provides social sup-
them through high school. In contrast to pro-
port through counseling and helping students
grams such as Upward Bound that focus on
understand their educational options. Upward
academic preparation, GEAR UP programs
Bound and Talent Search both include
take a more systemic approach by provid-
services designed for disconnected student ing college scholarships, academic support
groups, such as students who drop out of services and counseling, and college-related
high school, students who have limited information. They also attempt to work with
English proficiencies, students from groups the parents and families of the students.
that are traditionally underrepresented in
postsecondary education, students with dis- Funding for these programs, however, is
abilities, homeless students, and students who inadequate to reach all the students in need
are in foster care or are aging out of the foster of them. In 2011, 951 Upward Bound pro-
care system. grams served more than 64,000 students

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Andrea Venezia and Laura Jaeger

nationwide, and more than 300,000 stu- school and college credit. Typically, high
dents in grades six through twelve across the school and college faculty work together to
nation were involved with Talent Search.33 ensure that curricula and instruction within
In 2010, Congress appropriated more than the high school align well with credit-bearing
$300 million for GEAR UP, which served college-level coursework. Some ECHSs and
748,000 students through 42 state grants MCHSs work with feeder middle schools
and 169 partnership grants.34 Despite the to begin this “scaffolding,” or alignment, of
large number of students being served by curricula and instruction in earlier grades.
these programs, not all eligible students are Another difference from most large com-
being reached. According to the Council prehensive high schools is that ECHSs and
for Opportunity in Education, 11 million MCHSs try to provide students with a full
students are eligible for and need access to range of support services, including advisory
services through TRIO programs, but federal classes, college counseling, peer support, psy-
funding is sufficient to serve less than 7 per- chosocial and behavioral supports, and career
cent of those eligible students.35 experience opportunities for all students.38

Middle College and Early College High Dual-enrollment programs also provide
Schools; Dual Enrollment opportunities for high school students to
The most comprehensive of all the efforts take college-level classes and earn both
discussed here are Middle College High high school and college credit but with-
Schools (MCHSs) and Early College High out the additional supports of the MCHC
Schools (ECHSs). These are small schools and ECHS models.39 Historically, dual-
(the average size is around 250 students) enrollment programs have been offered in
that serve students historically underrepre- highly resourced high schools with large
sented in college populations and that aim to percentages of students who matriculate
coordinate student services, decrease repeti- into college. Increasingly, however, dual
tion in curriculum, make college attainable, enrollment is being offered in high schools
and eliminate the need for remediation. The serving high-need populations. Students
first MCHS opened in 1974 at LaGuardia do not pay for the dual-enrollment courses,
Community College in New York; there are so they can accumulate free college credit
now 40 MCHSs across the United States.36 in high school and potentially shorten the
The ECHS Initiative, which builds off the time it takes to complete a degree once they
MCHS model and is supported by the Bill matriculate, therefore accelerating their
and Melinda Gates Foundation, includes progression from high school to and through
approximately 270 schools serving more than college. A critical issue is that the standards
75,000 students in 28 states.37 Both models for dual-enrollment courses must remain
attempt to create strong college-going cul- college level.
tures throughout each school and to partner
with colleges to provide dual-enrollment The U.S. Department of Education reports
opportunities, college visits, and other con- that as of 2005, 98 percent of community
nections with postsecondary education. Dual- colleges and 77 percent of public four-year
enrollment courses are college-level courses, colleges were participating in dual-enrollment
taught either in high schools or colleges, for programs.40 Most of these programs serve a
which high school students receive both high relatively small number of students at specific

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 Transitions from High School to College

school sites, however. Thirty-eight states have Another state-level reform effort receiving
policies that allow for dual enrollment, but attention is California’s Early Assessment
some states will not allow both high schools Program (EAP), a collaborative effort that
and colleges to receive funding for the same started in 2004 among the state board
course. Postsecondary faculty members teach of education, the California Department
some dual-enrollment courses, while others of Education, and the California State
are taught by high school teachers who have University system. The EAP provides an
completed training at the postsecondary insti- assessment of college readiness in English
tution that is providing the college credit. The and mathematics for one system of higher
kinds of courses offered through dual enroll- education in California (the state universi-
ment also vary a great deal. Some institutions ties) to help students prepare for placement
provide access to any course requested by exams before they enroll in college and
the participating high schools students, while thus avoid the need for remediation once
others limit course options based on available they reach college. The EAP uses students’
sections and other factors. A growing number scores on California’s eleventh-grade assess-
of dual-enrollment courses are in career and ment as indicators of students’ readiness for
college-level work in the state university and
technical education.41
community college systems. Incoming high
school seniors receive notification in August
State-Level Reforms
before their senior year about their level of
More recently, various state-level reforms
readiness and the courses they can take to
have emerged that address specific areas of
improve their academic preparation. Students
college readiness through key leverage points
who score high enough on the EAP (or on the
within a state system. A growing number of
SAT or ACT) are exempt from taking postsec-
these programs focus on students’ academic
ondary placement tests and can go right into
preparation and better alignment between
college-level courses.43
high schools and colleges in the curricula
and assessment tools they use. One example
Evidence on Effectiveness
is the implementation (typically statewide) of Although they employ a range of strate-
default curricula, which attempt to eliminate gies, these programs all share the same aim:
tracking in which some high school students to increase the rates at which participants
complete a college preparatory curricu- complete high school and enroll in and gradu-
lum while others complete a set of courses ate from college. Rigorous evidence regard-
that does not prepare them well to succeed ing the effectiveness of these postsecondary
in education or training past high school. readiness reforms is relatively small, however.
Instead, these states are requiring all high As a result, we focus on results from those
school students to enroll in coursework that studies that used the most rigorous methods
aligns with postsecondary entrance require- available. To begin, we discuss two TRIO
ments. By 2015, at least twenty-one states and programs focused on connecting high school
the District of Columbia will have default students from low-income and first generation
curriculum requirements in place; these typi- college-going families to college—Upward
cally call for four years of English and math- Bound and Talent Search; we then present
ematics and at least three years of science or findings on GEAR UP. We also summarize
social science, or both.42 research on MCHCs and ECHSs to provide

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Andrea Venezia and Laura Jaeger

information and evidence about systemic included about 5,000 Talent Search partici-
approaches, but evaluations of systemic pants along with a comparison sample of
reform efforts tend to be less rigorous, both more than 70,000 students created through
because a control or comparison group is propensity score matching report positive
not easy to construct and because method- effects on high school completion and college
ologically sound evaluations are often unaf- enrollment. In both cases, Talent Search
fordable for small-scale precollege outreach participants completed high school at a
programs.44 significantly higher rate (86 percent in Texas;
85 percent in Florida) than did comparison
From a methodological perspective, experi- group students (77 percent in Texas; 70 per-
mental design is particularly useful when cent in Florida).48
addressing evaluation questions about the
effectiveness of programs or other interven-
tions, because it provides the strongest data
possible about whether observed outcomes
Evaluations of Upward
are the result of a given program or inno- Bound, Talent Search, and
vation. Experimental designs include the
random assignment of students either to a
GEAR UP have yielded mixed
treatment group, which receives the inter- findings on the programs’
vention, or a control group, which does not.
Any variation in outcomes may be attributed
impact on the high school
to the intervention.45 When it is not feasible courses participants take—
to assign participants randomly to treat-
ment and control groups, researchers may
the number one predictor
use quasi-experimental designs, including of college readiness. Results
regression discontinuity, difference-in-
difference, interrupted time series, and
on longer-run outcomes for
propensity score matching. Regression Talent Search have been more
discontinuity is differentiated from the
other quasi-experimental designs because
positive, however.
researchers maintain control over the treat-
ment; participants are assigned to a program
or comparison group on the basis of a cutoff In contrast, findings for postsecondary
score on a preprogram measure.46 enrollment and completion were more mixed
for Upward Bound participants. Mathematica
Evaluations of Upward Bound, Talent Policy Research conducted a randomized
Search, and GEAR UP have yielded mixed assignment study with a nationally repre-
findings on the programs’ impact on the sentative sample of sixty-seven Upward
high school courses participants take—the Bound projects hosted by two- and four-year
number one predictor of college readiness.47 colleges and universities. Researchers found
Results on longer-term outcomes for Talent that the program had no detectable effect on
Search have been more positive, however. the rate of overall postsecondary enrollment,
For example, two quasi-experimental studies the type or selectivity of the postsecond-
of Talent Search in Texas and Florida that ary institution attended, or the likelihood

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 Transitions from High School to College

of earning a bachelor’s or associate’s degree. impact of North Carolina’s ECHS model on

However, the program was found to have ninth-grade student outcomes found that,
positive effects on postsecondary enroll- compared with control-group students, a
ment and completion among the subgroup higher proportion of ECHS students were
of students with lower educational expecta- taking core college preparatory courses
tions upon entering the program, that is, the and succeeding in them; the difference was
students who did not expect to complete a substantial and statistically significant.53 In
bachelor’s degree. The study also found that terms of high school graduation and col-
longer participation in Upward Bound was lege enrollment and success, a randomized
associated with higher rates of postsecondary controlled trial of 394 students in the Seattle
enrollment and completion.49 It appears that Public Schools (in which a lottery was used
a key strength of the program is positively to place students into MCHSs or regular
influencing students’ educational expecta- high schools), found minimal, nonstatistically
tions. Findings from the first phase of the significant effects of the MCHS on students’
Mathematica study found that, in general, staying in and completing school. Specifically,
program participants had higher expectations 36 percent of the MCHS students dropped
related to educational attainment.50 out of school, compared with 33 percent of
control group students; and 40 percent of
To date, no large-scale study has tracked the MCHS students earned a high school
GEAR UP participants to the point of high diploma or GED (General Educational
school graduation; however, across three Development) certificate two years after ran-
quasi-experimental studies of GEAR UP dom assignment, compared with 38 percent
(using a sample of eighteen middle schools of control group students.54
and eighteen matched comparisons), GEAR
UP participants generally showed modest To date, the studies evaluating the impact
but positive outcomes related to academic of ECHSs and MCHSs on college outcomes
performance by the end of eighth grade. 51 have been primarily descriptive. While the
The studies also found positive outcomes for findings look positive, they may also be
tenth-grade participants related to academic overly optimistic given the likelihood that
performance, course-taking patterns, and those participating in the programs may have
college plans.52 Despite these intermediate done better than the comparison group even
student outcomes, most differences between without participating in the program. Both
GEAR UP participants and comparison models appear to increase the rate at which
groups were not statistically significant on participants take college-level courses and
outcomes related to overall academic per- earn credits while in high school, but par-
formance, odds of being college-ready in ticipants’ longer-term success once in college
English or reading, and taking the core high may be less promising. A documented issue
school curriculum or having plans for college. is a decline in ECHS and MCHS students’
academic performance over time, particu-
Very few rigorous studies have evaluated larly when they transition from high school to
the impact of the ECHS and MCHS models college. A longitudinal, descriptive study of
on college readiness outcomes, and find- a 2006–07 cohort of ECHS students found
ings from studies that have been conducted a decline in grade point average (GPA) over
are mixed. A randomized trial on the time; in particular, as the students moved

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Andrea Venezia and Laura Jaeger

from twelfth grade to the first year in col- the researchers’ ability to estimate program
lege, the average student GPA dropped from effects.59 Because the CCRC studies did not
2.63 to 2.48.55 In addition, the credits that use a random assignment design, they cannot
the students in these models earned in high control for motivation or other unmeasured
school may not transfer once they enroll in differences between dual-enrollment stu-
college; thus, these students are not earn- dents and those in the comparison groups.
ing college credit free of cost to them.56 The
decline in student outcomes once they are out As for statewide programs, a quasi-
of the “high expectation and high support” experimental study of the California EAP
environment has implications for future high with a treatment-comparison design found
school reform efforts and for the role of the that the program reduced students’ need
postsecondary system in supporting students for remediation by 6.1 percentage points in
once they matriculate. English and 4.1 percentage points in math-
ematics.60 However, several variables are at
To date, no randomized trials have been play once students get an EAP score at the
conducted on the effects of dual enroll- end of the junior year, including the avail-
ment. A series of five state case studies has ability of high-level English and mathematics
provided descriptive evidence that dual courses during the senior year. In theory, if
enrollment is an effective strategy for helping students have access to these courses, their
students make a better transition to col- need for remediation will likely decrease.
lege and to persist in college once they are But lack of resources and training for teach-
there, particularly for lower-income students ers who teach the on-site courses makes this
and for males.57 Recently, the Community access less of a reality for many students
College Research Center (CCRC) published across California.61
findings from a three-year evaluation that
tracked outcomes for thousands of students Christopher Mazzeo and his colleagues at
in career-focused dual-enrollment programs the Consortium on Chicago School Research
in California. The study found that students studied a Chicago public schools reform that
who completed dual courses were more required a default curriculum for all students
likely to graduate from high school, enroll entering ninth grade in 1997 or later. The
in a four-year postsecondary institution, and researchers compared students’ outcomes in
persist in college. They were less likely to be English, mathematics, and science before the
placed into developmental education, and policy was implemented with outcomes after-
they earned more college credits than did ward. They found that students were more
comparison students.58 Similarly, research likely to earn college preparatory English and
by the CCRC at the City University of New mathematics credit by the end of ninth grade
York (CUNY) found that students who com- after the policy than before it, but test scores
pleted one or more CUNY dual-enrollment did not increase. Grades declined for “lower-
courses earned more credits and had higher skilled” students, and those students were sig-
grade point averages than did students who nificantly more likely to fail their ninth-grade
did not complete such courses. The study mathematics or English courses. Absenteeism
controlled for demographic and academic increased among students with stronger skills
achievement factors and had a large sample in both subjects, and students were no more
size (almost 23,000 students), thus increasing likely to take the most rigorous mathematics

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 Transitions from High School to College

classes. Finally, the policy shift was found to in order to make meaningful improvements
have negative effects on high school gradu- in college readiness.65 And while ECHS and
ation and postsecondary enrollment rates. MCHS models appear to increase the rate at
Students who earned a B or better were less which participants take college-level courses
likely to go to college after the reform than and earn credits while in high school, the
before the reform.62 The researchers posited longer-term success of these students once in
that the schools that have traditionally offered college appears less promising.
the most rigorous courses might be the ones
that have the best capacity to teach them; “It should not be surprising,” concludes
spreading those requirements to other schools an influential federally funded descriptive
without the right capacity-building opportu- study of precollege outreach programs, “that
nities might result in ineffective curricula and these early intervention programs appear to
pedagogy. Default curricula reforms typically have little influence on academic achieve-
are not accompanied by changes in school- ment. They tend to be peripheral to the
and classroom-level capacity or by instruc- K[kindergarten]-12 schools. They augment
tional reforms.63 and supplement what schools do, but do
not fundamentally change the way schools
Summary of Lessons from the interact with students.”66 Current changes in
Intervention Studies federal and state policies attempt to reform
Given the range of major reform efforts in how high schools provide opportunities for
place in primary and secondary schools to students to learn high-level content, aligned
help more students become college-ready and with college and career expectations, in a
the equally varied level of evidence available way that is integrated within the school day
on each, it is difficult to isolate individual for all students (as opposed to programs
strategies that are more or less effective. for a small proportion of students). There is
Looking across the spectrum of efforts and also increasing awareness in the field that
research, however, the strengths of specific students need more psychosocial and behav-
interventions appear to lie in their ability to ioral supports.
target subgroups of students (for example,
Upward Bound students with low educational While resource limitations can affect the
expectations), to offer thorough support in extent to which different interventions can be
specific areas (Talent Search participants integrated to create a more comprehensive
were more likely than nonparticipants from approach, over the past ten years, interest
similar backgrounds to be first-time appli- has been growing in finding more wide-
cants for financial aid),64 and to provide spread systemic and holistic approaches to
prolonged support (longer program participa- college readiness. The Common Core State
tion in Upward Bound is linked to positive Standards, discussed next, are being imple-
outcomes). The length of time spent in cer- mented in most states but focus primarily on
tain programs seems to be a crucial factor in academic knowledge and skills; examples of
increasing students’ postsecondary enrollment more systemic approaches include college-
and completion. Research on California’s preparatory charter schools such as Alliance
EAP highlights the need for building capac- College-Ready Public Schools, Aspire Public
ity in classrooms and schools and surround- Schools, Green Dot Public Schools, High
ing supports such as instructional reforms Tech High, and KIPP Public Charter Schools.

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Andrea Venezia and Laura Jaeger

Systems Reform and the Common coaching and facilitation, to help students
Core State Standards take greater responsibility for their learning,
In an effort to create more consistency to increase rigor in core subject areas, to help
nationally, and to align expectations across students learn how to construct arguments
high schools, colleges, and entry-level work- and critique others’ reasoning, and to move
force opportunities, the National Governors away from rote memorization (what and
Association and the Council of Chief State when) toward a deeper understanding of why
School Officers are leading the Common and how.70
Core State Standards (CCSS) Initiative. The
initiative embodies a set of goals and expecta- The CCSS initiative acknowledges that col-
tions in English language arts and mathemat- lege readiness requires students to go beyond
ics designed to align with college and career rote memorization and to learn not only key
readiness by the end of twelfth grade.67 To content knowledge but also to develop skills
date, they have been adopted by forty-five around such abilities as effective analysis,
states and three territories.68 Many current communication, interpretation, and synthe-
school accountability systems focus on the sis of information. The standards, however,
educational floor for high school gradua- are structured entirely around core subject
tion (minimum academic standards), not the areas at a time when increasing attention in
ceiling (postsecondary readiness), but those policy and research circles is being focused
systems will need to change to align with the on habits of mind related to college readiness,
CCSS. Because states are currently in the and those are not explicitly included in the
process of implementing the CCSS, there is CCSS.71
no evidence yet regarding the effectiveness
of the strategy, although states have been It is too soon to know if efforts to use col-
experimenting with standards-based reforms lege and career readiness standards to drive
since the 1990s. improved opportunities for high school
students will make a difference in the per-
The CCSS initiative is intended to provide a centage of students who succeed in postsec-
framework for the development and imple- ondary education. It is not known if these
mentation of more detailed curricula.69 new tools can be implemented successfully
The goal is to move schooling more in the at the desired scale, or if they will do a better
direction of greater cognitive challenges for job of teaching students about—or help-
students and clearer focus on key content. ing them attain—college readiness. Many
The standards aim to help students increase questions remain: If postsecondary readi-
communication and critical thinking skills ness and career readiness are the same, do
and learn deep content knowledge. Because broad similarities in the knowledge and skills
standards alone will not shift student learn- necessary hold true across all fields and job
ing, the success of the CCSS depends on types? If they are different, how can schools
how they are implemented and whether the provide opportunities for students to become
assessments are summative, formative, or college- and career-ready, while affording
both. Supporters intend the CCSS to have all students the opportunity to explore their
the potential, for example, to enable teach- options and not end up tracked in a particu-
ers to focus less on lectures and more on lar area?

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 Transitions from High School to College

More generally, many state-level officials are The changes must go beyond teaching and
concerned that current budget constraints learning in core subject areas. In addition
will impede states’ abilities to support the to directly supporting academic preparation
kinds of professional development opportuni- for students, capacity-building efforts need
ties and other supports necessary for schools to focus on ensuring that large comprehen-
and educators to successfully implement sive high schools have strong college-going
the CCSS. A 2012 survey of deputy state cultures, on providing the necessary profes-
superintendents of education by the Center sional development for educators to help all
on Education Policy found that twenty-one students meet college readiness standards, on
supporting the development of strong habits
states are experiencing challenges in having
of mind for all students, and on providing
the resources necessary to implement the
students with the information and supports
CCSS and that twenty states are worried
to help them select the most appropriate
they will not have enough computers for the
postsecondary institution. Across the coun-
CCSS-aligned assessments scheduled to be
try, precollege outreach programs of all sizes
ready in 2014.72
are working on one or more of these issues,
but the scale of those combined is small rela-
tive to the need.
It is too soon to know if
Primary and secondary schools usually func-
efforts to use college and tion in a different system from postsecondary
career readiness standards to institutions, with different leaders, priorities,
incentives, accountability mechanisms, finan-
drive improved opportunities cial systems, data systems, norms, academic
for high school students will expectations, ways to measure progress and
success, and pedagogies or instructional
make a difference in the strategies. The separation between the two
percentage of students who levels might have made sense decades ago,
when the majority of students who went to
succeed in postsecondary college had the most “college knowledge”—
education. the best abilities to navigate college academi-
cally, financially, socially, and psychologically.
But today that separation contributes to the
exacerbation of inequalities for a large and
Conclusion growing proportion of college students.73 The
Given the implementation of the CCSS,
CCSS should help bridge that divide. But to
the next few years are a critically important effectively connect the primary and second-
period in which to advance public discourse ary systems to the postsecondary education
on college readiness. Capacity building for system and ensure that students are receiving
states, districts, schools, and educators is the opportunity to prepare well for some form
paramount to ensure that the new standards of postsecondary education, greater con-
drive significant changes in what and how sensus is needed about what it means to be
students learn and that the changes are college- and career-ready, and higher educa-
aligned with postsecondary expectations. tion needs to play a more active role in reform

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Andrea Venezia and Laura Jaeger

efforts. Currently, that role with regard to the Beyond standards, other widespread efforts
implementation of the CCSS is unclear. to help students better navigate the divide
between secondary and postsecondary educa-
It is also not clear how a set of high-level tion, such as dual enrollment, point to the
standards will drive the kinds of capacity challenges inherent in cross-system initia-
building, instructional change, and develop- tives, as well as to opportunities to better
ment of student supports writ large that will connect the resources and knowledge within
be required to move the needle on postsec- both secondary and postsecondary systems.
ondary readiness and success. Nor is it clear Central to these streamlining efforts are
what the educational context that surrounds considerations of how best to address the full
the CCSS will look like—will the focus in range of student needs, including integrating
high schools be primarily on core academics? academics with comprehensive support, so
Will it include applied pathways that connect that students are prepared to be successful
with postsecondary programs of study? Will in college. The research, although limited, on
primary schools be able to provide supports federal intervention programs highlights the
around the development of habits of mind, importance of length of time in a program for
given that those behaviors and understandings student outcomes related to credit accrual,
need to start to develop before high school? high school graduation, and college enroll-
ment. Looking for ways to leverage funds to
If the CCSS initiative is to help schools extend the length of these programs and to
prepare larger numbers of students for post- target and involve students earlier would be
secondary education, the new standards will worthwhile.
need to be implemented with strong scaffold-
ing—connecting curricula and instruction Consistent with the nation’s history of
up and down the system—so that educators decentralized control of education, no one
are able to provide the appropriate college reform model or intervention will work in
readiness opportunities for students. The every school or meet the needs of all stu-
instruction will need to be supplemented dents. While great variation in approaches
by, or integrated with, the kinds of supports and implementation strategies will no doubt
and other interventions currently offered by continue, the field would benefit from a more
strong precollege outreach programs and comprehensive and consistent method for
school reform models. Currently, there are no learning what works across different types of
national or state standards for capacity build- reforms—for example, using similar defini-
ing, student supports, or the development tions and metrics—to help clarify what is
of habits of mind. Given the complex issues transportable, effectively, across different
involved in helping a larger percentage of stu- contexts and scaling needs. Finally, it seems
dents become ready for, and succeed in, some likely that to support postsecondary readi-
form of postsecondary education, perhaps it ness for more students, reforms should take a
is time to consider how those activities can be systemic, comprehensive approach to provide
supported in schools and integrated into the students with both academic and nonaca-
implementation of the CCSS. demic resources and opportunities.

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 Transitions from High School to College

Endnotes
1. Sandy Baum, Charles Kurose, and Michael McPherson, “An Overview of American Higher Education,”
Future of Children 23, no. 1 (Spring 2013).

2. U.S. Department of Education, Condition of Education (2004).

3. Robert Stillwell, “Public School Graduates and Dropouts from the Common Core of Data: School Year
2007–08” (National Center for Education Statistics, June 2010).

4. David Conley, “Redefining College Readiness” (Eugene, Ore.: Educational Policy Improvement Center,
2007).

5. National Center for Education Statistics, The Nation’s Report Card: Grade 12 Reading and Mathematics
2009 National and Pilot State Results, NCES 2011-455 (U.S. Department of Education, 2010).

6. ACT, Inc., The Condition of College & Career Readiness (Iowa City, Iowa: 2012).

7. College Board, “SAT Report,” press release (New York: September 24, 2012) (http://press.collegeboard.org/
releases/2012/sat-report-only-43-percent-2012-college-bound-seniors-college-ready).

8. See, for example, Andrea Venezia, Michael Kirst, and Anthony Antonio, “Betraying the College Dream”
(Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Institute for Higher Education Research, 2003); and the RAND Corporation’s
technical analyses conducted for Stanford University’s Bridge Project (www.stanford.edu/group/
bridgeproject/RANDtables.html).

9. See, for example, Melissa Roderick, Jenny Nagaoka, and Vanessa Coca, “College Readiness for All: The
Challenge for Urban High Schools,” Future of Children 19, no. 1 (2009): 185–210.

10. College Board, “The 8th Annual AP Report to the Nation” (New York: February 8, 2012) (http://media.
collegeboard.com/digitalServices/public/pdf/ap/rtn/AP-Report-to-the-Nation.pdf).

11. David Conley, Who Governs Our Schools (New York: Teacher’s College Press, 2003).

12. Terris Ross and others, Higher Education: Gaps in Access and Persistence Study, NCES 2012-046 (U.S.
Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, 2012).

13. Ibid.

14. Susan Aud, Mary Ann Fox, and Angelina KewalRamani, Status and Trends in the Education of Racial and
Ethnic Groups, NCES 2010-015 (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics,
2010).

15. Ross and others, Higher Education: Gaps in Access and Persistence Study (see note 12).

16. See, for example, Mallory Newell, Higher Education Budget Cuts: How Are They Affecting Students?
(Sacramento, Calif.: California Postsecondary Education Commission, 2009); and Phil Oliff, Chris Mai,
and Michael Leachman, “New School Year Brings More Cuts in State Funding for Schools” (Washington:
Center on Budget and Policy Priorities, September 4, 2012).

17. Kimberly A. Goyette, “College for Some to College for All: Social Background, Occupational Expectations,
and Educational Expectations over Time,” Social Science Research 32, no. 2 (June 2008): 461–84.

18. Patricia Gándara and Deborah Bial, Paving the Way to Postsecondary Education: K-12 Intervention
Programs for Underrepresented Youth (U.S. Department of Education, 2001).

19. Arthur L. Costa and Bena Kallick, Discovering and Exploring Habits of Mind (Alexandria, Va.: Association
of Supervision and Curriculum Development, February 15, 2000).

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Andrea Venezia and Laura Jaeger

20. David Conley, Standards for Success, Understanding University Success (Eugene, Ore.: Center for
Educational Policy Research, 2003).

21. See, for example, Nicolas Lemann, The Big Test: The Secret History of the American Meritocracy (New
York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1999).

22. Eric Bettinger, Angela Boatman, and Bridget Terry Long, “Student Supports: Developmental Education
and Other Academic Programs,” Future of Children 23, no. 1 (Spring 2013).

23. Svetlana Darche, “College and Career Readiness: What Do We Mean?” (Berkeley, Calif.: ConnectEd:
The California Center for College and Career, 2012).

24. Ibid.

25. Jillian Kinzie and others, Fifty Years of College Choice: Social, Political, and Institutional Influences
on the Decision-Making Process, vol. 5: New Agenda Series (Indianapolis: Lumina Foundation for
Education, 2004), pp. 40–4; Patricia M. McDonough, Choosing Colleges: How Social Class and Schools
Structure Opportunity (Albany: SUNY Press, 1997).

26. McDonough, Choosing Colleges (see note 25).

27. William G. Bowen, Matthew M. Chingos, and Michael S. McPherson, Crossing the Finish Line:
Completing College at America’s Public Universities (Princeton University Press, 2009).

28. McDonough, Choosing Colleges (see note 25).

29. Bowen, Chingos, and McPherson, Crossing the Finish Line (see note 27)

30. Kinzie and others, Fifty Years of College Choice (see note 25); McDonough, Choosing Colleges
(see note 25).

31. The remaining is made up of other races and ethnicities, including Asians. Thomas D. Snyder and Sally
A. Dillow, “Digest of Education Statistics 2011” (U.S. Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics, 2012), table 237.

32. U.S. Department of Education, “Office of Postsecondary Education: Federal TRIO Programs
Homepage” (www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ope/trio/index.html).

33. U.S. Department of Education, “Upward Bound Program: Funding Status” (www2.ed.gov/programs/
trioupbound/funding.html); U.S. Department of Education, “Talent Search Program Purpose” (www2.
ed.gov/programs/triotalent/index.html).

34. U.S. Department of Education, “Gaining Early Awareness and Readiness for Undergraduate Programs
(GEAR UP), Funding Status” (www2.ed.gov/programs/gearup/funding.html).

35. Laura W. Perna and Scott W. Swail, “Pre-College Outreach and Early Intervention Programs: An
Approach to Achieving Equal Educational Opportunity,” in Condition of Access: Higher Education for
Lower Income Students, edited by Don E. Heller (Westport, Conn.: Praeger Publishers, 2002),
pp. 97–112.

36. Middle College National Consortium, “Our History” (www.mcnc.us/about/our-history).

37. Jobs for the Future, Early College High Schools Get Results (Washington: 2012).

38. Rhona S. Weinstein, “Toward a Comprehensive Support Structure for Early College Secondary Students:
Final Report to the Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation” (University of California,
Berkeley, 2011); U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, “The Effectiveness of
Middle College High School” (Washington: What Works Clearinghouse, 2009).

1 34 T HE F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N
 Transitions from High School to College

39. Melinda Karp and others, “Dual Enrollment Students in Florida and New York City: Postsecondary
Outcomes,” CCRC Brief 37 (New York: Community College Research Center, Teachers College,
Columbia University, 2008).

40. Brian Kleiner and Laurie Lewis, Dual Enrollment of High School Students at Postsecondary Institutions:
2002–03 (U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences, 2005).

41. Andrea Venezia, CTE in Early College High Schools (Boston: Jobs for the Future, 2008).

42. Christopher Mazzeo, College Prep for All? What We’ve Learned from Chicago’s Efforts (Chicago:
Consortium on Chicago School Reform, 2010).

43. Andrea Venezia and Daniel Voloch, “Using College Placement Exams as Early Signals of College
Readiness: An Examination of California’s Early Assessment Program and New York’s At Home in College
Program,” New Directions for Higher Education 158 (2012): 71–9.

44. Gándara and Bial, Paving the Way to Postsecondary Education (see note 18).

45. Nick Tilley, “Quasi-Experimental,” in Sage Dictionary of Social Science Research Methods, edited by Victor
Jupp (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications).

46. Research Methods Knowledge Base (www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/quasird.php).

47. Clifford Adelman, Answers in the Toolbox: Academic Intensity, Attendance Patterns, and Bachelor’s Degree
Attainment (U.S. Department of Education: Office of Educational Research and Improvement, 1999).

48. Jill M. Constantine and others, A Study of the Effect of the Talent Search Program on Secondary and
Postsecondary Outcomes in Florida, Indiana, and Texas: Final Report from Phase II of the National
Evaluation (Washington: Mathematica Policy Research Inc., 2006).

49. Neil S. Seftor, Arif Mamun, and Allen Schirm, The Impacts of Regular Upward Bound on Postsecondary
Outcomes 7–9 Years after Scheduled High School Graduation (Princeton, N.J.: Mathematica Policy
Research, 2009).

50. David Myers and Allen Schirm, The Impacts of Upward Bound: Final Report for Phase I of the National
Evaluation (Washington: Mathematica Policy Research, April 1999).

51. Kim Standing and others, Early Outcomes of the GEAR UP Program: Final Report (Rockville, Md.: Westat,
2008); Patrick T. Terenzini and others, The Dream Deferred: Increasing the College Preparedness of At
Risk Students (U.S. Department of Education, 2005).

52. ACT, Inc., Using EXPLORE and PLAN Data to Evaluate GEAR UP Programs (Iowa City, Iowa: 2007).

53. Julie A. Edmunds and others, “Expanding the Start of the College Pipeline: Ninth-Grade Findings from
an Experimental Study of the Impact of the Early College High School Model,” Journal of Research on
Educational Effectiveness 5, no. 2 (2012): 136–59.

54. Mark Dynarski and others, Impacts of Dropout Prevention Programs (Princeton, N.J.: Mathematica Policy
Research, Inc., 1998).

55. Jennifer E. Kim and Elisabeth A. Barnett, 2006-07 MCNC Early College High School Students:
Participation and Performance in College Coursework (New York: National Center for Restructuring
Education, Schools, and Teaching, 2008).

56. American Institutes for Research, Six Years and Counting: The ECHSI Matures (Washington: 2009).

57. Katherine L. Hughes and others, “Pathways to College Access and Success,” CCRC Brief 27 (New York:
Community College Research Center, Teachers College, Columbia University, 2006).

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Andrea Venezia and Laura Jaeger

58. Katherine L. Hughes and others, “Broadening the Benefits of Dual Enrollment: Reaching Underachieving
and Underrepresented Students with Career-Focused Programs” (New York: Community College
Research Center, Teachers College, Columbia University, July 2012).

59. Drew Allen and Mina Dadgar, “Does Dual Enrollment Increase Students’ Success in College? Evidence
from a Quasi-Experimental Analysis of Dual Enrollment in New York City,” in Dual Enrollment: Strategies,
Outcomes, and Lessons for School-College Partnerships, edited by Eric Hofmann and Daniel Voloch (San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2012), pp. 11–20.

60. Jessica S. Howell, Michal Kurlaender, and Eric E. Grodsky, “Postsecondary Preparation and Remediation:
Examining the Effect of the Early Assessment Program at California State University,” Journal of Policy
Analysis and Management 29, no. 4 (2010): 726–48.

61. Venezia and Voloch, “Using College Placement Exams as Early Signals of College Readiness” (see note 43).

62. Mazzeo, College Prep for All? (see note 42).

63. Ibid.

64. Constantine and others, A Study of the Effect of the Talent Search Program (see note 48).

65. Venezia and Voloch, “Using College Placement Exams as Early Signals of College Readiness” (see note 43).

66. Gándara and Bial, Paving the Way to Postsecondary Education (see note 18).

67. Achieve, Inc., Closing the Expectations Gap 2011: Sixth Annual 50-State Progress Report (Washington:
2011).

68. National Governors Association and Council of Chief State School Officers, “Common Core State
Standards Initiative: In the States” (www.corestandards.org/in-the-states).

69. David Conley, “Four Keys to College Readiness,” presentation to the School District of West Palm Beach
County, Florida (October 11, 2011).

70. Education Week, “Teaching Ahead: A Roundtable—Are You Prepared for the Common Core State
Standards?” (Bethesda, Md.: March 30, 2012) (http://blogs.edweek.org/teachers/teaching_ahead/
are-you-prepared-for-the-common-core-standards/).

71. See, for example, Conley, “Redefining College Readiness” (see note 4); Darche, “College and Career
Readiness” (see note 23); and Camille A. Farrington and others, “Teaching Adolescents to Become
Learners: The Role of Noncognitive Factors in Shaping School Performance” (University of Chicago
Consortium on Chicago School Research, June, 2012).

72. Nancy Kober and Diane Stark Rentner, “Year Two of Implementing the Common Core State Standards:
States’ Progress and Challenges” (Washington: Center on Education Policy, 2012).

73. See, for example, Venezia, Kirst, and Antonio, “Betraying the College Dream” (see note 8).

1 36 T HE F UT UR E OF C HI LDRE N