English Grammer

for Law
BY BABY SARKAR SETH
(ADVOCATE)
 BBA-LLB(H)

 Verb Forms  Subordinating

 Main Verbs Conjunctions
 Helping Verbs  Coordinating
Parts of Speech  Auxiliary Verbs Conjunctions
 Nouns  Transitive and  Correlative
 Common Nouns Intransitive Verbs Conjunctions
 Proper Nouns  Regular Verbs
 Singular Nouns  Irregular Verbs  Prepositions
 Plural Nouns  Modal Verbs  Prepositional Phrases
 Possessive Nouns  Phrasal Verbs  Interjections
 Abstract Nouns  Finite Verbs  Sentence Structure
 Collective Nouns  Non Finite Verbs  Types of Sentences
 Compound Nouns  Linking Verbs  Tenses
 Pronouns  Stative Verbs  Simple Present Tense
 Relative Pronouns  Action Verbs  Present Continuous Tense
 Reflexive Pronouns  Adverbs  Present Perfect Tense
 Demonstrative  Conjunctive Adverbs  Present Perfect Continuous
Pronouns  Adverb Clauses Tense
 Possessive Pronouns  Adjectives  Simple Past Tense
 Indefinite Pronouns  Possessive Adjectives  Past Continuous Tense
 Personal Pronouns  Interrogative  Past Perfect Tense
 Subject Pronouns Adjectives  Past Perfect Continuous
 Object Pronouns  Compound Adjectives Tense
 Interrogative Pronouns  Demonstrative  Simple Future Tense
 Reciprocal Pronouns Adjectives  Future Continuous Tense
 Intensive Pronouns  Adjectives List  Future Perfect Tense
 Verbs  Conjunctions
  Future Perfect Continuous
Tense
 Active Voice and Passive Voice
What Is a Part of Speech?
Parts of speech are among the first grammar topics we learn when we are in school or when we start our English
language learning process. Parts of speech can be defined as words that perform different roles in a sentence.
Some parts of speech can perform the functions of other parts of speech too.
Parts of Speech Definition
 The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines parts of speech as “one of the classes into which words are divided
according to their grammar, such as noun, verb, adjective, etc.”
 The Cambridge Dictionary also gives a similar definition – “One of the grammatical groups into which words
are divided, such as noun, verb, and adjective”.
Different Parts of Speech with Examples
Parts of speech include nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs, adjectives, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections.
8 Parts of Speech Definitions and Examples:
1. Nouns are words that are used to name people, places, animals, ideas and things. Nouns can be classified into
two main categories: Common nouns and Proper nouns. Common nouns are generic like ball, car, stick, etc., and
proper nouns are more specific like Charles, The White House, The Sun, etc.
Examples of nouns used in sentences:
 She bought a pair of shoes. (thing)  Many people have a fear of darkness.
 I have a pet. (animal) (ideas/abstract nouns)
 Is this your book? (object)  He is my brother. (person)
 This is my school. (place)
2. Pronouns are words that are used to substitute a noun in a sentence. There are different types of pronouns.
Some of them are reflexive pronouns, possessive pronouns, relative pronouns and indefinite pronouns. I, he, she,
it, them, his, yours, anyone, nobody, who, etc., are some of the pronouns.
Examples of pronouns used in sentences:
 I reached home at six in the evening. (1st  Is this the boy who won the first prize? (Relative
person singular pronoun) pronoun)
 Did someone see a red bag on the counter?  That is my mom. (Possessive pronoun)
(Indefinite pronoun)
  I hurt myself yesterday when we were playing
cricket. (Reflexive pronoun)
3. Verbs are words that denote an action that is being performed by the noun or the subject in a sentence. They
are also called action words. Some examples of verbs are read, sit, run, pick, garnish, come, pitch, etc.
Examples of verbs used in sentences:
 She plays cricket every day.  My friends visited me last week.
 Darshana and Arul are going to the  Did you have your breakfast?
movies.  My name is Meenakshi Kishor

4. Adverbs are words that are used to provide more information about verbs, adjectives and other adverbs used
in a sentence. There are five main types of adverbs namely, adverbs of manner, adverbs of degree, adverbs of
frequency, adverbs of time and adverbs of place. Some examples of adverbs are today, quickly, randomly, early,
10 a.m. etc.
Examples of adverbs used in sentences:
 Did you come here to buy an umbrella? (Adverb  Can you please come quickly? (Adverb of
of place) manner)
 I did not go to school yesterday as I was sick.  Tony was so sleepy that he could hardly keep his
(Adverb of time) eyes open during the meeting. (Adverb of degree)
 Savio reads the newspaper everyday. (Adverb of
frequency)
5. Adjectives are words that are used to describe or provide more information about the noun or the subject in a
sentence. Some examples of adjectives include good, ugly, quick, beautiful, late, etc.
Examples of adjectives used in sentences:
 The place we visited yesterday  The red dress you wore on your
was serene. birthday was lovely.
 Did you see how big that dog was?  My brother had only one chapati for
 The weather is pleasant today. breakfast.
6. Prepositions are words that are used to link one part of the sentence to another. Prepositions show the
position of the object or subject in a sentence. Some examples of prepositions are in, out, besides, in front of,
below, opposite, etc.
Examples of prepositions used in sentences:
 The teacher asked the students to draw lines on the paper so that they could write in straight
lines.
 The child hid his birthday presents under his bed.
 Mom asked me to go to the store near my school.
 The thieves jumped over the wall and escaped before we could reach home.
7. Conjunctions are a part of speech that is used to connect two different parts of a sentence, phrases and
clauses. Some examples of conjunctions are and, or, for, yet, although, because, not only, etc.
Examples of conjunctions used in sentences:
 Meera and Jasmine had come to my  Unless you work hard, you cannot
birthday party. score good marks.
 Jane did not go to work as she was  I have not finished my project, yet I
sick. went out with my friends.
8. Interjections are words that are used to convey strong emotions or feelings. Some examples of interjections
are oh, wow, alas, yippee, etc. It is always followed by an exclamation mark.
Examples of interjections used in sentences:
 Wow! What a  Alas! That is really  Yippee! We won
wonderful work of sad. the match
art.
Sentence Examples for the 8 Parts of Speech
1. Noun – Tom lives in New York. 5. Adjective – The movie was amazing.
2. Pronoun – Did she find the book she 6. Preposition – The candle was
was looking for? kept under the table.
3. Verb – I reached home. 7. Conjunction – I was at home all
4. Adverb – The tea is too hot. day, but I am feeling very tired.
 8. Interjection – Oh! I forgot to turn off
the stove.
A Small Exercise to Check Your Understanding of Parts of Speech
Let us find out if you have understood the different parts of speech and their functions. Try identifying which part
of speech the highlighted words belong to.
1. My brother came home late. 5. The climate in Kodaikanal is very pl
2. I am a good girl. easant.
3. This is the book I was looking for. 6. Can you please pick up
4. Whoa! This is amazing. Dan and me on your way home?
Now, let us see if you got it right. Check your answers.
1. My – Pronoun, Home – Noun, Late – 5. Climate – Noun, In – Preposition,
Adverb Kodaikanal – Noun, Very – Adverb
2. Am – Verb, Good – Adjective 6. And – Conjunction, On – Preposition,
3. I – Pronoun, Was looking – Verb Your – Pronoun
4. Whoa – Interjection, Amazing –
Adjective

What Is a Noun?
Nouns are a part of speech that comprise words that are used to name people, places, animals, objects and ideas.
Almost every sentence will definitely have a noun, and they perform different roles in a sentence. Nouns can act as
the subject, an indirect object, a direct object, a subject complement and an object complement. Nouns can also
function as adjectives and verbs.
Examples of Nouns:
 People – Rahul, Sheela, Man, Person, Tommy, Women, Girl, The Prime Minister
 Places – Bangalore, India, Mexico, North Pole, South Africa, The Nile River, Classroom, Bedroom, Basketball
Court, Cricket Ground, Swimming Pool
 Animals/Birds/Aquatic Animals/Reptiles – Lion, Zebra, Snake, Ostrich, Flamingo, Bear, Cat, Fish, Shark
 Ideas – Evolution, Invention, Extinction, Argument, Destruction
  Objects/Things – Bat, Cycle, Curtains, Paper, Bag, Blackboard, Cupboard

Types of Nouns
Nouns can be broadly classified into:
1. Proper Nouns: Nouns that are used to name a person, place or thing specifically are called a proper noun.
Proper nouns always begin with a capital letter.
Examples:
 My name is Rose. (Name of a particular  David came back from Minsk. (Name of a
person) specific place)
 This is my dog, Bruno. (Name of a specific  Louis Philippe is a famous brand of men’s
pet animal owned by someone) clothing. (Name of a particular clothing
brand)
2. Common nouns: Common nouns are those nouns that refer to a generic item, group or place. This means that,
unlike proper nouns, they are not used to identify specific people, places or objects. Common nouns are not
capitalised unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence.
Examples:
 I bought a pen yesterday. (Common  Only ten employees showed up to
object) work today. (Common group)
 I am going to school. (Common place)  The car is out of fuel. (Common items)
3. Singular nouns: These are words that are used to name a single person, place, animal, bird or object.
Examples:
 There is a little boy in front of our  I found a wounded sparrow in the
house. (Single person) bush. (Single bird)
 That is my daughter. (Single person)  A red van has been following us for a
long time. (Single object)
4. Plural nouns: Plural nouns refer to a number of people, places, animals or things. Nouns are made plural by
adding an ‘s’ or ‘es’ or ‘ies’ or ‘ves’ to the existing root word. Nouns that end with an ‘s’ remain the same. Some
nouns remain the same in both their singular and plural forms, and some others have totally different spelling.
Examples:
 I need some apples.  I bought mangoes from the market.
 Did you find the boxes you were  We took photos of some deer on our
looking for? way.
5. Countable nouns are those nouns that can be counted or measured.
Examples:
 Tom brought ten packets of lays for the trip. (specific number – ten)
 Mom asked me to buy a dozen eggs. (specific – dozen means twelve)
 I saw an aeroplane around seven in the morning. (specific – an means one)
6. Uncountable nouns are those nouns that cannot be counted. This category of nouns includes both concrete
and abstract nouns.
Examples:
 I have a lot of homework to do. (Not specific)
 I have a cup of tea. (Cannot count)
 We are facing terrible weather today. (Cannot count)
7. Collective Nouns: A collective noun is a naming word that is used to denote a group of objects, animals or
people.
Examples:
 Collective nouns for  Collective nouns for  Collective nouns for a
groups of animals groups of people number of things/objects
 A pride of lions  A band of musicians  A pair of shoes
 A flock of sheep  A board of directors  A chain of mountains
 A swarm of bees  A crew of sailors  A fleet of ships
 A herd of elephants  A company of actors  A bunch of grapes
8. Concrete Nouns: A concrete noun refers to objects that are material and can be perceived by the human
senses.
Examples:
 The book is on the table.  Sharon opened the windows.
 I had a cup of coffee.  Hardy goes to school by bus.
9. Abstract Nouns: Any entity that cannot be perceived by the five senses of the human body are called an
abstract noun.
Examples:
 Love is a strong emotion.
 Honesty is the best policy.
 It takes a lot of courage to raise your voice and stand up against injustice.
 You should not misuse the freedom you are given.
Nouns Used as Different Components of a Sentence
Nouns Used as a Subject
When used as a subject, a noun mostly appears at the beginning of a sentence. It can be identified by asking the
question ‘who’.
Examples:
 Bruno went to the playground.
 The teacher asked the students to submit their assignments.
 The elephant was rescued safely after ten long hours.
Nouns Used as an Object
When nouns are used as objects, they appear in the latter part of a sentence. It can be identified by asking the
question ‘what’.
Examples:
 I bought a pen.
 Where is your book?
 I cannot find today’s newspaper.
Nouns can be used as a direct object and an indirect object.
Nouns Used as a Direct Object
You can identify a noun used as a direct object by asking the question ‘what’.
Examples:
 Do you want a lollipop? (What do you want? – a lollipop)
 I loved my dress. (What did you love? – my dress)
Nouns Used as an Indirect Object
You can ask the question ‘for whom’ to identify a noun used as an indirect object.
Examples:
 Dan bought his sister a Mini Cooper. (For whom did Dan buy a Mini Cooper? – his sister)
 Megha baked Julie a cake. (For whom did Megha bake a cake? – Julie)
Nouns Used as a Complement
When a noun is used to modify or describe another noun, it acts as a complement.
Nouns Used as a Subject Complement
Professions and positions can perform the role of a subject complement.
Examples:
 My brother is an engineer.
 Jawaharlal Nehru was the first Prime Minister of India.
Nouns Used as an Object Complement
Object complements are nouns that follow the noun they modify. Names, professions and positions can perform
the role of an object complement.
Examples:
 We named our dog, Shadow.
 The teacher made Tabitha, the class leader.
Multifunctional Nouns
Nouns Used as Verbs
There are some nouns which can also be used as a verb. Some nouns can be used as verbs with a slight change in
the spelling of the original word.
Examples:
 His divorce is final. (Used as a noun)
I am divorced. (Used as a verb)
  Do you like my new dress? (Used as a noun)
I am dressed and ready to go. (Used as a verb)
 Derrick had come to collect some ice. (Used as a noun)
My mother iced the fish so that it did not stink. (Used as a verb)
 I have dance practice today. (Used as a noun)
Did you practise the song? (Used as an adjective)
Nouns Used as Adjectives
With a slight change in the spelling or adding a suffix to the root word, nouns can sometimes be used
as adjectives.
Examples:
 I have no money. (Used as a noun)
There has been a change in the monetary policy of the country. (Used as an adjective)
 Javed sensed some danger. (Used as a noun)
What you are trying to do is dangerous. (Used as an adjective)
 She is excited about magic. (Used as a noun)
The experience was completely magical. (Used as an adjective)
 Speaking against another religion is a legal offence. (Used as a noun)
What you did was offensive. (Used as an adjective)
What Is a Pronoun?
A pronoun is used in the place of a noun. It substitutes the noun in a paragraph or piece of writing to avoid
repetition of the noun. Pronouns can be used in singular and plural forms. The verb used in the sentence should be
used in accordance with the particular form of the pronoun used.
Pronouns are generally classified into three main kinds.
Person Singular Pronoun Plural Pronoun
First Person Pronoun I, Me We, Us
Second Person You, Your You
Pronoun
Third Person Pronoun He, She, It, Him, They, Them,
Her Their
Definition of a Pronoun
A pronoun is defined as ‘a word that is used instead of a noun or a noun phrase’, according to the Cambridge
Dictionary. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines pronouns as ‘any of a small set of words (such
as I, she, he, you, it, we, or they) in a language that are used as substitutes for nouns or noun phrases and whose
referents are named or understood in the context’. According to the Collins Dictionary, ‘A pronoun is a word that
you use to refer to someone or something when you do not need to use a noun, often because the person or thing
has been mentioned earlier. Examples are ‘it’, ‘she’, ‘something’, and ‘myself’.’
Types of Pronouns with Examples
Pronouns can be classified into different types based on their functions. Given below are the various types of
pronouns. Go through the examples carefully to have a clear understanding of each type of pronoun and its
function.
 Relative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to relate one part of the sentence to another. Some
examples of relative pronouns are that, which, where, when, why, what, whom and whose.
 Possessive Pronouns are pronouns that are used to show possession. Some examples of possessive
pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, theirs and its.
  Reflexive Pronouns are pronouns that are used to refer back to the subject in the sentence. Some
examples of reflexive pronouns are myself, yourself, herself, himself, oneself, itself, ourselves, themselves
and yourselves.
 Demonstrative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to point to specific objects. Some examples of
demonstrative pronouns are this, that, these and those.
 Interrogative Pronouns are pronouns that are used to ask questions. Some examples of interrogative
pronouns are who, what, when, why and where.
 Indefinite Pronouns are pronouns that do not refer to any particular person, place or thing. Some
examples of indefinite pronouns are someone, somebody, somewhere, something, anyone, anybody,
anywhere, anything, no one, nobody, nowhere, everyone, everybody, everywhere, everything, each, none,
few, and many.
 Personal Pronouns are simple pronouns that are used to substitute proper names. Some examples of
personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, we, they, him, her, he, she, us and them.
 Subject Pronouns are pronouns that perform the action in a sentence. Some examples of subject pronouns
are I, you, we, he, she, it, they and one.
 Object Pronouns are pronouns that receive the action in a sentence. Some examples of object pronouns
are me, us, him, her and them.
 Reciprocal Pronouns are pronouns that are used to express a mutual relationship. Some examples of
reciprocal pronouns are each other and one another.
 Intensive Pronouns are the same as reflexive pronouns, with the only difference being that you can
remove the intensive pronoun from the sentence, and the sentence would still make sense.
Test Your Understanding of Pronouns
I. Identify the pronouns and the type of pronoun in the following sentences:
1. I am going home today evening. 6. It was a time when I was so happy.
2. Her aunt will be vacating next week. 7. We always help each other out.
3. She is the girl I was talking to you about. 8. Has everyone completed the work that was
4. This is the place where I found my missing bag. assigned for today?
5. Did you do it yourself? 9. That dog down the street is his.
 10. All my friends are coming home for my
parents’ 25th wedding anniversary celebration.
Now, let us check how far you have got it right.
1. I am going home today evening. Personal 6. It was a time when I was so happy. Relative
Pronoun/Subject Pronoun Pronoun
2. Her aunt will be vacating next week. Possessive 7. We always help each other out. Reciprocal
Pronoun Pronoun
3. She is the girl I was talking to you about. Personal 8. Has everyone completed the work that was
Pronoun assigned for today? Indefinite Pronoun
4. This is the place where I found my missing 9. That dog down the street is his. Possessive
bag. Relative Pronoun Pronoun
5. Did you do it yourself? Personal Pronoun, 10. All my friends are coming home
Intensive Pronoun for my parents’ 25 wedding
th
anniversary
celebration. Possessive Pronoun
II. Use suitable pronouns to substitute the underlined nouns in the following sentences:
1. Josh and Derrick visited Disneyland last month. 7. Divya is Danny’s sister.
2. Sarah did not come home last evening. 8. That silver Brezza belongs to Emmanuel and Usha.
3. My mom could not find her cupboard keys. 9. My pet dog just lay on the floor the whole day.
4. Yesterday was my parents’ wedding anniversary. 10. The teacher asked the students if the
5. The cat drank all the milk that was left in the students had submitted the
kitchen. students’ assignments.
6. Sheela and Teena found it hard to move the sofa
set across the hall as the sofa set was too heavy
for Sheela and Teena to carry.
Check your answers here.
1. They visited Disneyland last month. 4. Yesterday was their wedding anniversary.
2. She did not come home last evening. 5. It drank all the milk that was left in the kitchen.
3. She could not find her cupboard keys.
 6. Sheela and Teena found it hard to move the sofa 8. That silver Brezza belongs to them.
set across the hall as it was too heavy for them to 9. It just lay on the floor the whole day.
carry. 10. The teacher asked the students if they had
7. She is his sister. submitted their assignments.

Verbs in English Grammar

In the English language or any language for that matter, verbs happen to be an essential part of speech, without
which it would be impossible to indicate what the subject is doing. It refers to all actions, including those related to
feelings and emotions. Verbs come in different types and forms so that they can perform differently in order to
provide complete meaning. Before we look into the types of verbs and the verb forms, let us look at how various
dictionaries define the term ‘verb’.
Definition of a Verb
The Oxford Learners’ Dictionary defines a ‘verb’ as “a word or group of words that express an action (such as eat),
an event (such as happen) or a state (such as exist)”. According to the Cambridge Dictionary, a ‘verb’ is defined as
“a word or phrase that describes an action, condition, or experience”. The Collins Dictionary provides a much more
elaborate definition of a verb. According to them, “A verb is a word such as ‘ sing’, ‘ feel’, or ‘ die’ which is used
with a subject to say what someone or something does or what happens to them, or to give information about
them”.
General Classification of Verbs according to What They Signify
Before we get into a broad classification, let us first have a look at how verbs can be classified generally according
to what kind of action they signify.
Verbs Referring to Actions
Verbs referring to action (action verbs) are those that involve the movement of one’s body in one way or the other.
Some examples of verbs referring to actions are as follows:
 Walk  Talk  Read
 Run  Sit  Write
  Jog  Drink  Tow
 Cough  Teach  Toss
 Sleep  Present  Hug
 Jump  Build  Fight
 Sing  Break

Verbs Referring to Experiences or Feelings

These are verbs that refer to something that you can feel or experience and do not necessarily involve a
movement of any kind. Some examples of verbs referring to feelings and experiences are as follows:
 Love  Experience  Comprehend
 Hate  Care  Like
 Envy  Cherish  Need
 Believe  Sense  Adore
 Trust  Know  Loathe
 Feel  Recognise  Appreciate
 Entrust  Understand
Verbs Referring to a State or Condition
These verbs are those that refer to situations or the state of being. All forms of ‘to be’ verbs belong to this
category. Some examples of verbs referring to a state or condition are as follows:
 Am  Have  Become
 Is  Has  Been
 Are  Will be  Being
 Was  Appear
 Were  Seem
The Various Types of Verbs with Examples
Verbs can be classified into numerous types according to their function or role in a sentence or context. Let us look
into the various types of verbs and some examples of each type of verb.
Auxiliary Verbs/Helping Verbs
Auxiliary verbs or helping verbs, as the name suggests, is a verb that is used to help another verb sound sensible
and meaningful. It is used to change the other verb’s tense, mood or voice. So, every time an auxiliary verb is
used, you always have one more verb, which acts as the main verb in a sentence.
Examples of auxiliary verbs are as follows:
 Am  Were  Will
 Is  Have  Can
 Are  Has
 Was  Do
One point you have to take care of when you use auxiliary verbs is that you should conjugate the auxiliary verb
correctly according to the tense form of a sentence. Another specific fact about auxiliary verbs is that they can also
be used as a main verb. Also, there are verbs called modal verbs that can be used as a helping verb.
Work out exercises on auxiliary verbs to practise.
Modal Verbs
Modal verbs are those verbs that are used to denote the possibility, probability, capability or necessity of
something happening. Modal verbs, unlike other auxiliary verbs, cannot be used as a main verb in a sentence.
Examples of modal verbs are as follows:
 Can  Would  Should
 Could  May  Must
 Will  Might  Ought to
Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs include phrases that are formed by combining two or more parts of speech that performs the same
function as a verb in a sentence. In most cases, a phrasal verb results from a combination of a verb and
a preposition.
Some examples of phrasal verbs are as follows:
 Go by  Get off  Think through
 Lay off  Run out  Fed up
 Log in  Go all out  Taken aback
  Act on  Look up  Pop in
 Back away  Mix up
 Back up  Opt out
Linking Verbs - A linking verb, just like the name suggests, is a type of verb that is used to link the subjects in a
sentence to the other parts of the sentence so that it is meaningful. It connects the subject to the object,
an adjective and even a prepositional phrase. All ‘to be’ forms of verbs and verbs like ‘seem’ and ‘become’ can act
as linking verbs.
Have a look at the following examples to understand how verbs perform the role of a linking verb in sentences.
Example 1: Connecting Nouns to Other Nouns in a Sentence
Danny is my brother.
In the above example, the verb ‘is’ is used to connect the subject ‘Danny’ as the ‘brother’ of the speaker. In this
sentence, the words ‘Danny’ and ‘brother’ are used to refer to the same person.
Example 2: Connecting a Noun to a Prepositional Phrase in a Sentence
The children were in the park.
In Example 2, the verb ‘were’ is used to connect the subject ‘the children’ to the prepositional phrase ‘in the park’.
Example 3: Connecting a Noun/Subject to an Adjective
Your presentation of the life cycle of the silkworm was excellent.
In the above example, the verb ‘was’ is used to link the subject ‘Your presentation of the life cycle of a silkworm’ to
the adjective ‘excellent’.
Example 4: Connecting the Subject/Noun to the Predicate using Seem/Become
This book on a treasure hunt seems interesting.
In this sentence, the subject ‘This book on a treasure hunt’ is connected to the adjective ‘interesting’ with the
linking verb ‘seem’.
The students became bored after two continuous hours of classes and were not ready to take another hour of
class without a break in between.
In the above sentence, the subject ‘The students’ has been linked to the rest of the sentence with the linking verb
‘became’.
Different Categories of Verbs
Verbs can be divided into different categories according to their behaviour when used in a context. Let us look at
the categories explained below.
Regular Verbs and Irregular Verbs
As you can see, verbs are used to denote actions, and they can be used in different forms to indicate when the
subject in a sentence is carrying out an action. A regular verb can be conjugated to show if the action takes place
in the past or if the action is taking place continuously.
In most cases, the past form of the verb is formed by adding an ‘ed’ to the root verb for regular verbs. On the other
hand, there are other verbs that do not follow this rule. They are called irregular verbs. These verbs have their own
unique forms. If you are wondering how to learn these irregular verbs, read the article on irregular verbs to find out
how.
Have a look at the examples given below.
 Dileep searched for his white shirt in his cupboard, but he did not find it. (Root verb – search)
 Did you find the book you were looking for?
In the above examples, the verb ‘searched’ is the past form of the regular verb ‘search’ by adding an ‘ed’ and the
verb form ‘looking’ indicates the continuous form of the regular verb ‘look’ by adding an ‘ing’ to the end of the root
verb.
 Selena read the book on the evolution of life on earth.
 Vineeth found the keys that went missing yesterday.
In the above examples, the verb ‘read’ stays the same in the past form and when used as a past participle. ‘Found’
is the past form of the root verb ‘find’.
Transitive Verbs and Intransitive Verbs
Transitive and intransitive forms of verbs are used to denote how a verb acts when used with a direct object and
an indirect object. Let us look at a few examples.
 Vincent gave a box of chocolates to his brother. (Indirect object – his brother, Direct object – a box of
chocolates)
 Garry passed the water bottle to Kevin, who was sitting in the first row. (Indirect object – Kevin, Direct object
– the water bottle)
 The little girl ran around the park for two hours.
  Francey walked to school every day.
 My mom cleaned the house today. (Direct object – the house)
 Seena did not like the movie. (Direct object – the movie)
In the above examples, the verbs ‘gave’ and ‘passed’ in the first two sentences are seen to take a direct object and
an indirect object, whereas the verbs ‘ran’ and ‘walked’ take no object at all. In the last two sentences, the verbs
‘cleaned’ and ‘did not like’ take a direct object and no indirect object.
Verbs that take a direct object alone are called transitive verbs, and those verbs that do not take either a direct
object or an indirect object are called intransitive verbs. There is yet another category of verbs that take both
the direct object and the indirect object, and they are called ditransitive verbs.
Verb Forms
A verb is used in different ways to indicate the time in which the subject is performing an action. There are various
verb forms that are used to do the same. Let us look at the different verb forms explained below.
Root Verb
The raw or original form of the verb, how it originally exists in the English language, without any inflexions or
conjugations, is called the root verb.
Some examples of root verbs are as follows:
 Eat  Read  Trick
 Sit  Fry  Sing
 Stir  Tick
 Type  Shift
Simple Present – Third Person Singular
The third person singular form of the verb in the present tense is mostly the verb in the singular form. When using
the third person singular pronouns such as he, she and it, and the nouns that can be substituted by the third
person singular pronouns, the verb is singular (mostly done just by adding an ‘s’ to the root verb) so that it agrees
with the subject in the sentence.
For example:
Kenny likes to have mangoes after every meal. (The noun ‘Kenny’ can be substituted with the third person
singular pronoun ‘he’)
The cat chases every rat it catches sight of. (The noun ‘The cat’ can be substituted with the third person singular
pronoun ‘it’)
She hates going to work on Saturdays and Mondays.

Present Participle
The present participle is used in the continuous form of tenses to indicate an action that is continuing or in
progress at that particular moment or sometime in the past or in the future. These words are formed just by adding
an ‘ing’ to the root verb. For verbs ending with an ‘e’, in most cases, the present participle is formed by removing
the ‘e’ and then adding ‘ing’ to the remaining portion of the verb.
For example:
Jhanvi is watching a movie along with her cousin. (Present Continuous Tense)
My mother is baking cakes (Present Continuous Tense)
All my brothers were playing dodgeball in the evening. (Past Continuous Tense)
Simple Past
There is a change in the spelling of the root verb when it is used to indicate the simple past tense form of the verb.
There is no one rule to write a verb in the simple past tense; it changes for each verb – some verbs like ‘give’ and
‘bring’ take a different spelling, and some verbs like ‘cut’ and ‘put’ remain the same when used in the past tense.
However, most verbs can be made into the past tense by adding an ‘ed’ at the end of the root verb.
For example:
 The doctor asked me to take tablets for ten days. (The rook verb here is ‘ask’)
 Nelson bought the car he checked out last week. (The root verbs here are ‘buy’ and ‘check’)
 The baby drank the milk completely. (The root verb here is ‘drink’)
Past participle
The past participle form of the verb is used to denote the perfect tense forms in a sentence. In some cases, the
past tense and the past participle remain the same, but there are a number of verbs that have different spellings
when used as a simple past tense verb and a past participle.
For example:
  I have searched the entire loft for that box, but I did not find it. (The root verb here is ‘search’, ‘have
searched’ is the verb in the sentence that indicates the perfect tense and ‘searched’ is the past participle)
 Dylan had read the book already.
In the above example, the root verb here is ‘read’, ‘have read’ is the verb in the sentence that indicates the perfect
tense and ‘read’ is the past participle. In this case, all forms of the verb take the same spelling but have a different
pronunciation.
Gerunds
Any verb can be transformed into a gerund by adding ‘ing’ to the root verb. Gerunds, when it stands by
themselves, can be used as nouns. A gerund can be used as a verb when used with an auxiliary verb to indicate an
action that is continuing at a particular period of time.
For example:
 He is eating an apple.  Walking every day is good exercise.
 Joy will be coming home next week.  Drinking and driving is dangerous.
Infinitives
Infinitives, like gerunds, can be used to turn verbs into nouns by adding a preposition ‘to’ in front of the root verb.
For example:
 Would you like to  I like to dance in my free time.  I am going to talk to my
have something? friend.

Active Voice and Passive Voice

According to the position of the subject and object in a sentence, the voice of the verb can be determined. A
sentence in which the subject does the action is called the active voice, and a sentence in which the indirect object
or the direct object is switched to make it the subject is called the passive voice.
For example:
 Active Voice – The doctor checked the patient.  Passive Voice – The patient was checked by the
doctor.
Conjugating Verbs in the English Language – Tense Forms
Verbs can be conjugated to denote the tense you need. There are four tense forms, namely the simple tense, the
continuous tense, the perfect tense and the perfect continuous tense. These tense forms are used to represent
three time periods such as the present, past and future, thereby forming twelve main tense forms in total.
You can learn more about tenses and how to conjugate them in detail by reading the article on tenses.
What Is an Adverb?
Like an adjective gives us more information about the noun in a sentence, an adverb is used to provide more
information about the verb or the action in the sentence. It also has the property of describing the adjective or
another adverb.
Definition of an Adverb
An adverb, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, is “a word that adds more information about place, time,
manner, cause or degree to a verb, an adjective, a phrase or another adverb.” The Cambridge Dictionary defines
an adverb as “a word that describes or gives more information about a verb, adjective, adverb, or phrase.”
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary provides a similar definition. It defines an adverb as “a word used to modify a
verb, an adjective, or another adverb and often used to show degree, manner, place, or time.” According to the
Collins Dictionary, an adverb is defined as “a word such as ‘slowly’, ‘ now’, ‘very’, ‘politically’, or ‘ fortunately’
which adds information about the action, event, or situation mentioned in a clause.”
Types of Adverbs
Adverbs are categorised into different types according to their functions when used in a sentence. Given below are
the different types of adverbs.
 Adverbs of Manner  Adverbs of Place  Adverbs of Degree
 Adverbs of Time  Adverbs of Frequency  Conjunctive Adverbs
Examples of Adverbs
Now that you know what adverbs are and how there are different types of adverbs, let us look at some adverb
examples to see how they can be used effectively in sentences.
How Adverbs are Used in Sentences
Unlike other parts of speech, adverbs can be placed at any part of the sentence (beginning, middle or end), and
make complete sense without sounding absurd. Another characteristic is that multiple adverbs can be used in a
sentence. Have a look at the following examples to have a clear understanding of the same.
  I was planning to go to the supermarket to buy some groceries. However, I did not find the time to go. So I
ordered online.
 My mom did not cook breakfast today. Therefore, we ended up making noodles for everyone.
 Normally, we go to church on Sundays.
 Don’t you think the coffee is too sweet?
 Do not worry. You will gradually learn how to do it.
 The song I was listening to yesterday was very soothing.
 He kept talking to me for such a long time but I barely knew him.
 It is extremely hot outside today.
 How often do you work out?
 Can I come home tomorrow?
Check Your Knowledge of Adverbs
Identify the most suitable adverb from the list given below and use them to complete the following sentences.
(slightly, too, very, anywhere, instantly, quarterly, soon, never, rarely , seldom, monthly, extremely, seriously,
sometimes, weekly)
1.
The weather here is _____ cold. 6. She _______ goes to the salon.
2. I am _________ sorry for the delay. 7. Oshin did not find the blue file ________.
3. You will receive an OTP and on entering it, your 8. __________, I like to go on a trip alone just to clear
account will be _________ activated. my mind and have a break from this busy schedule.
4. The journal is published ______________. 9. This seems to be ________ absurd.
5. Can you please finish it ______ so that I can use the 10. The teacher asked her students to take the project
table. _________ as it would be considered for internal marks.

You have probably got all of it right. Let us find out. Note that some adverbs can be used interchangeably

1. The weather here is too/very/extremely cold. 3. You will receive an OTP and on entering it, your
2. I am extremely sorry for the delay. account will be instantly activated.
4. The journal is published weekly/monthly/quarterly. 8.Sometimes, I like to go on a trip alone just to clear
5. Can you please finish it soon so that I can use the my mind and have a break from this busy schedule.
table. 9. This seems to be too/very absurd.
6. She seldom/rarely/never goes to the salon. 10. The teacher asked her students to take the
7. Oshin did not find the blue file anywhere. project seriously as it would be considered for internal
marks.

What Is an Adjective?
An adjective is a part of speech that can be used to describe or provide more information about
a noun or pronoun that acts as the subject in a sentence. Adjectives are found after the verb or before the noun it
modifies.
Definition of an Adjective
According to the Cambridge Dictionary, an adjective is defined as “a word that describes a noun or pronoun.” The
Collins Dictionary gives a more elaborate definition. According to it, “an adjective is a word such as ‘big’, ‘ dead’, or
‘ financial’ that describes a person or thing, or gives extra information about them. Adjectives usually come before
nouns or after link verbs.”
The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary defines an adjective as “a word that describes a person or thing, for example ‘big’,
‘red’ and ‘clever’ in a big house, red wine and a clever idea.” An adjective is “a word belonging to one of the major
form classes in any of numerous languages and typically serving as a modifier of a noun to denote a quality of the
thing named, to indicate its quantity or extent, or to specify a thing as distinct from something else”, according to
the Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
Forms of Adjectives – Degrees of Comparison
Did you know that adjectives can be used to compare similar qualities of different subjects that perform the same
action. There are three forms of adjectives or rather three degrees of comparison. The are:
 Positive or Absolute Form  Comparative Form  Superlative Form
Positive Degree of Comparison:
The positive form or the positive degree of comparison is the form of the adjective used in the original form. For
example: This book is interesting. This form of adjective is used when there is no other subject to be compared.
Comparative Degree of Comparison
The comparative form of the adjective is used when two subjects performing the same action or possessing the
same quality are compared. For example: The book I read yesterday was more interesting than the one I read
today.
Superlative Degree of Comparison
The superlative degree of comparison is used when comparing the same quality of two or more subjects and to
represent that a subject is superior to two or more subjects in performing an action. For example: This fantasy
novel is the most interesting book that I have ever read.
Types of Adjectives
Adjectives can be divided into different categories based on their functions when used in a sentence. The different
types of adjectives are:
 Possessive Adjectives  Demonstrative Adjectives
 Interrogative Adjectives  Compound Adjectives

Possessive Adjectives:
These adjectives, like possessive pronouns, are used to show or represent possession of a quality. For example:
my, your, his, her, their, its, whose, etc.
Interrogative Adjectives:
An adjective that is used to modify a noun or a pronoun by asking a question is called an interrogative adjective.
There are only a few adjectives that can be termed as interrogative adjectives. They are whose, what and which.
Demonstrative Adjectives:
Demonstrative adjectives are mainly used to describe the position of a subject (a noun or pronoun) in space or
time. This, that, these and those are the demonstrative adjectives in English.
Compound Adjectives:
Compound adjectives consist of two or more adjectives that are combined together to form an adjective that can
be used to modify the subject. Some examples of compound adjectives are cotton-tailed, curly-haired, absent-
minded, happy-go-lucky, etc.
How to Use Adjectives in Sentences?
Adjectives are known to give your writing and speech a very flowery look. It aids in making it descriptive and also
in giving your readers and listeners a visual treat. However, stuffing it with too many adjectives can make it look or
sound vague and unclear. This would only lead to misunderstanding of your content. Knowing when, where and
how to use adjectives is a skill that you should master.
Any piece of writing should be clear and precise. Find out if there is a word that specifically means whatever you
are trying to convey. For example: quick, swift, hasty, fleet, etc. are all adjectives that mean ‘very fast’. Likewise,
contented, cheerful, merry, joyful, ecstatic, delighted, etc. are all words that describe different degrees of
happiness. There is also another concept that you should know. There is a particular order in which you should
place adjectives when you are using two or more adjectives to describe the same subject or object. Check out
the order of adjectives to learn more.
Examples of Adjectives
If you are wondering what part of speech a colour or a number belongs to, do not waste any more time thinking
about it. All colours and numbers are classified as adjectives. Adjectives are words that modify nouns but in most
cases, they can be seen to be doing much more than that. Given below are the various ways in which adjectives
can function and be used.
Adjectives as Complements
Adjectives can act as complements that modify nouns that act as subjects and objects. When the adjective
describes the object in a sentence, it is called an object complement and when it is used to describe the subject in
a sentence, it is referred to as a subject complement. They are seen to be used in sentences which are seen to use
the following patterns:
 SVC – Aaron is good.
In the above example, the adjective is ‘good’ and it is used to describe the subject ‘Aaron’ and so it is called a
subject complement.
 SVOC – The movie made Karthik sleepy.
Here, the adjective ‘sleepy’ describes the object ‘Karthik’ and so comes under the category of object complements.
Adjectives as Coordinates
When two or more adjectives are used to describe the same noun in a sentence, they are called coordinate
adjectives. Coordinate adjectives are often separated by a comma or the conjunction ‘and’.
For example:
 The mobile phone is easy to use and handy.  My cousin is tall and thin.
Multifunctional Adjectives- Adjectives can be made to function like or take the role of nouns in a sentence, and
sometimes, a noun, when used to describe or provide more information about another noun, can perform the role
of an adjective.
For example:
 I like my English teacher.
In the above example, the word ‘English’ is generally considered a noun as it represents a language and it is
a proper noun. But here, it is used to describe the noun ‘teacher’ which makes it an adjective.
 It is our duty to tend to the poor and the oppressed.
In this sentence, the words ‘the poor’ and ‘the oppressed’ pass off as nouns as it refers to ‘poor people’ and
‘oppressed people’. So, when adjectives are preceded by the article ‘the’, it often refers to a category of people
which makes the adjective a noun.
In addition to these types of adjectives, there are also phrases and clauses which act just like an adjective. To
know what they are and how they work in a sentence, check out the articles on adjective phrases and adjective
clauses.
Check out the adjectives list for an extensive list of adjectives that you can make use of in your daily
communication and work out exercises on adjectives to brush up your knowledge of it.
Check Your Knowledge of Adjectives
Identify the adjectives in the following sentences:
1. I bought a red dress for the wedding. 6. Pablo Picasso is a fine artist.
2. I have eight apples. 7. The weather in Chennai is sultry all round the year.
3. The food is delicious. 8. Now is a great time to visit the United States.
4. My brother is naughty. 9. It was a fabulous drive.
5. The movie we watched last night was boring. 10. The Marina Beach is the longest beach in India.
You should have definitely got it all right. Check them out.
1. I bought a red dress for the wedding. 3. The food is delicious.
2. I have eight apples. 4. My brother is naughty.
5. The movie we watched last night was boring. 8. Now is a great time to visit the United States.
6. Pablo Picasso is a fine artist. 9. It was a fabulous drive.
7. The weather in Chennai is sultry all round the year. 10. The Marina Beach is the longest beach in India.

What Are Conjunctions?

Conjunctions are used to combine two or more objects, phrases or clauses. It can also be termed as connectors as
they are employed in sentences to make connections. Conjunctions can normally be found in the latter part of a
sentence if they are used to connect clauses. If conjunctions are used to connect objects or phrases, they can
appear in the beginning, middle or end of the sentence according to the position of the objects or phrases.
Definition of a Conjunction
A conjunction, according to the Cambridge Dictionary, is defined as “a word such as ‘and’, ‘but’, ‘while’, or
‘although’ that connects words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence.” The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines a
conjunction as “an uninflected linguistic form that joins together sentences, clauses, phrases, or words.”
A conjunction is “word that joins words, phrases or sentences, for example and, but or so”, according to the Oxford
Learner’s Dictionary. The Collins Dictionary gives a slightly different definition. According to it, a conjunction is
“any word or group of words, other than a relative pronoun, that connects words, phrases, or clauses.”
Types of Conjunctions
Conjunctions are mainly used to join actions, ideas and thoughts. They are categorised into three main types:
 Coordinating conjunctions – used to combine two independent clauses. Examples of coordinating
conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet and so.
 Subordinating conjunctions – used to combine an independent clause and a dependent clause. Examples of
subordinating conjunctions are if, although, though, after, before, because, as if, unless, until, when, while,
etc.
 Correlative conjunctions – used to combine two phrases or parts of the sentence which have equal
importance within a sentence. Examples of correlative conjunctions are not only…but also, either…or,
neither…nor, whether…or, rather…or, if…then, etc.
Examples of Conjunctions
Have a look at the following sentences to understand how conjunctions can be employed in sentences.
  Sruthi and I visited Gokarna last weekend.
 Do you have a rough notebook or at least a rough sheet of paper?
 I did not go to work today because I was not keeping well.
 She did not like the food, yet she ate it.
 I will be leaving tomorrow so I am trying to finish all the pending assignments.

List of Most Commonly Used Conjunctions in Daily Communication

Given below is a list of most commonly used conjunctions that you can use in your daily communication.
Examples of Conjunctions
And Or Nor
But Yet So
Because Still For
Not only…but also As When
While As soon as If
Unless In case In addition to
Whereas Though Although
Until Before After
Even if Rather than So that
Either…or As if Neither…or
Both…and Whether…or Or else
Check Your Understanding of Conjunctions
Fill in the blanks with the most appropriate conjunctions in the following sentences:
1. Deepak ________ Santhosh are best friends. 5. I have to go home now ______ I really wish I could
2. Make sure you work hard ______ you will not be able stay for some more time.
to score good marks. 6. I am not well _______ I decided to take a day off
3. _______ Anna does not cook much, she loves baking. from work.
4. Let me know ______ you will be able to make it to 7. _________ you work out regularly, you will not see
the party. any results.
8. He had no money, _____he was prepared to help me 10. ________ I was walking on the street, I found a
9. I could not find the place ___________ I lost the map. wounded dog.
Find out if you have answered it all correctly.
1. Deepak and Santhosh are best friends. 6. I am not well, so I decided to take a day off from
2. Make sure you work hard or you will not be able to work.
score good marks. 7. Unless you work out regularly, you will not see any
3. Although Anna does not cook much, she loves results.
baking. 8. He had no money, yet he was prepared to help me.
4. Let me know if you will be able to make it to the 9. I could not find the place since/because I lost the
party. map.
5. I have to go home now but I really wish I could stay 10. While I was walking on the street, I found a
for some more time. wounded dog.

What Is a Preposition?
A preposition is a short word that is employed in sentences to show the relationship nouns, pronouns
or phrases have with other parts within the respective sentences. Prepositions are normally found positioned in the
latter part of the sentence, but before a noun or pronoun.
Definition of a Preposition
A preposition is defined as “a word that connects a noun, a noun phrase, or a pronoun to another word, esp. to
a verb, another noun, or an adjective”, according to the Cambridge Dictionary. The Oxford Learner’s Dictionary
says that a preposition is “a word or group of words, such as in, from, to, out of and on behalf of, used before a
noun or pronoun to show place, position, time or method.”
The Collins Dictionary defines a preposition as “a word such as ‘by’, ‘for’, ‘into’, or ‘with’ which usually has a noun
group as its object.” The Merriam Webster Dictionary provides a slightly different definition. According to it, a
preposition is defined as “a function word that typically combines with a noun phrase to form a phrase which
usually expresses a modification or predication.”
Uses of Prepositions
Prepositions are seen to show some key characteristics and perform some vital functions when used in sentences.
Let us look at the various uses of prepositions in English.
 They are used to show the direction of something.
 They can refer to the time of something happening.
 They can be used to denote the position or location of an object in the sentence.
 They are also used to represent spatial relationships.
 Prepositional phrases, in particular, can be used to do all of these when used in sentences.
Types of Prepositions
Based on the different uses and functions of prepositions, they can be divided into four main types. They are as
follows:
 Prepositions of Time – used to show when something is happening.
For example:
 We will be meeting on Friday.  We have been asked to work from
 The supermarket will be closed from 9 home until the end of May.
p.m. to 9 a.m.  The whole country was asked to stay
 Can you come after some time? home during the pandemic to ensure safety
and well-being.
 Prepositions of Place – indicate the place or position of something.
For example:
 I have kept the book I borrowed from  Can you place the red roses in between the
you on the table. white daisies?
 Henry hid behind the door.  He was waiting in front of the EB office.
 The dog jumped over the fence.
 Prepositions of Direction – used to denote the direction in which something travels or moves.
For example:
 The girl ran toward her father the moment  Veena passed the book to Priya.
she saw him.  When will Salvia be returning from London?
 Jerry jumped into the river to help his sister.  Neena lives across the street.
  Prepositions of Location – employed to denote the location of a particular object.
For example:
 Kenny would be staying at his cousin’s place  Make sure you keep all the toys back in its
for the weekend. place after you play.
 I lay on the floor for a really long time.
 Prepositions of Spatial Relationship – used to denote an object’s movement away from the source and
towards a source.
For example:
 Navya sat leaning against the wall.  Shankar sat beside the stairs.
 The circus was stationed opposite the  We spent the evening walking around the
children’s park. lake.
 Lakshmi sat beneath the trees.
 Prepositional Phrase – a combination of a preposition and a noun(the object it is affecting).
For example:
 See to it that you reach the venue on time.  Make sure you fill in all the forms at once.
 The medicines you asked for are out of  Salmaan was able to finish it only with the
stock. help of his friends
 Why don’t we try taking classes outside for
a change.
Examples of Prepositions Used in Sentences
To know how exactly prepositions can be used in sentences, check out the following sentences.
 I will be going to church in the morning.  Rachel met Phoebe by the lake.
 She placed the plates on the dining table.  Finn stood opposite Lisa.
 Baskar found the cat hiding under the bed.  The grocery store is right in front of the bus stop.
 Will you be with Raimy or Mazeeka?  My brother climbed onto the roof.
 I love sitting on the beach at night.  It feels great to sit beneath the trees and read.
List of Most Popular Prepositions for Everyday Communication
Given below is an extensive list of prepositions that you can make use of in your daily communication.
 Examples of Prepositions
On At In Over
Around Through Opposite to In front of
Behind Beneath Beside Above
Below Under Underneath Down
Up Out With Into
Onto Across After Before
Near Among Along Between
Toward Away From To
Next to By Until About
Commonly Confused Prepositions
With the huge number of prepositions in the English language, it almost seems impossible to have no confusion at
all. Here is a list of prepositions that cause confusion among the users of the language.
 In/On/At
These three prepositions can be used to depict both time and position. Take a look at the table below to have a
better understanding of how it works.
Prepositions of Place
In On At
Can be used to show general locations like Can be used to refer to more specific Can be used to refer
neighbourhoods, cities, countries and places locations like streets, avenues, islands, to very specific
with a boundary surfaces and large vehicles locations
For example: I live in India. For example: Latha stays on the fourth For example: You can
We will be staying in a hotel tonight. floor. find us at the park.
The book you are looking for is on the She is at home now.
rack.
Prepositions of Time
In On At
 Can be used to depict general Can be used to refer to dates, days of Can be used to denote very specific
timings like months, years, the week, days of the month and time, times of the day and holidays
centuries and parts of days holidays with ‘day’ (for example – without ‘day’ (for example – Easter)
Republic day)
For example: Dan was For example: There is a national parade For example: We decided to
born in 2000. every year on Republic day. meet at 4 p.m.
Technological development in All of us will be at home on Christmas I wished my brother at midnight.
the field of science and day.
medicine reached its
zenith in the 21st century.
 To/From
To and from are two other prepositions that create confusion.
To From
Used to denote the end location Used to denote the starting location
For example: We went to Sri Lanka with my For example: Have you
family. started from Bangalore?
I gave my coat to Sandra. I received a letter from my father.
 By/With
The prepositions by and with have various meanings. They sometimes appear to be confusing for a second
language learner of English
By With
Near or next to. In the company of
For example: Is the post office by the bus stop? For example: Glint went to Chennai with his friends.
A given time or not later than In addition to
For example: See that you reach the exam hall by 8:30 For example: would you like to have
a.m. tea with breakfast?
Denotes the doer of the action mentioned in a sentence By means of
For example: The poem was written by my brother. For example: I cut my birthday cake with a fruit
knife.

What Are Interjections?

Interjection are a part of speech used to convey or express sudden feelings and emotions. There are no particular
rules as to where interjections should be placed in a sentence, but most often, they are seen to appear in the
beginning of a sentence. They are used to form exclamatory sentences. In order to develop a clearer idea of what
interjections are exactly, take a look at how different dictionaries define an interjection.
Definition of an Interjection
An interjection, according to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, is defined as “a short sound, word or phrase spoken
suddenly to express an emotion.” The Cambridge Dictionary defines an interjection as “a word that is used to show
a short sudden expression of emotion.” According to the Merriam-Webster Dictionary, an interjection is defined as
“a word or phrase used in exclamation” and according to the Macmillan Dictionary, an interjection is “a word or
phrase used for expressing a strong emotion such as surprise or anger.” The Collins Dictionary defines an
interjection as “a word or expression which you use to express a strong feeling such as surprise, pain, or horror.”
Examples of Interjections
Here are some examples of interjections to show you how they can be used in sentences effectively.
 Hurray! We won the match.  Oh my God! That was unexpected.
 Ouch! That really hurt badly.  Whoa! That guy is unbelievably huge.
 Wow! That is a beautiful dress indeed.

List of Interjections for Everyday Communication

Now, here is a list of interjections that you can use in your daily communication.
Examples of Interjections
Interjectio Purpose Example
n
Alas To express sadness or pity Alas! That was so unfortunate.
Ah To express realisation or surprise Ah, the magic show at the end was a total
surprise!
Eh To enquire or ask for something to be Eh! I didn’t quite get it. Can you please repeat it?
repeated
Dear To express pity or surprise Oh dear! I feel really bad for what happened to
you.
Hey To express surprise or call for attention Hey! Look out for the car.
Hurray To express joy Hurray! We finally cleared the test.
Oh To express pain or surprise Oh! I have a really bad headache.
Ouch To express pain Ouch! You stepped on my toes.
Phew To express relief, exhaustion, disgust Phew! That was an extremely long presentation.
Uh To express hesitation Uh! I don’t think I want to be a part of this.
Well To introduce a remark Well, what you just did was wonderful.
Wow To express your admiration for something Wow! Your new bike is amazing.
Yippee To express joy Yippee! Tomorrow is a holiday.

How and When to Use Interjections?

When using interjections, there are some very important punctuation rules that you should keep in mind. Given
below are the points you have to remember.
 When a short interjection is used in the beginning of a sentence, it should be followed by a comma.
 When an interjection forms a sentence by itself, the interjection can be followed by a full stop, a question
mark or an exclamation mark.
 When an interjection is used in the middle of a sentence, the interjection has to be preceded and followed by
a comma.
 In a conversation, interjections are sometimes allowed to stand alone.
 It is better if you do not use too many or any interjections in a formal context.
Test Your Understanding of Interjections
Fill in the blanks with the most suitable interjection in the following sentences.
(Ouch, yippee, bravo, alas, my God, well, uh, ah, wow, oh no)
1. ______, that is new! 6. ______ now I understand what you were trying to
2. ______ That hurt me more than I thought it would. say.
3. ______ We got the tickets to the movie premier 7. ______ That should have really upset you.
night. 8. ______ I have not cleared the internal assessment.
4. ______ I don’t want to do it this way. 9. ______ That was a really brave thing to do.
5. ______ You did a really great job with that piece of 10. _______ The waiting list for the reservation seats is
furniture. too long; I don’t think we would get a seat.

Check out if you have filled in the blanks with the right interjections from the answers given below.
1. Well, that is new! 6. Ah, now I understand what you were trying to say.
2. Ouch! That hurt me more than I thought it would. 7. Oh no! That should have really upset you.
3. Yippee! We got the tickets to the movie premier 8. Alas! I have not cleared the internal assessment.
night. 9. Bravo! That was a really brave thing to do.
4. Uh, I don’t want to do it this way. 10. My God! The waiting list for the reservation seats is
5. Wow! You did a really great job with that piece of too long; I don’t think we would get a seat.
furniture.
What Do You Mean by Sentence Structure?
Sentence structure is a grammatical component that tells you exactly where and how each component of a
sentence should be placed in order to blend and make sense. The Collins Dictionary defines sentence structure as
“the grammatical arrangement of words in sentences.” In other words, the sentence structure is what defines the
way a sentence will look and sound.
Basic Parts and Components of a Sentence
Before we look into how sentence structure works, we will have to first learn about the basic structure of a
sentence and the components that make up a sentence.
Parts of a Sentence
A sentence, in the English language, consists of at least a subject and a predicate. In other words, a sentence
should have a subject and a verb.
Subject
The subject can be a noun or a pronoun that does the action.
For example:
 The sun is shining.  The sky is clear.  Today is Wednesday.
Predicate
The verb is the action performed by the particular subject in the sentence.
For example:
 I love macaroni and cheese.  Merin has a pet.  Anusha can draw.

Components of a Sentence
Like a sentence has two parts, it has five main components that make up the structure of a sentence, and they are,
 Subject  Object  Adjunct
 Verb  Complement
Subject
A noun that performs the action in a sentence is considered as the subject. It answers the question ‘who’ or in
other words, a subject can be identified by asking the question ‘who’. A subject takes the first place in most cases,
especially in declarative or assertive sentences.
For example:
 The child kept crying.  Hard work pays.
 Our school team won the match.  No one came to the wedding
 My son is in the eighth grade.
Verb
In every sentence the most important word can be said to be the verb. A verb shows action or activity or work
done by the subject. Remember that all verbs including main verbs, helping verbs, stative verbs and action verbs
come under this category. Most often, verbs appear immediately after the subject.
For example:
  Neena is writing a letter.  My phone is not working.
 It was too dark.  Tarun’s dog ran away.
 I feel tired.
Object
An object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action done by the subject. Objects are of two types and they are,
 Direct Object  Indirect Object
Direct Object
A noun or pronoun that receives the action directly is the direct object in the sentence. It answers the question
‘what’. Direct objects mostly appear immediately after the verb and are the primary objects in the sentence.
For example:
 Harry bought a new car.  I met my friend.  We watched a movie.
 My mom made a cake.  She knows all the songs.
Indirect Object
An indirect object is a noun or pronoun that is a secondary object. It can be identified by asking the question
‘whom’. When there is an indirect object in a sentence, it is mostly placed after the verb and before the direct
object.
For example:
 Vandhana gave Keerthana a cake.  They gave us coffee with breakfast.
 My mom bought me a new dress.  He lent his friend a pen.
 I gave him a chocolate.
Complement
The words required to complete the meaning of a sentence can be referred to as the complement of the sentence.
A complement can be an adjective, a name, a position or a profession.
For example:
 It grew dark.  He is a dentist.  That’s her dog, Bruno.
Complements are further divided into two types based on which component it speaks about. The two types of
complement are,
 Subject Complement  Object Complement
Subject Complement
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of the subject is called Subject Complement.
For example:
 She is a doctor.  The students are very excited.
 I am Sindhu.  My brother is a teacher.
 Nandhu is clever.
Object Complement
The complement which expresses the quality or identity or condition of an object is called Object Complement.
For example:
 They made her angry.  Marley met her friend, Ryan.
 The students elected Sreya the class leader.  Nobody found the movie interesting.
 They named their daughter, Thara.
Adjunct
An adjunct is a word or a phrase that gives more information about an action, an event, a quality and so on. In
short, it can be said that these words can include adverbs and adverb clauses. Adjuncts can be identified by asking
questions ‘when’, ‘where’, ‘why’, ‘how’, ‘how often’ and ‘to what extent’. When using adjuncts, keep in mind that
adjuncts can be used in the beginning, middle or end of the sentence and that there can be more than one adjunct
in a sentence.
Take a look at the following examples to understand how adjuncts can be used.
 Yesterday, we met at the park.  My father reads the newspaper everyday.
 He is very tired.  This workout routine is extremely exhausting.
 Due to his ill-health, he could not come home
for Christmas.
The Different Types of Sentence Structures in English Grammar
In English grammar, there are a number of sentence structures that you can use to make your speech or writing
sound or look a lot more organised, interesting and professional. Some of the commonly used sentence structures
are as follows.
 Subject + Verb (SV)  Subject + Verb + Object (SVO)
  Subject + Verb + Complement (SVC)  Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Object (ASVO)
 Subject + Verb + Adjunct (SVA)  Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Indirect Object +
 Subject + Verb + Object + Complement (SVOC) Direct Object (ASVIODO)
 Subject + Verb + Object + Adjunct (SVOA)  Subject + Verb + Adjunct + Adjunct (SVAA)
 Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object  Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Adjunct + Adjunct
(SVIODO) (ASVAA)
 Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Complement (ASVC)
Examples of Sentence Structure
Looking at examples will help you understand how each sentence structure works. So, here are a few examples for
you.
SV
 The stars / are shining.  The birds / are chirping.  It / is raining.
Subject / Verb Subject / Verb Subject / Verb
SVO
 Children / love / ice creams.  Noah / does not like / bitter  I / have / a pencil.
Subject / Verb / Object gourd. Subject / Verb / Object
Subject / Verb / Object
SVC
 I / am / an Indian.  Carol / is / a nurse.  My name / is / Gina.
Subject + Verb + Complement Subject + Verb + Complement Subject + Verb + Complement
SVA
 Madhu / reached / early.  All of us / are leaving / for  He / went / upstairs.
Subject / Verb / Adjunct Tokyo. Subject / Verb / Adjunct
Subject / Verb / Adjunct

SVOC
 We / lost / out cat, / Quinny. Subject / Verb / Object /
Complement  My friends / make / me / happy.
 Subject / Verb / Object /  Everyone / found / the book / Subject / Verb / Object /
Complement controversial. Complement
SVOA
 It / is / my birthday / next month.  Lakshmi / reached / school /  My brother / plays / football /
Subject / Verb / Object / Adjunct after 9 a.m. everyday.
Subject / Verb / Object / Adjunct Subject / Verb / Object / Adjunct
SVIODO
 The Board / offered / me / the  Rohit / gave / Reshmi / his  Neetu / bought / herself / a hat.
job. favourite book. Subject / Verb / Indirect
Subject / Verb / Indirect Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object
Object / Direct Object Object / Direct Object
ASVC
 Suddenly, / it / grew / dark.  Normally, / the weather / is /  Occassionally, / my dog / gets /
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / good. restless.
Complement Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Subject / Verb /
Complement Complement
ASVO
 Last week, / we / celebrated / Usually, / we / get / a token.  Every year, / we / visit / the
Holi. Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Object orphanage.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Object Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Object
ASVIODO
 Today, / the teacher / gave /  Yesterday, / my mom / bought /  Every time he comes home, /
us / our papers. me / a bicycle. my brother / gets / my mom /
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Subject / Verb / her favourite chocolates.
Indirect Object / Direct Object Indirect Object / Direct Object Adjunct / Subject / Verb /
Indirect Object / Direct Object
SVAA
 They / go / to work / by bus. Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct
 We / meet / every evening / on  Jancy / went / to the grocery
the way back home. store / last Saturday.
Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct
ASVAA
 Normally, / my parents / come /  Last year, / my friends and I /  Usually, / Finn’s parents / would
by bus / to Pondicherry. went / to Meghalaya / for a come / to the airport / as soon
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / month. as his flight lands.
Adjunct / Adjunct Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Subject / Verb /
Adjunct / Adjunct Adjunct / Adjunct

Check Your Understanding of Sentence Structure

 Make sure you split the sentences according to the sentence structure.
1. My dog is acting weird lately. 6. Nobody knows the answer.
2. It is getting too cold here. 7. The movie was great.
3. The sky is blue. 8. I will come home as soon as I finish work.
4. Every year, the company updates its registry. 9. In September, she will be travelling to New York.
5. Brittany bought me a pair of shoes. 10. My brother’s phone is not working.
 Check if you got it right from the answers given below.
1. My dog / is acting / weird / lately. 5. Brittany / bought / me / a pair of shoes.
Subject / Verb / Complement / Adjunct (SVCA) Subject / Verb / Indirect Object / Direct Object (SVIODO)
2. It / is getting / too /cold / here. 6. Nobody / knows / the answer.
Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Complement / Adjunct Subject / Verb / Object (SVO)
(SVACA) 7. The movie / was / great.
3. The sky / is / blue. Subject / Verb / Complement (SVC)
Subject / Verb / Complement (SVC) 8. I / will come / home / as soon as I finish work.
4. Every year, / the company / updates / its registry. Subject / Verb / Adjunct / Adjunct (SVAA)
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Object (ASVO) 9. In September, / she / will be travelling / to New York.
Adjunct / Subject / Verb / Adjunct (ASVA) Subject / Verb (SV)
10. My brother’s phone / is not working.

The Sentence Types in English Grammar

The English language gives every learner the liberty to make good use of the language in the best possible way.
Using different types of sentences will make your speech or writing sound and look well-structured and aid you in
getting your thoughts and ideas across to your target audience in a clear and effective manner. This will also allow
you to express your emotions and let your readers experience what you want them to experience.
The Four Different Types of Sentences
There are four different kinds of sentences in English grammar and they are as follows:
Declarative or Assertive Sentence – A declarative or assertive sentence is a sentence that is informative and ends
with a period or a full stop.
Examples:
 I like fantasy novels.  There is a white house around the corner.
Imperative Sentence – An imperative sentence is a sentence that expresses a command, an order, or a request.
Examples:
 Please pick up the notes when you come.  Close the door.
Interrogative Sentence – An interrogative sentence is one that is used to question something and it ends with
a question mark.
Examples:
 What is the name of the movie you were watching?  Can I come with you to the book fair?
Exclamatory Sentence – An exclamatory sentence is one which is used to express sudden and strong emotions,
and it ends with an exclamation mark. You can also use interjections to form exclamatory sentences.
Examples:
 Wow, how good this is!  That was a great match!
What Does the Word ‘Tense’ Mean?
In the English language, the word ‘tense’ is used to denote a characteristic of the verb in a sentence. The tense of
a verb is used to depict the particular time in which a specific event is taking place.
Definition of Tense
According to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, the term ‘tense’ is defined as “any of the forms of a verb that may be
used to show the time of the action or state expressed by the verb.” The Merriam-Webster Dictionary provides a
slightly different definition. According to it, the word ‘tense’ is defined as “a distinction of form in a verb to express
distinctions of time or duration of the action or state it denotes.”
“The tense of a verb group is its form, which usually shows whether you are referring to past, present, or future
time”, according to the Collins Dictionary, and the Cambridge Dictionary defines ‘tense’ as ”any of the forms of a
verb which show the time at which an action happened.”

How Important Is It to Know about Tenses?

Tenses are often considered to be the backbone and the most fundamental element of the English language.
Without tense, everything seems to be absurd. Tenses help you describe actions that take place at different times.
It helps to give clarity to your context and the information you are trying to convey. It also allows you to build
complex sentence structures. So, if you want to be able to convey information clearly and promptly, you should
know all the twelve tenses and how they are used.
Different Tenses in English - In English grammar, there are three main tenses, and they are each further
classified into four different forms, which sum up to twelve tenses in total. The three tenses in English are:
 Present Tense  Past Tense  Future Tense
The four different forms are:
 Simple Tense Form  Perfect Tense Form
 Continuous Tense Form  Perfect Continuous Tense Form
So, the twelve tenses in English are as follows:
 Simple Present Tense  Simple Past Tense  Future Continuous Tense
 Present Continuous Tense  Past Continuous Tense  Future Perfect Tense
 Present Perfect Tense  Past Perfect Tense  Future Perfect Continuous
 Present Perfect Continuous  Past Perfect Continuous Tense Tense
Tense  Simple Future Tense
‘Voice’ – What Is It?
The term ‘voice’ is a term that is used to denote the form of the verb which shows if the subject in a given
sentence is the doer or receiver of the action. The voice of a verb describes the relationship between the action
and the participants (subject or object) in a sentence.
The Two Voices in the English Language
There are two voices in the English language and they are as follows:
 Active Voice  Passive Voice
Let us look into the two voices a little in detail with the help of the meaning and definition given below.
What is the Active Voice? – Meaning and Definition
The active voice, in a sentence, denotes that the noun or pronoun that acts as the subject in the sentence is the
doer of the action. In other words, the subject performs the action or acts upon the verb.
According to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, the active voice is defined as “the form of a verb in which the subject
is the person or thing that performs the action”, and according to the Collins Dictionary, the active voice is defined
as “a voice of verbs used to indicate that the subject of a sentence is performing the action or causing the event or
process described by the verb.”
What is the Passive Voice? – Meaning and Definition
The passive voice, on the other hand, represents that the subject is one acted upon by the action or verb in the
sentence. It can also be said that the passive voice indicates that the subject in the sentence is no longer active
but passive.
According to the Oxford Learner’s Dictionary, the passive voice is defined as “the form of a verb used when the
subject is affected by the action of the verb”, and according to the Collins Dictionary, the passive voice is “formed
using ‘be’ and the past participle of a verb. The subject of a passive clause does not perform the action expressed
by the verb but is affected by it.”
Using the Active Voice and the Passive Voice – Points to Remember
There are a few points that you have to bear in mind when using the active voice and the passive voice. In the
English language, the active voice is used generally as they give the information in a direct and clear manner.
Make sure you do not use the passive voice just because you think it sounds better. Use it only if it is necessary.
Remember that the active voice has the subject doing the action and the passive voice has the subject receiving
the action. If you want to communicate your thoughts and ideas clearly and effectively, especially in a professional
setup, it would be best to use the active voice.
A pro tip for you to master the active voice and the passive voice is to know the structure and formula by which
they work.
Active Voice – Subject + Verb + Object Passive Voice – Object + Verb + Subject
Difference between the Active Voice and the Passive Voice
Analysing the difference between the active voice and the passive voice is what will help you in a much better way
to learn how to use the two voices effectively. Take a look at the following table to know how they differ.

Active Voice Passive Voice

 Denotes that the subject is performing the  Denotes that the subject is acted upon by the verb or
action. action in the sentence.
 The active voice does not require a linking  The passive voice uses a linking verb followed by the
verb to make sense. past participle of the main verb.
 The active voice focuses on the doer of the  The passive voice comes in handy when the doer of the
action. action is undetermined.
 Has a direct, clear and strong tone.  Has an indirect, weak and subtle tone.
 Examples:  Examples:
 I decorated the hall.  The hall was decorated by me.
 Devi gave Shanthi a gift.  Shanthi was given a gift by Devi.
Rules to be Followed When Converting the Active Voice to the Passive Voice
Conversion Rules for Active Voice and Passive Voice
Tense Voice Simple Tense Continuous Tense Perfect Tense Perfect Continuous
Tense
Presen Active Brendon plays Brendon is playing Brendon has played Brendon has been
t cricket. cricket. cricket. playing cricket.
Passiv Cricket is played by Cricket is being played Cricket has been No Passive
 e Brendon. by Brendon. played by Brendon.
Past Active Brendon played Brendon was playing Brendon had played Brendon had been
cricket. cricket. cricket. playing cricket.
Passiv Cricket was played Cricket was being Cricket had been No Passive
e by Brendon. played by Brendon. played by Brendon.
Future Active Brendon will play Brendon will be Brendon will have Brendon will have been
cricket. playing cricket. played cricket. playing cricket.
Passiv Cricket will be No Passive Cricket will have been No Passive
e played by Brendon. played by Brendon.
Change of Pronouns
Active Voice Passive Voice
I Me
We Us
He Him
She Her
They Them
It It
Examples of the Active and Passive Voice
Given below are a few examples of how to convert the active voice into the passive voice.
Active Voice – Twinkle likes adventure stories. Passive Voice – Macaroons have been brought by
Passive Voice – Adventure stories are liked by Kurt.
Twinkle. Active Voice – Sidharth played cricket.
Active Voice – Latha is learning French this year. Passive Voice – Cricket was played by Sidharth.
Passive Voice – French is being learnt by Latha this Active Voice – They were making invitation cards.
year. Passive Voice – Invitation cards were being made by
Active Voice – Kurt has brought macaroons. them.
Active Voice – Becky had packed the bags.
Passive Voice – The bags had been packed by Becky. Active Voice – Sanjay will have given the forms to all
Active Voice – Mira will buy the refreshments for the the participants.
party. Passive Voice – The forms will have been given to all
Passive Voice – The refreshments for the party will the participants by Sanjay.
be bought by Mira.
Check Your Understanding of the Active Voice and the Passive Voice
Try converting the following sentences as directed.
1. Varun is helping Reshmi. (Change into passive voice) 6. The decorations for the annual day will be done by
2. A gift was given to Manassa by me. (Change into Emma. (Change into active voice)
active voice) 7. J. K. Rowling wrote the Harry Potter novels. (Change
3. Santana will sing All My Life at the Nationals. (Change into passive voice)
into active voice) 8. Ms. Holly will teach Spanish this year. (Change into
4. A mouse was being chased by my cat. (Change into passive voice)
active voice) 9. Mike was hit by Nick. (Change into active voice)
5. Naveen loves Praveena. (Change into passive voice) 10. Naslen is being scolded by his mom. (Change into
active voice.

 Check out if you did the conversion right from the answers given below.
1.
Reshmi is being helped by Varun. 7. The Harry Potter novels were written by J. K.
2. I gave Manassa a gift. Rowling.
3. All My Life will be sung by Santana at the Nationals. 8. Spanish will be taught by Ms. Holly this year.
4. My cat was chasing a mouse. 9. Nick hit Mike.
5. Praveena is loved by Naveen. 10. Naslen’s mom is scolding him.
6. Emma will do the decorations for the annual day.