1

Chairperson : Prof. Neeru

Course Co-ordinator : Mr. Jeesu Jaskanwar Singh

Coordinator : Dr. (Mrs.) Manju Gera

B.Ed. Semester II, Pedagogy of Science

Paper : P-2.1 & P-2.2

CONTENTS
 Introductory Letter (i)
 Syllabus (ii)

L.No. Title Authors Page No

1. Planning for effective Teaching Dr. (Mrs.) Manju Gera 1
2. Learning Beyond the Classrooms Dr. (Mrs.) Manju Gera 21
3. Science Text Books Dr. (Mrs.) Manju Gera 34
4. Practical Work in Science Dr. Latika Sharma 45
5. Evaluation and professional Development Dr. (Mrs.) Manju Gera 59

Vetted by : Dr. (Mrs.) Manju Gera

E-Mail of Department : coordedu@pu.ac.in

Contact No. of Department : 0172-2534317
 (i)
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Introductory Letter
Dear Student

The main objectives of this paper titled Pedagogy of Science is to familiarize you with lesson
planning for effective teaching in Science and to develop, your insight into various learning resources in
science. It will also acquaint you with the organization of co-curricular activities and practical work in
science. It will introduce you to the concept of evaluation and enable you to construct the blue print of a
question paper.

This paper consists of external (written theory exam) of 40 marks and internal (practical
assessment) of 20 marks.

Wishing you all the best

Facilitator

Manju Gera

dhingramanju@yahoo.co.in
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(ii)
Syllabus
P-2.1 & P-2.2
PEDAGOGY OF SCIENCE
Total Marks 50
External Theory 40
Internal Practical 10
Objectives:
After completion of the course, the student teachers will be able to :
 Plan lessons for effective teaching in science.
 Organize various co-curricular activities in science.
 Organize practical work and improvise science apparatus.
 Develop insight into various learning resources in science.
 Understand evaluation and Construct blue print of a question paper.
 Analyze the content pedagogically.
Course Content:
UNIT -I: Planning for Effective Teaching
(a) Lesson Planning: Concept, Importance, Approaches (Herbartian approach and
Constructivist approach), Types (Macro, Micro, ICT-based, Test-based, Models of Teaching based and
Diary Lessons) and their limitations,
(b) Learning Beyond the classrooms- Importance, planning and organizing co- curricular
activities - Science clubs, science museum, science fair, Excursions.
(c) Practical work in science- Need, importance and planning/organization.
UNIT -II: Learning Resources in Science
(a) Text books- Need, Importance and evaluation criteria;
(b) Designing laboratories - Need and Importance of laboratory for teachers and students,
Design of Science laboratory.
(c) Selection, purchase and maintenance of apparatus and equipment in laboratory, First
aid in laboratory, Development of science kits, improvising apparatus and low cost experiments/
demonstrations in Science.
UNIT-III: Evaluation and Professional Development
(a) valuation in Science: Concept, need, types (Formative, Summative and Diagnostic) and
Process. Preparing blue print of a question paper.
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(b) teacher Evaluation in Science: Conc e pt,(iii)
Ne ed and Types (Peer and Student Evaluation).
(c) Professional Development: Need, Importance, Professional Competencies and Programmes
for Science Teacher; Role of Teacher as a facilitator.
UNIT-IV: Content Area and Pedagogical Analysis
(a) Metals and Non-Metals –Physical and Chemical properties.
(b) Environmental Problems- Global warming, greenhouse effect, acid rain, ozone layer
depletion.
(c) Force, Motion and Energy: Concept, Types and Application
(d) Periodic Table: Development, Significance and Trends across groups & periods of Periodic
Table.
Sessional Work (Internal)
Any two of the following:
1) Preparation of a blue print and construction of test items for Achievement test in science
2) Construction of any one improvised apparatus
3) Critical evaluation of a science text book.
Suggested Readings
Ahmed J. (2008): Teaching of Life Science. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Bhandula, N. (1989). Teaching of Science. Ludhiana: Parkash Brothers.
Das , R.C. (1992). Science Teaching in School. New Delhi: Sterling Publishing.
Davar, M. (2012). Teaching of Science. New Delhi: PHI Learning Private Limited.
Garg, K.K., Singh, R and Kaur, I. (2007). A Text book of Science of Class X, New Delhi: NCERT.
Joshi S.R. (2007). Teaching of Science. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation.
Kohli, V.K. (2006). How to Teach Science. Ambala: Vivek Pub.2006.
Liversidge T., Cochrane M., Kerfoot B. and Thomas J. (2009). Teaching Science: Developing as a
Reflective Secondary Teacher. New Delhi: SAGE Publications Indi Private Limited.
Mangal, S.K. (1997). Teaching of Science. New Delhi: Arya Book Depot
Mohan, R. (2007). Innovative Physical Science Teaching Method, P.H.I., New Delhi.
NCERT (2013). Pedagogy of Science Part-1 & 2: NCERT, New Delhi.
New UNSECO Source Book for Science. France: UNSECO.
Sharma, R.C. (2010). Modern Science Teaching. New Delhi: Dhanpat Rai Pub. Co.
Siddiqui , N.H. and Siddiqui, M.N. (1983). Teaching of Science Today and Tomorrow.Delhi: Doaba
House.
Thurber, W. and Collete , A. (1964). Teaching Science in Today's Secondary Schools.Boston: Allen
and Becon.
Vaidya, Narendra (1996). Science Teaching for 21st century. New Delhi: Deep and Deep Pub.
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Lesson-1
PLANNING FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING
Structure
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 What is a lesson plan
1.3 Need and importance of lesson planning
1.4 Preparation of Lesson Plan (Herbartian Approach)
1.5 Design for writing a lesson plan
1.6 Illustrations of Lesson Plans
1.7 Preparation of Lesson Plan (Constructivism Approach)
1.8 Summary
1.9 Further Readings
1.10 Model Questions
1.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this lesson, you will be able to :
 Define lesson planning.
 Enlist the different steps of a lesson plan.
 Explain the need and importance of a lesson planning.
 Eevelop a lesson plan on any topic in Science.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Science is a significant part of human culture and represents the pinnacles of human thinking
capacity. It provides a laboratory of common experience for the development of language, logic and
problem solving skills in the classroom.
Have you been won during how to effectively plan science lessons to encapsulate knowledge,
understanding and skills. Good fetching starts with a clear understanding of the outcomes you are
looking for in your children, so that you know what they have been having previously, the learning
experiences they have encountered and what they can recall. Any teaching and learning sequence
therefore needs to fit into a whole school plan for progression.
For successful and effective teaching, planning is the first and most important step. You must
have observed the difference between a well prepared teacher and the one who is not prepared. The
teacher, 'who has not done her/his homework, fumbles and is not able to impart instructions, properly.
Thus, careful lesson planning is the key to successful teaching. You should know beforehand ‘what' to
teach and 'how' to teach. You should have a clear aim of the lesson before you and should plan
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accordingly; how to introduce and present the lesson, what teaching aids to be used and how to evaluate
the lesson in the light of the aims set.
1.2 WHAT IS A LESSON PLAN?
A lesson plan as actually a plan of action. It refers to sequencing of teaching acts or events or
episode, that we plan, organize and carry out in order to generate a learning environment for our
students. Let us explore the meaning of lesson plans by looking definitions proposed by different
authors :
The term lesson is interpreted in different ways by different people. Generally, it is plan of action
which a teacher has in order to teach a lesson effectively. It is a systematic work carried out within 40-
45 minutes for the development of concepts, skills, understanding etc It is a way to help a science
teacher present his learning experiences.
Lester B. Stands : "A lesson plan is actually a plan of action: It therefore, includes the
working philosophy of the teacher, his knowledge of philosophy, his information about
the understanding of his pupils; his comprehension of the objectives of education, his
knowledge of the material to be taught and his ability of utilize effective methods.
Carter V. Sood : A lesson plan is a teaching outline of the important points of a lesson
arranged in an order in which they are to be represented. It may include objectives,
questions to be asked, references to materials, evaluation, assignments etc.
Bossing : “A lesson is an organized statement of general and specific goals together
with the specific means by which these goals are to be attained by the learner under the
guidance of the teacher on a given day.”
1.3 NEED AND IMPORTANCE/ADVANTAGES OF LESSON PLANNING
- It keeps the teacher orderly and systematic in the treatment of subject matter. He
proceeds on well thought out and definite lines and does not follow haphazard and thought
less teaching.
It makes the work well organized and regular.
- The teacher sets forth some definite objectives pertaining to knowledge, understanding,
interest, attitude etc. that he is to develop in the students through certain activities or some
other means.
- Planning a lesson gives confidence and self reliance to the teacher which is of great value
for successful teaching.
- It helps to save time in the sense that the students get a better understanding of the
subject and form some desirable habits and attitudes which would have otherwise been
impossible in the same period.
- Lesson plans establish proper connection between different lessons of study
Therefore, they provide continuity in the teaching process.
- It stimulates the teacher to introduce striking questions and illustrations.
- Because the lesson is co-related with the social and physical environments of the
students, their interest is maintained throughout the lesson.
- A teacher, who has properly planned his lesson, enters the class with confidence without
any anxiety, ready to solve the problems and is prepared to carry it out smoothly. Thus, it
avoids instant or on the spot planning.
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- A teacher can estimate the required time for teaching and can thus select appropriate
activities.
- A planned lesson helps the teacher to visualize the needs of exceptional children also.
- A lesson plan gives an idea to the science teacher to visualize the difficulties he can face
during teaching. Thus, a teacher can incorporate the solution of the anticipated difficulties.
- It provides an opportunity to the teacher to use his creative talent/abilities and can give
practical shape to these new ideas.
- Lesson planning gives sufficient opportunity to the teacher to think about the motivation of
learners.
1.4 PREPARATION OF LESSON PLAN
From the above discussion, you might have understood how important the planning of lesson is
for a teacher. For preparation of lesson plan, you need to understand the steps that must be followed.
There are various approaches to lesson planning, namely Herbartian approach, Evaluation approach,
Project approach, unit approach etc. In this section we will discuss the Herbartian approach of lesson
planning :
Steps Involved in Lesson Planning (Herbartian Steps)
J.F. Herbart (1776-1841) and other educators after him have emphasized the following six steps
in lesson planning :
1. Preparation or Introduction
According to Herbart, mind of the child must be prepared to receive new knowledge. This
knowledge is to be linked with the previous knowledge of the students. Preparation means exploration
of pupils' knowledge, which leads to the aim of the lesson. Remember, nothing is to be given in
vacuum. So, this step is just like preparing the land before sowing the seed.
At this step, nothing new is to be told to the students. The teachers should only ascertain what
pupils already know in relation to the topic and provide a link between the previous knowledge and the
new lesson. This can be done in the following ways:
(i) By testing the previous knowledge (PK) of pupils, and introducing the lesson with an
explanation.
(ii) By asking questions that may reveal their ignorance, arouse interest and curiosity to learn
the new matter.
(iii) Through the use of charts, maps or pictures.
(iv) Through skillful discussion.
This is the most important step in lesson planning because, "Well begun is half done."
2. Presentation
Immediately after the preparation, the aim of the lesson should be clearly staled. Then the
actual lesson starts, where pupils get new ideas nd knowledge. Both the teacher and the pupils should
become active participants in the teaching-learning process. The teacher is supposed to draw out, as
much as possible, from the students with the help of development questions. A sort of heuristic attitude
should prevail the whole teaching i.e. the child should himself discover solutions of the problems posed
to him. Presentation should be carried on with the help of thought provoking questions. Teaching aids
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demonstrations, and other activities can also help to make the lesson more interesting and meaningful.
Blackboard summary should be developed side by side.
3. Association or comparison
Some examples are given to the students and they are asked to observe carefully and compare
them with other set of examples and facts. This step is important where some definition or some
generalization is to be induced from the students. Knowledge is not like piling up bricks, it is like a tree
that grows. So, association of the subject matter with daily life of the students is very important.
4. Generalization
This step involves reflective thinking because the whole knowledge learnt in presentation is to
be systematised which leads to generalization of formulae, principles or laws. An attempt should be
made by the teacher to encourage the students to draw out conclusions themselves. If the
generalization is incomplete or incorrect, then the teacher should guide them to make corrections.
5. Application
At this stage, students should make use of acquired knowledge in familiar and unfamiliar
situation. A lesson of science will be incomplete of the rules or formulae are not applied to daily life
situations. In this way, the new knowledge gained by the pupils become permanent in the minds of the
students and will not fade from consciousness soon.
6. Recapitulation
This is the last step in lesson planning. Here, the teacher ascertains whether the pupils have
understood and grasped the subject matter or not. It is generally done in following ways:
(i) Asking suitable questions on the topic taught.
(ii) Applying a short objective type test.
(iii) Asking the pupils to label the unlabelled sketch.
It should be noted that these Herbatian steps need not be followed strictly in all types of
lessons. These are tentative guidelines. The type of lesson plan will depend upon the nature of the
topic to be taught and the method of teaching.

SAQ.
Q. What are the steps for preparing a lesson plan?

1.5. DESIGN OF WRITING A LESSON PLAN

1.5.1 For Lecture Demonstration Method
Pupil Teacher Roll No
Class: Date.
Subject: Duration:
Topic:
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Material Aids ……………………………………………….
Illustrative Aids ……………………………………………….
Experimental Aids ……………………………………………….
Process Objectives ……………………………………………….
Content Objectives ……………………………………………….
Previous Knowledge Assumed ……………………………………………….
Previous Knowledge Testing ……………………………………………….
Announcement of the Aim ……………………………………………….
Presentation ……………………………………………….
Content Pupil Teacher Pupil Activity Teaching Aids Blackboard
Activity summary

Generalisation ……………………………………………….
Application ……………………………………………….
Recapitulation ……………………………………………….
Home Assignment ……………………………………………….
1.5.2 For Problem Solving Method
Pupil Teacher Roll No Date:
Class:
Subject: Duration:
Topic:
Material Aids:
Experimental Aids:
Previous Knowledge Assumed:
Previous Knowledge Testing:
Introduction (By creating a situation or posing a problem) ……….
Defining & delimiting the problem ……………………………………………….
Formulating the Hypothesis ……………………………………………….
Collecting the Data ……………………………………………….
Testing Hypothesis (through actual experimentation) …………….
1.6 ILLUSTRATIONS OF LESSON PLANS
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Let us now take up an illustrative lesson plan to make the concept of lesson plan and its
preparation clear to you. These below mentioned lesson plans are designed for lecture-demonstration
method:
Lesson Plan: 1
PT Roll No. Date:
Subject : Science Class VII
Topic: ACIDS AND BASES Duration 35-40 min.
MATERIAL AIDS : A classroom equipped with blackboard, chalks and duster etc.
ILLUSTRATIVE AIDS : A recapitulation chart. .
EXPERIMENTAL AIDS : Magnesium wire, sodium metal, charcoal, water, litmus paper, filter
paper.
PROCESS OBJECTIVES:
1. To develop observational and experimental skills.
2. To develop interest in science.
3. To develop skill of enquiry.
INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES : At the end of instruction.
1. Students will be able to differentiate between acidic and basic solutions experimentally
with the help of litmus paper test.
2. Students will be able to write anyone method to form acidic and basic solutions.
PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE ASSUMED : Students already have some knowledge about
different type of compounds.
PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE TESTING : Well students, today we will do new topic. But before
starting that topic, I would like to ask few questions from you :
1. Name some compounds?
2. What is taste of lemon juice?
3. Name some fruits which are sour in taste
ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE TOPIC : P.T. will say, : “Students as you already have elementary
knowledge about different types of compounds, today we will learn about acids and bases.”
PRESENTATION
CONTENT PT ACTIVITY
Elements on Burning in oxygen produce oxides P.T will call a student and ask him to hold a piece
of magnesium wire with a pair of tongs and put it
over a flame. Now P.T. will ask:
 What do you observe? .
 What is produced after burning the metal?
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 What is this ash?
Metal oxides dissolve in a water producing metal P.T. will write the reaction on the black board
hydroxides. These hydroxides are basic in
2 Mg+O2 ---> 2MgO
nature.
P.T. will cut the piece of sodium metal with a knife
and dry it on the folds of a filter paper. She will
then put it in a long handled spoon 1 and heat it
over the flame? P.T. will ask:
What do you observe?

PUPIL ACTIVITY TEACHING AID B.B. SUMMARY

Pupil will do as
directed
The metal burns Metals on burning in
with a dazzling oxygen produce oxides
flame
2 Mg+O2  2MgO

A white ash is 4 Na+O2 -- 2Na2O

produced after
burning. It is
magnesium oxide
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Pupil will listen Metal Oxide with water
carefully in their from metal hydroxides
copied

Sodium burns and

forms a white
powder

CONTENT PT ACTIVITY
 What is this powder?
Now P.T. will ask a student to put the ash and the
white powder in two separate beakers containing
water.
P.T. will ask
 What happens to them?
 What is produced after dissolution?
Litmus Paper Tests: P.T. will explain that metal hydroxides are
produced on dissolution. These hydroxides are
Bases turn red litmus blue.
known as bases or alkalies.
Now P.T. will ask a student to put a drop of this
solution over a red litmus paper.
Q. What change do you observe in the colour of
the litmus paper?
Now P.T. will ask the student to heat a piece of
charcoal on a long handled spoon over the flame.

PUPIL ACTIVITY TEACHING AID B.B. SUMMARY

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This is sodium oxide

Pupil do as directed Na2O+ H20+2NaOH

MgO + H2O 
Mg(OH)2

They dissolve in base

water. They may or
Red litmus  blue
may not answer
Pupil will do as
directed
Red litmus changed C+O2 + CO2
to blue
CO2+H2O  H2CO3

CONTENT PT ACTIVITY
Oxides of non-metals are usually acidic in nature She will introduce it into a wide mouthed bottle
and then remove it.
Litmus paper Test : Acid turn blue litmus red Now P.T. will ask a pupil to add a little water in the
bottle and shake. Now P.T. will ask the student to
put the litmus solution drop in the Soln.
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Now
What do you observe?
Very good
Now P.T. will explain that carbon of charcoal
forms CO2 on burning and when CO2 is dissolved
in water carbonic acid is formed. Acid turns blue
litmus red and alkalis turn red litmus blue. This
litmus test is an easy to distinguish between acidic
and basic solutions.
Metal oxides are usually basic and oxides of non- Name few metal oxides ?
metals are acidic in nature
Yes P.T. tell that metal oxides are basic while non-
metal oxides are acidic.
PUPIL ACTIVITY TEACHING AID B.B. SUMMARY
Pupil will do as
directed
Blue litmus has Oxides of non-metal are
changed to red acidic in nature

Acid
Blue litmus  Red
Students will listen
carefully and noted
down in their copies

MgO, Na2O
Pupils will noted down
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RECAPITULATION
Complete the following :
1. 4 Na+O2 
2. CO2 + H2O 
3. turns blue litmus red.
4. 2 Mg + O2 
5. Na2O+ +  2NaOH

ASSIGNMENT
If you are provided with HCI and NaOH in into separate beakers. How will you find out which
beaker has HCI and which has NaOH ?
Illustrative Lesson Plan: 2
P.T. ROLL NO. : 27 DATE:
SUBJECT : SCIENCE CLASS: VII
TOPIC: PROCESS OF NUTRITION DURATION: 35 min.
MATERIAL AIDS :- An ordinary classroom equipped with blackboard, chalk, duster and a pointer.
ILLUSTRATIVE AIDS :- Chart showing different steps of nutrition in 'different organisms Recapitulation
chart.
OBJECTIVES:
PROCESS OBJECTIVES
(i) To develop scientific attitude among students.
(ii) To develop observational skill among students.
(iii) To create interest in science among students. .
CONTENT OBJECTIVES : At the end of instruction, the student will be able to :
1. Define nutrition
2. To draw the diagram of process of nutrition in at least two different organisms
3. Explain the different steps in the process of nutrition.
PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE ASSUMED : It is assumed that the students have already know
about life processes, different organ systems and are familiar with the modes of nutrition.
PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE TESTING : Students, today we will do a very interesting topic but
before starting that topic. I would like to ask few questions from you :
1. Name some life processes which are basic to all organisms?
2. Why do we take food?
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3. How do amoeba takes its food?
ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE TOPIC : Well students as you are already aware of different types
of life processes, nutrition and different modes of nutrition so today, we will study Process of Nutrition.
PRESENTATION

CONTENT PT ACTIVITY
Steps in the process of nutrition P T. will ask the following questions:
 Ingestion  How do we eat food?
 Digestion Now P.T. will explain that the act of getting and eating food is
known as ingestion and this is the first step in the process of
 Assimilation
nutrition.
 Excretion
Now P.T. will ask following questions from students:
 Name any organism which ingests food with pseudopodia?
 Name of organisms which ingest food with cilia and
tentacles?
P.T will appreciate the responses given by the students. P.T will
further ask:
 What do you do after taking your food into your mouth ?
 What happens to food inside your mouth?

PUPIL ACTIVITY TEACHING AID B.B. SUMMARY

We put our food into
our mouth with help of
hands Pupils will listen
carefully and note
down in their copies.
Pupil will try to
respond the questions
asked by pupil
teacher.

Amoeba Paramecium Ingestion: intake of

and Hydralla food Amoeba:
Seudopodia Hydra:
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tentacles
Paramecium: Clia
We chew the food
with the help of teeth.
With the help of teeth
we cut the food into
smaller particles.

CONTENT PT ACTIVITY
Yes
Now P.T. will explain them that after the ingestion, the food is
converted into smaller soluble molecules mixed with saliva. This
process is known as digestion.
P. T will show a chart of the digestive system of man and other
organism.
Now P.T. will ask:
 What happens when you put a piece of sponge in water
 In which form food is converted now ?
P.T. will appreciate the response. Now P.T. will explain that this soluble
food is absorbed by the body in one celled organism and by blood in
organism which have organ systems in them and this process of
absorption of soluble digested food is known as absorption.
 What does blood consists of ?

PUPIL ACTIVITY TEACHING AID B.B. SUMMARY

Pupils will listen care- Digestion - bulk into
fully and note down in smaller molecules
their copies
Absorption- intake of
Pupils will observe soluble food
carefully
Assimilation -
The sponge absorbs absorption (soluble) in
the water
the cells
It is converted into a
soluble from
Pupils will listen
carefully and note
 18
down in their copies
It consists of cells and
Fluid

CONTENT PT ACTIVITY
Yes
This is absorbed into blood, the food is absorbed from blood into the
cells of the body and this process is known as assimilation.
Now tell me
What is left when you peel off any vegetable?
What do you do with that peel ?
P.T. will explain that like above there remains some undigested food in
body and it is excreted out or thrown out of the body and this is known
as excretion or egestion.
Now P.T. will show the diagram:
Where does the digestion take place?
Where does the absorption take place?
Assimilation occurs in large intestine and excretion takes place through
anus (in rectum)
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PUPIL ACTIVITY TEACHING AID B.B. SUMMARY
Pupils will note down Egestion : excretion of
in their copies. waste material or
digested food.
The waste material in
the form of peels is
left
We throw it out Pupils
will note down in their
copies
In stomach
In small intestine
Pupils will listen and
note down

RECAPITULATION CHART
Fill in the Blanks:
1. The first step in the process of nutrition is
2. Absorption in humans take place in and
3. After ingestion, there takes place
4. Paramecium ingests food with the help of

HOME WORK
 Draw a neat and well labelled diagram of digestive system of man.
 Explain the process of nutrition in amoeba with the help of a diagram?
1.7 PREPARATION OF LESSON PLAN ( CONTRUCTIVISM APPROACH)
Constructivism
Some common tenets
1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which
students are actively trying to construct meaning.
2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. And parts must be understood in
the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated
facts.
3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to perceive
the world and the assumptions they make to support those models.
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4. The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just
memorize the "right" answers and regurgitate someone else's meaning. Since education is
inherently interdisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure learning is to make the
assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the
quality of their learning.
Constructivism also can be used to indicate a theory of communication. When you send a
message by saying something or providing information, and you have no knowledge of the receiver,
then you have no idea as to what message was received, and you can not unambiguously interpret the
response. Viewed in this way, teaching becomes the establishment and maintenance of a language
and a means of communication between the teacher and students, as well as between students.
Simply presenting material, giving out problems, and accepting answers back is not a refined enough
process of communication for efficient learning. Some of the tenets of constructivism in pedagogical
terms:
 Students come to class with an established world-view, formed by years of prior
experience and learning.
 Even as it evolves, a student's world-view filters all experiences and affects their
interpretation of observations.
 For students to change their world-view requires work.
 Students learn from each other as well as the teacher.
 Students learn better by doing.
 Allowing and creating opportunities for all to have a voice promotes the construction of
new ideas.

1.7.1 THE 5 E DESIGN OF CONSTRUCTIVIST LESSON

THE 5 E DESIGN OF THE CONSTRUCTIVE LESSON

The 5 E's
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The 5 E's is an instructional model based on the constructivist approach to learning, which says
that learners build or construct new ideas on top of their old ideas. The 5 E’s can be used with students
of all ages, including adults.Each of the 5
E's describes a phase of learning, and each phase begins with the letter “E”: Engage, Explore,
Explain, Elaborate, and Evaluate. The 5 E's allows students and teachers to experience common
activities, to use and build on prior knowledge and experience, to construct meaning, and to continually
assess their understanding of a concept.
Engage: This phase of the 5 E's starts the process. An “engage” activity should do the following:
1. Make connections between past and present learning experiences
2. Anticipate activities and focus students' thinking on the learning outcomes of current
activities. Students should become mentally engaged in the concept, process, or skill to be learned.
Explore: This phase of the 5 E's provides students with a common base of experiences. They identify
and develop concepts, processes, and skills. During this phase, students actively explore their
environment or manipulate materials.
Explain: This phase of the 5 E's helps students explain the concepts they have been exploring. They
have opportunities to verbalize their conceptual understanding or to demonstrate new skills or
behaviors. This phase also provides opportunities for teachers to introduce formal terms, definitions,
and explanations for concepts, processes, skills, or behaviors.
Elaborate: This phase of the 5 E's extends students' conceptual understanding and allows them to
practice skills and behaviors. Through new experiences, the learners develop deeper and broader
understanding of major concepts, obtain more information about areas of interest, and refine their skills.
Evaluate: This phase of the 5 E's encourages learners to assess their understanding and abilities and
lets teachers evaluate students' understanding of key concepts and skill development.
5E Lesson Plan

Teacher:

Date:
Subject / CLASS:

Materials:

Lesson objective(s):
 22

Differentiation strategies to meet diverse learner needs:

ENGAGEMENT
 Describe how the teacher will capture students' interest.
 What kind of questions should the students ask themselves after the engagement?

EXPLORATION
 Describe what hands-on/minds-on activities students will be doing.
 List "big idea" conceptual questions the teacher will use to encourage and/or focus
students' exploration

EXPLANATION
 Student explanations should precede introduction of terms or explanations by the teacher.
What questions or techniques will the teacher use to help students connect their
exploration to the concept under examination?
 List higher order thinking questions which teachers will use to solicit student explanations
and help them to justify their explanations.

ELABORATION
 Describe how students will develop a more sophisticated understanding of the concept.
 What vocabulary will be introduced and how will it connect to students' observations?
 How is this knowledge applied in our daily lives?

EVALUATION
 How will students demonstrate that they have achieved the lesson objective?
 This should be embedded throughout the lesson as well as at the end of the lesson
 23

FORMAT OF MACRO LESSON PLAN

Pupil teacher's Reg. no: Class:
Duration: 25-30
Subject:
Minutes
Topic: Date:

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES (In behavior terms based on Bloom's Taxanomy):

1) The student will be able to ...........................
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
SPECIFIC AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS: Video on with module, Working model on

PREVIOUS KNOWLEDGE ASSUMED:

....................................................................................................................................
INTRODUCTION:

PUPIL TEACHER'S ACTIVITY PUPIL'S ACTIVITY METHODS/TECHNIQUES/BOARD

WORKS/AV AIDS

ANNOUNCEMENT OF TOPIC:

PRESENTATION:

TEACHING POINT PUPIL TEACHER'S PUPIL'S METHODS/TECHNIQUES/ EVALUATION

 24
ACTIVITY ACTIVITY BOARD WORKS/AV AIDS

RECAPITULATION:...................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................................

HOME
ASSIGNMENT:……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

ACTIVITY
Make a lesson plan for 'Friction' for, lecture demonstration method & deliver lesson according to
it. Report the effectiveness of your teaching after planning of your lesson.
Self-Assessment Questions
Q. What type of activities provide opportunities to the science teachers for their professional
growth ?

1.8 SUMMARY
In science teaching the two cardinal principles 'Learning by Doing' and 'Learning by Living' can
be practiced in true letter and spirit of co-curricular activities. These are organised for supplementing
classroom teaching. Some of such co-curricular activities are science club, science museum,
tours/excursions, wall magazines and science fair. The success of these activities are in their effective
organisation which is co-operative venture of both the students and the teacher.
To discharge ones duties effectively, a lecturer must possess certain qualities of head and
heart. Besides, he/she must avail the opportunities provided to him/her for his/her professional growth.
1.9 FURTHER READINGS
• Bhatnagar, A.B. & S.S. Bhatnagar (2004), Surya Publication, Near Govt. Inter College,
Meerut.
• Kohli, V.K. (1980), How to Teach Science, Vivek Publisher, Ambala City.
• Mangal, S.K. (1997), Teaching of Science; Arya Book Depot, New Delhi.
• Sharma, R.C. (1998), Modern Science Teaching, Dhanpat Rai Publication Co., New Delhi.
 25
• Narandra Vaidya (1971), The impact of Science Teaching. Oxford IBH Publishing Co.,
New Delhi.
• Chhikara & Sharma 1977, Teaching of Biological Science; Parkash Brothers, Ludhiana.
• Kulshreshtha, S.P. (2005), Teaching of Science: Surya Publication, C/o Lall Book Depot,
Near Govt. Inter College, Meerut.
1.10 MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Write short notes on the following :
(a) Activities of Science Club
(b) Important of Science Fairs
(c) Planning a Scientific tour
(d) Wall Magazine.
2. What is the importance of tours to places of scientific interest ?
3. What is the need for professional growth of a science teacher ? Discuss the ways of
professional growth of a science teacher.
 26
Lesson-2

LEARNING BEYOND THE CLASSROOMS

STRUCTURE
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Science Club
2.2.1 Importance of Science Club
2.2.2 Objectives of Science Club
2.2.3 Organization of Science Club
2.3 Science Museum
2.3.1 Advantages of A Museum
2.3.2 Organization of Museum
2.4 Tours/Trips
2.5 Science Fairs
2.6 Summary
2.7 Further Readings
2.8 Model Questions
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this lesson you will be able to :
• Describe the importance of Science Club.
• Explain the procedure for organization of a Science Club.
• State the importance of Science Museum
• Describe the procedure of organizing tours
• Describe the significance and organization of Science Fairs and Exhibitions.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
To create learning environments that are inclusive, diverse and engage all types of learners, we
need to provide students with learning opportunities that extend beyond the classroom. This is key to
supporting and enhancing the learner experience and achieving positive educational outcomes for
students.
For supplementing the teaching of science in the class room to make learning science joyful and
to widen the knowledge of the students a good science teacher should involve his students in a number
to satisfy the instincts and urges of children to make, break, handle and create new things, to inculcate
scientific attitude of co-curricular activities like science club, visits to places of scientific interest, science
fairs etc. Through the organization of such activities learning science becomes a joyful experience and
the students pursue science as a hobby rather considering it as a burden on them.
In this lesson some of these activities, their organizational and other aspects are taken up.
 27
2.2 SCIENCE CLUB
The formal classroom teaching or laboratory work alone neither help in providing for wider
development of scientific interest and attitude nor it caters to the development and realization of the
scientific talent. Therefore for serving the desired purpose, there is a need of some platform which can
prove to be a source of constant inspiration and enthusiasm to the budding scientists. The role of such
a platform can be effectively played by the science club organized in our schools.
2.2.1 IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE CLUB
To channelise the energies of students and to make proper use to talent of the students science
clubs may be organized in schools. The club forms the backbone of the co-curricular activities in the
school. The club, if properly organized, will be of great help to create interest in teaching of science. Now
a days the importance and educational value of clubs duly recognized. They provide opportunity the
students to acquaint themselves with various facts and principles of science. Students can take up any
project on a scientific hobby of his choice while participating in a science club activities. The participation
of a student in science club activities help him to link his theoretical knowledge to the outside world and
thereby providing more opportunities for self expression and creativity. Participation in various activities of
science club also helps to develop manual skills and interested in learning of science.
For effective organization of science club, it is essential for you as a science teacher to outline
its objectives. It will enable you to delineate the activities to be organized by the science club of your
school. Some of the objectives that a science club should have are given as under.
 28
2.2.2 Objectives of Science Club
These can be summarized as under :
• To develop the habit of maintaining neat and healthy living conditions.
• To inculcate interest in science.
• To help in inculcate of exploratory and creative spirit
• To make the students appreciate the role of science and technology in progress of mankind
• To create interest in advancements in science.
• To inculcate scientific attitude and give training in scientific method.
• To develop dignity of labour.
• To develop keen observation power.
• To exchange views and information.
• To encourage healthy competition and pupils.
2.2.3 Preliminary Organization of a Science Club
The responsibility of taking initiative in the establishment of a science club is with the science
teacher. For proper running of a club the most important thing is the preparation of a draft of
constitution of the club. This draft am be prepared by the science teacher in consultation with the head
of the institution. It provides all important details about the name of the club, its aims and objectives,
details regarding fees and the membership and the other relevant details.
The constitution should include the following :
1. Name of institution
2. Objectives
3. Scope
4. Membership
5. Office-bearers
6. Treasury
7. Meeting time and place
8. Activities
Structural Organization
Structural organization of the science club usually involves the following office bearers :
1. Patron : Mostly head of the Institution is assigned this responsibility. He is to extend all
facilities to the club.
2. Sponsor : The teacher-incharge of the club acts as its sponsor. He supervises, guides-
and-leads all the activities of the club.
3. Office bearers : They are nominated or elected democratically.
• President / Chairman - To preside over all the functions and meetings.
 29
• Secretary - To maintain the minutes of the meetings and activities.
• Assistant Secretary - To assist the Secretary and act for him in his absence.
• Treasurer - To maintain accounts.
• Librarian - To maintain catalogue, to issue and receive books.
• Store-Keeper - To maintain record of the equipments of the club.
• Publicity Officer - To publicize the activities of the club.
• Members - To participate in meetings and in framing the policies.
Functional Organization
Following type of activities may be undertaken by you in a science club :
• Arranging talks and lectures by experts.
• Arranging debates, discussions, seminars, workshops, quiz.
• Arranging and organizing excursions, fairs and exhibitions.
• Collecting objects and specimens for Science Museum.
• Decorating science room.
• Preparation of improvised apparatus.
• Keeping record of day to day weather conditions in the form of tables, charts, graphs.
• Celebrating birthdays of scientists, description of their life & work and putting up their
photographs.
• Arranging scientific film shows.
• Arranging cleanliness and health weeks.
• Helping the institution to come closer to community.
• Preparation of soap, ink, chalk, phenyl etc.
• Publishing science magazine and news bulletin.
• Maintaining the school garden.
• Celebration of special science days
Self-Assessment Questions
1. Why should science club be organized in a school ?

2. Outline the constitution of a science club.

 30
3. Prepare a list of the activities that you may organize in the science club of your school.

2.3 SCIENCE MUSEUM

A museum is a valuable part of a science department in a school. Though the ideal way to gain
knowledge is to observe objects and phenomena in their natural setting but in the present educational
set-up there is little opportunity for this. A science museum helps in bringing the outside world to the
school. It la very much desirable that there should be a science museum in every school. You must be
wondering that establishing a science museum may be a very costly affair and it may not he possible
for you to establish the same single handedly. The following details of science museum however will
help you to realise that any science teacher with the help of his/her students can take initiative and
establish a science museum in ones school. Science museum is suitable place in the school campus,
where different objects and specimens collected from natural or physical environment or constructed
and improvised by the students may be placed, preserved and displayed safely to help tie students
learn scientific facts. By science museum, we mean a place in the school campus where different
objects and specimen collected from natural or physical environment or constructed and improvised by
the students may be placed, preserved and displayed safely and systematically in such a way as to
help the students to learn about the related scientific facts and processes through observation. Science
requires active experimentation, careful observation and demonstration of the scientific facts and
principles with their natural surroundings and occurrence. But it is not always possible to take students
in the natural surroundings for observing and experimenting with the facts and principles of science.
Hence, the collection of the natural objects of scientific interests in the form of science museum may
prove quite effective and beneficial for studying the related scientific facts and processes.
Museum should consist of :
(i) X-ray apparatus
(ii) Biological exhibits like leaves, roots, flowers, Weeds, soil specimens or ores, rocks and
minerals.
(iii) Different kinds of birds properly stuffed & preserved.
(iv) Fish, snakes and water weeds.
(v) Butterflies and insects :- Both useful and harmful e.g. butterflies white ant, mosquito etc.
(vi) Models of digestive, respiratory systems.
(vii) Models of various mechanical devices;
(viii) Articulated skeletons of human beings and other mammals.
(ix) Specimens of some local Industrial products;
(x) Models showing various developmental stages of an organism.
 31
2.3.1 ADVANTAGES OF A MUSEUM
Advantages of a museum may be summarized as follows :

ADVANTAGES OF SCIENCE MUSEIUM

• It acquaints the students with environment.
• It provides platform for observation of some rare phenomena or objects of scientific
interest.
• It inculcates interest in specimens and models through close observation.
• It satisfies the collecting instincts of students.
• It develops love for nature study.
• It develops organizational abilities.
• It develops scientific attitude.
 32
2.3.2 ORGANIZATION OF A MUSEUM
Effective organization of a Museum depends on the following :
• Systematic arrangement.
• Clean and complete description of various parts of the exhibits.
• A card of (5" x 4") to be attached to each item and following information be written on the
card in good handwriting.
(i) Scientific and common name of the exhibit
(ii) Time and date and place from where exhibit was obtained.
(iii) Importance of the exhibit.
• The success of the museum depends on the interest and effective guidance by the science
teacher and the head of the institution.
CHOICE OF PROPER ACCOMMODATION
• Museum should be at a reasonable distance from the classes and science laboratories.
• Accommodation should be big enough to accommodate materials related to different
branches of science.
• All articles should be demonstrated at a safe position so that they are not spoiled or
damaged.
• Objects should be kept in such a way as to provide a full view from all angles.
• Birds should be stuffed and kept in glass cases.
• Proper care of the exhibits should be taken by spraying the disinfectants from time to time.
• Life history of mosquitoes, housefly, white and should be properly mounted on glass strips
and kept in Jars filled with 10% formaldehyde solution.
• An open air caged accommodation may be provided for rabbits, hares, white rats, squirrels
etc.

Sources of Articles for Science Museum

 33
SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTION
Q. What are the advantages of a museum in teaching of science.

2.4 TOURS/EXCURSIONS
To learn science is to do science. There are many occasions when first hand exp. are
necessary, Tours/excursions provide opportunity for such first hand experiences.
Importance of Tours / Excursions
• The importance of tours/excursions is as follows. The tours and excursions, help to clarify
the concepts.
• Create Interest in the pupils and thereby vitalises instruction.
• Provide entertainment
• Establishment of facilitate in contact with the outer world.
• Helps in development of scientific attitude.
• Help in collection of specimens.
• Generate spirit of co-operation and team work.
• Provide opportunity for the selection of projects and provide actual source material for
study.
• Furnish first-hand information to supplement and enrich classroom instruction e.g. visit to a
lake or pond to study the waves, ripples etc.
• Correlate school life with the community e.g. visit to a nearby village to teach the concept
of health and hygiene.
• Students learn to plan and discharge their responsibilities.
2.4.1 Organization of Tours
A science teacher while organizing a tour must take care of the following things for deriving
maximum educational benefits
1. Choice of the Place of Tour : it should be based upon its relevance to the subject and
topic being dealt in the classroom. e.g. If the students are learning about certain seasonal
crops, they should get direct experience concerning harvesting, sowing etc.
The excursion should be planned will in advance and make certain that the pupils are
getting all the desired information and the objective of the excursion is achieved.
2. Preparation of Tour : After making the choice of place, teacher must take care of the
following things :
• Obtain the permission of the owner of person in charge of the place to be visited.
 34
• Obtain the permission of institutional authority, parents and willingness of students.
• Arrangement of Transport e.g. hiring buses or reservation of trains, concessions for
the students.
• Time schedule.
• Boarding and lodging arrangements.
• Routers to be travelled.
• Charges from students.
• Purpose of the visit.
• Instructions to students to carry necessary articles.
• Assigning responsibilities to the students.
• Instructions for maintaining discipline and precautions.
3. Execution : The tour is carried as per the planning.
The teacher should provide timely supervision and guidance to the students to achieve
the objective of the tour. He should direct the attention of the pupils to the important things and
make certain that the pupils are getting all the desired information and the objective of the
excursion is achieved.
4. Follow up : The objectives of the tours/excursions will not be attained if follow-up is not
done by the teacher. To do the follow up, you should :
• Discuss the experiences.
• General discussions on the trip with students, their questions and suggestions
should be invited,
• Satisfy the queries & doubts of the students.
• Deposit the articles collected in school museum.
• Correlate experiences with the classroom and laboratory teaching.
• Ask the students to prepare models & albums.
• Assign a project, take a test and also give a written assignment.
• Ask the students to write letter to the newspapers on suggestions for improvement
of facilities of the tourists and preparing sketches of drawing for the school
magazine.
• Preparation of models albums.
5. Evaluation : The teacher and the students will evaluate the excursion with respect to
the objective for brining improvement in the future excursions. Written records of the
excursion will be maintained by the students and the teacher for future references.
The scientific tours when organized in a systematic way prove quite effective in realization of
the aims and objectives of teaching science.
 35
Self-Assessment Question
Q. How can a science teacher ensure the success of an excursion ?

2.5 SCIENCE FAIRS

Science fairs may prove a good forum and means for the display of all the activities whether
formal or informal. They provide healthy competition among the students of different schools for
bringing out their talents and prove a source of great inspiration and encouragement for making the
science popular, interesting and useful among the community. Science fair is a very important co-
curricular activity which involves the presentation of work of the science students which may be in the
form of exhibits, lecture-demonstrations, innovative ideas, techniques, discoveries or projects. The
organization of science fairs may be at school, district or national level. Science fairs are organized by
both Government and non-Government agencies.
Exhibits Displayed in the Science Fair
• Objects and specimens collected by the students.
• Graphic material like charts, pictures, graphs.
• Scientific models prepared by the students.
• Scientific toys and games prepared by the students.
• Apparatus or any scientific instruments made by the students themselves.
• Improvised apparatus showing some innovation.
• Display of projects completed by the students.
• Articles of scientific use.
• Good science text books, journals, reference books.
• Film shows
Activities undertaken in the Science Fairs
• Holding debates, declamations, paper reading contest.
• Essay competition, Science quiz contest.
• Group discussion, seminars.
• Film shows, slide shows.
• Arranging lectures of experts.
• Symposia and workshops.
 36
• Lectures/talks of prominent scientists.
• Puppet shows on science themes.
2.5.1 Purposes and objectives of Science Fairs
By holding such activities science fairs serve the following purposes :
• They provide forum for translating out theory into practice.
• Provide opportunity to community to understand practical applications and utility of science
and bring schools closer to community.
• Students get inspired when they visit science fairs or when they participate in science
fairs.
• They help in inculcating interest and nurturing creative talent among the students.
• They future scientists are brought to the lime light.
• The provide forum for healthy competition at individual and institutional level.
• They help in acquisition of knowledge of latest methods, techniques and materials by the
students.
• Develop & reinforce scientific hobbies.
• Popularise science activities of students.
• Stimulate students to take more interest in scientific investigations & projects.
• Give impetus and encouragement to the students to try out their ideas and apply
classroom learning into more creative channels
Planning
While planning a science fair following aspects should be considered.
(i) Objectives and aims of the fairs.
(ii) Scope of fan - whether limit the fair to school or open to other schools.
(iii) Type of programmes
(iv) Procedure
(v) Financing
(vi) Place, time, duration
(vii) Other factors and Facilities
Distribution of Work
After planning work should be assigned to the individual or groups. Committees like advisory,
executive, recording, reception, seating etc. may be formed. All these committees are guided and
directed by the teacher-in-charge in consultation with the students.
 37
2.5.2 Organization of Science Fairs
Organization of a science fair is teacher-student activity. It involves :
1. Organizing Committees : Different committees are formed for performing different
duties.
(a) Central Committee : it decides the date, location, participants, financing rules and
the activities of other committees.
(b) Exhibits and Resources Committee : It receives applications and prepare adequate
space and tables for each exhibit.
(c) Publicity and Judging Committee : It notifies about the date, place, categories and
other specifics of the fair.
2. List of Entrants : A list of entrants is compiled before the date of the science fair. It
includes name, class teacher, title and category of the project.
3. Safety : Safety of the exhibits, visitors and exhibitors should be insured.
(i) Switches, wires, metal parts should not be left exposed.
(ii) Any exhibit which involve high temperature, use of acids, explosions, flames
should be taken care of.
Following points should be kept in mind while organising the science fairs :
• Selection of proper and appropriate site for the science fairs.
• There should be provision for sufficient power supply.
• There should be suitable arrangement for drinking water, urinals and toilets etc.
• Amenities to each team.
• Exhibits should be properly labelled.
• Clarity regarding rules and regulation for participation, display and security of goods and
equipments
• Exhibits related to different branches of science e.g. physics section and chemistry section
should be displayed in different sections.
• Opening and closing time should be well notified.
• Proper incentives, awards, recognition to deserving students and deserving teams.
• Arrange proper finances beforehand.
• Distribute work and duties suitably.
• Evaluation should be done objectively.
 38
Execution
The different committees now execute the planning of the fair. The exhibition is arranged and
other programmes like demonstrations, film talks, magic shows, charts, collections', models are
organized. in exhibition it is desirable that each exhibit is self explanatory.
While organizing a science fair students should be informed well in advance. A suitable place
should be located for organizing the fair.
Judging
Judges may be scientists, college professors, science teachers etc. Judging should be as
objective as possible. The performance may be judged on the following lines :
(i) Scientific Approach (30%)
(ii) Originality in planning and execution (20%)
(iii) Technical skill and workmanship (20%)
(iv) Accuracy of presentation (10%)
(v) Dramatic value (10%)
(vi) Personal interview (10%)
To encourage the participants some prizes or merit certificates may be awarded to pupils'.
Hence we can conclude that the science fairs have social, intellectual, educational and psychological
value.
2.6 SUMMARY
In science teaching the two cardinal principles 'Learning by Doing' and 'Learning by Living' can
be practiced in true letter and spirit of co-curricular activities. These are organised for supplementing
classroom teaching. Some of such co-curricular activities are science club, science museum,
tours/excursions, wall magazines and science fair. The success of these activities are in their effective
organisation which is co-operative venture of both the students and the teacher.
To discharge ones duties effectively, a lecturer must possess certain qualities of head and
heart. Besides, he/she must avail the opportunities provided to him/her for his/her professional growth.
2.7 FURTHER READINGS
1. https://www.eduplace.com/science/profdev/science_fair/whatis.html
2. https://www.streetdirectory.com/travel_guide/118515/science/a_history_of_fairs.html
3. https://www.super-science-fair-projects.com/science-fair-history.html
2.8 MODEL QUESTIONS
1. Write short notes on the following :
(a) Activities of Science Club
(b) Important of Science Fairs
(c) Planning a Scientific tour
 39
Lesson-3
SCIENCE TEXT BOOKS

STRUCTURE
3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Importance of Science Textbook
3.3 Characteristics of A Science Textbook
34 Evaluation of Science Text Book
3.5 Summary
3.6 Further Readings
3.7 Model Questions
3.0 OBJECTIVES
After completing this lesson you will be able to:
 Describe the place of textbook in teaching and learning of science.
 Explain the importance of textbook in science
 Specify the characteristics of a good science text book with reference to academic
considerations, credentials of the authors and get up of the science textbook.
 Select and use appropriate procedure for evaluation of text book.
 Evaluate and recommend a good science textbook to the students.
3.1 INTRODUCTION
You have read about the science curriculum in the previous lesson. Now you will be explained
the importance, characteristics and methods of evaluating the science textbook.
What is a science textbook? A textbook is a book containing a comprehensive compilation of
content in a branch of study with the intention of explaining it. The science text book determines the
components and method of learning. It controls the content the method and procedures of learning
A science text book is one that is especially prepared for the use of pupils and teachers of a
particular class / grade, presenting a course of study in science.
Teaching science of development has been a national aim amongst others recommendations
made by various commissions on education and the National Policy of Education. Hence preparation
and use of science textbook by teachers is a significant step in the direction of spreading of awareness
among the upcoming generations. In the following section you shall read about the importance of
science text book.
 40
3.2 IMPORTANCE OF SCIENCE TEXTBOOKS
A good science book exhibits real commitment to comprehensive educational development. It
illustrates the national will and national policy through the approaches used in it. Thus it is important
even beyond the walls of the classroom. It is a critical input of educational infrastructure in the Third
world.
Let us see how the science textbook is important in classroom situations.
 41
• The textbook acts as a course organizer by giving a fixed content for that class, academic
session or that term, it thus becomes a private reference authority for the teacher and the
taught as it provides essential facts and techniques for learning guidelines for the subject.
• The textbook acts as the basic element of education for the student and lends support to
the teacher's statement in the classroom. Hence it reinforces classroom practices whether
theoretical or practical.
• In places where no other teaching aids are available and where classes are overloaded
the textbook is an essential companion of the teacher. It saves time by preventing useless
and lengthy dictation of notes. By ensuring some uniformity of standard in teaching it
develops uniformity in school work thus making transfer of credits and equivalence of
courses possible between schools in different localities.
• Undenyiably it serves as common denominator for a class with a range of individual
difference. The textbook provides common basis on which to master processes of
reading, analyzing, outlining and summarizing in science.
• The science textbook is a rich source of factual information that is comprehensive and
reasonably reliable. It is vital for pure reference in science especially for teaching topics
classification of plants and animals, formulae, process, recognition of rocks and mineral
etc. While promoting habits of self study it helps students to prepare for assignments and
projects.
• According to Hall Quest, a good textbook has five general uses - a source of knowledge, a
guide, a tool, a means of interpreting truth and an inspiration to the pupil. The science
textbook provides basic knowledge and creates link between the pupil and the world of
learning hence they continue to hold a fundamental place in teaching science. It goes
without saying that effective and efficient use of textbook finally rests with the science
teacher.
A science textbook is important for the pupil as it
- increases power of observation
- Inculcates training in reasoning
- Imparts training in truth.
- provides intellectual training and mental discipline.
- enables pupils to form objective judgment and to suspend judgment in the absence of
relevant data and evidence.
- emphasises cultural value of science
- develops open mindedness and critical attitude.
- acquaints with new advancements of science.
- appreciates contribution of science and technology to human welfare.
 42
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
i. What is a science textbook?

ii. Describe briefly the importance of science text-book?

Fill in the Blanks:

1) The textbook acts as a for a particular class.
2) By ensuring uniformity in standard the textbook make of course possible
between different schools.
3) The teacher can teach classes with the help of textbooks.
4) The science textbooks create a link between the and .
5) Science textbook is aimed at developing power of and among
students.
3.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF A SCIENCE TEXTBOOK
A good science book spurs the students into the realm of scientific investigation, to study the
syllabus thoroughly and score well in examination. As the textbook is the most common reference
source for the students and teachers, it should meet the consideration related to academic viewpoints,
authors' qualifications and get up.
Text book in science should provide ample examples of correlation with daily life. Social
significance of science should be stressed. It should have activities that provide some work experience.
For modernisation in India through harmony between science and spirtualisation, the science text book
should be able to bring out the aspect of
- unity in diversity
- interdependence in the ecosystem
- respecting and appreciating laws of nature
- significance of various stages of growth
- and time span of growth
Voctionalisation of education will come through study of science. Highlighting the needs of
science personnel in the work force required.
Let us study these aspects in the following sections :
3.3.1 Academic Considerations
1. Meet requirements of the subject
(i) Reflect the national objectives
(ii) Circumscribe the syllabus
(iii) Achieve instructional objectives
(iv) Provide appropriate content
(v) Reflect the nature of the subject
 43
2. Fulfill needs of the learners
Cater to individual differences
(i) Develop pupils interest in science
(ii) Ensure involvement of pupils
3. Be effective in teaching-learning situations through
(i) Systematic organization and development of context
(ii) Appropriate psychology of learning
(iii) Readability of the text
(iv) Effective use as a teaching tool
(1) Meet Requirements of the Subject
(i) Reflect the National Objectives
The content and examples should bring out significance of science for development of the
nation through a society with scientific attitude, democratic citizenship, receptiveness to new ideas,
tolerance and leadership skills.
(ii) Circumscribe the Syllabus
• it must define, what is to be learned.
• The content should be easily teachable within the given time.
• The relevance of other subjects the geography, history and mathematics to science
curriculum should be brought out e.g. alloys, wheels used in doors, pillars, weapons
etc.
• Follows maxims and principles of organization of curriculum.
(iii) Attain instructional Objectives
• The text must promote achievement of proper objectives and purposes of science,
namely, to promote an ever deepening understanding of basic principles to develop.
• Problem solving and analytical skills and the ability to apply them in solving daily life
problems, the material environment and social living.
• Spirit of enquiry and experimentation.
• Knowledge and understanding of concepts.
• Experimental skills e.g. systematic, handling of apparatus taking adequate precautions.
• Scientific attitude, application of scientific knowledge in day to day life, appreciations of
scientific way of life.
For example : Checking adulteration of food.
Keeping surroundings clean.
 44
Vaccination
Precautions for prevention of diseases.
(iv) Appropriateness of Content
• The content should conform to the syllabus.
• There should be adequate subject matter with sufficient illustrations and examples
according to the level of the students.
• It should lead to development of clear understanding of scientific concepts.
• Illustrations should be relevant.
• Facts should be up to date, accurate and clearly stated.
• Standard scientific terminology should be used and explained in appropriate places.
(v) Reflect the Nature of the Subject
• Spirit of scientific enterprise.
• Acquaintance with nature.
• Reflection of methods and tools of science.
• Emphasis on methods of enquiry.
• Major concepts and generalizations.
• Use Inductive approach in presentations.
(2) Fulfill the Needs of the Learners
The text of science should be in accordance with pupil's level of maturity in age and mental
ability.
(i) Cater to Individual Differences
Text book should ideally be written for the average student in terms of
Language - Lucid and simple.
Illustration - Exact, simple and eye catching.
Examples - From rural and urban environments.
Research findings - Information to keep student abreast with latest knowledge
Graded review exercises - Easy to higher order questions with challenging problems
for brilliant students.
Enrichment material - Extra information and suggestion for viewing film strips,
video cassettes educational film and interactive site on the
internet.
 45
(ii) Able to develop pupil's interest in science with
• Content of lessons laced with interesting incidents.
• Provide experiments and observation situations.
• Elements of fun.
• Experiences and activities related to daily life.
• Cause and effect of various observable phenomena.
(iii) Ensure Participation of Pupils
The textbook can ensure involvement of the pupil in learning of science through participating
activities like :
• Problem solving
• Summary
• Incomplete illustrations
• Review
• Project work
• Field activities
(3) Effective in Teaching-training situations
A textbook in science will be effective if following conditions are kept in mind.
(i) Systematic organization and development of content matter.
• The content should be organized in suitable units.
• There should be consistent pattern of each unit simple to complex, know to
unknown.
• Sequencing of units should be appropriate.
• Integrated approach should be followed in presentation.
• Important features should be highlighted.
(ii) Appropriateness of psychology of learning;
• Test book should follow continuity and in accordance with previous learning of
students.
• There should be provision for motivation of students.
• The concept should be graded while placing by following the maxim of simple to
the complex.
• Emphasis should be on the standard theme of the subject.
 46
• There should be recurrent use of concepts for reinforcement.
(iii) Reading of the text
• There should be appropriate mode of verbal communication.
• There should be continuity and cohensiveness of textbook.
• Simple language should be used for comprehensive presentation of text.
• Vocabulary should be controlled - used according to the age group of the class for
which textbook is written.
• Textbook should be written in a lucid style of writing.
d. Effectiveness of textbook as a teaching tool
• Basic ideas should be stressed in introductory paragraph.
• Introduction should have previous Knowledge and as experience of pupil to form
the base for new concept.
• Use of clear and attractive illustrations.
• Provision of assignment materials in the chapter.
• Evaluation to provide knowledge of progress in learning to motivate students.
3.3.2 The Author
The criteria to be satisfied by the author of a science textbook is outlined below and explained in
the following sections.
(i) Academic qualification
(ii) Sufficient experience
(iii) Awareness of classroom situations
(iv) Conversant with new teaching techniques
(v) Genuine aim in writing textbook.
(vi) Consult experts on various topics
(vii) Knowledge of national objectives.
Only a person well-versed with the subject and genuinely concerned about achieving the aims
and objectives of teaching will be able to do justice to the task of publishing a good science textbook.
(l) Author of the science textbook should have a certain minimum level of academic
qualification. NCERT and state Board of Education has own guidelines for the requisite
academic qualification for a person to quality as author for a person to quality author of
science textbook.
(II) He/she should have sufficient experience in actually teaching the subject to be aware of
the learning situations and understand the difficulties of the pupils.
 47
(Ill) The author should have good command over language and be able to write for the benefit
of the students.
(IV) He/she should be conversant with the changing concepts and techniques of teaching in
order to suggest appropriate activities for each topic.
(V) He/she should have a genuine aim in bringing out a good textbook and should not engage
in the exercise for the sake of monetary gains of adding to his/her list of publications.
(VI) The author should consult a number of experts on various topics and collect information
from various sources to incorporate the latest in the textbook.
(VIl) The author must have knowledge of the national objectives of teaching science.
3.3.3 General get-up and
A book written by a dedicated author containing the best of information and inspiration for pupils
reaches the pupils after a mechanical and technical process of publishing, advertising and marketing.
How well the intentions of the author get concretized in the form of a textbook depend upon following
considerations:
(i) The paper used for the textbook should be of good durability capable withstanding
handling by energetic school children for at least one year.
(ii) Binding should be attractive, neat, strong and durable.
(iii) The cover page should be related to the content in the book, colourful and attractive.
(iv) Printing of the book should be neat, clear and attractive.
(v) The type prize of letters used in the book should be according to the maturity level of the
students.
(vi) lllustrations suited to the context and colourful diagrams enhance the aesthetic value of
the book.
(vii) The textbook is written to reach students hailing from different stratas and hence should
be moderately priced.
(viii) Textbook should be easily available in the market. In several developing countries the goal
of one book per pupil is a target yet to be achieved.
3.4.4 Presentation of Content
(i) The textbook should clearly mention about syllabus of Board of Education it covers exactly
and for which classes is it most suited.
(ii) A detailed index with table of contents for each chapter provides a quick glance into the
topic and sub-topics included in the book.
(iii) A separate list of accessing the desired page is very helpful in accessing the desired page.
(iv) Every chapter should have an introduction.
- bold heading + sub-heading
- important terms in Italics
 48
- summary at the end
- new terms explained in separate highlighted spaces.
(v) Evaluation of the learner be provided for by way of
- exercises, experiments
- suggestions for project work and activities for application of new learning.
(vi) Suggested reading and viewing of film strips, tapes and video cassettes should be
mentioned at the end of the chapter along with source for procurement of the same.
3. Provision for revision of the textbook should be there on the basis of feedback by students,
subject Teachers, parents experts and interested individuals.
So far you have learnt about the essential characteristics of the textbook in science in terms of
- The academic considerations
- The suitability of author and
- The general get up
A textbook having the above characteristics can surely be called a good science textbook.
These criteria are important and should be kept in view while recommending a text book for its use by
the students.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1. What are the good characteristics of a good science text-book?

2. What is the utility of science text-book?

3. Fill in the Blanks:

(i) The of the textbook should be durable to with stand yearlong usage.
(ii) The provides a quick glance at the contents of the textbook.
(iii) Revision of textbook should be based on of readers.
(iv) and enhance the aesthetic value of the book.

3.5 SUMMARY
A science textbook is especially prepared for the use of pupils and teachers of a particular
class, presenting a course of study in science. It is a source of knowledge, a guide, a tool, a means of
interpreting truth and an inspiration to the pupil.
- The textbook holds a fundamental place in teaching of science because it.
 49
- Illustrates the syllabus for the class
- Organises the content.
- Gives basic content for preparation for examination.
- Reinforces teacher's theoretical & practical teaching.
(a) Essential characteristics of a good science textbook are :
Academic
• It meets the requirement of the subject.
• Fulfills needs of the learners, and
• Is effective in teaching-learning situations
(b) Author : The author is academically qualified and has
• Teaching experience.
• Command over language and good vocabulary.
• Knowledge of national objectives.
3.6 FURTHER READINGS
Mangal, S.K.(1997) Teaching of Science, Arya Book Depot, New Delhi.
Sharma R.C., (1998) Modern Science Teaching, Dhanpat Rai Publishing Co., New Delhi.
K. Yadav, (1998) Teaching of Life Science, Anmol Publications Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi.
Sampat, S.K, Introduction to Educational Technology.
Das, R.S, Educational Technology, A Basic Text.
Google Search (http..//www.cis.hawai. edu/media services)
3.7 MODEL QUESTIONS
Q. Enlist the Characteristics of a good science text book
Q. Discuss the suitability of a author for a science text book

*****
 50
Lesson -4

PRACTICAL WORK IN SCIENCE

STRUCTURE
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Need and Importance of Practical Work in Science
4.3 All Purpose Science Laboratory
4.4 Lecture Cum Laboratory Plan for a High School
4.5 Laboratory Equipment and Material
4.6 Improvisation of Science Apparatus
4.7 Summary
4.8 Further Readings
4.9 Model Questions
4.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this lesson you will be able to :
 Describe the need and importance of practical work in science.
 Explain the special features of an all-purpose science laboratory.
 List the physical facilities that are essential for effective teaching of General Science at
secondary level.
 Describe the process of selection and purchase of laboratory equipment.
 Explain the need and importance of improvising science apparatus.
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Practical work in science is of great significance to acquaint the learners with the scientific
method and to enable them to develop scientific attitude. It helps the students in understanding the
scientific facts, concepts, laws and processes in the physical and biological environments and enables
them to think logically and draw conclusions at a higher level. In the following sections we shall discuss
the need and importance of practical work in science and the lecture cum laboratory plan for a high
school. Besides this we will learn about the selection, purchase and maintenance of laboratory
equipment level and the improvisation of science apparatus.
4.2 NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF PRACTICAL WORK IN SCIENCE
Huxley, a well known educational remarked "The great end of life is not edge, but action."
 51
This statement reveals the importance of practical work and psychological principle of "Learning
by doing". Science cannot be taught without proper experimentation and verification. To attain the aims
and objectives of teaching science practical work is extremely important. As it is said, to learn science
is to do science.
Practical work is a necessity due to the following reasons :
1. It creates permanent impression.
2. It helps in application of scientific facts in day to day life.
3. It inculcates interest in the subject.
4. It makes the student an enthusiastic discoverer and experimentalist.
5. It helps the student to tackle every problem in a systematic and organised way.
6. It develops self-dependence, co-operation, self-reliance and initiative in the students.
7. It makes the students technical minded by the use of scientific instruments.
8. It satisfies the children emotionally.
9. It encourages research and experimentation.
10. It helps in acquiring skills in experimentation which includes:
(a) proper method of using apparatus and instruments.
(b) preserving the necessary specimens, chemicals and apparatus.
11. It develops the skill of drawing sketches of certain biological specimens, instruments etc.
12. It trains the students to prepare articles of daily use like soap etc. and enable him to earn
his livelihood while learning.
Organization of Practical Work
It should be a sincere endeavour of every science teacher to provide opportunities to the
students to do practical work. To enable the students to benefit maximum from practicle exercises, the
science teacher should follow certain guidelines.
Guidelines for Teachers
1. Theoretical and Practical Work : Whatever is taught in theory must be taken up in the
practical work side be side. For example if the topic 'Photosynthesis' is being taught in the
class, same should be taken up in the practical classes.
2. Individual Working : Students should be told to work individually in groups of two or
three, some students tend to shirk the work while there may be some over enthusiastic
students who finish off the entire practical work quickly and single handedly.
3. Number of Students : The practical class should not be of more than 20 students. If the
class is large it should be divided into groups. This will enable the teacher to supervise the
students individually and it will also prevent the chances of any mishap during the practical
class.
4. Laboratory Manual : Prior to the practical work each student should be given a laboratory
manual on which instructions are printed.
 52
5. Accuracy of Results : Proper apparatus should be provided to the students so that they
get accurate results.
6. Records : A complete, stepwise record of every experiment should be maintained. Every
observation should be honestly recorded.
7. Practical Note Book : The experimental setup, reactions etc. must be shown and
procedure is written on the right hand page.
8. Checking of Notebooks : Experiments should be signed by the teacher. All diagrams
must be completed before the students leave the laboratory.
9. Discipline : Proper discipline should be maintained in the laboratory.
10. Material and Apparatus : Apparatus should be arranged before the experiment.
Chemical and apparatus should be handled with care.
Instructions to Pupils
Following three types of instructions to the pupils can be given through documents :-
1. Laboratory Manuals
2. Laboratory Instructions
3. Instruction Cards
1. Laboratory manual : Each student should be given a laboratory manual which should cover the
following aspects.
(i) Precautions, Procedure and Complete Directions.
(ii) Procedure for observations and their tabulation.
(iii) Complete guidance about completing the notebook.
(iv) Reference to the text-book (by pages) at appropriate places.
(v) Diagram of experimental setup.
2. Laboratory Instructions
(a) A brief, systematic, stepwise, procedure of the experiment.
(b) Important precautions.
(c) Method of recording observations.
(d) Number of observations to be taken.
(e) Method of calculation for obtaining results.
3. Instruction Card : A card of 6" x 4"can be prepared by the teacher for each experiment having
the following information.
- The number of experiments to be done.
- The purpose of experiment
- Procedure
- Precautions
 53
- Method of tabulating observations and the results.
The card system saves times of the teacher and different students can perform different
experiments. Hence we can conclude that teaching science through the practical work helps in
achieving the aims and objectives of science. It helps in developing manipulative skills and scientific
attitude/temper in the students and train the students in scientific method so that they observe things in
concrete form.

Self - Assessment Question

Q. Discuss the advantage of practical work in the teaching of science.

4.3 ALL PURPOSE SCIENCE LABORATORY

Since we know that practical work is very important there must be a specific place in the school
where the students can perform experiments. Such a place where, practical work can be carried out is
called a science laboratory. In the following section let us discuss the requirements, and equipments for
an all purpose science laboratory.
All Purpose Science Laboratory
Being a science teacher you need to know the plan for the establishment of all-purpose science
laboratory following an integrated plan from both physical sciences and life sciences. This arrangement
is made for the demonstration of experiments by the teacher and also for students to perform
experiments.
1. Size of Laboratory : If number of students is 40 : size of lab should be 13.5 x 7.5 meters.
It is divided into two parts. One may be used as store-room which is also fitted with dark
curtains. The other portion serves as lecture cum laboratory.
2. Seating Arrangement : Heavy fixed benches, tables with elaborate fittings are
undesirable and unnecessary. Movable benches in the center and long fixed benches
going along two sides of the room are strongly recommended,
3. Water And Gas Arrangements : The side benches may be fixed sinks, water and gas
raps.
4. Store Room : It is necessary for preservation of apparatus. The demonstration table of
the teacher should be about 75 cm away from the door of dark-room and a blackboard
should be there on the wall just in front of the demonstration table. Six long tables are
provided for carrying out experiments along with the chairs.
5. Cupboards and Shelves : Cupboards are provided below the top of tables for storing the
apparatus. These tables are not fixed. Fixed type of tables are provided along the wall
lengths fitted with sinks water and gas connection. Walls of the room should have
almirahs fitted for storage of apparatus.
 54

All Purpose Science Laboratory

 55
6. Windows : The room should be well ventilated and should have required number of doors
and windows. All the windows should be fitted with good blinds so that the room may be
darkened while using film projector, epidiascope etc. A white screen should be fixed above
the blackboard to show the films to the students. Arrangements for providing curtains on
the doors and windows should be made.
In the previous section we discussed the dimensions and requirements of an all purpose
science laboratory. In the following section we will learn about the lecture-cum-laboratory plan for a
high school.

Self - Assessment Questions

Q. Why do we need all purpose science laboratory in a school?

Q. Enumerate the requirements of an all purpose science laboratory.

4.4 LECTURE CUM LABORATORY PLAN FOR A HIGH SCHOOL

This plan was first given by Dr. Whitehouse. It economics space and is convenient for the
teacher and the taught.
1. Dimensions : According to Dr. Whitehouse the size of the room for forty students should
be of 13.5 m x 7.5 m dimension. It is then divided into a lecture room and a laboratory.
2. Walls and Floors : Walls and floors of the laboratory should be tough and durable. Walls
should be 45 cm thick and properly plastered and distempered. Floor should be cemented
and have scope for washing. There should be proper drainage for easy flow of water, To
avoid dirt lodging round the corners between the walls and floors are suggested.
3. Doors and Windows : There should be two doors and three windows. Doors and
windows should open outwards. One door should be used for entrance and the other for
exit. The windows and doors should have glass panes to permit proper light in the room.
There should be proper arrangement for curtains on the door and windows so that the
room may be converted into a darkroom when required. Dark room Is essential for
exhibiting cinema film, slides or film strips with the help of projections.
4. Black Board : There should be a wall blackboard of 10 x 40 size, cemented to explain

various scientific factors diagrammatically  for other mathematical calculations.
1'and
5. Teacher's Table : Teacher's table 6t   should be at a distance of three feet from the
 



 2 
blackboard.
This table serves two purposes.
(i) for writing
(ii) for demonstration.
 1' 
6. Tables and Chairs for the Students : For a batch of 40 students twenty dual tables
3'2  and forty chairs are essential. Each table should be fitted with a shelf for placing books. The
 



 2 
top of the tables should be flat.
 56

Combined Lecture room-cum-Laboratory

 57

7. Sinks : Three sinks are to be provided, one is used by the teacher for demonstration and
the other two by the students. Each table should have water connection with sink, an
electrical connection and LPG connection.
8. Laboratory Room : In the room also there should be a blackboard of 3 x 1.25 m dimension,
Six big tables should be provided for performing experiments by the students. There is on
smaller table in front of the blackboard for the use of the teacher. This table is also used for
 58
placing apparatus and other material required for the experiment. The dimensions of the five
tables is 180 x 150 x 90 cms.. The top surface of the table is fixed with smooth shining
sheets of aluminium or glass so as to be changed easily and also have no effect of
acids or alkalies if used by the students. Provision for shelves for the students to keep
their books should be made. There should be almirahs and cupboards fixed in the walls,
210 x 150 x 45 cm in dimension for stocking apparatus and equipment. For chemicals and
other articles, table with 100 x 75 cm dimensions can be placed between two windows by
the side of the wall.

Self-Assessment question
Q. Prepare a plan for establishing lecture cum laboratory in your school.

4.5 LABORATORY EQUIPMENT AND MATERIAL

For an effective teaching of science apparatus and chemicals are required. In the following
section we will learn how the apparatus for practical work in science should be selected purchased and
maintained and what are the safety measures. Which should be followed while conducting practical in a
science lab.
4.5.1 SELECTION OF APPARATUS AND CHEMICALS
For selecting and purchasing equipment for the science laboratory a science teacher should
keep in mind the following points.
- The type of apparatus required
- The quantity of apparatus required
- The age level of the students
- The funds that have been allotted for the purchase
- The capacity of the laboratory
- The methodology which with be adopted for teaching
- The total number of students in a class
- The total number of hours that have been devoted to practical work
The type of apparatus required
The teacher should determine which apparatus should be ordered first and given first
preference. The apparatus which is more desirable should be purchased first.
The quantity of apparatus required
The quantity of apparatus which required for the practical work in science depends on the
strength of this students in a class, the method of teaching to be followed and time that has to be spent
for the experimental work.
 59
The age level of the students
The age level, grade level, ability, background, interest of the students should be kept in mind
which purchasing the science equipments. If the experiment is to be conducted in a small class
sensitive, costly and specialised apparatus should be avoided.
The funds that have been allotted for the purchase
This the most important factor in determining the quantity of apparatus. If the funds allotted are
meager then priority should be given to the purchase of equipment which is indispensible for the
experiments.
The capacity of the laboratory
Before purchasing the equipment the storage capacity of the laboratory should be kept in mind.
If there is insufficient space for keeping the apparatus, there may be breakage or spoiling of some
expensive apparatus.
The methodology which will be adopted for teaching
The quantity of the apparatus and material depends on the method of teaching to be adopted by
the students. The apparatus required is more if the practical work is to be conducted individually.
If the demonstration method is followed by the teacher, lesser quantity apparatus is required.
Accordingly the teacher can purchase lesser quantity of apparatus.
The total number of students in a class
The quantity of apparatus is also determined by the strength of the class. Provision should be
made for the purchase of some more apparatus than the required number especially in case of
breakable apparatus and consumable materials.
The total number of hours that have been devoted to practical work
The time alloted to the teaching of science in the school for the experimental work also affects
the quantity of the apparatus. It less time is allotted to the practical work, the quantity of apparatus
required will be lesser. If more emphasis has been given to the experimental work in the timetable of a
class then the apparatus required is more.
4.5.2 MAINTENANCE OF LABORATORY EQUIPMENT
The care and maintenance of the laboratory equipment is very important. Following points
should be kept in mind for making care of the laboratory equipment.
- The apparatus should be immediately cleaned after every demonstration. Dirty apparatus
should never be left in the almirahs.
- From articles should be rubbed every week with an oil rag to prevent rusting.
- Wooden articles should be polished once in a year.
- Brass articles should be cleaned with Brasso.
 60

- Lenses and mirrors should be cleaned with lens cleaning tissue.

- Broken articles should be immediately repaired or replaced.
- Top of the laboratory tables should be coated with molten wax to avoid corrosion.
4.5.3 SAFETY MEASURES
Whenever an accident occurs, we should remember ABC
A for Airway we should ensure that victim's airway is blocked by some foreign matter.
B for breathing if the victim is not breathing normally, artificial respiration should be applied.
C for circulation it should be ensured that the victim has a good pulse rate.
- If the patient is bleeding severely, he should be taken to the nearest hospital.
- Keep the victim lying in bed.
- Do not panic.
- Avoid giving fluids to unconscious person.
 61
- Cut the clothing to avoid abrupt movement.
- Keep the victim warm, cover with a blanket.
- If the victim is conscious give him plenty of fluids.
- Do not give any alcoholic drink.
- In case of fire, keep the patient on ground and beat up the flames.
- In case of burns from Acids, apply Vaseline.
4.6 Improvisation of Science Apparatus
In the previous section we have discussed how science kits serve as mini, mobile are
improvised laboratory and provide an opportunity for the practical work even in those Schools where
there is no lab. In this section we will see how a teacher can make use of simple day to day articles,
ordinary how cost material or broken or waste material and can teach science through experiments.
Improvised Apparatus
The apparatus and equipments made out of such no cost or low cost raw material is called
improvised apparatus.
4.6.1 Need and Importance of Improvised Apparatus.
The improvised apparatus serve many purpose as follóws.
1. It is quite cheap and economical.
2. It has great educational value.
3. It helps to develop the creative and constructive instincts of the child.
4. It inspires young students to explore and in invent new things.
5. It develops the spirit of initiative and resourcefulness in the student.
6. It helps to develop the power of scientific thinking.
7. It solves the problem of leisure time.
8. It galvanizes dignity of labour.
9. It inculcates habit of hard work in the students.
10. It emphasises of 3H's i.e. Hand and Heart.
Following scientific apparatus can be improvised with the guidance of the teacher.
1. A spirit Lamp : Take an ordinary empty ink-pot with its screw cap. Clean it and
bore a hole on the screw. Insert a 2 cm. long tin foil tube in it. Now insert a cotton thread
3
which through the tube fixed in the screw-cap down to the bottom of the inkpot. Fill of
4
the inkpot with spirit. Light the lamp.
 62

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF IMPROVISED APPARATUS

2. Simple Tripod Stand : Remove the bottom of a tin can. Cut small portions from its
sides. Make three legs which help it to stay stable on the table. Open its lid and place a
wire gauze so that any glass container can be placed on it. In between the legs a spirit
lamp can be placed for heating the container on the wire gauze on the top of it.
1
3. Insect Catching Device : Take thick iron wire 1 meter long. Bend it in such a way that
2
it forms a circular ring of about 15-16 cm diameter. The ring should be made in such a
way as to leave 10-15 cm long ends on each side. These should be fitted round a
wooden handle. This handle is firmly fitted with the ring. Now take piece of mosquito net
cloth and tie it to the circumference of the ring in such a way. That it forms about 50 cm
deep handing down the handle. Our insect net is ready for catching fish and other
aquatic animals from water. It may also be used for catching butterflies etc.
 63
These are only a few illustrative improvised apparatus. You can prepare a number of improvised
apparatus depending upon your need.

Self-Assessment Questions
Q. What do you understand by improvised apparatus.

Q. Discribe the procedure for improvisation of anyone apparatus.

4.7 SUMMARY
In this lesson we have discussed the importance of practical work in science, the need an
importance of science kits. Science kits prepared for use at middle level and we have also learnt how a
science teacher can easily improvise and construct some scientific apparatus like insect Catching
Device etc.
4.8 FURTHER READINGS
- Anju Soni (2000), Teaching of Science, Tandon Publication, Ludhiana.
- Bhandula, N (1989), Teaching of Science, Prakash Brothers, Ludhiana.
- Mangal, S.K (1977), Teaching of Science, Arya Book Depot, New Delhi.
- Sharma, R.C (1998), Modern Science Teaching, Dhanpat Rai Publication Co., New Delhi.
4.9 MODEL QUESTIONS
1. "Laboratory is the best place for individualizing instruction" Discuss.
2. Discuss the plan of a combined demonstration and practical room for a class of 40
students.
3. Draw a layout for general science laboratory for high school students.
4. Describe some of the safety measures that you would adopt in a science lab.
5. What are improvised apparatus and equipment. Mention its usefulness in science
teaching.

******
 64
Lesson-5

EVALUATION IN SCIENCE AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

STRUCTURE
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Concept of Evaluation
5.3 Importance of Evaluation
5.4 Characteristics of a good tool
5.5 The Evaluation Process
5.6 Blue Print of a Test
5.7 Formative and summative Evaluation
5.8 Science teacher and his professional grown
5.9 Summary
5.10 Further Readings
5.11 Model Questions
5.0 OBJECTIVES
After going through this lesson, you will be able to :
 explain the concept of Evaluation.
 describe the importance of evaluation.
 enlist the characteristics of good test.
 prepare a blue print of question paper in science.
5.1 INTRODUCTION
You agree that you have been studying in schools & colleges merely for passing in examination.
That had been the sole aim and objective and now same is with your students also, but this never
brought a joy of learning. The appearance of new and refreshing changes in the educational 'raw
material' each year is one of the joys of teaching. It is also the source of one of the most perplexing
problems of teaching learning to know your pupils so that educational experience can be planned to
capitalize on the individual differences. Thus to test the efficiency of teaching and to judge the progress
of students we need some tools. These tools or tests are examinations. These tests can be helpful to
indicate changes in methods, materials and also in syllabi.
5.2 CONCEPT OF EVALUATION
2. As a teacher you must be involved directly in the evaluation of the learner. In order to derive
maximum benefits from the exercise of evaluation, it is very important for you to understand the exact
 65
meaning & concept of evaluation. Evaluation, a relatively new term introduces in the field of educational
measurement is a more comprehensive concept of measurement than is implied in conventional tests
and examinations. In measurement, emphasis is on subject matter achievement or specific skills and
abilities, while in evaluation, the emphasis is on broad personality changes and major objectives of an
educational programme.
Evaluation is the process in which we try to get an answer to the following questions: What are
we aiming at ? What are we actually doing? How do our means compare with our ends in view? How
do we improve our procedures to achieve our ends?
In short, evaluation is the scheme of collecting evidence of behaviour changes and judging the
direction and extent of such changes. This necessitates a clear understanding of the objectives of
teaching, both for the purpose of providing worthwhile learning situations and for testing. Evaluation is a
continuous and comprehensive process which takes place in the school, outside the school and
involves teachers, pupils, parents and community to make improvement in the child as a whole.
In the words of Kothari Commission:
"Evaluation is a continuous process, it forms an integral part of the total system of education,
and is intimately related to educational objectives. It exercises a great influence on pupils' study
habits and the teacher's methods of instruction and thus helps not only to measure educational
achievement but also to improve it. The techniques of evaluation are means of collecting
evidences about the students' development in desirable directions."
In the process of evaluation, there is an inter-relationship between the objectives (ends), curriculum,
learning experiences (means) and evaluation devices (evidence).
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SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Here is a small exercise for you to test your understanding about concept of evaluation.
Q (1) What is the purpose of Evaluation?
Ans…………………………………………………..………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………..……………………………………………………
Q (2) Where can we conduct Evaluation?
Ans…………………………………………………..………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………..……………………………………………………
Q (3) What are the inter-related links in the process of Evaluation?
Ans…………………………………………………..………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………..……………………………………………………

5.3 IMPORTANCE OF EVALUATION

Apart from interpreting the results and finding behaviour changes in the pupils, evaluation has a
number of educational advantages:
(i) Evaluation leads to improvement of instruction
In evaluation, attainment of each objective is indicated by comparable descriptive terms
revealing change, strengths and weaknesses. The identification of strength may indicate which class
procedures have succeeded and need to be continued; that of weakness may stimulate a study of
possible causes and modification of ineffective class room practices. Again there is re-planning of work,
use of new methods and aids and a re-evaluation so that there is improvement is teaching.
(ii) Evaluation helps to clarify objectives
It has no basis or meaning unless evaluation is related to clearly stated educational objectives.
For a teacher, therefore, who has been given just a syllabus comprising a series of topics for
instruction, the evaluation procedure is a means of clarifying his objectives in teaching his subject.
(iii) Evaluation promotes better learning
Pupils in school are powerfully affected by the examination methods adopted. Today they waste
all their energy on memorization of facts because mere knowledge objective is being tested. Their
study habits are conditioned by the examination methods.
When they know that different objectives of education will be evaluated through different
devices and that this type of evaluation is a continuous process, they will not concentrate their major
attention to anyone objective but get ready to face the evaluation of attainments in several objectives.
(iv) Evaluation provides the basis for guidance
Evaluation helps to provide a good deal of information about the individual student. Particular
individual weaknesses that call for remedial teaching can be identified through evaluation. Further, a
school guidance programme can be built around the information about the pupils and their needs.
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(v) Evaluation leads to curriculum changes
Since society is not static, but undergoes change all the time, since conditions in the world
change very rapidly owing to the vast strides in science and since research in education brings to light
new theories, educators have to ask themselves quite frequently. Does our educational programme
keep pace with the changing conditions in the world? Can some area of content be dropped? Should
there be greater emphasis on certain areas of the content. On the basis of these questions, there may
be change in curriculum.
(vi) To promote the students to next class
It tests the all round development of the child and helps to take decisions regarding the
promotion of the students to the next class.
5.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD TOOL
By now you must have had a clear understanding of the concept evaluation and its importance.
But the question arises as what characteristics a good evaluation tool may have, so that evaluation
exercise can be undertaken effective. Most of the psychologist and educationists consider following
criteria as an essential of satisfactory tool of evaluation.
 Validity: It should be valid i.e., the test measures what it claims to measure. "All of what we
want it to measure, and nothing of what we don't want it to measure." For e.g. if a test intends to
measure attitude, it should not measure intelligence.
 Reliability: It should function consistently i.e., it should rate the same candidate at more or less
the same score even if he is examined by different examiners at different times. In other words,
its reliability depends on the efficiency with which a test measures what claims to measure. For
e.g. if the IQ of a child is measured as 120, it should not vary within a short period of time. The
difference in the score should be negligible.
 Objectivity: The test should be objective i.e., the examiner's personal judgment should not
affect the scoring. Objectivity in a test makes for the elimination of the opinion, bias or judgment
of the examiner.
 Comprehensiveness: The test should be comprehensive i.e., it should cover the whole or
nearly the whole course content. The questions should be uniformly distributed over the whole
syllabus.
 Practicability: It should be practicable i.e. while preparing a test, the time and cost of
administration must be taken into consideration. The test should serve a definite need in the
situation in: which it used.
 Interpretability: The test should be easily interpretable i.e. the scores resulting from its use can
be interpreted in terms of a common base that has natural or accepted meaning.
 Easy to Administer: It means that definite provisions should be made for the preparation and
collection of test materials. Instructions should be simple, clear and concise.
 Scoreable : Test should be constructed in such a way that the boredom cause by routine of
scoring is cut down to the minimum. It should allow use of key in marking the questions so that
the test sheet is checked without any subjectivity.
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 Clarity: The test should have clear cut directions so that pupil's performance is not affected due
to misunderstanding of directions.
 Interesting: Test should be interesting enough, so as to allow the child to put forth his efforts.

SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

Q. (a) Write any two advantages of evaluation.
Ans………………………………………………………………………..……………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
Q. (b) Mention four characteristics of a good tool of evaluation.
Ans……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………….……………………..

5.5 THE EVALUATION PROCESS

From the above discussion you must have clear about the importance of evaluation. But to carry
out this a proper process is to be followed. Let us discuss this process:
The process of evaluation consists of following stages:
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Les us now discuss each stage in detail:
Formulating and selecting Objectives
At the first stage, the objectives of teaching science have to be formulated and selected
according to the content. These objectives include knowledge, application, skills, attitudes, appreciation
etc. But presently only the knowledge objective is stressed in schools. But it is essential that other
objectives are also given due stress. These objectives should be formulated keeping in view the:
(a) needs and capabilities of the learner.
(b) the needs of the society in a specific environment.
(c) the nature of subject-matter.
> Defining the objectives in behavioural terms
After the realization of the objectives of teaching it is expected that the pupils will develop some
new behaviour patterns e.g. if a student is taught parts of a flower, it is expected that he will behave in a
different way than before he was taught about the flower. He can now recall and recognize different
parts of a flower, can locate them when shown a specimen etc. So, realization of any objective of
teaching results in development of new behavioural patterns. That is why learning outcomes are
expressed in terms of pupil's behaviour.
> Developing appropriate learning experiences or activities
The objectives and the behavioural changes are brought about through certain learning
situations. The student learns a particular content to attain a behaviour. So, learning involves a student
and the content. In order to stimulate appropriate learning, it is important that there is a close interaction
between the student and the content. So learning experiences are bipolar. It springs from the content
and grows towards behaviour. It acts and reacts.
Learning
Content ---------------- Experiences
Behaviour
So, we can say that learning experience is interaction between the learners and the content and
not merely a part of unit, lesson or merely an activity.
Learning experiences can be brought about through a number of ways such as library, text-
books, experiments, radio, films, film strips, science club, projects, field trips or any other learning
situation.
> Devising and adopting suitable assessment procedure
In order to test the behavioural change of a number of tools and techniques are the most
suitable tool is selected. There are various types of procedure and techniques which are used to
evaluate pupil's achievement and objective of teaching such as : Personality tests, Intelligence tests.
Aptitude tests, Interest, Inventories, Teacher's observation, Interview, Sociometry, records,
questionnaires, rating scales, check list etc.
> Evaluating the Outcomes
After the scoring, the results should be interpreted and evaluated in terms of following points:
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(i) quality of pupil's achievement.
(ii) the achievement of a particular objective
(iii) quality of teaching
(iv) curriculum
(v) quantity of the test itself
The results can be arranged in tabulated form, unit wise/ behaviour-wise and student-wise. This
would help to reveal pupil's level of understanding of a particular topic/s. So the whole educational
process can be improved as a whole.
5.6 BLUE PRINT OF A TEST
Being a teacher you must be familiar with the term Blue Print of test. If you don't, then you must
know it because it is as important for a teacher to construct a test as is for an architect to plan the
construction of a building. Let us see how can we prepare a blue print for a test.
Before setting a paper you should have following points in your mind to prepare a blue print:
(i) Deciding about the time, total questions, total marks, medium of instruction, and coverage of
syllabus.
(ii) Then you must decide about the objectives to be tested e.g. Knowledge (K), Understanding
(U) and Application (A); or any other objective; subject matter to be covered and the form of
questions i.e. whether Essay Type (E), Objective Type (0) or Short Answer Type (S).
(iii) Choose the type of items i.e. essay type, short answer type & objective types of questions &
their number from each lesson.
Specimen of Blue Print of an objective based test
Objectives Knowledge Understand Application

(K) (U) (A)

Forms of Items Content E S O E S O E S O Total

Sub Units

1 Conduction 2 (1) 1 (1) 2 (1) 1 (1) 2 (1) 8

2 Convection 2 (1) 1 (1) 1 (1) 4

3 Radiation 2 (1) 2 (1) 1 (1) 5

4 Common 2 (2) 2 (1) 2 (2) 2 (1) 8

Applications
(Thermos Flask,
Refrigeration & Air
Conditioner, Ice Box )

Total 10 10 5 25
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Note: Figures within brackets indicate the number of questions and figures outside the brackets
indicate marks.
After preparing blue print, items should be set according to it, then you have to consider
following points:
Editing the question paper: This step includes the following measures:
(a) Assembling the questions into various sections on the basis of their form: Essay Type, Short
answer type or Objective type.
(b) Instructions to examinees.
(c) Instructions to administrators.
Preparing scoring key and marking scheme:
SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
Q.(a) What are the stages in Evaluation Process? Name them.
Ans…………………………………………………..………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………..……………………………………………………
Q.(b) Mention any 5 types of tools/ devices used in the process of Evaluation.
Ans…………………………………………………..………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………..……………………………………………………
Activity: Construct a blue print of a Question Paper of 50 marks on any three topics of class VI
taking three objectives.

5.7 FORMATIVE AND SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS

In order to improve the teaching-learning process, assessment should be both Formative and
Summative in nature. Formative Assessment (FA) is a tool used by the teacher to continuously monitor
a student's progress in a nonthreatening, supportive environment. It involves regular descriptive.
When should assessment be done ?
Before looking at how assessment is to be undertaken, teachers need to determine objectives
for achievement at various levels. They need to look at what education should develop in children, not
only in cognitive domain, but also psychomotor and affective domains. Along with these attributes, they
need to incorporate different age related indices and behaviours into the assessment criteria and
practices. They also need to determine what their expectations are from the learner at the end of each
stage, and what kind of profile report is required in relation to different aspects and learning areas, that
reflect the child's personal development.
Thus, assessment is a useful, desirable and an enabling process. To realize this, one needs to
keep the following parameters in mind - The need to assess the learner.
• Use a variety of ways to collect information about the learner's learning and progress in subjects.
 Assess the effectiveness of cross curricular learning.
 Collect and record information continuously.
 Give importance to each learner's way of responding and learning, and the time taken.
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 Report on an ongoing and continuous basis and be sensitive to every learner's responses.
 Provide feedback that will lead to positive action and help the learner to do better feedback, a
chance for the student to reflect on the performance, take advice and improve upon it.
If used effectively, it can improve student performance tremendously, while raising the self-esteem
of the child and reducing the work load of the teacher.
Salient features of Formative Assessment:
 Diagnostic and remedial.
 Makes the provision for effective feedback.
 Provides the platform for the active involvement of students in their own learning.
 Enables teachers to adjust teaching to take account of the results of assessment.
 Recognizes the profound influence assessment has on the motivation and self-esteem of
students, both of which are crucial and influences learning.
 Recognizes the need for students to be able to assess themselves and understand how to
improve.
 Builds on students' prior knowledge and experience in designing what is taught.
 Incorporates varied learning styles into deciding how and what to teach.
 Encourages students to understand the criteria that will be used to judge their work.
 Offers an opportunity to students to improve their work after feedback.
 Helps students to support their peers, and expect to be supported by them.
Formative Assessment is thus carried out during a course of instruction to provide continuous
feedback to both the teachers and the learners, to take decisions regarding appropriate modifications in
the transactional procedures and learning activities. It involves students' being an essential part of
assessment. They must be involved in a range of activities right from designing criteria to self
assessment or peer assessment.
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Summative Assessment (SA)

It is carried out at the end of a course of learning. It measures or ‘sums up' how much a student
has learned from the course. It is usually a graded test, i.e., it is marked according to a scale or set of
grades. Assessment that is predominantly of summative nature will not by itself be able to illustrate a
valid measure of the growth and development of the child. It, at best, certifies the level of achievement
only at a given point of time. The paper-pencil tests are basically a one-time mode of assessment; and
to exclusively rely on it to decide about the development of a child is not only unfair but also
unscientific. Overemphasis on examination marks focusing on only scholastic aspects makes children
assume that assessment is different from learning, resulting in the learn and forget' syndrome. Besides
encouraging unhealthy competition, the overemphasis on Summative Assessment system also
produces enormous stress and anxiety among learners. It is this that has led to the emergence of the
concept of Continuous and comprehensive School-Based Evaluation. Features of Continuous and
Comprehensive Evaluation
5.8 SCIENCE TEACHER AND HIS PROFESSIONAL GROWTH
INTRODUCTION
Today, in this new millennium, everyone is experiencing unprecedented changes in world
economy due to new developments in science and technology, media revolution and
internationalization. All these have revolutionized the education sector also. These rapid advances in
technology brought about a knowledge explosion and knowledge revolution. In the present scenario,
importance of the role of the teachers as catalyst agent has become more critical. In the context of
rapid changes, it is imperative that teachers must update their knowledge and skills and be conversant
 74
with the latest developments in the field. It is mentioned in National Education Policy 1986 document
that teachers have multiple roles to perform like teaching, research, development of learning and
coordinated programmes for professional development of teachers. The Professional Development of
Teachers implies his growth in knowledge of his subject, in pedagogy and training techniques, in his
love for students and for his institution, in moral and ethical values and growth of his desire to give his
best to the world of learning and society. No profession can grow unless its members are prepared to
grow professionally and are prepared to undergo sacrifices.
Highly qualified teachers in all content areas are the most important component of a child's
education. The profession must provide ongoing professional development in order to help teachers
maintain their highly qualified teacher status. Teachers, School Leaders and Teacher Educators are
key actors in maintaining and improving the quality of education and training systems in a country. The
need for adequate preparation and professional development of teachers has been recognised the
world over with the realisation that the teacher' conceptions and attitudes play an important role in the
teaching learning process. In India, the importance of the teacher was recognised by the Education
Commission as early as 1964-66 which observed that. “of all the factors that influence quality of
education... the quality, competence and character of teachers is undoubtedly the most significant”. In
several states, teachers without specialised teacher qualifications already teach in schools, but are now
required by the RTE Act to obtain a diploma or degree in education within a specified time period. While
this puts additional pressure on the system, it also creates sites where teacher students interact
intensively with practicising teachers in an academic setting. Some of a teacher's skill is art-both
intuitive and learned, but teaching is also a science. The science of developing a good teacher is the
domain of professional development.
5.8.1 Meaning of Professional Development
When people use the term “professional development,” they usually mean a formal process
such as a conference, seminar, or workshop; collaborative learning among members of a work team; or
a course at a college or university. However, professional development can also occur in informal
contexts such as discussions among work colleagues, independent reading and research, observations
of a colleague's work, or other learning from a peer.
Professional development of science teachers is described in the National Science Education
Standards: Professional development for teachers should be analogous to professional development
for other professionals. Becoming an effective science teacher is a continuous process that stretches
from pre-service experiences in undergraduate years to the end of a professional career. Science has a
rapidly changing knowledge base and expanding relevance to societal issues, and teachers will need
ongoing opportunities to build their understanding and ability. Teachers also must have opportunities to
develop understanding of how students with diverse interest, abilities, and experiences make sense of
scientific ideas and what a teacher does to support and guide all students. And teachers require the
opportunity to study and engage in research on science teaching and learning, and to share with
colleagues what they have learned.
5.8.2 Importance/ why do teachers need extra support ?
Teachers now a day's juggle an overwhelming number of unfamiliar issues, such as classroom
management, instruction, curriculum, school culture and operations, test preparation and
administration, state standards, parent relations, and interactions with other teachers. Left to
 75
themselves, they may counter productive behaviours. With extra support, however, new teachers learn
more effective practices to apply to daily challenges. Additional support also helps districts retain new
teachers and set them on the path to becoming effective educators. Many school systems provide
mentors and induction programs for novice teachers. These programs are required in many states for
teachers to earn a professional license. Most importantly, research shows that new teachers who
received intensive mentoring had a significant effect on student achievement after as little as two years.
DEFINITIONS
Some of a teacher's skill is art-both intuitive and learned, but teaching is also a science. The
science of developing a good teacher is the domain of professional development.
Definition 1: Professional development refers to classes and less formal activities, such as
being mentored, that teachers do to increase their skills. Non-educators often refer to professional
development as “teacher training" -a term many educators feel has an unprofessional connotation and
therefore dislike. “In-service” and “staff development” are widely used synonyms for professional
development activities for teachers. If the teachers are not yet credentialed it is called “pre-service”.
“Workshops” and “institutes" are also common descriptive synonyms used for professional
development, institutes generally being a week or more in length.
Definition 2 : Professional development of science teacher is described in the National Science
Education Standards: Professional development for teachers should be analogous to professional
development for other professionals. Becoming an effective science teacher is a continuous process
that stretches from pre-service experiences in undergraduate years to the end of a professional career.
Science has a rapidly changing knowledge base and expanding relevance to societal issues,
and teachers will need ongoing opportunities to build their understanding and ability. Teachers also
must have opportunities to develop understanding of how students with diverse interest, abilities, and
experiences make sense of scientific ideas and what a teacher does to support and guide all students.
And teachers require the opportunity to study and engage in research on science teaching and
learning, and to share with colleagues what they have learned.
5.8.3 The need and Importance for Professional Development of a Science Teacher
As emphasised by NCFTE 2009, it is imperative to develop programs for professional
development of teachers. In most teacher education colleges, the majority of teacher educators are not
graduates in science thus have limited content knowledge.
Most teacher educators are recruited from among teachers of secondary schools and thus don't
have experience in teaching of science at the primary level even though they may be educating primary
teachers, as for example in the DIETs. NCFTE 2009 notes that the lack of professional preparation of
teachers is the weakest aspect of education in the country.
Science teachers need to have knowledge about supporting learning of children. There is need
for teachers to be proficient in areas of science, social science, mathematics and languages along with
understanding of young child. The B. Ed. course may not address this need as it is focused on
preparing teachers for the secondary level. The Kothari commission had felt the need to raise the
required qualification for teacher educators for secondary teachers. It recommended a double masters
degree along with study of teacher education as a special subject and recommended.
 76
The pedagogy adopted by most of the science teachers is lecture method. After NCF 2005 there
has been shift in thinking about pedagogies adopted in science teachers. With NCFTE 2009
recommending science teachers to engage with learners in real contexts while reflecting on the larger
socio- political context in which the learner as well as teacher herself is situated. This can be done by
bringing experiences of teachers centre stage and allowing for reflection on, for e.g., their own position
in society in terms of gender, caste, etc.
Science teachers hardly get. opportunities for their own professional development. With
significant shifts in thinking about teaching and learning as envisaged in NCF 2005, there is now urgent
need to engage teachers in discussions around this new vision of teaching. There are also no institutes
designated for professional development or preparation of teacher educators in India.
5.8.4 Methods of Developing Professional Growth of a Science Teacher
Many teachers strive to push their boundaries and actively create challenges for themselves,
learning from their experiences and adding to their skills and their self knowledge, often in their own
time. Many of them are somewhere in the middle. Though teachers want to develop professionally, and
they are even mindful of maintaining a healthy work-life balance. They try to find the time they need
within their working lives to learn, develop and thereby improve their practice. Following ways can be
used to develop the professional growth of Teachers.
Lifelong learning can be very helpful in the continuous professional development of a teacher.
Workshops : In Workshops teachers get a lot of opportunities to discuss and debate ideas and
opinions and take away ideas for classroom activities and to reflect on. The professional development
workshops helps teachers in mastering alternative classroom teaching strategies and unit planning
models.
. Teacher may join online communities available on World Wide Web. These may include an
interactive virtual conference or the 'blogs on the Teaching Science website, or other forums and
discussion boards set up to encourage participation by teachers from all over the world.
Mentoring of new educators by more experienced colleagues can also be of great help in
the professional growth of new teachers. More experienced colleagues can guide the fresher ones in
planning the different innovative activities for students.
Conferences can be organized in the schools. which can help the teachers to learn from a
variety of expertise from around the state or country
Team meetings to plan lessons, problem solve, improve performance, and/or learn a new
strategy. Teachers can join other teachers in the staffroom, discussing their next lesson or the materials
they are using is one of the easiest and most effective ways of developing, especially if you borrow the
ideas and try them out in your own classes.
Individual Reading/ study/research is another easy way to learn that can include internet
materials and journals as well as actual books, which can be expensive and difficult to obtain in some
parts of the world.
“Reading-groups' or Study groups among peers focused on a shared need is another way to
develop professional growth of teachers. While reading is done individually, what is learnt can be
formalised in discussion in a reading group. Set a text to read and come together with colleagues a few
 77
weeks later to discuss its content. So much can be learnt through sharing of impressions and
discussing issues the reading material raises.
Programmed Action Research is another way to develop professional growth of a teacher. A
Teacher can conduct research on her own institute and describe what is going on in the institution. This
thing will help the teacher to learn from her own experiences and results.
Refresher courses are very useful in creating Awareness of linkages between the society and
environment, between education and socio cultural developments, understanding the significance of
higher education in society, learning new techniques for the development of values and enabled them
to hold their students to appreciate those values related to democracy. A good refresher course should
consist of following activities for the participant teachers : seminars, paper reading, open discussion,
panel discussion, counselling session, brain storming session, micro teaching session, project work,
presentation of book review, showing educational films, field visits, preparation of research proposals,
tutorials, problem solving sessions, review session, case studies, writing of assignment by participants,
recreational activities etc. Along with these, enough scope should be provided for interactive sessions
among the participants for exchanging their experiences on curriculum construction, teaching
methodology, and evaluation system.
Professional development should include systematic evaluations of individual teachers,
as well as teacher training programme. Students' evaluations of individual teachers at the end of
teaching units are used for feedback to teachers, interventions to improve teaching effectiveness,
personnel decisions, and as information for students when selecting teachers and courses. Feedback
from ratings, coupled with systematic, intervention, leads to better teaching. Without feedback, teachers
do not improve with experience. Therefore we need to implement programmes to both train and
evaluate science teachers, and interventions to improve the effectiveness of individual teachers at all
stages of development.
In short we can say that engaging in new professional activities as listed below can help a lot in
professional growth of a teacher
 Trying out different methods/approaches in class (sort of like action research).
 Reflective and exploratory practice though not programmed or formally monitored.
 Peer observation.
 Being trained up as a teacher trainer.
 Completing an online course to be an e-tutor.
 Participating in projects in a group with fellow professionals.
 Forming a local group: to discuss issues and take turns to lead sessions.
5.8 FURTHER READINGS
Ways to continuing professional development (h.d.) http:// www. Teaching english. org. uk/ articles/
ways- continuing -professional -development
 78
Kumar, R.S., Dewan, H. & Subramaniam, K. (2012) The preparation and professional development of
mathematics teachers. Retreived from nime. Hbcse .tifr .res.in/.../ 08 Ruch Kumar Hridaykant_Dewan
and_Su...
Marsh, H. (2011) help teachers improve their skills or live with the consequences. Retreived from http://
www.learningforward.org/ docs/pdf/whypd_matters-web.pdf
Kumar, S. (2010) Professional. Growth of Teachers and Academic Staff CollegeAn Impact Study.
Retrieved from www. aiaer.net/ejournal/vol21209/ 15.%20 Sucheta%20Kumari.pdf
5.9 MODEL QUESTIONS
Q.1 What do you mean by the professional development of a science teacher?
Q.2 Discuss the need and importance for professional development of a science teacher
Q.3 Methods of developing professional growth of a science teacher.
 79

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