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Political party
A political party is an organization that coordinates
candidates to compete in a particular area's elections. It is
common for the members of a party to hold similar ideas
about politics, and parties may promote specific ideological
or policy goals.

Political parties have become a major part of the politics of

almost every country, as modern party organizations
developed and spread around the world over the last few The members of political parties, such as
centuries. Although some countries have no political parties, those of the Indian National Congress (INC)
this is extremely rare. Most countries have several parties (pictured), coordinate to collectively achieve
while others only have one. Parties are important in the and use political power.
politics of autocracies as well as democracies, though
usually democracies have more political parties than
autocracies. Autocracies often have a single party that governs the country, and some political
scientists consider competition between two or more parties to be an essential part of democracy.

Parties can develop from existing divisions in society, like the divisions between lower and upper
classes, and they streamline the process of making political decisions by encouraging their members
to cooperate. Political parties usually include a party leader, who has primary responsibility for the
activities of the party; party executives, who may select the leader and who performs administrative
and organizational tasks; and party members, who may volunteer to help the party, donate money to
it, and vote for its candidates. There are many different ways in which political parties can be
structured and interact with the electorate. The contributions that citizens give to political parties are
often regulated by law, and parties will sometimes govern in a way that favors the people who donate
time and money to them.

Many political parties are motivated by ideological goals. It is common for democratic elections to
feature liberal, conservative, and socialist parties; other common ideologies of very large political
parties include communism, populism, nationalism, and Islamism. Political parties in different
countries will often adopt similar colors and symbols to identify themselves with a particular ideology.
However, many political parties have no ideological affiliation and may instead be primarily engaged
in patronage, clientelism, the advancement of a specific political entrepreneur, or be a "big tent", in
that they wish to attract voters who have a variety of positions on issues.

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Definition
Political parties are collective entities and activities that organize competitions for political offices.[1]: 3
The members of a political party contest elections under a shared label. In a narrow definition, a
political party can be thought of as just the group of candidates who run for office under a party
label.[2]: 3 In a broader definition, political parties are the entire apparatus that supports the election
of a group of candidates, including voters and volunteers who identify with a particular political party,
the official party organizations that support the election of that party's candidates, and legislators in
the government who are affiliated with the party.[3] In many countries, the notion of a political party
is defined in law, and governments may specify requirements for an organization to legally qualify as a
political party.[4]

Political parties are distinguished from other political groups or clubs, such as parliamentary groups,
because only presidents have control over the political foundations of the party and also they include
political factions, or advocacy groups, mostly by the fact that a party is focused on electing candidates,
whereas a parliamentary group is a group of political parties, a political faction is a subgroup within a
political party, and an advocacy group is focused on advancing a policy agenda.[5] This is related to
other features that sometimes distinguish parties from other political organizations, including a larger
membership, greater stability over time, and a deeper connection to the electorate.[6]

History
The idea of people forming large groups or factions to advocate for their shared interests is ancient.
Plato mentions the political factions of Classical Athens in the Republic,[7] and Aristotle discusses the
tendency of different types of government to produce factions in the Politics.[8] Certain ancient
disputes were also factional, like the Nika riots between two chariot racing factions at the Hippodrome
of Constantinople. A few instances of recorded political groups or factions in history included the late
Roman Republic's Populares and Optimates factions as well as the Dutch Republic's Orangists and
the Staatsgezinde. However, modern political parties are considered to have emerged around the end
of the 18th century; they are usually considered to have first appeared in Europe and the United States
of America, with the United Kingdom's Conservative Party and the Democratic Party of the United
States both frequently called the world's "oldest continuous political party".[9][2][10][11]

Before the development of mass political parties, elections typically featured a much lower level of
competition, had small enough polities that direct decision-making was feasible, and held elections
that were dominated by individual networks or cliques that could independently propel a candidate to
victory in an election.[12]: 510

18th century
Some scholars argue that the first modern political parties developed in early modern Britain in the
17th century, after the Exclusion Crisis and the Glorious Revolution.[13]: 4 The Whig faction originally
organized itself around support for Protestant constitutional monarchy as opposed to absolute rule,
whereas the conservative Tory faction (originally the Royalist or Cavalier faction of the English Civil
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War) supported a strong monarchy, and these two

groups structured disputes in the politics of the United
Kingdom throughout the 18th century[13]: 4 [14] The
Rockingham Whigs have been identified as the first
modern political party, because they retained a
coherent party label and motivating principles even
while out of power.[15]

At the end of the century, the United States also

developed a party system, called the First Party
System. Although the framers of the 1787 United States
Constitution did not all anticipate that American In A Block for the Wigs (1783), James Gillray
political disputes would be primarily organized around caricatured Fox's return to power in a coalition
political parties, political controversies in the early with North. George III is the blockhead in the
1790s over the extent of federal government powers centre.
saw the emergence of two proto-political parties: the
Federalist Party and the Democratic-Republican
Party.[16][17]

19th century
By the early 19th century, a number of countries had developed stable modern party systems. The
party system that developed in Sweden has been called the world's first party system, on the basis that
previous party systems were not fully stable or institutionalized.[9] In many European countries,
including Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and France, political parties organized around a liberal-
conservative divide, or around religious disputes.[12]: 510 The spread of the party model of politics was
accelerated by the 1848 Revolutions around Europe.[18]

The strength of political parties in the United States waned during the Era of Good Feelings, but
shifted and strengthened again by the second half of the 19th century.[19][20] This was not the only
country in which the strength of political parties had substantially increased by the end of the century;
for example, around this time the Irish political leader Charles Stewart Parnell implemented several
methods and structures like party discipline that would come to be associated with strong grassroots
political parties.[21]

20th century
At the beginning of the 20th century in Europe, the liberal–conservative divide that characterized
most party systems was disrupted by the emergence of socialist parties, which attracted the support of
organized trade unions.[12]: 511

During the wave of decolonization in the mid-20th century, many newly sovereign countries outside
of Europe and North America developed party systems that often emerged from their movements for
independence.[22][23] For example, a system of political parties arose out of factions in the Indian
independence movement, and was strengthened and stabilized by the policies of Indira Gandhi in the
1970s.[2]: 165 The formation of the Indian National Congress, which developed in the late 19th century

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as a pro-independence faction in British India and immediately became a major political party after
Indian independence, foreshadowed the dynamic in many newly independent countries; for example,
the Uganda National Congress was a pro-independence party and the first political party in Uganda,
and its name was chosen as an homage to the Indian National Congress.[24]

As broader suffrage rights and eventually universal suffrage slowly spread throughout democracies,
political parties expanded dramatically, and only then did a vision develop of political parties as
intermediaries between the full public and the government.[25]

Causes of political parties

Political parties are a nearly ubiquitous feature of modern countries.[26] Nearly all democratic
countries have strong political parties, and many political scientists consider countries with fewer
than two parties to necessarily be autocratic.[27][28][29] However, these sources allow that a country
with multiple competitive parties is not necessarily democratic, and the politics of many autocratic
countries are organized around one dominant political party.[29][30] The ubiquity and strength of
political parties in nearly every modern country has led researchers to remark that the existence of
political parties is almost a law of politics, and to ask why parties appear to be such an essential part of
modern states.[12]: 510 [1] Political scientists have therefore come up with several explanations for why
political parties are a nearly universal political phenomenon.[2]: 11

Social cleavages
One of the core explanations for the existence of political
parties is that they arise from pre-existing divisions among
people: society is divided in a certain way, and a party is
formed to organize that division into the electoral
competition. By the 1950s, economists and political scientists
had shown that party organizations could take advantage of
the distribution of voters' preferences over political issues,
adjusting themselves in response to what voters believe in
order to become more competitive.[31][32] Beginning in the Political parties like the Romanian
1960s, academics began identifying the social cleavages in Communist Party can arise out of, or be
different countries that might have given rise to specific closely connected to, existing segments
of society, such as organizations of
parties, such as religious cleavages in specific countries that
workers.
may have produced religious parties there.[33][34]

The theory that parties are produced by social cleavages has

drawn several criticisms. Some authors have challenged it on empirical grounds, either finding no
evidence for the claim that parties emerge from existing cleavages, or arguing that the claim is not
empirically testable.[35] Others note that while social cleavages might cause political parties to exist,
this obscures the opposite effect: that political parties also cause changes in the underlying social
cleavages.[2]: 13 A further objection is that, if the explanation for where parties come from is that they
emerge from existing social cleavages, then the theory is an incomplete story of where political parties
come from unless it also explains the origins of these social cleavages.[36]
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Individual and group incentives

An alternative explanation for why parties are ubiquitous across the
world is that the formation of parties provides compatible incentives
for candidates and legislators. For example, the existence of political
parties might coordinate candidates across geographic districts, so that
a candidate in one electoral district has an incentive to assist a similar
candidate in a different district.[1] Thus, political parties can be
mechanisms for preventing candidates with similar goals from acting
to each other's detriment when campaigning or governing.[37] This
might help explain the ubiquity of parties: if a group of candidates
form a party and are harming each other less, they may perform better
over the long run than unaffiliated politicians, so politicians with party
affiliations will out-compete politicians without parties.[1]

Parties can also align their member's incentives when those members
are in a legislature.[38] The existence of a party apparatus can help
coalitions of electors to agree on ideal policy choices,[39] whereas a It is easier for voters to
legislature of unaffiliated members might never be able to agree on a evaluate one simple list of
single best policy choice without some institution constraining their policies for each party, like this
platform for the United
options.[40][41]
Australia Party, than to
individually judge every single
Parties as heuristics candidate.

Another prominent explanation for why political parties exist is

psychological: parties may be necessary for many individuals to participate in politics because they
provide a massively simplifying heuristic, which allows people to make informed choices with much
less mental effort than if voters had to consciously evaluate the merits of every candidate
individually.[42] Without political parties, electors would have to individually evaluate every candidate
in every election. Parties enable electors to make judgments about just a few groups, and then apply
their judgment of the party to its entire slate of candidates. Because it is much easier to become
informed about a few parties' platforms than the positions of a multitude of independent candidates,
parties reduce the cognitive burden for people to cast informed votes. However, some evidence
suggests that over the last several decades, the strength of party identification has been weakening, so
this may be a less important function for parties to provide than it was in the past.[43]

Structure of political parties

Political parties are often structured in similar ways across countries. They typically feature a single
party leader, a group of party executives, and a community of party members.[44] Parties in
democracies usually select their party leadership in ways that are more open and competitive than
parties in autocracies, where the selection of a new party leader is likely to be tightly controlled.[45] In
countries with large sub-national regions, particularly federalist countries, there may be regional
party leaders and regional party members in addition to the national membership and
leadership.[2]: 75

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Party leaders
Parties are typically led by a party leader, who serves as the
main representative of the party and often has primary
responsibility for overseeing the party's policies and
strategies. The leader of the party that controls the
government usually becomes the head of government, such as
the president or prime minister, and the leaders of other
parties explicitly compete to become the head of
government.[44] In both presidential democracies and
A National Congress of the Chinese parliamentary democracies, the members of a party frequently
Communist Party, where policies may be have substantial input into the selection of party leaders, for
set and changes can be made to party example by voting on party leadership at a party
leadership conference.[46][47] Because the leader of a major party is a
powerful and visible person, many party leaders are well-
known career politicians.[48] Party leaders can be sufficiently
prominent that they affect voters' perceptions of the entire party,[49] and some voters decide how to
vote in elections partly based on how much they like the leaders of the different parties.[50]

The number of people involved in choosing party leaders varies widely across parties and across
countries. On one extreme, party leaders might be selected from the entire electorate; on the opposite
extreme, they might be selected by just one individual.[51] Selection by a smaller group can be a
feature of party leadership transitions in more autocratic countries, where the existence of political
parties may be severely constrained to only one legal political party, or only one competitive party.
Some of these parties, like the Chinese Communist Party, have rigid methods for selecting the next
party leader, which involves selection by other party members.[52] A small number of single-party
states have hereditary succession, where party leadership is inherited by the child of an outgoing party
leader.[53] Autocratic parties use more restrictive selection methods to avoid having major shifts in
the regime as a result of successions.[45]

Party executives
In both democratic and non-democratic countries, the party leader is often the foremost member of a
larger party leadership. A party executive will commonly include administrative positions, like a party
secretary and a party chair, who may be different people from the party leader.[54][55] These executive
organizations may serve to constrain the party leader, especially if that leader is an autocrat.[56][57] It
is common for political parties to conduct major leadership decisions, like selecting a party executive
and setting their policy goals, during regular party conferences.[58]

Much as party leaders who are not in power are usually at least nominally competing to become the
head of government, the entire party executive may be competing for various positions in the
government. For example, in Westminster systems, the largest party that is out of power will form the
Official Opposition in parliament, and select a shadow cabinet which (among other functions)
provides a signal about which members of the party would hold which positions in the government if
the party were to win an election.[59]

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Party membership
Citizens in a democracy will often affiliate with a specific
political party. Party membership may include paying dues,
an agreement not to affiliate with multiple parties at the same
time, and sometimes a statement of agreement with the
party's policies and platform.[60] In democratic countries,
members of political parties often are allowed to participate in
elections to choose the party leadership.[51] Party members
may form the base of the volunteer activists and donors who
support political parties during campaigns.[61] The extent of
participation in party organizations can be affected by a Members of the National Woman's Party
country's political institutions, with certain electoral systems in 1918
and party systems encouraging higher party membership. [62]

Since at least the 1980s, membership in large traditional party

organizations has been steadily declining across a number of countries, particularly longstanding
European democracies.[63]

Types of party organizations

Political scientists have distinguished between different types of political parties that have evolved
throughout history. These include elite parties, mass parties, catch-all parties and cartel
parties.[64]: 163–178 Elite parties were political elites that were concerned with contesting elections and
restricted the influence of outsiders, who were only required to assist in election campaigns. Mass
parties tried to recruit new members who were a source of party income and were often expected to
spread party ideology as well as assist in elections. In the United States, where both major parties
were elite parties, the introduction of primaries and other reforms has transformed them so that
power is held by activists who compete over influence and nomination of candidates.[65]

Scholars distinguish between strong political parties where decision-making is centralized and top-
down on one hand and weak political parties where decision-making is decentralized and the
grassroots has considerable power on the other hand.[66][67]

Elite parties
An elite party is a type of political party that was dominant in the nineteenth century before the
introduction of universal suffrage. The French political scientist Maurice Duverger first distinguished
between elite and "mass" parties, founding his distinction on the differences within the organisational
structures of these two types.[68]: 60–71 Elite parties are characterized by minimal and loose
organisation, and are financed by fewer larger monetary contributions typically originating from
outside the party. Elite parties give little priority to expanding the party's membership base, and its
leaders are its only members.[69][64]: 165 The earliest political parties, such as the Democratic-
Republicans and the Federalists, are classified as elite parties.[70]

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Mass parties
A mass party is a type of political party that developed around
cleavages in society and mobilized the ordinary citizens or
'masses' in the political process.[70] In Europe, the
introduction of universal suffrage resulted in the creation of
worker's parties that later evolved into mass parties; an
example is the German Social Democratic Party.[64]: 165 These
parties represented large groups of citizens who had not
previously been represented in political processes, articulating
the interests of different groups in society. In contrast to elite Parties can arise from existing cleavages
in society, like the Social Democratic
parties, mass parties are funded by their members, and rely
Party of Germany which was formed to
on and maintain a large membership base. Further, mass represent German workers.
parties prioritize the mobilization of voters and are more
centralized than elite parties.[70][71]

Catch-all parties
The term "catch-all party" was developed by German-American political scientist Otto Kirchheimer to
describe the parties that developed in the 1950s and 1960s as a result of changes within the mass
parties.[72][64]: 165 The term "big tent party" may be used interchangeably. Kirchheimer characterized
the shift from the traditional mass parties to catch-all parties as a set of developments including the
"drastic reduction of the party's ideological baggage" and the "downgrading of the role of the
individual party member".[73] By broadening their central ideologies into more open-ended ones,
catch-all parties seek to secure the support of a wider section of the population. Further, the role of
members is reduced as catch-all parties are financed in part by the state or by donations.[64]: 163–178 In
Europe, the shift of Christian Democratic parties that were organized around religion into broader
centre-right parties epitomizes this type.[74]

Cartel parties
Cartel parties are a type of political party that emerged post-1970s and are characterized by heavy
state financing and the diminished role of ideology as an organizing principle. The cartel party thesis
was developed by Richard Katz and Peter Mair, who wrote that political parties have turned into
"semi-state agencies",[75] acting on behalf of the state rather than groups in society. The term 'cartel'
refers to the way in which prominent parties in government make it difficult for new parties to enter,
as such forming a cartel of established parties. As with catch-all parties, the role of members in cartel
parties is largely insignificant as parties use the resources of the state to maintain their position within
the political system.[64]: 163–178

Niche parties
Niche parties are a type of political party that developed on the basis of the emergence of new
cleavages and issues in politics, such as immigration and the environment.[76] In contrast to
mainstream or catch-all parties, niche parties articulate an often limited set of interests in a way that
does not conform to the dominant economic left-right divide in politics, in turn emphasising issues

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that do not attain prominence within the other parties.[77] Further, niche parties do not respond to
changes in public opinion to the extent that mainstream parties do. Examples of niche parties include
Green parties and extreme nationalist parties, such as the National Rally in France.[78] However, over
time these parties may grow in size and shed some of their niche qualities as they become larger, a
phenonmenon observable among European Green parties during their transformation from radical
environmentalist movements to mainstream centre-left parties.[77]

Entrepreneurial parties
An Entrepreneurial party is a political party that is centered on a political entrepreneur, and dedicated
to the advancement of that person or their policies.[79] While some definitions of political parties state
that a party is an organization that advances a specific set of ideological or policy goals,[80] many
political parties are not primarily motivated by ideology or policy, and instead exist to advance the
career of a specific political entrepreneur.[81][82]

Party positions and ideologies

Political ideologies are one of the major organizing features of political parties, and parties often
officially align themselves with specific ideologies. Parties adopt ideologies for a number of reasons.
Ideological affiliations for political parties send signals about the types of policies they might pursue if
they were in power.[83] Ideologies also differentiate parties from one another, so that voters can select
the party that advances the policies that they most prefer.[84] A party may also seek to advance an
ideology by convincing voters to adopt its belief system.[85]

Common ideologies that can form a central part of the identity of a political party include liberalism,
conservatism, socialism, communism, anarchism, fascism, feminism, environmentalism, nationalism,
fundamentalism,[86] Islamism, and multiculturalism.[87] Liberalism is the ideology that is most
closely connected to the history of democracies and is often considered to be the dominant or default
ideology of governing parties in much of the contemporary world.[88] Many of the traditional
competitors to liberal parties are conservative parties.[88] Socialist, communist, feminist, anarchist,
fascist, and nationalist parties are more recent developments, largely entering political competitions
only in the 19th and 20th centuries.[88] Environmentalism, multiculturalism, and certain types of
fundamentalism became prominent towards the end of the 20th century.[88]

Parties can sometimes be organized according to their ideology using an economic left–right political
spectrum. However, a simple left-right economic axis does not fully capture the variation in party
ideologies.[89] Other common axes that are used to compare the ideologies of political parties include
ranges from liberal to authoritarian,[90] from pro-establishment to anti-establishment, and from
tolerant and pluralistic (in their behavior while participating in the political arena) to anti-system.[89]

Party positions for individual political parties are assessed by different published indices, such as the
V-Party Dataset.[91]

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Non-ideological parties
Though ideologies are central to a large number of political parties around the world, not all political
parties have an organizing ideology, or exist to promote ideological policies. For example, some
political parties may be clientelistic or patronage-based organizations, which are largely concerned
with distributing goods.[92] Other political parties may be created as tools for the advancement of an
individual politician.[82][93] It is also common, in countries with important social cleavages along
ethnic or racial lines, to represent the interests of one ethnic group or another.[94] This may involve a
non-ideological attachment to the interests of that group, or may be a commitment based on an
ideology like identity politics. While any of these types of parties may be ideological, there are political
parties that do not have any organizing ideology.[81]

Party systems
Political parties are ubiquitous across both democratic and autocratic countries, and there is often
very little change in which political parties have a chance of holding power in a country from one
election to the next. This makes it possible to think about the political parties in a country as
collectively forming one of the country's central political institutions, called a party system.[95] Some
basic features of a party system are the number of parties and what sorts of parties are the most
successful.[96] These properties are closely connected to other major features of the country's politics,
such as how democratic it is, what sorts of restrictions its laws impose on political parties, and what
type of electoral systems it uses.[95] Even in countries where the number of political parties is not
officially constrained by law, political institutions affect how many parties are viable. For example,
democracies that use a single-member district electoral system tend to have very few parties, whereas
countries that use proportional representation tend to have more.[97]: ch. 7 The number of parties in a
country can also be accurately estimated based on the magnitude of a country's electoral districts and
the number of seats in its legislature.[97]: 255

An informative way to classify the party systems of the world is by how many parties they include.[96]
Because some party systems include a large number of parties that have a very low probability of
winning elections, it is often useful to think about the effective number of parties (the number of
parties weighted by the strength of those parties) rather than the literal number of registered
parties.[98]

Non-partisan systems
In a non-partisan system, no political parties exist, or political parties are not a major part of the
political system. There are very few countries without political parties.[99]

In some non-partisan countries, the formation of parties is explicitly banned by law.[100] The
existence of political parties may be banned in autocratic countries in order to prevent a turnover in
power.[101] For example, in Saudi Arabia, a ban on political parties has been used as a tool for
protecting the monarchy.[101] However, parties are also banned in some polities that have long
democratic histories, usually in local or regional elections of countries that have strong national party
systems.[102][103][104]

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Political parties may also temporarily cease to exist in

countries that have either only been established recently, or
that have experienced a major upheaval in their politics and
have not yet returned to a stable system of political parties.
For example, the United States began as a non-partisan
democracy, and it evolved a stable system of political parties
over the course of many decades.[1]: ch.4 A country's party
system may also dissolve and take time to re-form, leaving a
period of minimal or no party system, such as in Peru
following the regime of Alberto Fujimori.[105] However, it is
also possible – albeit rare – for countries with no bans on
In a non-partisan legislature, like the
political parties, and which have not experienced a major
Legislative Assembly of the Northwest
disruption, to nevertheless have no political parties: there are Territories, every member runs and
a small number of pacific island democracies, such as Palau, legislates as a political independent with
where political parties are permitted to exist and yet parties no party affiliation.
are not an important part of national politics.[100]

One-party systems
In a one-party system, power is held entirely by one political party. When only one political party
exists, it may be the result of a ban on the formation of any competing political parties, which is a
common feature in authoritarian states. For example, the Communist Party of Cuba is the only
permitted political party in Cuba, and is the only party that can hold seats in the legislature.[106] When
only one powerful party is legally permitted to exist, its membership can grow to contain a very large
portion of society and it can play substantial roles in civil society that are not necessarily directly
related to political governance; one example of this is the Chinese Communist Party.[107] Bans on
competing parties can also ensure that only one party can ever realistically hold power, even without
completely outlawing all other political parties. For example, in North Korea, more than one party is
officially permitted to exist and even to seat members in the legislature,[108] but laws ensure that the
Workers' Party of Korea retains control.[109]

It is also possible for countries with free elections to have only one party that holds power. These cases
are sometimes called dominant-party systems or particracies. Scholars have debated whether or not a
country that has never experienced a transfer of power from one party to another can nevertheless be
considered a democracy.[27]: 23 There have been periods of government exclusively or entirely by one
party in some countries that are often considered to have been democratic, and which had no official
legal barriers to the inclusion of other parties in the government; this includes recent periods in
Botswana, Japan, Mexico, Senegal, and South Africa.[27]: 24–27 It can also occur that one political
party dominates a sub-national region of a democratic country that has a competitive national party
system; one example is the southern United States during much of the 19th and 20th centuries, where
the Democratic Party had almost complete control, with the Southern states being functionally one-
party regimes, though opposition parties were never prohibited.[110]

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Two-party systems
In several countries, there are only two parties that have a realistic chance of competing to form
government.[111] One current example of a two-party system is the United States, where the national
government has for much of the country's history exclusively been controlled by either the Democratic
Party or the Republican Party.[112] Other examples of countries which have had long periods of two-
party dominance include Colombia, Uruguay,[113] Malta,[114] and Ghana.[115] Two-party systems are
not limited to democracies; they may be present in authoritarian regimes as well. Competition
between two parties has occurred in historical autocratic regimes in countries including Brazil[116] and
Venezuela.[117]

A democracy's political institutions can shape the number of parties that it has. In the 1950s Maurice
Duverger observed that single-member district single-vote plurality-rule elections tend to produce
two-party systems,[68]: 217 and this phenomenon came to be known as Duverger's law. Whether or not
this pattern is true has been heavily debated over the last several decades.[118] Some political scientists
have broadened this idea to argue that more restrictive political institutions (of which first past the
post is one example) tend to produce a smaller number of political parties, so that extremely small
parties systems – like those with only two parties – tend to form in countries with very restrictive
rules.[119]

Two-party systems have attracted heavy criticism for limiting the choices that electors have, and much
of this criticism has centered around their association with restrictive political institutions. For
example, some commentators argue that political institutions in prominent two-party systems like the
United States have been specifically designed to ensure that no third party can become
competitive.[120] Criticisms also center around these systems' tendencies to encourage insincere
voting and to facilitate the spoiler effect.[121]: ch. 1

Multi-party systems
Multi-party systems are systems in which more than two
parties have a realistic chance of holding power and
influencing policy.[113] A very large number of systems around
the world have had periods of multi-party competition,[122]
and two-party democracies may be considered unusual or
uncommon compared to multi-party systems.[123] Many of the
largest democracies in the world have had long periods of
multi-party competition, including India,[124] Indonesia,[125]
Pakistan,[126] and Brazil.[127] Multi-party systems encourage
characteristically different types of governance than smaller On this 2012 Mexican ballot, voters have
party systems, for example by often encouraging the more than two parties to choose from.
formation of coalition governments.[128]

The presence of many competing political parties is usually associated with a greater level of
democracy, and a country transitioning from having a one-party system to having a many-party
system is often considered to be democratizing.[129] Authoritarian countries can include multi-party
competition, but typically this occurs when the elections are not fair.[130] For this reason, in two-party
democracies like the United States, proponents of forming new competitive political parties often
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argue that developing a multi-party system would make the country more democratic.[131] However,
the question of whether multi-party systems are more democratic than two-party systems, or if they
enjoy better policy outcomes, is a subject of substantial disagreement among scholars[132][133] as well
as among the public.[134][135] In the opposite extreme, a country with a very large number of parties
can experience governing coalitions that include highly ideologically diverse parties that are unable to
make much policy progress, which may cause the country to be unstable and experience a very large
number of elections; examples of systems that have been described as having these problems include
periods in the recent history of Israel,[136] Italy, and Finland.[137] Multi-party systems are often
viewed as fairer or more representative than one- or two-party systems,[131] but they also have
downsides, like the likelihood that in a system with plurality voting the winner of a race with many
options will only have minority support.[94]

Some multi-party systems may have two parties that are noticeably more competitive than the other
parties.[138] Such party systems have been called "two-party-plus" systems, which refers to the two
dominant parties, plus other parties that exist but rarely or never hold power in the government.[139]
Such parties may serve a crucial factor in election outcomes.[140] It is also possible for very large
multi-party systems, like India's, to nevertheless be characterized largely by a series of regional
contests that realistically have only two competitive parties, but in the aggregate can produce many
more than two parties that have major roles in the country's national politics.[124]

Funding
Many of the activities of political parties involve the acquisition and allocation of funds in order to
achieve political goals. The funding involved can be very substantial, with contemporary elections in
the largest democracies typically costing billions or even tens of billions of dollars.[141][142] Much of
this expense is paid by candidates and political parties, which often develop sophisticated fundraising
organizations.[143] Because paying for participation in electoral contests is such a central democratic
activity, the funding of political parties is an important feature of a country's politics.[143]

Sources of party funds

Common sources of party funding across countries include
dues-paying party members, advocacy groups and lobbying
organizations, corporations, trade unions, and candidates who
may self-fund activities.[144] In most countries, the
government also provides some level of funding for political
parties.[143][145] Nearly all of the 180 countries examined by
the International Institute for Democracy and Electoral
Assistance have some form of public funding for political
Campaign finance restrictions may be parties, and about a third have regular payments of
motivated by the perception that government funds that goes beyond campaign
excessive or secretive contributions to reimbursements. [146] In some countries, public funding for
political parties will make them beholden parties depends on the size of that party: for example, a
to people other than the voters.
country may only provide funding to parties which have more
than a certain number of candidates or supporters.[146] A
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common argument for public funding of political parties is that it creates fairer and more democratic
elections by enabling more groups to compete, whereas many advocates for private funding of parties
argue that donations to parties are a form of political expression that should be protected in a
democracy.[147] Public financing of political parties may decrease parties' pursuit of funds through
corrupt methods, by decreasing their incentive to find alternate sources of funding.[148]

One way of categorizing the sources of party funding is between public funding and private funding.
Another dichotomy is between plutocratic and grassroots sources; parties which get much of their
funding from large corporations may tend to pursue different policies and use different strategies than
parties which are mostly funded through small donations by individual supporters.[149] Private
funding for political parties can also be thought of as coming from internal or external sources: this
distinguishes between dues from party members or contributions by candidates, and donations from
entities outside of the party like non-members, corporations, or trade unions.[149] Internal funding
may be preferred because external sources might make the party beholden to an outside entity.[149]

Uses for party funds

There are many ways in which political parties may deploy money in order to secure better electoral
outcomes. Parties often spend money to train activists, recruit volunteers, create and deploy
advertisements, conduct research and support for their leadership in between elections, and promote
their policy agenda.[143] Many political parties and candidates engage in a practice called clientelism,
in which they distribute material rewards to people in exchange for political support; in many
countries this is illegal, though even where it is illegal it may nevertheless be widespread in
practice.[150] Some parties engage directly in vote buying, in which a party gives money to a person in
exchange for their vote.[151]

Though it may be crucial for a party to spend more than some threshold to win a given election, there
are typically diminishing returns for expenses during a campaign.[152] Once a party has crossed a
particular spending threshold, additional expenditures might not increase their chance of success.[153]

Restrictions
Fundraising and expenditures by political parties are typically regulated by governments, with many
countries' regulations focusing on who can contribute money to parties, how parties' money can be
spent, and how much of it can pass through the hands of a political party.[154] Two main ways in
which regulations affect parties are by intervening in their sources of income and by mandating that
they maintain some level of transparency about their funding.[155] One common type of restriction on
how parties acquire money is to limit who can donate money to political parties; for example, people
who are not citizens of a country may not be allowed to make contributions to that country's political
parties, in order to prevent foreign interference.[154] It is also common to limit how much money an
individual can give to a political party each election.[156] Similarly, many governments cap the total
amount of money that can be spent by each party in an election.[145] Transparency regulations may
require parties to disclose detailed financial information to the government, and in many countries
transparency laws require those disclosures to be available to the public, as a safeguard against

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potential corruption.[143]
Creating, implementing, and amending laws regarding party expenses can
be extremely difficult, since governments may be controlled by the very parties that these regulations
restrict.[143]

Party colours and symbols

Nearly all political parties associate themselves with specific colours and symbols, primarily to aid
voters in identifying, recognizing, and remembering the party. This branding is particularly important
in polities where much of the population may be illiterate, so that someone who cannot read a party's
name on a ballot can instead identify that party by colour or logo.[157] Parties of similar ideologies will
often use the same colours across different countries.[158][159] Colour associations are useful as a
short-hand for referring to and representing parties in graphical media.[160] They can also be used to
refer to coalitions and alliances between political parties and other organizations;[161] examples
include purple alliances, red–green alliances, traffic light coalitions, pan-green coalitions, and pan-
blue coalitions.

However, associations between colour and ideology can also be inconsistent: parties of the same
ideology in different countries often use different colours, and sometimes competing parties in a
country may even adopt the same colours.[162] These associations also have major exceptions. For
example, in the United States, red is associated with the more conservative Republican Party while
blue is associated with the more left-leaning Democratic Party.[158][163]

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Ideology Colours Symbols Examples Ref.

Grain [159]: 58 [164][165][166]

Agrarianism Green
Four-leaf clover

Black flag, or black and

Black red flag
Anarchism Letter A surrounded by a [167][168][169][170]
Red circle
Black cat

Centrism Purple [171][172]

Christian Orange [173]

Christian cross
Democracy
White

Hammer and sickle [174][175][176]

Communism Red
Handshake

Conservatism Blue [177][178]

Handshake
Democratic [179][180]
Red Red rose
socialism
Fist

Black Fasces
Fascism Swastika [159]: 56 [181][182]
Brown
Runes

White
Purple Venus symbol
Feminism Clenched fist [183][184]
Gold
Letter F
Pink

Sun [185][186]
Green politics Green
Sunflower

Black
Islamism Star and crescent [158][187]
Green

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Yellow
Liberalism Bird in flight [160][188][189]
Gold

Yellow Porcupine
Libertarianism [158][190][191][192]
Gold Torch

White
Monarchism Gold Crown [159][193]

Purple

The white flag

Dove
Pacifism White Peace symbol [159][194]

White poppy
V sign

Red
Handshake
Social democracy Pink Red rose [195][196][197][179]

Purple Fist

Socialism Red Red rose [174][198][199][200][179]

See also
Cordon sanitaire (politics)
List of banned political parties
List of largest political parties
List of ruling political parties by country
Lists of political parties
Lists of political parties by country
Testimonial party
Uniparty

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External links

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