gnine| Qed beaming & Cognitive Psychology 1 €ducation Instrumental Conditioning Instrumental Conditioning In this module, we'll study the works of American behaviorists Edward L. ‘Thorndike and Burrus F. Skinner, They emphasized the importance of consequences, either positive or negative, in learning. The idea of consequences affecting one’s behavior brought about the concept of instrumental conditioning. It is the way organisms (both humans and animals) tend to behave in ways that either bring them desirable consequences or allow them to avoid unpleasant ones. Objectives: 1. Understand how consequences are used for learning, 2. Use concepts of instrumental conditioning to derive strategies for classroom practice. Overview of Instrumental Conditioning Course Module INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING or also called Operant Conditioning posits that humans and nonhuman animals alike tend to behave in ways that bring them desirable consequences or enable them to avoid unpleasant ones, tdward Thorndike 1898 Connectionism - a theory in learning that emphasized the role of experience in the strengthening and weakening of stimulus-response connections In his classic first experiment, Thorndike placed a cat in a “puzzle box” with a door that opened when a certain device (e.g., a wire loop) was appropriately manipulated. Thorndike observed the cat initiating numerous, apparently random movements in its attempts to get out of the box; eventually, by chance, the cat triggered the mechanism that opened the door and allowed escape. When returned to the box a second time, the cat again engaged in trial-and-error movements but managed to escape in less time than it had previously, With successive trials in the box, the cat, although continuing to demonstrate trial-and-error behavior, managed to escape within shorter and shorter time periods Thorndike's law of effect - responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened; responses that are followed by discomfort are weakened.Burrus F. Skinner 1938 To study the effects of consequences using precise measurement of responses in a carefully controlled environment, Skinner developed a piece of equipment known as the Skinner Box. The Skinner box used in studying rat behavior includes a metal bar that, when pushed down, causes a food tray to swing into reach long enough for the rat to grab a food pellet. In the pigeon version of the box, a lighted plastic disk is located on one wall; when the pigeon pecks the key, the food tray swings into reach for a short time Operant Conditioning - a response that is followed by a reinforce is strengthened and is therefore more likely to occur again Reinforcer a stimulus or event that increases the frequency of a response it follows. REINFORCEMENT - the act of following a response with a reinforce, it increases the response that would follow Important Conditions for Operant Conditionit The reinforcer must follow the response The reinforcer must follow immediately The reinforcer must be contingent on the response - the reinforcer should be presented only when the desired response has occurred DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLASSICAL AND OPERANT CONDITIONING Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Occurs Two stimuli (UCS and CS) are__ | A response (R) is followed by a when paired reinforcing stimulus (Sx) Association cs 3 cR R Se acquired Nature of | Involuntary: elicited by a Voluntary: emitted by the response _| stimulus organism 2 General Categories of Reinforcers 1. Primary reinforcer - one that satisfies a built-in, perhaps biology- based, need or desire. (eg. food, water, oxygen, and warmth) 2. Secondary reinforcer ~ a previously neutral stimulus that has become reinforcing to an organism through repeated association with another reinforcer. Reinforcers which does not satistfy any built-in biological or social needsgnine| Qed beaming & Cognitive Psychology Instrumental Conditioning €ducation Course Module 2 Forms of Reinforcement 1. POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT - involves the presentation of a stimulus after the response a. Extrinsic reinforcers - they are provided by the outside environment © Material reinforcers - or tangible reinforcer, is an actual object; food and toys are examples. * Social reinforcers — is a gesture or sign (e.g. a smile, attention, praise, or “thank you’) that one person gives another, usually to communicate positive regard ‘© Activity reinforcers - is an opportunity to engage in a favorite activity, David Premack discovered that people will often perform one activity if doing so enables them to perform another. “Premack Principle” states that organisms will perform less-preferred tasks so that they can subsequently engage in more-preferred tasks b Intrinsic reinforcers - internal good feelings (eg, feelings of success, competence, mastery, and pride 2. NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT - increases a response through the removal ofa stimulus, usually an aversive or unpleasant one. Examples: * Achild may confess to a crime because she feels guilty about the transgression and wants to get it off her chest * Anxiety may drive one student to complete a term paper early, thereby removing an item from his things-do-do list * Astudent confronted with the same term paper might procrastinate until the last minute, thereby removing anxiety - if only temporarily about the more difficult aspects of researching for and writing the paper Negative reinforcement explains many of the escape behaviors that organisms learn, Children and adolescents acquire various ways of escaping unpleasant tasks and situations in the classroom and elsewhere. Making excuses and engaging in inappropriate classroom behaviors provide means of escaping tedious or frustrating academic assignments. Lying about one’s own behaviors is potentially a way of escaping the parent's anger. Complaints of stomachaches, chronic truancy, and dropping out of school are ways of escaping the school environmentPUNISHMENT - it decreases the frequency of the response it follows Punishment I - involves the presentation of a stimulus, typically an aversive one (e.g. scolding, failing grade) Quick Tips Punishment It involves the removal of a stimulus, usually a pleasant one (eg. loss of privileges, less allowance) CONTRASTING POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT, NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT, AND PUNISHMENT Nature of Stimulus Stimulus is Pleasant Aversive Presented after | Positive Reinforcement Punishment I the response ‘response increases P (resp ) (response decreases) Punishment I Negative Reinforcement Removed after (response increases) the response (response decreases) Application of Punishment EFFECTIVE FORMS OF PUNISHMENT What to member E 1 Verbal reprimands - a scolding or admonishment. Reprimands are often more effective when they are immediate, brief, and accompanied by eye contact or a firm grip. They may also be effective when spoken quietly and in close proximity to the child being punished Restitution and overcorrection - involves requiring people to take actions that correct the results of their misdeeds. In restitution, a misbehaving individual must return the environment to the same state of affairs that it was in before the misbehavior. Restitution is a good example of logical consequence, whereby the punishment fits the crime Restitutional overcorrection, the punished individual must make things better than they were before the inappropriate behavior. Positive-practice overcorrection involves having an individual repeat an action, but this time doing it correctly, perhaps in an exaggerated fashion ‘Time out - involves placing a misbehaving individual in an environment with no reinforcers - in other words, in a dull, boring situation, The time-out environment should neither be reinforcing, as the school corridor or a principal's office is likely to be, nor frightening, as a dark closet might begnine| Qed beaming & Cognitive Psychology €ducation 4, Instrumental Conditioning In-house suspension is similar to time-out in that punished students are placed in a quiet, boring room with the school building. However, it typically lasts one or more days rather than only a few minutes, with students continually monitored by a member of the school staff. Response cost - involves the withdrawal of a previously earned reinforcer (eg. ticket for speeding and loss of previously earned privileges. INEFFECTIVE FORMS OF PUNISHMENT 1. Phenomenas in Instrumental Condit Course Module Physical punishment in some instances mild physical punishment, such as gentle spanking or slap on the wrist, is the only means of keeping young children from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors. Psychological punishment any consequence that seriously threatens a student's self-esteem or emotional well-being. (e.g. Embarrassing remarks and public humiliation). By deflating student's self- perceptions, psychological punishment can also lower their expectations for future performance and their motivation to learn and achieve Extra classwork - assigning an extra classwork or homework beyond that required for other students is inappropriate if itis assigned simply to punish a student's wrongdoing Out-of-school suspension - in its most severe form this becomes permanent expulsion from school. Many chronically misbehaving students are those who have difficulty with their academic work. Suspending these students from school puts these students at an even greater disadvantage and decreases still further their chances for academic success Missing recess may be a logical consequence for students who failed to complete their school activities. However, research indicates that students benefit more when they are given occasional breaks from academic work.Superstitious behavior states that randomly administered reinforcement tends to reinforce whatever response has occurred immediately beforehand, and an organism will increase that response Shaping is a process of reinforcing successively closer and closer approximations to the desired behavior until that behavior is exhibited Chaining is a process of teaching a chain of responses by reinforcing just one response, then reinforcing two responses in a row, then reinforcing a sequence of three, and so on Extinction occurs when a response decreases in frequency because it no longer leads to reinforcement Extinction burst - a phenomenon wherein during the initial stages of the extinction process, we may sometimes see a brief increase in the behavior being extinguished REINFORCEMENT SCHEDULES 1. Ratio schedules is one in which reinforcement occurs after a certain number of responses have been emitted. a. Fixed ratio (FR) - a reinforcer is presented after a certain constant number of responses have occurred, b. Variable ratio (VR) - is one in which reinforcement is presented after a particular, yet changing, number of responses have been emitted. 2. Interval schedule is one in which reinforcement is contingent on the first response emitted after a certain time interval has elapsed a. Fixed interval (FI) reinforcement is contingent on the first response emitted after a particular, constant amount of time has gone by b. Variable interval (V1) reinforcement is contingent on the first response emitted after a certain time interval has elapsed, but the length of the interval changes from one occasion to the next Using Reinforcement to Increase Desirable Behavior = What to member t 1. Specify desired behaviors up front 2, Use extrinsic reinforcers only when desired behavior are not already occurring on their own 3. Identify consequences that are truly reinforcing for each learner 4. Make sure that learners will gain more than they lose by changing their behavior 5. Make response-consequence contingencies explicit Contingency contract - an agreement that specifies certain expectations for the student and the consequences of students meeting those expectations 6. Administer reinforcement instantly 7. Gradually shape complex behavior 8. When giving reinforcement publicly make sure that all students have an opportunity to earn it 9. Use objective criteria to monitor progressgnine| Qed beaming & Cognitive Psychology 7 €ducation Instrumental Conditioning Baseline level of behavior - the frequency of a behavior before reinforcement begins 10. Foster the ability to delay gratification Delay gratification - when the waiting period is increased gradually and when they learn strategies for coping with the wait 11, Once the terminal behaviors has been acquired and is occurring regularly, gradually wean learners off of extrinsic reinforcers Guidelines in using punishment 1. Choose a punishment that is truly punishing without being overly severe 2. Inform learners ahead of time about what behaviors will be punished Describe unacceptable behaviors in clear, concrete terms 4. Whenever possible, administer punishment immediately after the inappropriate behavior 5. Administer punishment within the context of a generally warm, supportive environment Explain why the behavior is unacceptable Be consistent in imposing punishment for inappropriate behavior Modify the environment so that misbehavior is less likely to occur Teach and reinforce more appropriate behavior eens Activities and Exercises Glossary Course Module Essay: 1, Describe four schedules of partial reinforcement and identify how these schedules influence behavior. 2, Examine one strategy, other than punishment, for decreasing undesirable behaviors. ‘© operant conditioning - Also called instrumental conditioning, this is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur. ‘* reinforcement - A consequence that increases the probability that a behavior will occur. ‘© punishment - A consequence that decreases the probability that a behavior will occur.References ‘* positive reinforcement - Reinforcement based on the principle that the frequency of a response increases because it is followed by a rewarding stimulus. ‘+ negative reinforcement - Reinforcement based on the principle that the frequency of a response increases because an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus is removed. «schedules of reinforcement - Partial reinforcement timetables that determine when a response will be reinforced. contracting - Putting reinforcement contingencies into writing. prompt - An added stimulus or cue that is given just before a response, thus increasing the likelihood the response will recur. ‘+ shaping - Teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations to a specified target behavior. time-out - Removing an individual from positive reinforcement. response cost - Taking a positive reinforcer away from an individual. Ormrod, J. (2012), Human Learning (6** ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc. Gilhooly, K. Lyddy, F. (2009). Cognitive Psychology (1* ed.). McGraw Hill Higher Education,