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Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, Maurya Empire
agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across India thanks to
the creation of a single efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The
Mauryans built the Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest major roads
connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.[112] After the Kalinga War, the
Empire experienced nearly half a century of peace and security under Ashoka.
Mauryan India also enjoyed an era of social harmony, religious transformation, and
expansion of scientific knowledge. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism
increased social and religious renewal and reform across his society, while Ashoka's
embrace of Buddhism has been said to have been the foundation of the reign of Maurya Empire at its peak Ashokan pillar at Vaishali, 3rd
under Ashoka the Great. century BCE.
social and political peace and non-violence across India. Ashoka sponsored Buddhist
missions across the Indo-Mediterranean, into Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia, West Asia,
North Africa, and Mediterranean Europe.[113]

The Arthashastra written by Chanakya and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary written records of the
Mauryan times. Archaeologically, this period falls in the era of Northern Black Polished Ware. The
Mauryan Empire was based on a modern and efficient economy and society in which the sale of
merchandise was closely regulated by the government.[114] Although there was no banking in the
Mauryan society, usury was customary. A significant amount of written records on slavery are found,
suggesting a prevalence thereof.[115] During this period, a high-quality steel called Wootz steel was
developed in south India and was later exported to China and Arabia.[116]

Sangam period
During the Sangam period Tamil literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 4th century CE.
The Mauryan carved door of Lomas
Three Tamil dynasties, collectively known as the Three Crowned Kings of Tamilakam: Chera dynasty,
Rishi, one of the Barabar Caves, c. 250
Chola dynasty, and the Pandya dynasty ruled parts of southern India.[118] BCE

The Sangam literature deals with the history, politics, wars, and culture of the Tamil
people of this period.[119] Unlike Sanskrit writers who were mostly Brahmins,
Sangam writers came from diverse classes and social backgrounds and were mostly
non-Brahmins.[120]

Around c. 300 BCE – c. 200 CE, Pathupattu, an anthology of ten mid-length book
collections, which is considered part of Sangam Literature, were composed; the
composition of eight anthologies of poetic works Ettuthogai as well as the
composition of eighteen minor poetic works Patiṉeṇkīḻkaṇakku; while Tolkāppiyam,
the earliest grammarian work in the Tamil language was developed.[121] Also, during
Sangam period, two of the Five Great Epics of Tamil Literature were composed.
Ilango Adigal composed Silappatikaram, which is a non-religious work, that
revolves around Kannagi,[122] and Manimekalai, composed by Chithalai Chathanar, Tamilakam, located at the tip of South Ilango Adigal, author of
India during the Sangam period, ruled Silappatikaram, one of
is a sequel to Silappatikaram, and tells the story of the daughter of Kovalan and
by Chera dynasty, Chola dynasty and the five great epics of
Madhavi, who became a Buddhist Bhikkhuni.[123][124] the Pandyan dynasty. Tamil literature.[117]

Classical period (c. 200 BCE – 650 CE)

Ancient India during the rise Great Chaitya in the Karla Udayagiri and Khandagiri Relief of a multi-storied
of the Shunga Empire from Caves. The shrines were Caves is home to the temple, 2nd century CE,
the North, Satavahana developed over the period Hathigumpha inscription, Ghantasala Stupa.[125][126]
dynasty from the Deccan, from the 2nd century BCE which was inscribed under
and Pandyan dynasty and to the 5th century CE. Kharavela, then Emperor of
Chola dynasty from the Kalinga of the
southern part of India. Mahameghavahana
dynasty.

The time between the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE and the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE is referred to as the
"Classical" period of India.[127] The Gupta Empire (4th–6th century) is regarded as the Golden Age of India, although a host of kingdoms ruled
over India in these centuries. Also, the Sangam literature flourished from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE in southern India.[128]
During this period, India's economy is estimated to have been the largest in the world, having between one-third and one-quarter of the world's
wealth, from 1 CE to 1000 CE.[129][130]
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Early classical period (c. 200 BCE – 320 CE)

Shunga Empire
The Shungas originated from Magadha, and controlled large areas of the Shunga Empire
central and eastern Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BCE. The
dynasty was established by Pushyamitra Shunga, who overthrew the last
Maurya emperor. Its capital was Pataliputra, but later emperors, such as
Bhagabhadra, also held court at Vidisha, modern Besnagar.[131]

Pushyamitra Shunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his son
Agnimitra. There were ten Shunga rulers. However, after the death of
East Gateway and Railings, Bharhut Shunga art Royal family, 1st
Agnimitra, the empire rapidly disintegrated;[132] inscriptions and coins
Stupa, 2nd century BCE. Ancient vina, 1st century BCE in
indicate that much of northern and central India consisted of small kingdoms century BCE. West Bengal.
and city-states that were independent of any Shunga hegemony.[133] The
empire is noted for its numerous wars with both foreign and indigenous
powers. They fought with the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga, Satavahana dynasty of Deccan, the Indo-Greeks, and possibly the
Panchalas and Mitras of Mathura.

Art, education, philosophy, and other forms of learning flowered during this period including architectural monuments such as the Stupa at
Bharhut and the renowned Great Stupa at Sanchi. The Shunga rulers helped to establish the tradition of royal sponsorship of learning and art.
The script used by the empire was a variant of Brahmi and was used to write the Sanskrit language. The Shunga Empire played an imperative
role in patronising Indian culture at a time when some of the most important developments in Hindu thought were taking place.

Satavahana Empire
The Śātavāhanas were based from Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh as well as Junnar Satavahana Empire
(Pune) and Prathisthan (Paithan) in Maharashtra. The territory of the empire
covered large parts of India from the 1st century BCE onward. The Sātavāhanas
started out as feudatories to the Mauryan dynasty, but declared independence with
its decline.

The Sātavāhanas are known for their patronage of Hinduism and Buddhism, which
resulted in Buddhist monuments from Ellora (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) to
Amaravati. They were one of the first Indian states to issue coins with their rulers
Sanchi Stupa Two and Southern Indian ship on lead coin
embossed. They formed a cultural bridge and played a vital role in trade as well as Gateway, 1st century CE (UNESCO of Vasisthiputra Sri
the transfer of ideas and culture to and from the Indo-Gangetic Plain to the southern World Heritage Site). Pulamavi, testimony to
tip of India. the naval, seafaring and
trading capabilities of the
They had to compete with the Shunga Empire and then the Kanva dynasty of Sātavāhanas during the
Magadha to establish their rule. Later, they played a crucial role to protect large part 1st–2nd century CE.
of India against foreign invaders like the Sakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas. In particular,
their struggles with the Western Kshatrapas went on for a long time. The notable
rulers of the Satavahana Dynasty Gautamiputra Satakarni and Sri Yajna Sātakarni were able to defeat the foreign invaders like the Western
Kshatrapas and to stop their expansion. In the 3rd century CE, the empire was split into smaller states.[134]

Trade and travels to India

The spice trade in Kerala attracted traders from all over the Old World to India. India's Southwest coastal
port Muziris had established itself as a major spice trade centre from as early as 3,000 BCE, according to
Sumerian records. Jewish traders arrived in Kochi, Kerala, India as early as 562 BCE.[135] The Greco-
Roman world followed by trading along the incense route and the Roman-India routes.[136] During the
2nd century BCE Greek and Indian ships met to trade at Arabian ports such as Aden.[137] During the first
millennium, the sea routes to India were controlled by the Indians and Ethiopians that became the
maritime trading power of the Red Sea.

Indian merchants involved in spice trade took Indian cuisine to Southeast Asia, where spice mixtures and Silk Road and Spice trade, ancient trade
curries became popular with the native inhabitants.[138] Buddhism entered China through the Silk Road routes that linked India with the Old
in the 1st or 2nd century CE.[139] Hindu and Buddhist religious establishments of South and Southeast World; carried goods and ideas between
Asia came to be centres of production and commerce as they accumulated capital donated by patrons. the ancient civilisations of the Old World
They engaged in estate management, craftsmanship, and trade. Buddhism in particular travelled and India. The land routes are marked as
red, and the water routes are marked as
alongside the maritime trade, promoting literacy, art, and the use of coinage.[140]
blue.

Kushan Empire
The Kushan Empire expanded out of what is now Afghanistan into the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under the leadership of their first
emperor, Kujula Kadphises, about the middle of the 1st century CE. The Kushans were possibly a Tocharian speaking tribe,[141] one of five
branches of the Yuezhi confederation.[142][143] By the time of his grandson, Kanishka the Great, the empire spread to encompass much of
Afghanistan,[144] and then the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.[145]

Emperor Kanishka was a great patron of Buddhism; however, as Kushans expanded southward, the deities of their later coinage came to reflect
its new Hindu majority.[146][147] Historian Vincent Smith said about Kanishka:

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He played the part of a second Ashoka in the history of Buddhism.[148] Kushan Empire

The empire linked the Indian Ocean maritime trade with the commerce of the Silk Road through
the Indus valley, encouraging long-distance trade, particularly between China and Rome. The
Kushans brought new trends to the budding and blossoming Gandhara art and Mathura art, which
reached its peak during Kushan rule.[149] The period of peace under Kushan rule is known as Pax
Kushana. By the 3rd century, their empire in India was disintegrating and their last known great
emperor was Vasudeva I.[150][151]
Kushan territories (full line) Depiction of the
Classical period (c. 320 – 650 CE) and maximum extent of Buddha in
Kushan dominions under Kanishka's
Kanishka (dotted line), coinage,
Gupta Empire according to the Rabatak Mathura art, 2nd
inscription century CE
The Gupta period was noted for cultural creativity, especially in literature, architecture, sculpture,
and painting.[152] The Gupta period produced scholars such as Kalidasa, Aryabhata,
Varahamihira, Vishnu Sharma, and Vatsyayana. The Gupta period marked a watershed of Gupta Empire
Indian culture: the Guptas performed Vedic sacrifices to legitimise their rule, but they also
patronised Buddhism, an alternative to Brahmanical orthodoxy. The military exploits of the
first three rulers – Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II – brought much of
India under their leadership.[153] Science and political administration reached new heights
during the Gupta era. Strong trade ties also made the region an important cultural centre
and established it as a base that would influence nearby kingdoms and regions.[154][155] The
period of peace under Gupta rule is known as Pax Gupta.

The latter Guptas successfully resisted the northwestern kingdoms until the arrival of the
Alchon Huns, who established themselves in Afghanistan by the first half of the 5th century Gupta Empire around 420 CE at Current structure of
CE, with their capital at Bamiyan.[156] However, much of the southern India including its peak territorial extent under the Mahabodhi
Kumaragupta I. Temple built during
Deccan were largely unaffected by these events.[157][158]
the Gupta era, 5th
century CE. The
Vakataka Empire location are marked
where the Buddha is
The Vākāṭaka Empire originated from the Deccan in the mid-third century CE. Their state is said to have attained
believed to have extended from the southern edges of Malwa and Gujarat in the north to the enlightenment.
Tungabhadra River in the south as well as from the Arabian Sea in the western to the edges
of Chhattisgarh in the east. They were the most important successors of the Satavahanas in
the Deccan, contemporaneous with the Guptas in northern India and succeeded by the Vishnukundina dynasty.

The Vakatakas are noted for having been patrons of the arts, architecture and literature. The rock-cut Buddhist viharas and chaityas of Ajanta
Caves (a UNESCO World Heritage Site) were built under the patronage of Vakataka emperor, Harishena.[159][160]

Ajanta Caves, 30 rock-cut Buddhist monks praying in Buddhist "Chaitya Griha" or Many foreign ambassadors,
Buddhist cave monument built front of the Dagoba of Chaitya prayer hall, with a seated representatives, and travelers
under the Vakatakas. Cave 26 of the Ajanta Caves. Buddha, Cave 26 of the Ajanta are included as devotees
Caves. attending the Buddha's
descent from Trayastrimsa
Heaven; painting from Cave
17 of the Ajanta Caves.

Kamarupa Kingdom
Samudragupta's 4th-century Allahabad pillar inscription mentions Kamarupa (Western Assam)[161] and Davaka (Central Assam)[162] as frontier
kingdoms of the Gupta Empire. Davaka was later absorbed by Kamarupa, which grew into a large kingdom that spanned from Karatoya river to
near present Sadiya and covered the entire Brahmaputra valley, North Bengal, parts of Bangladesh and, at times Purnea and parts of West
Bengal.[163]

Ruled by three dynasties Varmanas (c. 350–650 CE), Mlechchha dynasty (c. 655–900 CE) and Kamarupa-Palas (c. 900–1100 CE), from their
capitals in present-day Guwahati (Pragjyotishpura), Tezpur (Haruppeswara) and North Gauhati (Durjaya) respectively. All three dynasties
claimed their descent from Narakasura. In the reign of the Varman king, Bhaskar Varman (c. 600–650 CE), the Chinese traveller Xuanzang
visited the region and recorded his travels. Later, after weakening and disintegration (after the Kamarupa-Palas), the Kamarupa tradition was

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somewhat extended until c. 1255 CE by the Lunar I (c. 1120–1185 CE) and Lunar II (c. 1155–1255 CE) dynasties.[164] The
Kamarupa kingdom came to an end in the middle of the 13th century when the Khen dynasty under Sandhya of
Kamarupanagara (North Guwahati), moved his capital to Kamatapur (North Bengal) after the invasion of Muslim Turks,
and established the Kamata kingdom.[165]

Pallava Empire
The Pallavas, during the 4th to 9th centuries were, alongside the Guptas of the North, great patronisers of Sanskrit
development in the South of the Indian subcontinent. The Pallava reign saw the first Sanskrit inscriptions in a script called
Grantha.[166] Early Pallavas had different connexions to Southeast Asian countries. The Pallavas used Dravidian
architecture to build some very important Hindu temples and academies in Mamallapuram, Kanchipuram and other
places; their rule saw the rise of great poets. The practice of dedicating temples to different deities came into vogue followed
Copper Plate Seal
by fine artistic temple architecture and sculpture style of Vastu Shastra.[167] of Kamarupa Kings
at Madan Kamdev
Pallavas reached the height of power during the reign of Mahendravarman I (571–630 CE) and Narasimhavarman I (630– ruins.
668 CE) and dominated the Telugu and northern parts of the Tamil region until the end of the 9th century.[168]

Kadamba Empire
Kadambas originated from Karnataka, was founded by Mayurasharma in 345 CE which at later times
showed the potential of developing into imperial proportions. King Mayurasharma defeated the armies of
Pallavas of Kanchi possibly with help of some native tribes. The Kadamba fame reached its peak during
the rule of Kakusthavarma, a notable ruler with whom the kings of Gupta Dynasty of northern India
cultivated marital alliances. The Kadambas were contemporaries of the Western Ganga Dynasty and
together they formed the earliest native kingdoms to rule the land with absolute autonomy. The dynasty
later continued to rule as a feudatory of larger Kannada empires, the Chalukya and the Rashtrakuta
empires, for over five hundred years during which time they branched into minor dynasties (Kadambas
of Goa, Kadambas of Halasi and Kadambas of Hangal).

Empire of Harsha
Harsha ruled northern India from 606 to 647 CE. He was the son of Prabhakarvardhana and the younger
brother of Rajyavardhana, who were members of the Vardhana dynasty and ruled Thanesar, in present-
day Haryana.

After the downfall of the prior Gupta Empire in the middle of the 6th century, North India reverted to
Shore Temple (UNESCO World Heritage
smaller republics and monarchical states. The power vacuum resulted in the rise of the Vardhanas of
Site) at Mahabalipuram built by
Thanesar, who began uniting the republics and monarchies from the Punjab to central India. After the
Narasimhavarman II.
death of Harsha's father and brother, representatives of the empire crowned Harsha emperor in April
606 CE, giving him the title of Maharaja.[170] At the peak, his Empire covered much of North and
Northwestern India, extended East until Kamarupa, and South until Narmada River; and eventually
made Kannauj (in present Uttar Pradesh) his capital, and ruled until 647 CE.[171]

The peace and prosperity that prevailed made his court a centre of cosmopolitanism, attracting scholars,
artists and religious visitors.[171] During this time, Harsha converted to Buddhism from Surya
worship.[172] The Chinese traveller Xuanzang visited the court of Harsha and wrote a very favourable
account of him, praising his justice and generosity.[171] His biography Harshacharita ("Deeds of
Harsha") written by Sanskrit poet Banabhatta, describes his association with Thanesar and the palace
with a two-storied Dhavalagriha (White Mansion).[173][174] Kadamba shikara (tower) with Kalasa
(pinnacle) on top, Doddagaddavalli.

Early medieval period (c. 650 – 1200)

Early medieval India began after the end of the Gupta Empire in the 6th century CE.[127] This period also
covers the "Late Classical Age" of Hinduism, which began after the collapse of the Empire of Harsha in
the 7th century,[175] and ended in the 13th century with the rise of the Delhi Sultanate in Northern
India;[176] the beginning of Imperial Kannauj, leading to the Tripartite struggle; and the end of the Later
Cholas with the death of Rajendra Chola III in 1279 in Southern India; however some aspects of the
Classical period continued until the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire in the south around the 17th century. Coin of Emperor Harsha, c. 606–647
CE.[169]
From the fifth century to the thirteenth, Śrauta sacrifices declined, and support for Shaivism,
Vaishnavism and Shaktism expanded in royal courts, while the support for Buddhism declined.[177] Lack
of appeal among the rural masses, who instead embraced Brahmanical Hinduism formed in the Hindu synthesis, and dwindling financial
support from trading communities and royal elites, were major factors in the decline of Buddhism.[178]

In the 7th century, Kumārila Bhaṭṭa formulated his school of Mimamsa philosophy and defended the position on Vedic rituals.[179]

From the 8th to the 10th century, three dynasties contested for control of northern India: the Gurjara Pratiharas of Malwa, the Palas of Bengal,
and the Rashtrakutas of the Deccan. The Sena dynasty would later assume control of the Pala Empire; the Gurjara Pratiharas fragmented into
various states, notably the Kingdom of Malwa, the Kingdom of Bundelkhand, the Kingdom of Dahala, the Tomaras of Haryana, and the Kingdom
of Sambhar, these states were some of the earliest Rajput kingdoms;[180] while the Rashtrakutas were annexed by the Western Chalukyas.[181]

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During this period, the Chaulukya dynasty emerged; the Chaulukyas constructed the Dilwara Temples, Modhera Sun Temple, Rani ki vav[182] in
the style of Māru-Gurjara architecture, and their capital Anhilwara (modern Patan, Gujarat) was one of the largest cities in the Indian
subcontinent, with the population estimated at 100,000 in c. 1000.

The Chola Empire emerged as a major power during the reign of Raja Raja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I who successfully invaded parts of
Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka in the 11th century.[183] Lalitaditya Muktapida (r. 724–760) was an emperor of the Kashmiri Karkoṭa dynasty,
which exercised influence in northwestern India from 625 until 1003, and was followed by Lohara dynasty. Kalhana in his Rajatarangini credits
king Lalitaditya with leading an aggressive military campaign in Northern India and Central Asia.[184][185][186]

The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled portions of eastern Afghanistan, northern Pakistan, and Kashmir from the mid-7th century to the early 11th
century. While in Odisha, the Eastern Ganga Empire rose to power; noted for the advancement of Hindu architecture, most notable being
Jagannath Temple and Konark Sun Temple, as well as being patrons of art and literature.

Martand Sun Temple Central Konark Sun Temple at Konark, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple Jagannath Temple at Puri, built
shrine, dedicated to the deity Orissa, built by in the Khajuraho complex was by Anantavarman
Surya, and built by the third Narasimhadeva I (1238–1264) built by the Chandelas Chodaganga Deva of the
ruler of the Karkota dynasty, of the Eastern Ganga dynasty Eastern Ganga dynasty
Lalitaditya Muktapida, in the
8th century

Later Gupta dynasty

The Later Gupta dynasty ruled the Magadha region in eastern India between the 6th and 7th centuries
AD. The Later Guptas succeeded the imperial Guptas as the rulers of Magadha, but there is no evidence
connecting the two dynasties; these appear to be two distinct families.[187] The Later Guptas are so-called
because the names of their rulers ended with the suffix "-gupta", which they might have adopted to
portray themselves as the legitimate successors of the imperial Guptas.[188]

Chalukya Empire
The Chalukya Empire ruled large parts of southern and central India between the 6th and the 12th
centuries, as three related yet individual dynasties. The earliest dynasty, known as the "Badami
Chalukyas", ruled from Vatapi (modern Badami) from the middle of the 6th century. The Badami
Chalukyas began to assert their independence at the decline of the Kadamba kingdom of Banavasi and Map of the Later Guptas
rapidly rose to prominence during the reign of Pulakeshin II. The rule of the Chalukyas marks an
important milestone in the history of South India and a golden age in the history of Karnataka. The
political atmosphere in South India shifted from smaller kingdoms to large empires with the ascendancy of Badami Chalukyas. A Southern
India-based kingdom took control and consolidated the entire region between the Kaveri and the Narmada Rivers. The rise of this empire saw
the birth of efficient administration, overseas trade and commerce and the development of new style of architecture called "Chalukyan
architecture". The Chalukya dynasty ruled parts of southern and central India from Badami in Karnataka between 550 and 750, and then again
from Kalyani between 970 and 1190.

Galaganatha Temple at Bhutanatha temple complex at Vishnu image inside the 8th century Durga temple
Pattadakal complex (UNESCO Badami, next to a waterfall, Badami Cave Temple exterior view at Aihole
World Heritage) is an example during the monsoon. Complex. Example of Indian complex. It includes Hindu,
of Badami Chalukya rock-cut architecture Buddhist and Jain temples and
architecture monuments

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Rashtrakuta Empire
Founded by Dantidurga around 753,[189] the Rashtrakuta Empire ruled from its capital at Manyakheta for almost two centuries.[190] At its peak,
the Rashtrakutas ruled from the Ganges-Yamuna Doab in the north to Cape Comorin in the south, a fruitful time of architectural and literary
achievements.[191][192]

The early rulers of this dynasty were Hindu, but the later rulers were strongly influenced by Jainism.[193] Govinda III and Amoghavarsha were
the most famous of the long line of able administrators produced by the dynasty. Amoghavarsha was also an author and wrote Kavirajamarga,
the earliest known Kannada work on poetics.[190][194] Architecture reached a milestone in the Dravidian style, the finest example of which is seen
in the Kailasanath Temple at Ellora. Other important contributions are the Kashivishvanatha temple and the Jain Narayana temple at Pattadakal
in Karnataka.

The Arab traveller Suleiman described the Rashtrakuta Empire as one of the four great Empires of the world.[195] The Rashtrakuta period
marked the beginning of the golden age of southern Indian mathematics. The great south Indian mathematician Mahāvīra had a huge impact on
medieval south Indian mathematicians.[196] The Rashtrakuta rulers also patronised men of letters in a variety of languages.[190]

Kailasa temple, is one of the Shikhara of Indra Sabha at Statue of the Buddha seated. Jain Tirthankara Mahavira with
largest rock-cut ancient Hindu Ellora Caves A part of the Carpenter's cave Yaksha Matanga and Yakshi
temples located in Ellora (Buddhist Cave 10). Siddhaiki at Ellora Caves

Gurjara-Pratihara Empire
The Gurjara-Pratiharas were instrumental in containing Arab armies moving east of the Indus River. Nagabhata I defeated the Arab army under
Junaid and Tamin during the Umayyad campaigns in India.[197] Under Nagabhata II, the Gurjara-Pratiharas became the most powerful dynasty
in northern India. He was succeeded by his son Ramabhadra, who ruled briefly before being succeeded by his son, Mihira Bhoja. Under Bhoja
and his successor Mahendrapala I, the Pratihara Empire reached its peak of prosperity and power. By the time of Mahendrapala, its territory
stretched from the border of Sindh in the west to Bihar in the east and from the Himalayas in the north to around the Narmada River in the
south.[198] The expansion triggered a tripartite power struggle with the Rashtrakuta and Pala empires for control of the Indian subcontinent.

By the end of the 10th century, several feudatories of the empire took advantage of the temporary weakness of the Gurjara-Pratiharas to declare
their independence, notably the Kingdom of Malwa, the Kingdom of Bundelkhand, the Tomaras of Haryana, and the Kingdom of Sambhar[199]
and the Kingdom of Dahala.

One of the four entrances of Sculptures near Teli ka Mandir, Jainism-related cave Ghateshwara Mahadeva
the Teli ka Mandir, built by the Gwalior Fort monuments and statues temple at Baroli Temples
Pratihara emperor Mihira carved into the rock face complex. Complex of eight
Bhoja.[200] inside Siddhachal Caves, temples, built by the Gurjara-
Gwalior Fort Pratiharas, within a walled
enclosure

Gahadavala dynasty
Gahadavala dynasty ruled parts of the present-day Indian states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, during 11th and 12th centuries. Their capital was
located at Varanasi.[201]

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Karnat dynasty
In 1097 AD, the Karnat dynasty of Mithila emerged on the Bihar/Nepal border area and maintained
capitals in Darbhanga and Simraongadh. The dynasty was established by Nanyadeva, a military
commander of Karnataka origin. Under this dynasty, the Maithili language started to develop with the
first piece of Maithili literature, the Varna Ratnakara being produced in the 14th century by Jyotirishwar
Thakur. The Karnats also carried out raids into Nepal. They fell in 1324 following the invasion of
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.[202][203]

Pala Empire
The Pala Empire was founded by Gopala I.[204][205][206] It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal.
The Palas reunified Bengal after the fall of Shashanka's Gauda Kingdom.[207]

The Palas were followers of the Mahayana and Tantric schools of Buddhism,[208] they also patronised
Shaivism and Vaishnavism.[209] The empire reached its peak under Dharmapala and Devapala.
Dharmapala is believed to have conquered Kanauj and extended his sway up to the farthest limits of
India in the north-west.[209]

The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal.[210] Dharmapala founded the
Vikramashila and revived Nalanda,[209] considered one of the first great universities in recorded history.
Pillar from the Karnat capital of
Nalanda reached its height under the patronage of the Pala Empire.[210][211] The Palas also built many Simraungadh
viharas. They maintained close cultural and commercial ties with countries of Southeast Asia and Tibet.
Sea trade added greatly to the prosperity of the Pala Empire.

Cholas
Medieval Cholas rose to prominence during the middle of the 9th century and established the greatest
empire South India had seen.[212] They successfully united the South India under their rule and through
their naval strength extended their influence in the Southeast Asian countries such as Srivijaya.[183]
Under Rajaraja Chola I and his successors Rajendra Chola I, Rajadhiraja Chola, Virarajendra Chola and
Kulothunga Chola I the dynasty became a military, economic and cultural power in South Asia and
South-East Asia.[213][214] Rajendra Chola I's navies occupied the sea coasts from Burma to Vietnam,[215]
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, the Lakshadweep (Laccadive) islands, Sumatra, and the Malay Excavated ruins of Nalanda, a centre of
Peninsula. The power of the new empire was proclaimed to the eastern world by the expedition to the Buddhist learning from 450 to 1193
Ganges which Rajendra Chola I undertook and by the occupation of cities of the maritime empire of
Srivijaya in Southeast Asia, as well as by the repeated embassies to China.[216]

They dominated the political affairs of Sri Lanka for over two centuries through repeated invasions and
occupation. They also had continuing trade contacts with the Arabs and the Chinese empire.[217] Rajaraja
Chola I and his son Rajendra Chola I gave political unity to the whole of Southern India and established
the Chola Empire as a respected sea power.[218] Under the Cholas, the South India reached new heights
of excellence in art, religion and literature. In all of these spheres, the Chola period marked the
culmination of movements that had begun in an earlier age under the Pallavas. Monumental architecture
in the form of majestic temples and sculpture in stone and bronze reached a finesse never before
achieved in India.[219]
Chola Empire under Rajendra Chola, c.
1030

Srirangam Ranganathaswamy Temple is the

world's largest functioning Hindu temple[220]
present in Tamil Nadu, India

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The granite gopuram (tower) Chariot detail at Airavatesvara The pyramidal structure above Brihadeeswara Temple
of Brihadeeswarar Temple, Temple built by Rajaraja Chola the sanctum at Brihadisvara Entrance Gopurams at
1010 II in the 12th century Temple. Thanjavur

Western Chalukya Empire

The Western Chalukya Empire ruled most of the western Deccan, South India, between the 10th and 12th centuries.[221] Vast areas between the
Narmada River in the north and Kaveri River in the south came under Chalukya control.[221] During this period the other major ruling families
of the Deccan, the Hoysalas, the Seuna Yadavas of Devagiri, the Kakatiya dynasty and the Southern Kalachuris, were subordinates of the Western
Chalukyas and gained their independence only when the power of the Chalukya waned during the latter half of the 12th century.[222]

The Western Chalukyas developed an architectural style known today as a transitional style, an architectural link between the style of the early
Chalukya dynasty and that of the later Hoysala empire. Most of its monuments are in the districts bordering the Tungabhadra River in central
Karnataka. Well known examples are the Kasivisvesvara Temple at Lakkundi, the Mallikarjuna Temple at Kuruvatti, the Kallesvara Temple at
Bagali, Siddhesvara Temple at Haveri, and the Mahadeva Temple at Itagi.[223] This was an important period in the development of fine arts in
Southern India, especially in literature as the Western Chalukya kings encouraged writers in the native language of Kannada, and Sanskrit like
the philosopher and statesman Basava and the great mathematician Bhāskara II.[224][225]

Shrine outer wall and Dravida Ornate entrance to the closed Shrine wall relief, molding Rear view showing lateral
style superstructure (shikhara) hall from the south at frieze and miniature decorative entrances of the Mahadeva
at Siddhesvara Temple at Kalleshvara Temple at Bagali tower in Mallikarjuna Temple at Temple at Itagi
Haveri Kuruvatti

Late medieval period (c. 1200 – 1526)

The late medieval period is marked by repeated invasions by Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans,[226][227] the rule of the Delhi Sultanate, and
by the growth of other states, built upon military technology of the sultanate.[228]

Delhi Sultanate
The Delhi Sultanate was a series of successive Islamic states based in Delhi, ruled by several dynasties of varying origins. The polity ruled over
large parts of the Indian subcontinent from the 13th to early 16th centuries.[229] The sultanate was founded in the 12th and 13th centuries by
Central Asian Turks, who invaded parts of northern India and established the state atop former Hindu holdings.[230] The subsequent Mamluk
dynasty of Delhi managed to conquer large areas of northern India. The Khalji dynasty conquered much of central India while forcing the
principal Hindu kingdoms of South India to become vassal states.[229]

The sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion of cultures left lasting syncretic
monuments in architecture, music, literature, religion, and clothing. It is surmised that the language of Urdu was born during the period of the
Delhi Sultanate. The sultanate was the only Indo-Islamic state to enthrone one of the few female rulers in India, Razia Sultana (r. 1236–1240).

While initially disruptive due to the passing of power from native Indian elites to Turkic Muslim elites, the Delhi Sultanate was responsible for
integrating the Indian subcontinent into a growing world system, drawing India into a wider international network, which had a significant
impact on Indian culture and society.[231] However, the Delhi Sultanate also caused large-scale destruction and desecration of temples in the
Indian subcontinent.[232]

The Mongol invasions of India were successfully repelled by the Delhi Sultanate during the rule of Alauddin Khalji. A major factor in their
success was their Turkic Mamluk slave army, who were highly skilled in the same style of nomadic cavalry warfare as the Mongols. It is possible
that the Mongol Empire may have expanded into India were it not for the Delhi Sultanate's role in repelling them.[233] By repeatedly repulsing
the Mongol raiders,[234] the sultanate saved India from the devastation waged on West and Central Asia. Soldiers from that region and learned
men and administrators fleeing Mongol invasions of Iran migrated into the subcontinent, thereby creating a syncretic Indo-Islamic culture in the
north.[233]

A Turco-Mongol conqueror from Central Asia, Timur (Tamerlane), attacked the reigning sultan Nasir-u Din Mehmud of the Tughlaq dynasty in
Delhi.[235] The sultan's army was defeated on 17 December 1398. Timur entered Delhi and the city was sacked, destroyed, and left in ruins after
Timur's army had killed and plundered for three days and nights. He ordered the whole city to be sacked except for the sayyids, scholars, and the
"other Muslims" (artists); 100,000 war prisoners were said to have been put to death in one day.[236] The sultanate suffered significantly from
the sacking of Delhi. Though revived briefly under the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties, it was but a shadow of the former. Lodi rule lasted in Delhi
until the defeat of the last sultan, Ibrahim Khan Lodi, in 1526 to the forces of Babur.[237]

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Qutb Minar, a UNESCO World Dargahs of Sufi-saint

Heritage Site, whose Nizamuddin Auliya, and poet
construction was begun by and musician Amir Khusro in
Qutb ud-Din Aibak, the first Delhi.
Sultan of Delhi.

Vijayanagara Empire
The Vijayanagara Empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka Raya I of
Sangama Dynasty,[238] which originated as a political heir of the Hoysala Empire, Kakatiya Empire,[239]
and the Pandyan Empire.[240] The empire rose to prominence as a culmination of attempts by the south
Indian powers to ward off Islamic invasions by the end of the 13th century. It lasted until 1646, although
its power declined after a major military defeat in 1565 by the combined armies of the Deccan sultanates.
The empire is named after its capital city of Vijayanagara, whose ruins surround present day Hampi, now
a World Heritage Site in Karnataka, India.[241]

In the first two decades after the founding of the empire, Harihara I gained control over most of the area
south of the Tungabhadra river and earned the title of Purvapaschima Samudradhishavara ("master of
the eastern and western seas"). By 1374 Bukka Raya I, successor to Harihara I, had defeated the
chiefdom of Arcot, the Reddys of Kondavidu, and the Sultan of Madurai and had gained control over Goa
Map of the Sangama dynasty of the
in the west and the Tungabhadra-Krishna doab in the north.[242][243] Vijayanagara Empire

Harihara II, the second son of Bukka Raya I, further consolidated the kingdom beyond the Krishna River
and brought the whole of South India under the Vijayanagara umbrella.[244] The next ruler, Deva Raya I, emerged successful against the
Gajapatis of Odisha and undertook important works of fortification and irrigation.[245] Italian traveller Niccolo de Conti wrote of him as the most
powerful ruler of India.[246] Deva Raya II succeeded to the throne in 1424 and was possibly the most capable of the Sangama Dynasty rulers.[247]
He quelled rebelling feudal lords as well as the Zamorin of Calicut and Quilon in the south. He invaded the island of Sri Lanka and became
overlord of the kings of Burma at Pegu and Tanasserim.[248][249][250]

The Vijayanagara Emperors were tolerant of all religions and sects, as writings by foreign visitors show.[251] The kings used titles such as
Gobrahamana Pratipalanacharya (literally, "protector of cows and Brahmins") and Hindurayasuratrana (lit, "upholder of Hindu faith") that
testified to their intention of protecting Hinduism and yet were at the same time staunchly Islamicate in their court ceremonials and dress.[252]
The empire's founders, Harihara I and Bukka Raya I, were devout Shaivas (worshippers of Shiva), but made grants to the Vaishnava order of
Sringeri with Vidyaranya as their patron saint, and designated Varaha (an avatar of Vishnu) as their emblem.[253] Nobles from Central Asia's
Timurid kingdoms also came to Vijayanagara.[254] The later Saluva and Tuluva kings were Vaishnava by faith, but worshipped at the feet of Lord
Virupaksha (Shiva) at Hampi as well as Lord Venkateshwara (Vishnu) at Tirupati.[255] A Sanskrit work, Jambavati Kalyanam by King
Krishnadevaraya, called Lord Virupaksha Karnata Rajya Raksha Mani ("protective jewel of Karnata Empire").[256] The kings patronised the
saints of the dvaita order (philosophy of dualism) of Madhvacharya at Udupi.[257]

Photograph of the ruins of the Gajashaala, or elephant's Vijayanagara marketplace at Stone temple car in Vitthala
Vijayanagara Empire at stable, was built by the Hampi, along with the sacred Temple at Hampi
Hampi, now a UNESCO World Vijayanagar rulers for their war tank located on the side of
Heritage Site in 1868[258] elephants.[259] Krishna temple.

The empire's legacy includes many monuments spread over South India, the best known of which is the group at Hampi. The previous temple
building traditions in South India came together in the Vijayanagara Architecture style. The mingling of all faiths and vernaculars inspired
architectural innovation of Hindu temple construction. South Indian mathematics flourished under the protection of the Vijayanagara Empire in
Kerala. The south Indian mathematician Madhava of Sangamagrama founded the famous Kerala School of Astronomy and Mathematics in the
14th century which produced a lot of great south Indian mathematicians like Parameshvara, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeṣṭhadeva.[260] Efficient
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administration and vigorous overseas trade brought new technologies such as water management systems for irrigation.[261] The empire's
patronage enabled fine arts and literature to reach new heights in Kannada, Telugu, Tamil, and Sanskrit, while Carnatic music evolved into its
current form.[262]

Vijayanagara went into decline after the defeat in the Battle of Talikota (1565). After the death of Aliya Rama Raya in the Battle of Talikota,
Tirumala Deva Raya started the Aravidu dynasty, moved and founded a new capital of Penukonda to replace the destroyed Hampi, and
attempted to reconstitute the remains of Vijayanagara Empire.[263] Tirumala abdicated in 1572, dividing the remains of his kingdom to his three
sons, and pursued a religious life until his death in 1578. The Aravidu dynasty successors ruled the region but the empire collapsed in 1614, and
the final remains ended in 1646, from continued wars with the Bijapur sultanate and others.[264][265][266] During this period, more kingdoms in
South India became independent and separate from Vijayanagara. These include the Mysore Kingdom, Keladi Nayaka, Nayaks of Madurai,
Nayaks of Tanjore, Nayakas of Chitradurga and Nayak Kingdom of Gingee – all of which declared independence and went on to have a
significant impact on the history of South India in the coming centuries.[264]

Other kingdoms

Vijaya Stambha (Tower Temple inside Man Singh Chinese manuscript Mahmud Gawan
of Victory). Chittorgarh fort (Manasimha) palace at Tribute Giraffe with Madrasa was built by
the Gwalior fort Attendant, depicting a Mahmud Gawan, the
giraffe presented by Wazir of the Bahmani
Bengali envoys in the Sultanate as the centre
name of Sultan of religious as well as
Saifuddin Hamza Shah secular education
of Bengal to the Yongle
Emperor of Ming China

For two and a half centuries from the mid-13th century, politics in Northern India was dominated by the Delhi Sultanate, and in Southern India
by the Vijayanagar Empire. However, there were other regional powers present as well. After fall of Pala Empire, the Chero dynasty ruled much
of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Jharkhand from the 12th to the 18th centuries.[267][268][269] The Reddy dynasty successfully defeated the
Delhi Sultanate and extended their rule from Cuttack in the north to Kanchi in the south, eventually being absorbed into the expanding
Vijayanagara Empire.[270]

In the north, the Rajput kingdoms remained the dominant force in Western and Central India. The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Hammir
defeated and captured Muhammad Tughlaq with the Bargujars as his main allies. Tughlaq had to pay a huge ransom and relinquish all of
Mewar's lands. After this event, the Delhi Sultanate did not attack Chittor for a few hundred years. The Rajputs re-established their
independence, and Rajput states were established as far east as Bengal and north into the Punjab. The Tomaras established themselves at
Gwalior, and Man Singh Tomar reconstructed the Gwalior Fort.[271] During this period, Mewar emerged as the leading Rajput state; and Rana
Kumbha expanded his kingdom at the expense of the Sultanates of Malwa and Gujarat.[271][272] The next great Rajput ruler, Rana Sanga of
Mewar, became the principal player in Northern India. His objectives grew in scope – he planned to conquer Delhi. But, his defeat in the Battle
of Khanwa consolidated the new Mughal dynasty in India.[271] The Mewar dynasty under Maharana Udai Singh II faced further defeat by Mughal
emperor Akbar, with their capital Chittor being captured. Due to this event, Udai Singh II founded Udaipur, which became the new capital of the
Mewar kingdom. His son, Maharana Pratap of Mewar, firmly resisted the Mughals. Akbar sent many missions against him. He survived to
ultimately gain control of all of Mewar, excluding the Chittor Fort.[273]

In the south, the Bahmani Sultanate in the Deccan, born from a rebellion in 1347 against the Tughlaq dynasty,[274] was the chief rival of
Vijayanagara, and frequently created difficulties for them.[275] Starting in 1490, the Bahmani Sultanate's governors revolted, their independent
states composing the five Deccan sultanates; Ahmadnagar declared independence, followed by Bijapur and Berar in the same year; Golkonda
became independent in 1518 and Bidar in 1528.[276] Although generally rivals, they allied against the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, permanently
weakening Vijayanagar in the Battle of Talikota.[277][278]

In the East, the Gajapati Kingdom remained a strong regional power to reckon with, associated with a high point in the growth of regional
culture and architecture. Under Kapilendradeva, Gajapatis became an empire stretching from the lower Ganga in the north to the Kaveri in the
south.[279] In Northeast India, the Ahom Kingdom was a major power for six centuries;[280][281] led by Lachit Borphukan, the Ahoms decisively
defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Saraighat during the Ahom-Mughal conflicts.[282] Further east in Northeastern India was the Kingdom
of Manipur, which ruled from their seat of power at Kangla Fort and developed a sophisticated Hindu Gaudiya Vaishnavite culture.[283][284][285]

The Sultanate of Bengal was the dominant power of the Ganges–Brahmaputra Delta, with a network of mint towns spread across the region. It
was a Sunni Muslim monarchy with Indo-Turkic, Arab, Abyssinian and Bengali Muslim elites. The sultanate was known for its religious
pluralism where non-Muslim communities co-existed peacefully. The Bengal Sultanate had a circle of vassal states, including Odisha in the
southwest, Arakan in the southeast, and Tripura in the east. In the early 16th century, the Bengal Sultanate reached the peak of its territorial
growth with control over Kamrup and Kamata in the northeast and Jaunpur and Bihar in the west. It was reputed as a thriving trading nation
and one of Asia's strongest states. The Bengal Sultanate was described by contemporary European and Chinese visitors as a relatively prosperous
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kingdom and the "richest country to trade with". The Bengal Sultanate left a strong architectural legacy. Buildings from the period show foreign
influences merged into a distinct Bengali style. The Bengal Sultanate was also the largest and most prestigious authority among the independent
medieval Muslim-ruled states in the history of Bengal. Its decline began with an interregnum by the Suri Empire, followed by Mughal conquest
and disintegration into petty kingdoms.

Bhakti movement and Sikhism

The Bhakti movement refers to the theistic devotional trend that emerged in medieval Hinduism[286] and later revolutionised in Sikhism.[287] It
originated in the seventh-century south India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and Kerala), and spread northwards.[286] It swept over east and north
India from the 15th century onwards, reaching its zenith between the 15th and 17th century.[288]

The Bhakti movement regionally developed around different gods and goddesses, such as Vaishnavism (Vishnu), Shaivism (Shiva),
Shaktism (Shakti goddesses), and Smartism.[289][290][291] The movement was inspired by many poet-saints, who championed a wide range
of philosophical positions ranging from theistic dualism of Dvaita to absolute monism of Advaita Vedanta.[292][293]
Sikhism is a monotheistic and panentheistic religion based on the spiritual teachings of Guru Nanak, the first Guru,[294] and the ten
successive Sikh gurus. After the death of the tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, the Sikh scripture, Guru Granth Sahib, became the literal
embodiment of the eternal, impersonal Guru, where the scripture's word serves as the spiritual guide for Sikhs.[295][296][297]
Buddhism in India flourished in the Himalayan kingdoms of Namgyal Kingdom in Ladakh, Sikkim Kingdom in Sikkim, and Chutia Kingdom in
Arunachal Pradesh of the Late medieval period.

Rang Ghar, built by Pramatta Chittor Fort is the largest fort Ranakpur Jain temple was Gol Gumbaz built by the
Singha in Ahom kingdom's on the Indian subcontinent; it built in the 15th century with Bijapur Sultanate, has the
capital Rangpur, is one of the is one of the six Hill Forts of the support of the Rajput state second largest pre-modern
earliest pavilions of outdoor Rajasthan of Mewar dome in the world after the
stadia in the Indian Byzantine Hagia Sophia
subcontinent

Early modern period (1526–1858)

The early modern period of Indian history is dated from 1526 to 1858, corresponding to the rise and fall of the Mughal Empire, which inherited
from the Timurid Renaissance. During this age India's economy expanded, relative peace was maintained and arts were patronised. This period
witnessed the further development of Indo-Islamic architecture;[298][299] the growth of Marathas and Sikhs enabled them to rule significant
regions of India in the waning days of the Mughal empire.[16] With the discovery of the Cape route in the 1500s, the first Europeans to arrive by
sea and establish themselves, were the Portuguese in Goa and Bombay.[300]

Mughal Empire
In 1526, Babur swept across the Khyber Pass and established the Mughal Mughal Empire
Empire, which at its zenith covered much of South Asia.[302] However, his
son Humayun was defeated by the Afghan warrior Sher Shah Suri in 1540,
and Humayun was forced to retreat to Kabul. After Sher Shah's death, his son
Islam Shah Suri and his Hindu general Hemu Vikramaditya established
secular rule in North India from Delhi until 1556, when Akbar (r. 1556–1605),
grandson of Babur, defeated Hemu in the Second Battle of Panipat on 6
November 1556 after winning Battle of Delhi. Akbar tried to establish a good
relationship with the Hindus. Akbar declared "Amari" or non-killing of
animals in the holy days of Jainism. He rolled back the jizya tax for non-
Muslims. The Mughal emperors married local royalty, allied themselves with Map of the Mughal Taj Mahal is the jewel of Muslim architecture in
local maharajas, and attempted to fuse their Turko-Persian culture with Empire at its peak in India UNESCO World Heritage Site declaration,
ancient Indian styles, creating a unique Indo-Persian culture and Indo- year 1700 1983.[301]
Saracenic architecture.

Akbar married a Rajput princess, Mariam-uz-Zamani, and they had a son, Jahangir (r. 1605–1627).[303] Jahangir followed his father's policy.
The Mughal dynasty ruled most of the Indian subcontinent by 1600. The reign of Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) was the golden age of Mughal
architecture. He erected several large monuments, the most famous of which is the Taj Mahal at Agra.

It was one of the largest empires to have existed in the Indian subcontinent,[304] and surpassed China to become the world's largest economic
power, controlling 24.4% of the world economy,[305] and the world leader in manufacturing,[306] producing 25% of global industrial output.[307]
The economic and demographic upsurge was stimulated by Mughal agrarian reforms that intensified agricultural production,[308] and a
relatively high degree of urbanisation.[309]

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Other Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites

Agra Fort showing Yamuna Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, Red Fort, Delhi, constructed in
river and Taj Mahal in the showing Buland Darwaza, the the year 1648
background complex built by Akbar, the
third Mughal emperor

The Mughal Empire reached the zenith of its territorial expanse during the reign of Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), under whose reign India
surpassed Qing China as the world's largest economy.[310][311] Aurangzeb was less tolerant than his predecessors, reintroducing the jizya tax and
destroying several historical temples, while at the same time building more Hindu temples than he destroyed,[312] employing significantly more
Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors, and advancing administrators based on ability rather than religion.[313] However, he
is often blamed for the erosion of the tolerant syncretic tradition of his predecessors, as well as increasing religious controversy and
centralisation. The English East India Company suffered a defeat in the Anglo-Mughal War.[314][315]

The Mughals suffered several blows due to invasions from Marathas, Rajputs, Jats and Afghans. In 1737, the Maratha
general Bajirao of the Maratha Empire invaded and plundered Delhi. Under the general Amir Khan Umrao Al Udat, the
Mughal Emperor sent 8,000 troops to drive away the 5,000 Maratha cavalry soldiers. Baji Rao easily routed the novice
Mughal general. In 1737, in the final defeat of Mughal Empire, the commander-in-chief of the Mughal Army, Nizam-ul-
mulk, was routed at Bhopal by the Maratha army. This essentially brought an end to the Mughal Empire. While
Bharatpur State under Jat ruler Suraj Mal, overran the Mughal garrison at Agra and plundered the city.[316] In 1739,
Nader Shah, emperor of Iran, defeated the Mughal army at the Battle of Karnal.[317] After this victory, Nader captured
and sacked Delhi, carrying away treasures including the Peacock Throne.[318] Ahmad Shah Durrani commenced his
own invasions as ruler of the Durrani Empire, eventually sacking Delhi in 1757.[319] Mughal rule was further weakened
by constant native Indian resistance; Banda Singh Bahadur led the Sikh Khalsa against Mughal religious oppression;
Hindu Rajas of Bengal, Pratapaditya and Raja Sitaram Ray revolted; and Maharaja Chhatrasal, of Bundela Rajputs,
fought the Mughals and established the Panna State.[320] The Mughal dynasty was reduced to puppet rulers by 1757. 18th-century political
formation in India
Vadda Ghalughara took place under the Muslim provincial government based at Lahore to wipe out the Sikhs, with
30,000 Sikhs being killed, an offensive that had begun with the Mughals, with the Chhota Ghallughara,[321] and lasted
several decades under its Muslim successor states.[322]

Maratha Empire
The Maratha kingdom was founded and consolidated by Chatrapati Shivaji.[323] Maratha Empire
However, the credit for making the Marathas formidable power nationally goes to
Peshwa (chief minister) Bajirao I. Historian K.K. Datta wrote that Bajirao I "may
very well be regarded as the second founder of the Maratha Empire".[324]

In the early 18th century, under the Peshwas, the Marathas consolidated and ruled
over much of South Asia. The Marathas are credited to a large extent for ending
Mughal rule in India.[325][326][327] In 1737, the Marathas defeated a Mughal army in
their capital, in the Battle of Delhi. The Marathas continued their military campaigns
against the Mughals, Nizam, Nawab of Bengal and the Durrani Empire to further Maratha Empire at its Shaniwarwada palace fort in Pune, the
extend their boundaries. At its peak, the domain of the Marathas encompassed most peak in 1760 (yellow seat of the Peshwa rulers of the Maratha
of the Indian subcontinent.[328] The Marathas even attempted to capture Delhi and area), covering much Empire until 1818
discussed putting Vishwasrao Peshwa on the throne there in place of the Mughal of the Indian
subcontinent,
emperor.[329]
stretching from South
India to present-day
The Maratha empire at its peak stretched from Tamil Nadu in the south,[330] to
Pakistan
Peshawar (modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan[331] [note 2]) in the north, and
Bengal in the east. The Northwestern expansion of the Marathas was stopped after
the Third Battle of Panipat (1761). However, the Maratha authority in the north was re-established within a decade under Peshwa Madhavrao
I.[333]

Under Madhavrao I, the strongest knights were granted semi-autonomy, creating a confederacy of United Maratha states under the Gaekwads of
Baroda, the Holkars of Indore and Malwa, the Scindias of Gwalior and Ujjain, the Bhonsales of Nagpur and the Puars of Dhar and Dewas. In
1775, the East India Company intervened in a Peshwa family succession struggle in Pune, which led to the First Anglo-Maratha War, resulting in
a Maratha victory.[334] The Marathas remained a major power in India until their defeat in the Second and Third Anglo-Maratha Wars (1805–
1818).

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Sikh Empire
The Sikh Empire was a political entity that governed the Northwestern regions of the Indian subcontinent, based around the Punjab, from 1799
to 1849. It was forged, on the foundations of the Khalsa, under the leadership of Maharaja Ranjit Singh (1780–1839).

Maharaja Ranjit Singh consolidated much of northern India into an empire using his Sikh Khalsa Army, trained in European military techniques
and equipped with modern military technologies. Ranjit Singh proved himself to be a master strategist and selected well-qualified generals for
his army. He successfully ended the Afghan-Sikh Wars. In stages, he added central Punjab, the provinces of Multan and Kashmir, and the
Peshawar Valley to his empire.[335][336]

At its peak in the 19th century, the empire extended from the Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, running
along Sutlej river to Himachal in the east. After the death of Ranjit Singh, the empire weakened, leading to conflict with the British East India
Company. The First Anglo-Sikh War and Second Anglo-Sikh War marked the downfall of the Sikh Empire, making it among the last areas of the
Indian subcontinent to be conquered by the British.

Other kingdoms
The Kingdom of Mysore in southern India expanded to its greatest extent under Hyder Ali and his son
Tipu Sultan in the later half of the 18th century. Under their rule, Mysore fought series of wars against
the Marathas and British or their combined forces. The Maratha–Mysore War ended in April 1787,
following the finalising of treaty of Gajendragad, in which Tipu Sultan was obligated to pay tribute to
the Marathas. Concurrently, the Anglo-Mysore Wars took place, where the Mysoreans used the Mysorean
rockets. The Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1798–1799) saw the death of Tipu. Mysore's alliance with the
French was seen as a threat to the British East India Company, and Mysore was attacked from all four
sides. The Nizam of Hyderabad and the Marathas launched an invasion from the north. The British won
a decisive victory at the Siege of Seringapatam (1799).

Hyderabad was founded by the Qutb Shahi dynasty of Golconda in 1591. Following a brief Mughal rule,
Asif Jah, a Mughal official, seized control of Hyderabad and declared himself Nizam-al-Mulk of
Hyderabad in 1724. The Nizams lost considerable territory and paid tribute to the Maratha Empire after
being routed in multiple battles, such as the Battle of Palkhed.[337] However, the Nizams maintained
their sovereignty from 1724 until 1948 through paying tributes to the Marathas, and later, being vassals
of the British. Hyderabad State became a princely state in British India in 1798.

Territories of India in 1763 The Nawabs of Bengal had become the de facto rulers of Bengal following the decline of Mughal Empire.
However, their rule was interrupted by Marathas who carried out six expeditions in Bengal from 1741 to
1748, as a result of which Bengal became a tributary state of Marathas. On 23 June 1757, Siraj ud-Daulah,
the last independent Nawab of Bengal was betrayed in the Battle of Plassey by Mir Jafar. He lost to the British, who took over the charge of
Bengal in 1757, installed Mir Jafar on the Masnad (throne) and established itself to a political power in Bengal.[338] In 1765 the system of Dual
Government was established, in which the Nawabs ruled on behalf of the British and were mere puppets to the British. In 1772 the system was
abolished and Bengal was brought under the direct control of the British. In 1793, when the Nizamat (governorship) of the Nawab was also taken
away, they remained as mere pensioners of the British East India Company.[339][340]

In the 18th century, the whole of Rajputana was virtually subdued by the Marathas. The Second Anglo-Maratha War distracted the Marathas
from 1807 to 1809, but afterward Maratha domination of Rajputana resumed. In 1817, the British went to war with the Pindaris, raiders who
were fled in Maratha territory, which quickly became the Third Anglo-Maratha War, and the British government offered its protection to the
Rajput rulers from the Pindaris and the Marathas. By the end of 1818 similar treaties had been executed between the other Rajput states and
Britain. The Maratha Sindhia ruler of Gwalior gave up the district of Ajmer-Merwara to the British, and Maratha influence in Rajasthan came to
an end.[341] Most of the Rajput princes remained loyal to Britain in the Revolt of 1857, and few political changes were made in Rajputana until
Indian independence in 1947. The Rajputana Agency contained more than 20 princely states, most notable being Udaipur State, Jaipur State,
Bikaner State and Jodhpur State.

After the fall of the Maratha Empire, many Maratha dynasties and states became vassals in a subsidiary alliance with the British. With the
decline of the Sikh Empire, after the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1846, under the terms of the Treaty of Amritsar, the British government sold
Kashmir to Maharaja Gulab Singh and the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, the second-largest princely state in British India, was created
by the Dogra dynasty.[342][343] While in eastern and north-eastern India, the Hindu and Buddhist states of Cooch Behar Kingdom, Twipra
Kingdom and Kingdom of Sikkim were annexed by the British and made vassal princely state.

After the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire, Polygar states emerged in Southern India; and managed to weather invasions and flourished until the
Polygar Wars, where they were defeated by the British East India Company forces.[344] Around the 18th century, the Kingdom of Nepal was
formed by Rajput rulers.[345]

European exploration
In 1498, a Portuguese fleet under Vasco da Gama discovered a new sea route from Europe to India, which paved the way for direct Indo-
European commerce. The Portuguese soon set up trading posts in Velha Goa, Damaon, Dio island, and Bombay. The Portuguese instituted the
Goa Inquisition, where new Indian converts were punished for suspected heresy against Christianity and non-Christians were condemned.[346]
Goa remained the main Portuguese territory until it was annexed by India in 1961.[347]

The next to arrive were the Dutch, with their main base in Ceylon. They established ports in Malabar. However, their expansion into India was
halted after their defeat in the Battle of Colachel by the Kingdom of Travancore during the Travancore-Dutch War. The Dutch never recovered
from the defeat and no longer posed a large colonial threat to India.[348][349]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_India 18/36