Chapter-7 - Beginning of Modern Age 167

This Church was known as ‘Lutheran National Church’. They

rejected the leadership of the Pope. Practice of celibacy of the
Clergy was removed. He himself married an ex-nun to oppose
celibacy. Indulgences and worship of saints were rejected. Bible
was regarded as the sole source of religion.

The rise of Lutheranism caused conflict between Catholics

and Protestants. Both the groups formed leagues and jumped
into religious wars. The struggle ended with the ‘Peace of
Augsburg in 1555’. According to this peace treaty Lutheranism
was recognized in Germany. The rulers were given the freedom
to follow the faith which they chose.

Lutheranism spread into many countries of Europe. The

Kings of Sweden, Denmark and Norway were against Roman
Catholicism. They took several steps to establish and strengthen
Protestantism. Roman Catholic Churches were replaced by
Lutheran National Churches. The property of Roman Catholic
Churches and Monasteries were confiscated.

Similar to Lutheranism, Calvinism and Anglicanism rose

against Roman Catholic Church and became independent.

Huldreich Zwingli (1484-1531): The leader of

the Protestant movement in Switzerland was
Zwingli. He was deeply influenced by Luther. He
was a original thinker, who felt it was his duty to
expose the drawbacks of the Catholic Church. He
had a large number of followers in Switzerland. He
read the Bible in the Original Greek and Hebrew.
He believed that the Church should be completely
independent of the State. He worked to spread the
ideas of the Reformation on Swiss soil. He was killed
in a battle against Catholic troop’s in1531.

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John Calvin (1509-1564) and Calvinism: In France, Calvin was

strongly influenced by Martin Luther and Erasmus.
He was a lawyer by profession, but he had to leave his
country and settle down at Geneva in Switzerland. He
gave a clear exposition of the main religious beliefs of
the Protestants in his book ‘The Institutes of
Christian Religion’. He criticized the Roman Catholic
Church. His theory was called as ‘Calvinism’. This
spread from Switzerland to other European Countries
like France, Germany, the Netherlands, Hungary,
Poland, England and Scotland. He encouraged learning, in both the
arts and sciences.

Henry VIII (1491-1547) and Anglicanism: In

England, Anglicanism was introduced under the
leadership of King Henry VIII, who was not a religious
reformer like Luther. In the beginning he was in
favour of Roman Catholicism. When Luther
challenged Papal authority, suddenly he turned anti-
Papal. Henry took ruthless steps against the Catholic
Church. He also liquidated the monasteries and
seized their vast wealth, landed property and cash.
Henry VIII established an ‘Anglican Church’ in England and he became
the head of both the Church and the State.

Counter Reformation:
The religious upheaval in the 16th century gave rise to
Lutheranism, Calvinism, Anglicanism and the radical sects. The
rapid spread of Protestantism alarmed the Catholics and they
felt the urgency to check further damage to the Catholic
Church. They demanded Reformation from within, and the
movement came to be known as ‘Counter Reformation’.

The attitude of the Popes changed. They took firm steps to

check the spread of Protestantism. The Roman Catholic Church
made efforts to win back the Protestant dominated countries
to the Roman obedience.

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A concerted Counter-Reformation Movement was launched

with the four-fold purpose of punishing, reforming, converting,
and rendering social service. The Inquisition was to punish, the
Council of Trent was to introduce reforms and the Society of
Jesus was to render service to God and Society.

Inquisition:
The Inquisition was a Roman Catholic court formed for
conducting inquiry into cases of heresy and meting out
punishments to those who were found guilty. The guilty were
excommunicated and given over to the civil arm for punishment,
which included torturing and execution by burning. They issued
a strict code of conduct to be followed by the Church officials.
The Inquisition was first established in Spain.

The Council of Trent: (1545-1563).

The Council of Trent took steps to remove all abuses, which
had earlier crept into the
Church. Sale of Indulgences
was prohibited. Strict
disciplinary rules were laid
down for Bishops and other
religious officers. The service
book of the Church was
revised. An ‘Index’ of
dangerous and heretical
books was prepared, and the
Catholics were prohibited from reading those books.

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Society of Jesus:
The Counter-Reformation
movement was strengthened by the
Society of Jesus. It was established
by Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) in
1534. Ignatius Loyola was able to
inspire a large team of selfless,
educated and disciplined priests to
serve God and Christianity. The
members of the society were popularly known as ‘Jesuits’. He
wrote ‘The Spiritual Exercises’, which became a great source
of inspiration to the Roman Catholics. Their main aim was to
restore the lost glory and authority of the Catholic Church. The
Jesuits took the vows of simplicity, chastity, obedience, service
and spread Catholism. Society of Jesus established many
schools and colleges in Europe, India, China, Brazil and other
countries. The progress of Protestantism was checked by their
missionary zeal, and thousands of Protestants were persuaded
to return to the Roman Catholic fold. The Jesuits were able to
spread Christianity in almost every country in the world.

Results:
1) The Reformation freed the individual from blind faith and
provided him intellectual freedom.
2) The Movement revitalized the Christian world whether,
Catholic or Protestant. It cleared the doubts about the
Christian doctrines. The teachings of Jesus and Bible once
again received importance.
3) The Christian religion was divided into two main sects. They
were-The Catholics and The Protestants. With the passage
of time many more sub sects came into existence among
Catholics and Protestants.
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4) Reformation weakened the power of the Pope and the

Church, which strengthened Nationalism and Monarchs.
5) The members of the Society of Jesus spread Catholic religion
all over the world through Missionaries and Education.
6) Reformation greatly encouraged Literature. The vernacular
languages received great encouragement. The translation
of the Bible into Vernacular languages was a land mark in
History.
7) Civil wars broke out between Catholic and Protestant
countries. These wars resulted in much bloodshed, death
and destruction. The position of the Pope declined.
8) The confiscated wealth of the Church was utilized for the
economic development. The money lenders, bankers and
financiers secured a high status in the society.

Questions
I. Answer the following in 1 word or 1 sentence. (Each
carries 1Mark)

1. Who was called as the ‘Navigator’?

2. Who explored the main land of ‘South America’?

3. What is the meaning of the word ‘Renaissance’?

4. From which word is the term ‘Renaissance’ derived?

5. Which country was called as the ‘Mother land of Renais-

sance’?

6. Who invented the printing press?

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7. Who was known as the ‘Father of Renaissance’?

8. Who was called the ‘Father of Humanism’?

9. Who is the author of ‘Divine Comedy’?

10. Name the author of ‘Utopia’.

11. Who wrote the book ‘Paradise Lost’?

12. Who painted the ‘Mona Lisa’?

13. Who propounded the ‘Law of Gravitation ’?

14. Who was the leader of the Reformation?

15. Who Published the ’95 Theses’ against the Catholic Church?

16. Who is called the ‘Morning Star of Reformation’?

17. What is ‘Counter Reformation’?

18. What is ‘Inquisition’?

19. Who founded the ‘Society of Jesus’?

20. Who was the Pope during the Reformation movement?

21. What were ‘Indulgences’?

22. What were the followers of Ignatius Loyola called as?

II. Answer the following in 2 words or 2 sentences. (Each

carries 2 Marks)
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1. Who occupied the city of Constantinople and when?

2. Why was Prince Henry called as the ‘Navigator’?

3. Who discovered sea route to India and when?

4. Name any two ships of Magellan.

5. Which was the first ship to circumnavigate the world and

who led this?

6. Name any two Geographical Explorers.

7. Name any two Humanists of the Renaissance.

8. Mention any two works of William Shakespeare.

9. Name any two painters of Renaissance.

10. Name any two paintings of Leonard da Vinci.

11. Name any two paintings of Michael Angelo.

12. Name any two Scientists of the Renaissance.

13. Where and in which year was Martin Luther born?

14. Who was john Wycliffe and to which country did he belong?

15. Name the two sects of Christianity.

16. Who led the Counter Reformation? Name the organsiation

he founded.

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III Answer the following in 15 to 20 sentences. (Each carries

5 Marks)

1. What was the role of Columbus and Vasco da Gama in

Geographical explorations?

2. What were the causes for Renaissance?

3. What were the contributions of Renaissance to literature?

4. What were the Contributions of Renaissance to Art and

Architecture?

5. Give an account to the Scientific Progress during the

Renaissance.

6. Describe the results of the Renaissance.

7. Write about Counter Reformation.

IV. Answer the following in 30 to 40 sentences. (Each carries

10Marks)

1. Describe the causes and results of Geographical

explorations.

2. Describe the Cultural Contributions of Renaissance.

3. Explain the Causes and results of Reformation.

4. Describe the role of Martin Luther in the Reformation

Movement.
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other inventions. They were also cost effective. Sodium carbonate

had many uses in the glass, textile, soap, and paper industries.
Early uses for sulphuric acid included pickling (removing rust)
iron and steel, and for bleaching cloth. After 1860 the focus of
chemical innovation was in dyestuffs, and Germany took world
leadership, building a strong chemical industry.

Machine tools:
The Industrial Revolution could not have developed
without machine tools, for, they enabled manufacturing
machines. They have their origins in the tools developed in the
18th century by makers of clocks, watches and scientific
instruments on a large scale. Machines were built by various
craftsmen—carpenters made wooden framings, and smiths and
turners made metal part.

Gas lighting :
Another major industry of the later Industrial Revolution
was gas lighting. Though others made a similar innovation
elsewhere, the large scale introduction of this was the work of
William. The process consisted of the large scale gasification of
coal in furnaces. Gas lighting was first introduced in London.
Gas lighting had an impact on social and industrial organization.
It allowed factories and stores to remain open longer than with
tallow candles or oil. Its introduction allowed night life to flourish
in cities and towns as interiors and streets could be lighted on
a larger scale than before.

Glass making:
A new method of producing glass, known as the cylinder
process, was developed in Europe during the early 19th century
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.This process was used by the Chance Brothers to create sheet

glass. They became the leading producers of window and plate
glass. This advancement allowed for larger panes of glass to be
created without interruption, thus freeing up the space planning
in interiors as well as the fenestration of buildings. The Crystal
Palace is the supreme example of the use of sheet glass in a
new and innovative structure.
Effects of Industrial Revolution:
Agriculture:
Revolution in Agriculture began centuries before Industrial
Revolution. But the invention of machinery played a big part in
driving forward the Agricultural Revolution. It played a part in
freeing up labor from the land to work in the new industrial
mills of the 18th century. As the revolution in industry
progressed a series of machines became available, which
increased food production.

Transport:
The Industrial Revolution improved Britain’s transport
infrastructure with a turnpike road network, a canal and
waterway network, and a railway network. Raw materials and
finished products could be moved more quickly and cheaply
than before. Improved transportation also allowed new ideas to
spread quickly.

Canals:
Canals began to be built in the
late 18th century to link the
major manufacturing centres
across the country. The first

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successful canal was the Bridgewater Canal in North West

England. These canals helped the growth of commercial
activities.

Roads:
A number of new Roads were built by private people and
companies who collected tolls from the users. They connected
major cities of England which helped the quick transport of
men, material and mails to distant parts.

Railways:
Wagon ways were used to move coal from mines. The
introduction of railways made it highly successful in the
transportation of passenger and freight. Many railway projects
were undertaken. After completion of the railway projects, the
workers did not return to the rural life styles. They remained in
the cities adding additional work force to the factories.

Effects of Socialism:
Socialism was an economic theory that sprang almost
directly from the Industrial Revolution. It was a reaction against
the unregulated capitalism of the time. Socialism proposed that
society as a whole should control the means of production. It
advocated that the government exists only to oversee its initial
phases and then to become nonexistent, leaving the people to
govern themselves cooperatively. This contradicted the tenets
of laissez-faire capitalism, which stated that the best total result
for society was achieved if competition took its natural course.
This movement was inspired by the problems that the Industrial
Revolution presented for the common worker. Working

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conditions, long hours, and low pay made many workers to

come together and achieve a socialist system at least partially.

Effects on Capitalism:
Industrialization depends largely on capital – wealth
available for investment in order to speed up development and
make more wealth. This capital was one of the leading reasons
as to why the British industrial economy prospered.

Factories and urbanization:

Industrialization led to the creation of the factories. The
Cotton spinning activity was first to be mechanized. Later factory
system developed. A large number of workers migrated to cities
in search of employment. Many cotton mills were established
at Manchester which is the first Industrial City of the World.
The factory system speeded up urbanization.

Child labour:
Industrial Revolution led to the increase in population.
Infant mortality rates reduced remarkably. Still there was limited
scope for education. The children were expected to work at a
less pay even though their efficiency was comparable with
adults. There was no need of strength to operate machines but
skilled labours were needed. Since skilled adults were not
available child labour was the preferred choice in manufacturing
industries.

Conclusion:
Thus the Industrial Revolution has brought drastic changes
in the life of nations. It gave rise to urban centres requiring vast
municipal services. It created a specialized and interdependent
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economic life. It made the urban worker completely dependent

and at the mercy of the employer. Relations between capitalist
and labor were aggravated, and Marxism was the result of this
unrest. The revolution also brought a need for a new type of
state intervention to protect the laborer and to provide necessary
services. Laissez faire gradually gave way to welfare capitalism
in the United States, Britain, and elsewhere. It also led to the
development of many economic and political theories by Adam
Smith, David Richards, John Meynard Keynes etc., The
Industrial Revolution also provided the economic base for the
rise of professions, increase in population and improvement
in living standards and Industrial Revolutions remains a primary
goal of less developed nations.

Questions
Answer in 1 word or 1 sentence each ( each carries 1 mark)
1. What is meant by ‘revolutio’?
2. What was the period in which the Industrial Revolution took
place?
3. Mention on which particular field the Industrial Revolution
had its profound effect.
4. Where did the Industrial Revolution begin at first?
5. Who invented Water Frame?
6. Who invented the Spinning Jenny?
7. Mention the city in which Cotton Revolution began first.
8. Which city is called the ‘Power house of the North’?
9. Where was the Coal Mining started first?
10. Why is James Watt famous for?
Answer in 2 words or 2 sentences (each carries 2 marks)
1. What is meant by Revolution?
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2. Mention the fields in which changes took place during the

Industrial Revolution.
3. Mention any two chemicals invented during the Industrial
Revolution.
4. Who invented Gas Lighting on large scale? Which was the
City where the Gas Lighting was introduced first?
Answer in 15-20 sentences (each carries 5 marks)
1. What were the main effects of the Industrial Revolution in
the fields of Agriculture, Transport, Canals and Roads?
2. What were the main effects of the Industrial Revolution in
the fields of Socialism, Capitalism, Factories and
Urbanization and Child Labor?
3. Explain why the Industrial Revolution process first began
in England.
Answer in 30-40 sentence (10 marks)
1. Describe the various effects of the Industrial Revolution.

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8.2. THE AMERICAN WAR OF

INDEPENDENCE: 1776-83.
Geographical discoveries and the exploration of America
paved the way for the Europeans to migrate. After Reformation
both the Catholics and the Protestants started to go to America.
The first ship, in which the migrants came from Europe to
America, was ‘May Flower’ and the first batch of migrants was
called ‘Pilgrim fathers’ Majority of them were the British, the
French and the Spanish. The British had established 13 colonies
on the eastern coastal area (present USA) of the Atlantic Ocean.
They are 1. New Hampshire 2. Massachusetts 3. Rhode Island
4. Connecticut 5. New York 6. New Jersey 7. Mary Land 8.
Virginia 9. North Carolina 10. South Carolina 11. Delaware 12.
Pennsylvania 13. Georgia. The French established their colonies
in Canada and the Spanish in South America.
The British parliament framed many Acts to make their
Empire very strong in America. These led to lessen the respect
of the colonists towards their motherland and develop
hatredness. The colonists knew that the British needed only
profit from them, but not their progress. So they decided to
fight for their rights and freedom.

Thirteen British colonies in America.

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Causes

1.Commercial policy of England

British parliament thought that the colonies are for the
benefit of the motherland. So they levied heavy taxes and to
restrict trade of the colonies they introduced Navigation act.

The main features of this act are:

a) The raw materials produced in America (coffee, cotton,
tobacco, etc) should be exported to England only.
b) The essential goods like cotton, linen, cloth, glass, sugar,
etc. that America needed should be imported from England
only.
c) The Americans should use only the British ships for trade
to keep away competition of other European nations.
d) Iron, blue, paper, cotton, linen, Cloth, etc. that were
produced by England shouldn’t be produced in America.
e) England’s merchant-agent should be kept and be given
security.

2. Seven years war.

England could not tolerate the progress of France, and did
not want her to establish settlements in their neighborhood.
The colonies also wanted British protection against the French.
Therefore England declared war in 1756, which lasted till 1763.
It is called the ‘seven years war’. England won the war. The war
ended with the Treaty of Paris, and France had to give away
Canada to England. Thus the American colonies were free from
the fear of the French attack.

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3. Intellectual causes.
The colonists set up their own social and political
institutions. Their enlightenment was due to their own heritage.
John Adams, a philosopher remarked, “The Revolution was in
the minds and hearts of Americans and it had started even
before the American war of independence”. Roger Williams, a
symbol of American enlightenment, preached Religious
tolerance and separation of State from the Church. Anne
Hutchinson, also pleaded for Religious tolerance, Liberty of press
and compulsory education. Several writers like Thomas Paine,
John Locke, Sydney Harrington, Samuel Adams and Thomas
Jefferson urged for total independence. Thomas Paine of
England, had pleaded in his book ‘Common Sense’ that
complete freedom should be given to Americans and also
expressed that revolutionary ways are inevitable for colonists to
get Freedom. Thomas Jefferson, a famous lawyer issued the
famous “Declaration of Independence” He argued that
whenever any government tries to interfere in the fundamental
rights of people, it is perfectly right to overthrow such
government and establish a new one by force if necessary. John
Locke had published. ‘Two Treatises of Government’ which
is considered as the Bible of American war of Independence.
Thus the American enlightened class and philosophers laid the
strong foundation for the American Revolution.
Thomas Jefferson (1743-1826) was an American
Founding Father, the principal author of the
Declaration of Independence and the third President
of the United States (1801-1809)

The Declaration of Independence: is the document

in which the Thirteen Colonies of America declared
independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain and
explained their justifications for separation. It was
ratified by the Second Continental Congress on July 4,
1776. This is celebrated as Independence Day in the United States.
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4. British taxation policy:

The seven years war led to a financial burden on England. To
meet this, England levied taxes on goods imported into the colonies.
The Sugar and Molasses Act which was passed in 1764,
levied taxes on sugar and molasses. The tax on molasses was a
hindrance to the production of wine. It led to the increase of
smuggling activities and the colonists faced many problems.
Hence they publicly opposed this tax; the British parliament
had to decrease the tax on sugar and molasses.
The stamp Act was passed in 1764, which declared that
stamp duties were to be paid on all legal documents. The
colonists opposed this Act. They said that the British parliament
did not have the right to tax the colonists when they were not
given representation in the parliament. Their slogan was “No
Taxation without Representation” The colonists showed their
anger by burning the stamps. The British parliament had to
withdraw this Act.
In 1767 the British parliament passed Townshend Act. This
Act imposed heavy taxes on Glass, Paper, and Tea. The
parliament sent troops to help the officers in collecting these
taxes. In spite of this colonists protested against this Act. The
people of Massachusetts revolted, the British sent the troops
to put down the revolt.
The British troops occupied Boston in 1768. In a fight
between the British and the colonists at Boston, five people
lost their lives and many were injured. This is called as “Boston
Massacre” (1770). As a result of the Massacre the parliament
withdrew the taxes on Glass, Paper, etc but the tax on Tea was
retained to show that the British parliament had the right to
tax the colonies.
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Boston Tea Party: British parliament passed an act in 1773

and gave the monopoly of Tea trade to the East India Company.
Colonists resented it. Cheaper Tea powder was available in the
black market. When the first consignment came to New York
and Philadelphia they were forced to go back to England. But
again when another ship loaded with Tea packets arrived at
Boston in 1773, the colonists disguised themselves as ‘Red
Indians’ under the leadership of Paul Ravere, entered the ship
and threw the Tea boxes into the ocean. This incident is called
‘Boston Tea Party’.

5. Coercive Act:
In 1774 the British Prime minister Lord North Broke had
introduced four coercive acts on the colonists for taking revenge
against Boston Tea Party commotion. They are
a) Boston harbour should be closed till Massachusetts
compensated for Britain’s loss due to the Boston Tea Party.
b) Full powers should be given to the commander by cancelling
the decree of Massachusetts.
c) Permission should be given to the British soldiers to reside
in the private houses.
d) British soldiers should not be subjugated at Massachusetts
court.
These acts were called as intolerable acts of 1774 by the
colonists but thereby they helped in uniting the colonists.

6. Quebec Act:
Quebec Act, which was passed in 1774 granted most of
the Ohio country to the French, who first held it. This was not
liked by the colonists because they wanted to expand

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westwards.
Also the Act
permitted the
French who
lived in
Canada to
follow
Catholicism.
This was
opposed by
protestant
Americans.
The colonists
felt that the
British were
following ‘Divide and Rule’ policy and hence their opposition
increased.

Course
On 5th September 1774 the 56 representatives of 12 colonies
excluding Georgia assembled at Philadelphia. They decided the
future plan of action. The first Congress of Philadelphia (1774)
drew up “Declaration of Rights”. It confirmed that the colonists
could not be taxed without their consent.

Second Congress of Philadelphia (1775):

The First Congress of Philadelphia which was followed by a
few clashes between the British soldiers and the colonists at
Lexington in Massachusetts resulted in the Second Congress
of Philadelphia in 1775. Colonists still requested the British
Crown for a peaceful solution. But George III the British
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monarch considered colonists as rebels. The delegates appointed

George Washington to lead the colonial forces against the
British. So the colonists declared their independence from the
control of their mother country England on 4th July 1776. Even
to this day, America celebrates it Independence day on 4th July
of every year.

The British were infuriated with the colonist’s attitude. They

declared war on America. In the Bunkerhill battle of July 1775
the colonial army was defeated by the British army under the
leadership of Sir William ho. But the colonial army won in
Trenton and Prinistine battle. These victories enhanced the
prestige of George Washington and increased the dignity of the
nation. On 17th October 1777 the British commander-in chief
surrendered completely to the colonial army in the Saratoga
battle. Meanwhile France, Spain, and Holland supported the
colonists in the war and gave moral co-operation. France took
an active part by giving military support to America. In 1781
George Washington, with the helping hand of French
commander Lafayette attacked the British army at Yorktown.
The British army under the leadership of Lord Cornwallis
surrendered completely. Thus the war came to an end by the
treaty of Paris in 1783. America became independent.

British surrender at Saratoga Signing the treaty of

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Results:
Emergence of the U S A.
A new nation called ‘United States of America’ was born.
They adopted the Republican type of government. In 1787
America adopted a republican form of Government with a federal
structure. It became the first country in the world to adopt a
written constitution. George Washington became the first
president of USA.
Loss to England
According to the Paris treaty concluded in 1783, Britain
suffered heavily in terms of economy and lost 13 resourceful
colonies.
Triumph of Democracy.
Victory of Americans strengthened the democratic ideologies
and principles all over the world. It inspired patriots, who fought
against Imperialism.
A Lesson to England.
After loosing 13 colonies in the war, England changed its
attitude towards its other colonies. The belief that the sun never
sets in their Empire received a deathblow.
Inspiration for French Revolution.
The French soldiers, who participated in the American
Revolution, were inspired by the revolutionary slogans of the
Americans. This resulted in the outbreak of the French
revolution in 1789.
End of the monarchy in England.
After being defeated in the American war of independence,
the English king Charles III, lost his prestige and popularity.
He was subjected to come under the rule of the parliament.
This led to the constitutional kingship.

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George Washington: (1732-1799) George

Washington was born on 22nd Feb 1732. Augustine
Washington and Mary Ball Washington, were his
parents. His father was a farmer in Virginia. He
gained military experience during the Seven Years
War in Europe. This earned a great reputation as a
capable leader. After the close of war he went to his
estates. Then he was called upon to lead the colonial
army. He filled in the army fresh enthusiasm and led
it to success. George Washington became the first president of
independent America. He died in 1799.

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Questions
Answer in one word or one sentence (each one mark)
1. In which year did the American war of Independence take
place?
2. Who was the commander in chief of the colonial army?
3. Who was the first President of USA?
4. Who was the king of England during the American war of
Independence?
5. Who drafted the Declaration of American Independence?
6. In which year was the American constitution adopted?

Answer in 2 word or 2 sentences (each 2 marks)

1. Name any two colonies of America.
2. What is ‘Boston Tea Party’?
3. Mention any two factors of the Navigation Act.
4. Name any two philosophers who influenced the American
war of Independence.
5. Who drafted the Declaration of American Independence?
When?
6. Name any two taxes imposed by England on the colonies.

Answer in 15-20 sentences (each 5 marks)

1. Describe the results of the American war of Independence.

Answer in 30-40 sentences (each 10 marks)

1.Explain causes for the American war of Independence.

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8.3 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION OF 1789.

The French Revolution of 1789 was the most important land
mark in the History of France in particular and of Europe and
the world in general. This revolution ended the royal despotism
that existed in France since many centuries. It gave the world
new ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity. “With the outbreak
of the French Revolution, the entire European History merged
in the history of one nation, one event and one man. The nation
was France, the event was the French Revolution and the man
was Napoleon Bonaparte”. These words reveal the significance
of this revolution. This revolution aimed at the establishment of
socio-economic equality and responsible government in France.
Causes:

(1) Political Causes:

France was ruled by the ‘Bourbon Dynasty’ for many
centuries. The French monarchy was absolute. Louis XIV,
the king of France, who was called the ‘Grand Monarch of
Europe’, went to the extent of saying “I am the state, I am
the Government”. He believed in the ‘Divine Right theory of
Kings’. He neglected the interests of the people and ruled
according to his whims and fancies. His successor Louis XV
had no ability to rule the nation. During his reign, France
fought many wars viz., the War of Austrian Succession, the
Seven Years War and others. In these wars France was
defeated. Besides, it was a great financial burden on the
French exchequer. He was more addicted to the worldly
pleasures and did not look into the problems of the people.
He often said, “After me, the deluge”.
Divine Right Theory: It is a politico – religious concept
that existed in almost every part of the world including
Europe. According to this theory, the king was considered
as an incarnation or mediator or representative of God who
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had come to earth to rule over the people. Therefore, the

people believed that obeying the king’s order was their
duty.

The ruler at the time of French Revolution was Louis XVI.

He was also an inefficient and weak ruler. Personally he was a
good man, but as a King he was a bad administrator. He was
under the influence of Nobles and Clergy. Added to this, he
married the Austrian Princess, Marie Antoinette. It was opposed
by the French people. The King was a puppet of the Queen.
Her interference in the administration caused many hardships
to the common people. Moreover, she had lavishly spent money
for her luxurious life. On account of her extravagance, she was
nick named as ‘Madame Deficit’.

Louis XVI Marie Antoinette

The administrative system of France was also defective. The

French rulers were addicted to women, wine and wealth. They
neglected their responsibilities and welfare of the people. The
officials were highly corrupt. There was no uniform legal system
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throughout the country. This type of political anarchy,

absolutism and misrule of the French rulers increased the
dissatisfaction of the people and led to the outbreak of this
revolution.

(1) Social Causes: -

Social inequality was one of the main causes for this
revolution. On the top of the social hierarchy was King and
his royal family, next came the Clergy – I Estate and Nobility
– II Estate and below them Commoners – III Estate. The first
two estates were privileged classes and the Third estate was
unprivileged class, the Commoners, consisting of peasants,
Workers, Teachers, Lawyers, Doctors and Philosophers, etc.
The people of I and II estates were in minority who were
less than 2% of the French population. The first two estates
monopolized all the highest offices in the army, church and
the Government. They were also exempted from paying taxes
and free from the authority of the court. They were the
owners of enormous wealth and exploited the peasants and
workers. On the other hand, the conditions of the
commoners were deplorable. They had to pay all taxes and
were not eligible for any higher governmental services. “The
Nobles fight, the Clergy pray and the Commons pay”, was a
popular statement in France. Thus the majority of the
French people were disgusted owing to their social inferiority
and discrimination, which paved the way for the outbreak
of this revolution.

(2) Economic Causes:

The policy of taxation in France was defective and unfair.
The burden of tax mostly fell on the Commoners, because
the Clergy and Nobles were exempted from all kind of taxes.
Commoners had to pay ‘taille’ (Property Tax), ‘gable’ (Salt
Tax), ‘tithe’ (Religious Tax) and other cesses to the
Government. The peasants and workers on paying all these
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taxes were left with only 18 to 20% of their earnings. Even

during the famines they had to pay taxes and were suffering
from untold miseries. Thousands of people died due to
starvation. “If 10 people died in France, 9 due to the
starvation and the tenth one due to indigestion” was the
condition of France on the eve of French Revolution. This
kind of economic exploitation and discontent among the
common people made them to revolt against the
discriminative taxation policy of the French Government.

(3) Intellectual Causes:

There were many great philosophers during 18th century in
France. They critically wrote about the political tyranny,
social inequality and economic exploitation in France and
also insisted for reforms. Montesquieu, Voltaire, Jean
Jacques Rousseau and Diderot were the most important
philosophers of France who lived before the outbreak of
French Revolution.

Montesquieu (1689-1775):
He wrote ‘The Spirit of Laws’. He
appreciated the parliamentary democracy of
England and advocated ‘The Theory of
Separation of Powers’. According to this theory,
to prevent tyranny and absolutism, three
organs of the Government - Legislative,
Executive and Judiciary - should function
independently. Only then, the liberty of the
people will be safeguarded. He also argued that Montesquieu
law must be supreme and all the people are subordinate to law.

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Voltaire (1694-1778):
He was a famous satirist. He wrote ‘The
Letters on the English’, in which he asked
people to apply ‘Reason’ in every field. He
strongly criticized the church and social
inequality. He denounced church as an
infamous thing. He supported the
benevolent despotism. But he was not in
favour of democracy. He told that he would
like to be ruled by a lion, rather than by hundred rats. He also
insisted for reforms to improve the conditions of France.
Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778):
He is known as ‘The Father of the
French Revolution’. He was the greatest
philosopher of France. He upheld the
popular sovereignty in his famous book,
‘Social Contract’. It has been regarded as
the ‘Bible of the French Revolution’, which
lit the fire of Revolution. He told “Man is
born free, but every where he is bound in
Jean Jacques
Rousseau chains”. He proved that the Government
was the result of social contract between the people and the
ruler. The ruler should look after the welfare of the people.
They have right to recall or replace the ruler in case he fails to
discharge his duties. It was he, who gave the three great
principles or watch words of the French Revolution, viz., ‘Liberty,
Equality and Fraternity’. His other books are ‘Confession’ and
‘Laws’. Thus his philosophic ideas were the great source of
inspiration for the French Revolution. Hence, Napoleon
Bonaparte rightly said, “The French Revolution would not have
occurred, if Rousseau was not born”.
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Diderot (1713-1784), the editor of the book ‘Encyclopedia’,

condemned the privileged classes.

Thus the writings of the above and many other philosophers

inspired the French people for the Great Revolution in 1789.

(5) Influence of American War of Independence:

The French army under the leadership of Lafayette went to
America to support their war of independence against
England. There, the French soldiers came to know about
the American’s idea of liberty, struggle for their political
rights and their sacrificing attitude. Americans were
successful in this war. On their return, the French soldiers
began to spread the political ideas of the Americans in order
to establish democratic government in France.

(6) Immediate cause - Financial Bankruptcy of France:

The Financial condition of France was deplorable by about
1789 . National debt increased owing to the costly wars and
lavish expenditures of the King and his family for their
luxurious life. There was no difference between the state
and the King’s personal expenditures. Unprivileged class
was paying all the taxes. Further, imposition of more taxes
on them was not possible. Privileged class, which had
immense property, was not ready to pay taxes. Added to
this, a great famine broke out in France in 1788. Millions of
people were affected by the famine. All these made the
financial condition deteriorate further.
The finance ministers of France, such as Turgot, Neckar
and Colonne, suggested the reduction in unnecessary
expenditures and to impose some taxes on privileged classes
to solve the financial crisis. This was opposed by the
privileged classes. Under their influence, the King removed
the ministers from their offices, one after another. Thus,
the financial bankruptcy continued in France. Under these
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circumstances, Louis XVI summoned the meeting of Estates

General Council (French Parliament) to discuss about the
financial crisis. This meeting was not called since 175 years.
This was the immediate cause for the outbreak of the French
Revolution.

Course:

Beginning of the French Revolution:

French Parliament met in May 1789. Louis XVI called it to
solve the financial crisis. Formerly the three estates were sitting
in separate chambers. The third estate (Middle Class) insisted
for joint sitting, which was not agreed by the first two estates
and the king. The third estate, which was in majority came out
of the parliament and assembled at a tennis court on 20th June
1789 and took an oath that they should not disperse until a
constitution for France was framed. This is famous as ‘The Tennis
Court Oath’. They constituted a National Assembly. Then the
news spread that the king was intending to dissolve the
Assembly. At this Parisians revolted and the mob took the Paris
administration and attacked the Bastille, a central prison on
14th July 1789. The prisoners were released and the prison was
razed to the ground. This prison was the symbol of tyrannical
regime in France. The fall of Bastille marked the beginning of
French Revolution. Even today, July 14 th is celebrated as
‘National Day’ in France.

Spread of the Revolution:

The Revolution spread over France. There were two groups
among the revolutionaries viz., Girondists (Moderates) and
Jacobins (Extremists). Church and State were reformed. Church

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property was nationalized and salaries of the Clergy were fixed.

Paris mob marched to Versailles and brought the king and his
family and were kept as captives in the palace of Tuileries in
Paris. In 1791 a Constituent Assembly was set up which framed
a Constitution for France and there by declared the ‘Rights of
Man’. The new political order was based on the principles of
Liberty, Equality and Fraternity. The declaration granted
individuals the freedom of property, speech, writing, religious
belief and political opinion.

The constituent assembly was dissolved and a new

Legislative Assembly came into existence. The King attempted
to escape from France. Paris mob demanded the Assembly to
suspend the King. The Legislative Assembly was replaced by
the ‘National Convention’ headed by Jacobins.
Reign of Terror:
Suspected loyalists were massacred in September 1792 by
a machine called Guillotine. Since thousands of people were
massacred in this month, it is called as ‘September Massacre’
Guillotine: It is a machine which
severs head of the victim. In this a
minimum wood supports a heavy blade.
It vertically comes down when it is
released and severs the head. It was
introduced in French revolution to inflict
capital punishment. It was named after
Joseph Ignace Guillotine, a member of
the National Assembly. Because he was
instrumental in passing a law requiring
all death sentences..

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The National Convention abolished the monarchy. France

became a Republic on 22nd September 1792. The National
Convention treated King Louis XVI as a traitor and sent him to
Guillotine in January 1793. This resulted in the formation of a
coalition by Austria, Prussia, Britain, Holland and Spain against
France as they feared that the Revolution may spread to their
countries. The National Convention granted all executive
authorities to the ‘Committee of Public Safety’ which was
established to suppress anti-revolutionaries. It was successful
in breaking the coalition. But internally it let loose a ‘Reign of
Terror’. It was during this period Marie Antoinette and other
royal family members were also Guillotined. Robespierre, head
of the Committee of Public Safety suspected people of all classes
and they were Guillotined. The Reign of Terror finally came to
an end in July 1794, when Robespierre himself was guillotined
by the French people.

In 1795 the Directory government was formed with five

members. It remained till 1799 when Napoleon Bonaparte
captured power by dissolving it.
Results:
(1) This revolution abolished absolute monarchy and ended the
political anarchy and misrule of the French Kings. It paved
way for the establishment of a Republican Government in
France based on the democratic principles, as propounded
by Montesquieu, J.J. Rousseau and others.

(2) The French Revolution ended Feudalism and hereditary

aristocracy. It proved that suppressed ones can revolt against
the oppressive government.

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(3) It put an end to the special privileges of the Clergy and

Nobility and their properties were confiscated. Thus social
inequality also ended.

(4) The new constitution declared the rights of man, which

upheld the ‘Doctrine of popular sovereignty’.

(5) This revolution popularized the ideas of Liberty, Equality

and Fraternity in other countries of the world.

(6) It spread the feeling of unity and taught the principle of

Nationalism among the French people. Hence, it became a
source of inspiration to the Unification of Italy and Germany
and finally freedom movements in other parts of the world
including India. H.A.L Fisher says, “If cold attacks France,
the entire Europe sneezes”.

(7) This revolution caused heavy bloodshed. During ‘The Reign

of Terror’ nearly 17000 people were killed. Even the king
Louis XVI, his Queen Marie Antoinette and others were
guillotined.

(8) The Directory government, which came to power after the

revolution, failed to rule properly. Again there was chaos
and confusion in France. This gave an opportunity for the
rise of Napoleon Bonaparte as the military Dictator of France.
He called himself as “the Child of Revolution”.

Thus the French Revolution was indeed a great event in the

history of France. The political developments after this
revolution greatly changed the course of the History of
Europe and also the world.

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Questions:
Answer in one word or one sentence each: [Each carries
one Mark]
1) In which year did the French Revolution begin?
2) Name the dynasty that ruled France.
3) Who was called the ‘Grand Monarch of Europe’?
4) Who was the King of France at the time of French
Revolution?
5) What was the nickname of Marie Antoinette?
6) Which was the famous book of Montesquieu?
7) Name the book of Voltaire.
8) Name the French Philosopher who supported the benevolent
despotism.
9) Who is known as ‘The Father of French Revolution’?
10) Which book is regarded as the ‘Bible of French Revolution’?
11) Who wrote the book called ‘Social Contract’?
12) In which year did the fall of Bastille take place?
13) Who was the head of the ‘Committee of Public Safety’?

Answer in two words or two sentences each: [Each carries

Two Marks]
1) Name any two rulers of France on the Eve of French
Revolution.
2) Who were the King and Queen of France at the time of
French Revolution?
3) Mention any two differences between the privileged and
unprivileged groups of French society.
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4) Name the three classes of French society.

5) Name any two important philosophers of France.

6) What were the principles or watch words of the French

Revolution?

7) Name any two books of J.J. Rousseau.

8) Name any two taxes paid by the French people.

9) Name any two finance ministers of France on the Eve of

French Revolution.

10) What did the Finance Ministers of France suggest to solve

the financial crisis?

11) What is the Tennis Court Oath?

12) Name the groups of French Revolutionaries?

13) What is ‘September Massacre’?

Answer in 15 to 20 sentences each: [Each carries 5 Marks]

1) Explain the social and Economic causes for the French

Revolution.

2) Give an account of the Intellectual causes for the French

Revolution.

3) Write a note on the political and the immediate causes

for the French Revolution.

4) Analyze the results of the French Revolution.

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Answer in 30 to 40 sentences each: [Each carries 10

Marks]

1) Describe the various causes for the outbreak of French

Revolution of 1789.

2) Briefly write about the causes and results of French

Revolution of 1789.

❖❖❖❖❖

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8.4 The Russian Revolution - 1917

Introduction: The Russian Revolution was an economic
Revolution influenced by the Marxist Ideas. It aimed at providing
peace to the nation, food to hungry and land to the tiller. It led
to the establishment of the Communist Government for the
first time in the history of world. The Revolution paved the way
for the establishment of similar governments in different
countries of the world. The American and the French Revolutions
upheld democratic principles, where as the Russian Revolution
advocated Socialistic principles. It is also to be noted that after
the French revolution world witnessed another revolution after
a long span of time.
The term ‘Tsar’ is derived from the Latin word Caesar, which was
intended to mean ‘Emperor’. Sometimes, it is also spelt as Czar.

Causes:
1. Political causes:
Russia was ruled by the Tsars. The Romanov dynasty ruled
over Russia, which was the largest country of the world. The
Tsars were autocratic and inefficient. They ruled the kingdom
on the principle of Divine Origin. The administration was
centralized and very corrupt, which affected the lives of the
people. Duma (Parliament) was a legislative body, but it was
not regularly consulted by the Tsars. It was many a times
abolished by the Tsars at different points of time. The
administration was troubled by the constant interference by
people like the infamous monk Rasputin and Tsarina (Queen)
Alexandra.

Tsar Nicolas II Rasputin Tsarina Alexandra and

Tsar Nicolas II
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1. Social and Economic Causes:

The Russian Society was divided into two categories.

a) The privileged class b) The unprivileged class.

The privileged class included the Royals, the land lords and
the capitalists (factory owners). They were rich and also had a
high status in the society. Civil, administrative and military posts
were reserved for them. The unprivileged class mainly consisted
of the peasants and the workers. It formed the majority
population. They were living in poverty and also were exploited
by the privileged classes. Serfdom was abolished in 1861 but
the condition of the peasants did not change for the better.

The Russian economy before the Revolution was primarily

agricultural. The Industrial Revolution created a large working
class. These workers worked for long hours for low wages and
they worked in dangerous and unhygienic conditions. The
accidents and deaths were not compensated. The Russian
Industries created wealth for the owner but affected the
agriculturists. As most of the industrialists were land lords, they
neglected agriculture and forced agricultural workers to work
in their industries. The agricultural production decreased and
it resulted in inflation. The people were pushed to hardships.

Nihilism– It was revolutionary movement of 19th century

Russia. Nihilists believed in reason, materialism, and
radical changes. They wanted to bring these changes in
society and government through assassination and
terrorism.

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2. Russification:
Tsar Alexander III and Nicholas II implemented an oppressive,
autocratic and centralized administration. The slogan was ‘One
Nation, One language, One Church and One Tsar’ for Russia.
The Poles, Finns, Jews, Germans, etc. in Russia were subjugated
to this policy. This is called Russification. The policy was started
by Tsar Alexander III and continued by Tsar Nicholas II. The
autocratic policies of the Tsar were severely opposed by the
Nihilists, who killed the officers and agents of the Tsar. The
Government ruthlessly hunted them down and summarily
murdered them. Russia encouraged the ‘Pan-Slav’ movement
in the Balkans. The Balkan states looked at Russia as ‘the Big
Brother’.

3. Role of Intellectuals:
In the Russian Revolution the role of intellectuals, that too
of writers was immense. The major literary works like Leo
Tolstoy’s – ‘War and Peace’ (1869) and ‘Anna Karenina’, Fyodor
Dostoyevsky’s – ‘Poor Folk’ (1846), Maxim Gorky’s ‘Mother’,
and ‘Children of the sun’, Turgenev’s ‘Fathers and sons’ (1862)
etc generated a new sense of awareness among Russians. It
made them reflect over questions of human freedom, fate,
suffering and the meaning of life. They began to realize that
human beings were not destined to endure the tyranny let
loose by a handful of autocrats.

As a result of regular contacts with Germany, many

Russian intellectuals were drawn towards Marxism. Prominent
among them were Lenin, Kautsky and Trotsky. The writings of
Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) were
widely read. Marx’s major works are ‘Communist Manifesto’
(1848) and ‘Das Capital’ (1867). These writings upheld the
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principles of socialism based on social and economic equality.

The call of Karl Marx to the worker: “Workers of the world unite;
you have nothing to loose but your chains of Slavery”, inspired
thousands of young men and women.

Leo Tolstoy Leo Tolstoy Turgenev

Karl Marx (1818-1883): Karl Heinrich Marx

was a German Philosopher, Economist,
Sociologist, Historian, Journalist and
revolutionary socialist. His ideas played a
significant role in the development of the
social sciences and the progress of the
socialist movement. Marx is considered as
one of the most influential thinkers in
history. Marx’s view of history, which came
to be called as Historical Materialism and
theories about society, economics and politics are collectively
known as Marxism. He believed that socialism would, in its turn,
eventually be replaced by a stateless, classless society called
communism.

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5. Bloody Sunday incident:

On Sunday, 22nd January 1905, Father Gapan led a huge
rally of workers and wanted to meet the Tsar to express
their grievances. Most of them were killed by the army. This
is known as ‘Bloody Sunday’ and caused a great resentment
among the Russians about the Tsar.

Bloody Sunday: The first spark of

rebellion occurred in 1905 when
students of the universities in Moscow
and St. Petersburg organized rallies
against the autocratic rule. On 22 nd
January, 1905, Sunday, a large number
of workers led by Father Gapon tried to
meet the Tsar at St. Petersburg to
express their grievances. Most of them
were ruthlessly killed by the army. This
is known as Bloody Sunday. It caused
great resentment and the Tsar finally
agreed in August 1905 to carry out
administrative reforms.

6. Military Causes:
The defeat of Russia by a small country like Japan in 1905
added to the resentment of Russians against the Tsar. The
thought that the Tsars were invincible was shattered. Further
Russia entered into the First World War along with England
and France. Russia had strong artillery, but its military was
highly disorganized. Proper strategies of Warfare could not
be evolved to suit the needs of the time, in spite of the rich
store of arms and ammunition. It faced another military
setback when it was defeated in 1915 in the First World
War. These debacles exposed the military weakness of Russia
to the world. The above reasons led to the Russian
Revolution.
Course:
The working classes in Russia were influenced by Marxism.
They organized Workmen’s Social Democratic Party. The Party
split into two in 1903 on ideological grounds. The radicals, led
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by Lenin, came to be known as Bolsheviks, while the moderates

led by Alexander Kerensky were called Mensheviks.
Bolsheviks and Mensheviks
The Russian Social Democratic Workers Party was a Marxist
political party. In 1903 at the Party Congress members disagreed with
each other. The Party was dividing into two groups, the Bolsheviks
and the Mensheviks. “Those who were in majority” were called
Bolsheviks. “Those who were in minority” were called Mensheviks.

After the defeat of Russia in 1915, in the World War–I,

revolutionaries insisted on overthrowing the Tsarist regime.
Rasputin was killed by the end of 1916. Demand for
constitutional reform in the ‘Duma’ began before the World
War I itself. Tsar dissolved ‘Duma’ and arrested its members.
Negligence of administration had adverse effect on food supply.
On March 8th 1917, women workers organised a protest at
Petrograd demanding food. On March 9th large number of
workers joined the protest. They gave a call for general protest
on March, 10th. Soldiers were ordered to open fire on these
protesters. But they refused to obey the orders and expressed
their support to the workers. It was a great setback to Tsar
Nicholas II. Ultimately the Tsar had to abdicate the throne on
March 15th.
After ousting the Tsar, a provisional
government was established in Russia
headed by Kerensky. This is called as the
Menshevik Revolution or the March
Revolution. The government ensured
freedom of speech and association, upheld
the freedom of press and religion and
encouraged liberal reforms. But the
provisional government continued to
Alexander Kerensky
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participate in the First World War and suffered serious setbacks.

The Menshevik Government under Kerensky failed to remain
in power, because, the aspirations of the Russians for land,
peace and security were not fulfilled. Finally, the Bolsheviks,
led by Lenin, challenged the Menshevik government on 15th
October, 1917, and ultimately overthrew them on 25th October
1917. This is called as the October Revolution or Bolshevik
Revolution. With the help of ‘Red army’, Lenin who came to
power fulfilled these aspirations by using force. Thus U.S.S.R
(Union of Soviet Socialist Republic) was established after the
October Revolution. Lenin became the head of the Republic
and continued in office till his death in 1924.
Russia was following the Julian Calendar till February 1918. This
calendar was 13 days behind the Gregorian Calendar which we use
today. 25th October, 1917 was the date of the Revolution as per the
Julian Calendar. But after accepting the Gregorian calendar the day
of Revolution is celebrated on 7th November every year.

Results:
1. The autocratic rule of the Tsar came to an end and a
constitutional republic based on socialist ideals was formed
in Russia.
2. The USSR was established, which became a counter-force
to the USA. This led to the rise of two power-blocs in the
world, whose rivalries gave rise to Cold War after the World
War II.
3. The conditions of workers and peasants improved because of
the implementation of the New Economic Policy (NEP) in 1921.
4. Russia achieved tremendous progress under new communist
Government and emerged as a powerful nation.
5. Communist ideology began to spread to different parts of
the world, including Asia, Africa, Eastern Europe and Latin
America.
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The Russian Revolution was an important event in the

history of the modern world. It showed that the socialist ideas
of Marx and Engels were not totally Utopian, but could be
practiced with success. It demonstrated the power of the working
class in challenging oppression and autocracy, and in
establishing a state based on egalitarian principles. It also
showed that a well-planned economy could bring about many
progressive changes in a country.
Socialism - Social and economic doctrine that calls for public
rather than private ownership or control of property and natural
resources. According to the socialist view, individuals do not live or
work in isolation but live in cooperation with one another.
Furthermore, everything that people produce is in some sense a social
product, and everyone who contributes to the production of a good is
entitled to a share in it. Society as a whole, therefore, should own or
at least control property for the benefit of all its members.

Communism - The political and economic doctrine that aims to

replace private property and a profit-based economy with public
ownership and communal control of at least the major means of
production (e.g., mines, mills, and factories) and the natural resources
of a society.

Lenin (1870-1924):
Lenin was born in Simbirsk on 22nd
April, 1870. His original name was
Vladimir Ilich Ulyanov. His father was a
school inspector who died when Lenin
was sixteen. After this, his elder brother
Alexander was executed for making an
attempt to assassinate the Tsar Nicholas
II. Lenin was influenced by Marxism at
an early age and he became a
revolutionary.

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He was arrested in 1895 and later exiled to Siberia, where

he wrote a book ‘Development of capitalism in Russia’ in 1899.

Later, Lenin escaped from Siberia and lived in exile in

Switzerland. He joined Plekhanov in Geneva in 1900 and
planned to launch a newspaper called ‘Iskra’ (spark). In 1903
he became the leader of a extremist revolutionary group called
the Bolshevik party. He continued his fight against the Tsarist
regime and supported the revolution of 1905. On 25th October,
1917, he overthrew the Menshevik government of Kerensky.
He appealed to soldiers, poor peasants and workers, and
promised to provide “Peace, Land, Bread”.

Lenin withdrew from the First World War through the

treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1917). A new constitution was adopted
in 1918, He introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP) in March,
1921. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republic (USSR) was formed
on 30th December, 1922. He successfully redressed the problems
of unemployment, food scarcity and retarded industrial growth.
Trade and commerce, communication, industries and banking
were nationalisized. England and France who hated this new
ideology supported the Counter Revolution in Russia. Lenin
was successful in crushing the foreign and domestic danger
with the help of Red Army and the ‘Cheka’ the Secret Police.
Lenin passed away at Gorky on 21st January, 1924.

Activity: List the differences and similarities between the

French Revolution and Russian Revolution.

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QUESTIONS
Answer in a word or sentence. (Each carries 1 Mark)

1. Which was the principle advocated by the Russian

Revolution?

2. Who was the Tsar ruling Russia at the time of revolution?

3. Which was the dynasty ruling Russia at the time of

Revolution?

4. Name the Queen of Tsar Nicholas-II.

5. Who was the monk who influenced the administration of

Tsar Nicholas-II?

6. On what principles were the Tsars ruling Russia?

7. Who introduced the principle of Russification?

8. Who wrote the text ‘Poor Folk’?

9. Who wrote the book ‘Fathers and sons’?

10. When did the bloody Sunday take place?

11. Which nation defeated Russia in 1905?

12. Who was the leader of Mensheviks?

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13. Name the party that was led by Lenin.

14. Under which leader the provisional Government was formed

in Russia?

15. Expand – N.E.P

16. Expand – USSR.

Answer in 2 words or 2 sentences.(each carries 2 Marks)

1. Name the two classes of the Russian Society.

2. Which was the slogan of Russification?

3. Name any two intellectuals who influenced the Russian

revolution.

4. Name the two works of Leo Tolstoy.

5. Who was Maxim Gorky? Mention his works.

6. Name the intellectuals of Russia who were influenced by

Karl Marx.

7. Mention two works of Karl Marx ?

8. What was the call given by Karl Marx to the world laborers?

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9. What is ‘Bloody Sunday’?

10. Name the two parties during the Russian revolution.

Answer in 15 - 20 sentences. (each carries 5 Marks)

1. Explain the social and economic factors for the Russian

revolution.

2. Explain the role of intellectuals in the Russian Revolution.

3. Explain the course of the Russian Revolution.

4. Describe the role of Lenin in Russian Revolution.

Answer in 30 - 40 sentences. (10 Marks)

Explain the causes and Results of Russian Revolution.

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Chapter-9
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE AND RISE OF
NATIONALISM
Nationalism means loyalty and devotion of the people to
their Nation. It is also described as strong feeling of love of the
people towards their own culture, language and Nation. This
chapter describes how Napoleonic wars, policies and
administration led to the rise of Nationalism in France and
Europe. It finally led to the unification of Italy and Germany.

Chapter-9.1
NAPOLEON BONAPARTE (1769-1821)
French Revolution has produced a great hero and one of
the greatest military generals and administrators, the world ever
produced. For more than 15 years, he was
the most prominent figure of Europe. He
was none other than Napoleon Bonaparte.
In fact the period from 1799 to 1815 is
considered as ‘Napoleonic Era’.
“I was born when my country was
dying”, said Napoleon. It was his
Endeavour to give a new lease of life to his
country, France. In a sense he was, “The
Child of the Revolution” in his reforms and
“The Destroyer of the Revolution” in his
military efforts.

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Early career:
Napoleon was born at Ajaccio in the island of Corsica on
August 15th 1769. His parents were Count Charles Bonaparte
and Countess Leticia Romalina. During his childhood he
cultivated self confidence, an ability to work hard and immense
ambition. He was educated at Brienne (in Austria) and then in
the Military Academy of Paris. He took keen interest in the
study of military science. He joined the French army at the age
of seventeen as an artillery officer. Because of his ability he
rose from post to post. During the French Revolution he proved
his talent by suppressing two rebellions against the French
government.

Rise of Napoleon:
In 1796, the Directory government appointed Napoleon the
commander of the French army in Italy. His Italian campaign
was a great success. He defeated the Sardinians, and then
Austrians. By the Treaty of ‘Campo-Formio’ in 1797 he gained
immense success for France.
Napoleon started re-drawing the map of Europe through
his conquests. Arbitrary governments were imposed on ltaly
and Belgium. His Egyptian campaign was aimed at striking the
British Imperialism. In the ‘Battle of the Pyramids’ Napoleon
could score a victory over England. But in the Naval Battle of
the Nile or ‘Aboukir Bay’, he was defeated by Admiral Nelson.

The Consulate:
A Directory government of five members ruled France from
1795 to 1799. Napoleon overthrew the Directory in 1799, by
the Coup d’etat. A three member consulate government came
into existence. The executive powers of consulate vested with
three consuls, Napoleon was the First Consul, Abbe Sieyas and
Ducos were the second and third consuls. The first consul had
practically absolute powers. France remained a republic only
in name. Napoleon declared himself as an Emperor by a
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Plebiscite in 1804. He carried out a number of reforms both in

domestic and foreign affairs, which have made his name
immortal.

Reforms:
Most of the reforms of Napoleon Bonaparte were carried
out during the consulate government. His administration led
to the effective reconstruction of France. After 10 years of rapid
and radical changes during French Revolution, France was
experiencing a period of chaos and confusion. He was able to
evolve order out of this chaos through administrative reforms.

Administrative reforms:
Napoleon centralized the entire system of local government
in France. The whole country was divided into various Provinces
or Departments. These were again sub divided into smaller units
like Arrondisments and Communes. The powers of all the elected
and other bodies were vested in Prefects and Sub-Prefects, who
were responsible only to him.
The new system assured that the decrees of the central
government should promptly and uniformly be carried out. An
efficient police force and loyal army helped him to implement
these ideas smoothly. He also developed the office of the
‘Secretariat of the State’, to a new level.

Code Napoleon:
The most appreciable reform of Napoleon was the
introduction of the legal code. They still remain the base for
French law. Napoleon himself later said that, his true glory
was not having won 40 battles but having brought out the
civil code.- The famous ‘Code Napoleon’ became almost a
model for the rest of the Europe.
First he brought out a Civil Code which in turn was followed
by the Code of Civil Procedure, the Code of Criminal Procedure,
the Penal Code and the Commercial Code. The important
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demands of the revolution like civil equality, religious toleration,

emancipation of land, etc all were clearly connected with these
codes. So Napoleon Bonaparte is called the ‘Second Justinian’.

The Concordat: (Religious treaty)

It was the aim of Napoleon to heal up the wounds caused
by the French Revolution by its breach with the Papacy. He felt
that, a state without religion was like an empty vessel; so he
decided to regain the sympathy of the Catholics by improving
his relations with the Pope. After negotiations with Pope Pius
VII, he reached a religious understanding with the pope in 1802,
which came to be known as the ‘Concordat’. With this treaty
Catholicism became the state religion of France.

Education:
Napoleon introduced a national scheme of education. There
were four grades of schools. All were managed by the state.
These grades were elementary, secondary, higher and special
schools. Special schools were technical schools, civil service
schools or military schools etc. He introduced a new University
system and in 1808 established the University of France. It was
meant to maintain University standards and supervise the
functioning of the schools. Two subjects taught commonly were
Christian ethics and loyalty to the state.

Public works:
He also undertook a number of public works. This helped
to solve the unemployment problem. Various magnificent
highways including two Trans -Alpine roads which brought Paris
in touch with Turin, Rome and other places were laid. Huge
bridges were built, old canals and water ways were repaired
and put to better use. New streets were constructed and
Triangular Arches were built. An old prison was renovated and
converted into museum called Louvre. Paris city was transformed
from a medieval town to a beautiful and modern capital city.

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Economic reforms:
In order to manage the financial position and the
improvement of nation, Napoleon laid a foundation to the
National Bank in 1805, which is called as ‘Bank of France’.
Apart from supervising the entire financial setup, it stimulated
trade and industry. He tried to improve the financial condition
of the country. Careful collection of taxes and rigid economic
measures were also carried on. Revenue boards were setup.
The national loan was reduced and the stock exchanges were
regulated. He took stern measures to root out corruption and
gambling.

Legion of honour:
To honour those who rendered meritorious military and civil
services to the state Napoleon Bonaparte started an award called
‘Legion of Honour’. It was based on principles of equality,
without distinction of class and religion.

Napoleon’s Conquests:
The First Coalition combining Prussia, Austria, Russia,
Spain and others, which formed an opposition to the French
Revolution, was shattered during the victorious campaign of
Napoleon against Italy. Now his task was to meet the Second
Coalition consisting of Russia, Austria, Turkey, Naples and
England. Napoleon was able to win over Tsar of Russia to his
side. Austria was defeated at Hohenzollern in 1801. Now
England was left without a friend. Napoleon could not attack
England because, France had no powerful fleet.

Battle of Trafalgar (1805):

In 1804, Napoleon crowned himself as ‘Napoleon I- Emperor
of France’. The ten years of the empire witnessed almost
continuous warfare. England, Austria, Russia and Sweden were
alarmed at the growth of the French power, formed an alliance
(coalitions) against France. Two of the most famous battles fought
during this time were the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 (naval
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battle, in which the French were defeated) and another war

was the Battle of Austerlitz.

Battle of Austerlitz (1805):

Napoleon took the advantage of his army’s superiority on
land. He inflicted a crushing defeat over the combined forces of
Austria and Russia in the Battle of Austerlitz in 1805, which
brought them under his subordination. Now Napoleon
concluded the Treaty of ‘Tilsit’ with the Tsar of Russia in 1807.
He was at his zenith of power and the entire Europe was under
his influence, except England, which remained his enemy.

Continental System (1806):-

England’s strength was in its trade and commerce. Hence
Napoleon decided to attack England by destroying it. He issued
two decrees from Berlin in 1806 and Milan in 1807. Accordingly
British goods were fully excluded from the whole of Europe.
This was called the ‘Continental System’. Since Europe was
dependent on England, the application of this system harmed
France more than England. The European nations suffered a
lot, which depended on imports from England. As a result Spain
and Portugal were attacked for not observing the Continental
System. When there was a civil war in Spain Napoleon installed
his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne against the wishes
of its people. This resulted in a national revolution in Spain.
England took advantage of the situation and sent its army under
General Arthur Wellesley, who defeated the French army.
Napoleon himself uttered at later stage as, “the Spanish Ulcer
ruined me”.

Russian campaign (1812):

The Tsar Alexander, ruler of Russia violated the continental
system and began to import British goods. This was the main
reason for the invasion of Moscow by Napoleon. He organized a
huge army against Russia. Russians followed a policy of retreat.
French army entered Moscow and Napoleon hoped that Tsar
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would eventually surrender. Moscow was set on fire by Russians.

But French army terribly suffered mainly from biting cold,
hunger and thirst. Napoleon failed miserably and returned to
France with a loss of 3,00,000 soldiers.

Battle of Leipzig (1813):

After the Russian Campaign Napoleon’s enemies increased.
The fourth coalition was formed. The combined armies of Austria
and Prussia, with the help of England defeated Napoleon in the
Battle of ‘Leipzig’ in 1813. Later he was arrested and deported to
the Island of Elba. Then Louis XVIII was installed as king of France.
But he escaped from Elba and reached France. On his arrival,
Louis XVIII vacated French throne and took refuge in Belgium.

Battle of Waterloo (1815):

Napoleon fled back to France from Elba Island and ruled for
100 days. Allied nations came together and decided to defeat
him. They completely defeated Napoleon in the Battle of
Waterloo (Belgium) in 1815. Sir Arthur Wellesley (Wellington)
was the then British General. Later Napoleon was exiled to St.
Helena, an Island in the Atlantic Ocean. On May 5th, 1821
Napoleon died of Ulcer.

Causes for the downfall of Napoleon

● Though he was a genius, his inordinate ambition, pride
and self - centered nature ruined him in the end.
● Napoleonic Empire depended only on his military strength.
His army consisted soldiers belonging to different
nationalities, who did not have any attachment to the
Empire.
● The rise of nationalism against the Napoleonic Empire was
another factor that led to his fall. This spirit of nationalism
which initially worked well in Spain, later on spread to other
countries like Austria, Prussia and Russia, leading to the
war of Liberation.
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● The continental system was one of the great blunders

committed by Napoleon Bonaparte. Due to the heavy losses
the European countries came out of the system.
● The Russian expedition was ill-fated and the grand army of
Napoleon was reduced to pieces due to the bad weather.
The opportunity was immediately seized by his enemies
who formed a fourth coalition to bring about his downfall.
● The ill-treatment of the Pope by Napoleon antagonized the
Roman Catholics throughout Europe. In 1809 he had seized
the Papal territories and transferred the seat of Papacy to
Paris as the Pope had refused to observe the continental
system.
● The continued opposition of England, its undisputed
supremacy on the sea and the ability of its commanders
like Admiral Nelson and General Wellesley also contributed
much towards the destruction of Napoleonic Empire. It is
also to be noted that his navy was very weak.
● The friends and relatives of Napoleon, who enjoyed the
favours when he was at the zenith of power, betrayed him
in the end.

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NAPOLEON’S TOMB

Napoleon’s Tomb is located in the central crypt of the

English du Dome Church in the city of Paris. The remains of the
emperor, inside the sarcophagus are protected by six concentric
coffins, built from different materials, including mahogany, ebony,
and oak, all one inside the other.

On May 5th 1821, Napoleon died on the island of St. Helena,

where he had been in exile since 1815. He was buried in the Geranium
valley. His remains rested there until October 15th 1840.

In 1840 his remains were exhumed and brought to Pairs, under

the instructions of Louis Philippe. A state funeral was held, and the
remains laid to rest in St. Jerome’s Chapel. The remains were moved
in 1861 when the tomb was completed.

The tomb is crafted in red porphyry, and placed on a green granite

base , it is circled by a crown of laurels with inscriptions, which act
as reminder of the empire’s great victories. In the round gallery is a
series of low relief, sculptures by Simart. A statue of the emperor,
bearing the imperial emblem, is located at the back of the crypt.

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Questions
Answer in a word or sentence each (Each carries One mark)
1. Who was the first consul of France?
2. Who was Admiral Nelson?
3. In which year did Napoleon Bonaparte crown himself as
the Emperor of France?
4. Who established the Bank of France?
5. Which University was founded by Napoleon Bonaparte?
6. Who imposed the continental system?
7. Where did Napoleon Bonaparte die?
8. Which was the last battle of Napoleon Bonaparte?
9. Who is called as the second Justinian?
10. In which year was the Battle of Waterloo fought?
Answer in two or three sentences each (each carries two marks )
1. Name the parents of Napoleon Bonaparte.
2. Where and in which year was Napoleon Bonaparte born?
3. Between whom and when was ‘Tilsit Treaty’ concluded ?
4. What is Concordat?
5. What is Continental system?
6. What is Legion of Honour?
Answer in 15-20 lines each (each carries five marks)
1. Write about the life and rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.
2. Write about the military expeditions of Napoleon Bonaparte.
3. Discuss the continental system of Napoleon Bonaparte
4. Explain the causes for the decline of Napoleon Bonaparte.
5. Napoleon Bonaparte was “The Child of Revolution “and “the
Destroyer of Revolution”. - Justify this statement.

Answer in 30-40 lines each(Each carries ten marks questions)

1. Describe the administrative reforms of Napoleon Bonaparte.
2. Write about rise and conquests of Napoleon Bonaparte.
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9.2 Unification Of Italy

Birth of Spirit of Nationalism - The role of Mazzini, Cavour,
Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel II.
The French Revolution and the Napoleonic era aroused
nationalism among European countries. Though attempts were
made by some people to suppress the tide of nationalism, they
could not succeed. The triumph of nationalism could be seen
in the unification of Italy and Germany.
Before the 19th century, Italy was only a ‘geographical
expression.’ There were a number of states jealous of each other.
There was no unity among them. Hence they became victims of
foreign domination. The northern states of Lombardy and
Venetia were directly under the Austrians, other small states
were under the Hapsburgs, Parma, Modena and Tuscany were
under the Austrian Royal family, Central Italian Duchies were
ruled by the pope. Naples and Sicily in the South were under
the Bourbons of France.
Napoleon remarked; Italy is surrounded by Alps and
the sea Her national limits are defined. Italy is one nation
in Unity.
When Napoleon brought Italy under his control, the Italians
welcomed him. The French revolution had its impact on the

Italy before unification

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people of Italy. They considered Napoleon as the representative

of French revolutionary principles. His authority on the Italian
states proved to be beneficial. The Italians enjoyed unity. He
brought about reforms and passed enlightened laws. The gospel
of French revolution, ‘Liberty, Equality and Fraternity’, had its
effect on the Italians.
After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna, which
was dominated by Metternich, the prime minister of Austria
undid his work. Italy was divided again. Lombardy and Venetia
were given to Austria Parma, Modena and Tuscany came under
the Austrian Hapsburgs, the Pope was restored in Rome and
was given Papal States of Romagna and Bologna. The Bourbons
were given Naples and Sicily. Sardinia and Genoa were added
to the kingdom of Piedmont which was the only state ruled by
an Italian king. Thus the unity was thwarted.
Congress of Vienna: After the fall of Napoleon in 1815, the
European Powers met at Vienna, the capital of Austria to redraw the
map of Europe. Metternich, the Austrian Prime Minister played a
dominant role in the Congress of Vienna. The period between 1815
and 1850 is called as “the age of Metternich.” He acted as the restorer
of the old regime and was against all liberal movements and suppressed
them.

But the people of Italy never forgot the lesson that Italy was
a Nation. They had enjoyed temporary union, equal rights before
the law, religious liberty, freedom of press and self government.
By 1820, insurrections began. These insurrections were the
work of secret societies. The largest of these was the ‘Carbonari’
or ‘Charcoal burners.’ They were active in creating opposition
to foreign rule. There were many revolts between 1820–1831.
But the revolts were put down by Austria.
The revolutions of 1830 and 1848 in France also had their
effects on Italians, which led to further rebellions. All these
were put down by Austria and France. Finally Joseph Mazzini,
Count Cavour, Garibaldi and Victor Emmanuel helped in
realizing the dream of Italian Unification.
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Joseph Mazzini (1805-1872)

Joseph Mazzini, called the ‘Soul of Italian
Unification’ was born at Genoa in 1805. He
was a lawyer by Profession, He believed that
‘Pen is mightier than Sword’ and decided to
infuse patriotism among the people through
his articles. He was a member of the
Carbonari. He founded a society called ‘Young
Italy’ in 1831.
It was an organization of the Youth and a secret and
underground organization. He felt that unification has to be
achieved only by Italians. Men below 40 years of age were given
membership to this society. They were able bodied Youths of
Italy. The unity of Italy was preached as a new religion and a
holy mission. ‘God, the people and Italy’ were the watchwords
of this organization. Because of his activities, he was banished
and lived in exile in France, Switzerland and England and
guided the movement from outside.
Mazzini’s influence was such that in 1848, well organized
revolts were seen in Italy. People of Lombardy, Parma, Modena
and Tuscany rose in revolt against their rulers. Since there was
no unity among them, they were easily put down by Austria
and France. Charles Albert, the king of Italy led the national
movement and drove out Austria from Lombardy. But this
success was short lived. The Austrians defeated the Sardinian
army. Disappointed with this, Charles Albert abdicated his
throne in favour of his son Victor Emmanuel II.

Count De-Cavour (1810-1861)

Born in 1810 at Piedmont, Cavour received
military education. He served the military for
some time. He studied the history and culture
of Italy and developed a patriotic spirit. He
advocated English Constitutional System. In
1847, he started a newspaper called
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‘Risorgimento’ (Rebirth). As the editor of the paper, he mobilized

public opinion to unite Italy.
His political career began when he was elected to the
Parliament of Piedmont in 1850. He was appointed as the Prime
Minister in 1852 by Victor Emmanuel II. He served as the Prime
Minster from 1852 to 1861. He had the dream of uniting Italy
under the leadership of Sardinia. But before taking up that
task, he undertook many reforms to make Sardinia strong.
Economy was reformed. Commercial taxes were reduced. He
encouraged education and industries. He thus developed the
state and it became a ‘Model State’.
He believed in the policy of war and diplomacy to unite
Italy. Cavour believed that Italian Unification could be achieved
only with the help of other European Countries. Hence, he
took part in the Crimean War. This war, fought between 1854-
1856, with England and France on the side of Turkey against
Russia had no reason for Cavour to take part. But with a foresight
to create an image about his State before England and France,
he made this move. He remarked ‘Out of the mud of Crimea
Italy will be made’. After the war, in the Paris Peace Congress,
he put forth the problems of Italy before the leaders.
Napoleon I - Napoleon Bonaparte called himself
Napoleon I, the Emperor of France after he was crowned
in 1804.
Napoleon II (1811-1832) - Was the son of Napoleon I.
In 1814, when his father declared him as the Emperor,
the coalition parties refused to acknowledge. He never
ruled France.
Napoleon III - was the nephew of Napoleon I. He
ascended the throne in 1852. He ruled as Emperor of
France till 1870.
Napoleon III, the ruler of France was very sympathetic to
the cause of Italian Unification. Cavour signed an agreement
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with Napoleon III at Plombieres in 1858. Napoleon promised to

help Cavour against Austria in return for which Cavour had to
give Savoy and Nice. Cavour built his army. Austria was
suspicious of the meeting between Cavour and Napoleon and
the militarization of Sardinia and ordered Sardinia to disarm.
When Sardinia refused, the war began in 1859. This war lasted
for two months. The Austrians were defeated at Magenta and
Salfereno. But Napoleon stopped the war without giving a clue
to Sardinia, concluded the treaty of ‘Villa Franca’ with Austria.
According to this treaty, Austrian troops were evacuated from
Lombardy and it was ceded to Victor Emmanuel II. Thus, the
first stage of unification was set in. Napoleon received Nice and
Savoy. The abrupt end of the war disappointed Cavour. He forced
King Victor Emmanuel II not to accept the treaty of Villa Franca.
But when Victor Emmanuel refused, he resigned. But soon he
was re-elected and took over as the Prime Minister. In 1860
Modena, Parma, Tuscany, Romagna, Umbria and Marches voted
to merge with Sardinia. This led to the second step in the
unification. Considered ‘the Brain of Italian Unification’, he died
in 1861. He died almost a decade before the Unification of Italy.
His last words were “Italy is made, all is safe’. It was indeed an
optimistic quote.
Treaty of Villa Franca- 1859- concluded between
France and Austria - Austria was to cede Lombardy to
France, which France had to transfer to Piedmont. Venetia
was to be under Austria. The rulers of Central Italy were to
be brought back.

Garibaldi (1807-1882)
The third stage of Italian Unification was
achieved by a great patriot, Garibaldi. He was
born in 1807 at Nice. He became a member of
‘Young Italy’ at the age of 24 and took part in
the revolutionary activities
He participated in a revolt organized by
Mazzini at Savoy in 1834. But the revolt failed.
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Because of his nationalistic activities he was given death

sentence. He managed to escape to South America and lived in
exile for 14 years. He got a large number of followers prepared
for any sacrifice for the sake of their country. They were
transformed into an army called ‘Red Shirts’. During the 1848
revolution, he returned to Italy and took part in Italian
Nationalist Movement. During the war between Sardinia and
Austria, he commanded the Sardinian Forces.
In 1860, the people of Sicily sought his help against the
Bourbons. Immediately he went with his army of Red Shirts
and within two months Francis II was defeated and Sicily was
annexed. Then he went to Naples and defeated Francis II here
also. From here he wanted to go to Rome. But Cavour did not
like his move and prevailed upon Victor Emmanuel II to prevent
him. So an army of Victor Emmanuel II was sent to Rome.
Garibaldi, whose main aim was the Unification of Italy, handed
over Naples and Sicily to Victor Emmanuel II. Garibaldi, is called
the ‘Sword of Italian Unification’. A true patriot, he refused to
accept titles and honours which were offered to him, went
back to his village and lived the life of a peasant.

Victor Emmanuel II
Victor Emmanuel II, the King of Sardinia
was a patriot himself and an honest king of
Italy. He achieved the unification through
peaceful negotiations. He appointed Count
Cavour as his Prime Minister. By 1861,
Cavour united most of Italy. On 18th
February 1861, a new Parliament was
convened at Turin and Victor Emmanuel II
was proclaimed as the King of Italy. But
Venetia and Rome were yet to be added.
Venetia was under Austria and Rome was under the Pope.
In 1866, a war broke out between Austria and Prussia, in
which Victor Emmanuel sided with Prussia. The victory of
Prussia over Austria compelled Austria to give Venetia to Italy.
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In 1870, when there was a war between Prussia and France,

Napoleon III withdrew his forces from Rome which had been
kept for the protection of the Pope. Immediately, Victor
Emmanuel’s troops occupied Rome. The Unification of Italy was
completed in 1870. Rome became the capital of unified Italy.
Thus, the Patriotism of Mazzini, the Wars of Garibaldi, the
Diplomacy of Cavour and the Statesmanship of Victor Emmanuel
helped the Unification of Italy.

Italy after Unification

Questions
Answer in a word or a sentence (each carries 1 Mark)
1. What is Carbonari?
2. Who founded Young Italy?
3. Who said ‘Pen is mightier than Sword’?
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4. Who published the paper ‘Resorgimento’?

5. Who helped Sardinia and Piedmont in her war against
Austria?
6. Which treaty was concluded after the war between Austria
and Sardinia?
7. Who established the Red Shirt Army?
8. Who was the first King of United Italy?
9. Name the capital of United Italy.

Answer in 2 words or 2 sentences (each carries 2 Marks)

1. Name the architects of Italian Unification.
2. What were the aims of Young Italy?
3. Who was called the Sword of Italian Unification? Name the
army he established.
4. Name any 4 States of Italy.
5. Who was the Chancellor of Victor Emmanuel II? What was
his policy?

Answer in 15 to 20 sentences (each carries 5 Marks)

1. Trace the role of Joseph Mazzini in the Unification of Italy.
2. Describe the role of Count Cavour in the Unification of Italy.
3. Write about the part played by Garibaldi in the Italian
Unification.

Answer in 30 to 40 sentences (each carries 10 Marks)

1. Describe the stages of Italian Unification.
2. Describe the part played by Mazzini, Cavour and Garibaldi
in the Italian Unification.

❖❖❖❖❖

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9.3 Unification of Germany

Introduction
The German territory was divided into more than 300 petty
states before the Unification. These states were ruled by
inefficient autocrats. They were dominated by England, Denmark
and Sweden. The German people had a common language and
culture, which infused the desire of Unification. Napoleon
Bonaparte conquered the German states and reduced the
number of states to 39, creating larger states. He provided a
good system of administration. The states became stronger
compared to earlier times. The Vienna Congress was constituted
in 1815 after the fall of Napoleon Bonaparte. It was entrusted
with the work of redrawing the European map, which had been
shattered by Napoleon’s conquests.
The people of the German states hoped that the Congress
would heed to the popular demand and unite the German
states. The hope turned into disappointment, as the Congress
retained the existing 39 German states as the ‘Confederation
of Rhine’, but now under the domination of Austria. Austria
followed a reactionary policy towards Germany and suppressed
all attempts of unification to retain its hold on the German
states. It imposed censorship on the Press and Private
correspondence, Restrictions on free speech, surveillance of
colleges and Universities, prohibition on nationalistic
discussions, etc.

Zollverein
Prussia was the strongest and largest among the 39 states
of the Confederation of Rhine. It worked for an economic union
of the German States. The Customs Union called ‘Zollverein’
was formed in 1834. Zollverein allowed ‘free trade’, reduced the
protectionist barriers and improved the transportation of raw
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materials and finished goods among the German states. The

products were now less costly to buy or sell. Despite Austrian
opposition all the German states joined the Zollverein. This
economic unity was the first step towards the political unity at
a later stage.

Frankfurt Parliament (1848)

Many European nations including German states witnessed
revolutions in 1848. The revolutions in German states aimed at
unification and a single German constitution. The
revolutionaries hoped that such a constitution would provide a
universal male suffrage, a permanent national parliament and
a United Germany under the leadership of Prussian King.
The Frankfurt parliament consisting of the representatives
of all the German states met on 27th march 1849. It held
discussions, passed the resolution and offered the title ‘Kaiser’
(Emperor) to the Prussian king, Fredrick William IV. He refused
the offer to become the emperor of United Germany stating
that he could not accept the crown offered by the elected
representatives of the states, instead of their Kings. Moreover,
he was afraid of the military intervention of Austria and Russia.
Thus the attempt of the unification failed.

Bismarck (1815-1898)
Edward Leopold Otto Van Bismarck was
born in 1815 in an aristocratic family of
Prussia. He was well educated and he
travelled widely in Europe, particularly, in
France and England. He was appointed as
the Prussian Ambassador to Russia and later
to France. Thus he gained first-hand
knowledge and experience about the
European politics. He was appointed as
Otto Von Bismarck Chancellor (P.M) of Prussia in 1862 by King
William I. Bismarck had made up his mind to unify Germany

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under the monarchy of Prussia. He believed that Prussia alone

had the ability to lead the German states. He also knew that
Austria was to be defeated to achieve the goal. So Bismarck
began to re-organize the Prussian military with the help of
General Roon and General Moltke. Very soon the Prussian army
was among the best in Europe. He said, “The great questions of
the time will not be resolved by speeches and majority
decisions…. but by Iron and blood”. This became popular as
‘Blood and Iron’ policy of Bismarck.

War with Denmark (1864)

The King of Denmark was also the Duke of the German
provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. The new King, Christian
IX declared the provinces to be a part of Denmark. The people
of the provinces (majority German) and other German States

(From left to right)

Bismarck, Roon
and Moltke

were unhappy at this move. Bismarck made an alliance with

Austria to capture the two German provinces. Denmark was
attacked in 1864 by the combined armies of Prussia and Austria.
Denmark expected the support of a few German states which
did not materialize and was defeated. The peace treaty of
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Vienna was signed in October 1864. Later on Prussia and Austria

agreed to respectively administer Schleswig and Holstein
according to the Convention of Gastein.

Austro-Prussian War (1866)

Bismarck promised compensation to Napoleon III, the

Emperor of France for the French neutrality, in case of a war
with Austria. Prussia and Italy also came to a secret
understanding- to militarily help each other, if Austria attacked
either of them. After this, Prussia proposed a plan for a National
Constitution and a National Diet for the German States. The
representatives to the Diet were to be elected through Universal
Suffrage. Many of the German States were initially reluctant to
the proposal. Prussia and Italy started troop movements near
the Austrian borders. Austria responded by full scale
mobilization of troops. The border incidents arranged by
Bismarck made Austria declare war on Prussia and it appeared
that Austria was the aggressor. It also resulted in the reluctant
German States joining the Prussian side, because of German
Nationalistic Sentiments. The well prepared Prussian army, with
the support of Italy and many German States registered quick
victories in the battles. The decisive battle was fought at
Koniggratz near Sadowa, in which Austria was completely
defeated. This war is also called as ‘Seven Weeks War’.

The Austro-Prussian war of 1866 ended with the treaty of

Prague. According to this treaty Scheleswig and Holstein were
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annexed by Prussia. Venice was ceded to Italy. Ausrtia agreed

to give up the supervision of the German States. The North
German Confederation was formed under the leadership of
the Prussian King. This resulted in a partial Unification of
Germany. Only a few South German States remained out of
Unification.

Franco-Prussian War (1870-71)

Bismarck did not keep up the promise of compensation to

France for its neutrality. He desired a war with France to
complete his scheme of Unification. He knew that a war with
France would make the remaining German States join the North
German Confederation. The French were also angry at Prussia,
as they believed that it was actually France that was beaten in
the battle of Sadowa. The balance of power which existed in
Europe was shattered due to the Austrian defeat. So France too
wanted a war with Prussia.

The dispute for the Spanish throne offered a pretext for

war. Bismarck supported the claims of Prince Leopold, a relative
of the Prussian King. The French were alarmed at the growth of
the Prussian power. The French opposed the claims and were
successful in pressurizing Leopold to decline the offer. The
French wanted a reassurance from the Prussian King that he
would not support any claimant of his choice for the Spanish
throne. The Prussian King politely refused to meet the French
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ambassador on the issue, as Prussian supported claimant had

already declined the offer. Bismarck again caused a diplomatic
issue by presenting the situation as, the Prussian King had
insulted France by not receiving the French ambassador.

Napoleon III declared war on Prussia. Bismarck

diplomatically isolated France in the war and none of the
European Nations came to the support of France. The South
German States, which had remained out of the North German
Confederation, joined Prussia against France. The Prussian
forces inflicted crushing defeats at different places. The Battle
of Sedan fought on 1st September 1870 was the final blow to
the French. They were defeated here and also the French
Emperor, Napoleon III was captured. Germans captured Paris.
The Prussian King William was crowned as the Emperor of
united Germany with the title ‘Kaiser” at Versailles.

The Treaty of Frankfurt ended the war on 10th May 1871.

According to the treaty, France had to cede Alsace and a part of
Lorraine, had to pay a war indemnity of 200,000,000 dollars
and the German forces would stay on the French soil until the
indemnity was paid.

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The Unification of Germany was completed under the

Prussian King. Germany now dominated the European politics
and Bismarck became a powerful personality and the ‘Architect
of German Unification’. The French were humiliated. Their
National Pride was hurt and they sought revenge. This served
as one of the causes for the First World War.

Questions

Answer in a word or a sentence each. (Each carries 1 mark)

1) What was the famous policy of Bismarck?

2) In which year did Prussia attack Denmark?

3) Which King of Denmark declared the annexation of

Schleswig and Holstein?

4) Which treaty ended the Austro-Prussian War?

5) Which treaty ended the Franco-Prussian War?

Answer in two words or two sentences each. (Each carries 2

marks)

1) What was Zollverein?

2) Why did Fredrick William IV reject the offer of the Frankfurt

Parliament?
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3) Who assisted Bismarck in the re-organization of the Prussian

military?

Answer in 15-20 sentences. (5 marks)

1) Discuss the role of Bismarck in the Unification of Germany.

Answer in 30-40 sentences. (10 marks)

1) Discuss in detail the different stages of the German

Unification.

❖❖❖❖❖

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CHAPTER 10
WORLD WARS – INTERNATIONAL
ORGANIZATIONS
Background:
The two World Wars had a complex geographical, political,
cultural and intellectual background. The geographical
discoveries of the 15th and 16th centuries made a deep impact
on the economic and political conditions of Europe and other
parts of the world. Mainly these discoveries opened up new sea
and land routes to different countries of the world, which
inculcated stronger trade relationships and free movement
among the countries. As an outcome of this, there started a
keen contest among the European powers for colonial wealth
and possessions.

The Renaissance marked the beginning of modern thinking

and development of science, secularism, etc. The new political
ideologies like democracy, secularism, socialism, communism,
etc. began to gain popularity across the countries of the world.

Similarly the Reformation movement weakened the

authority of religion over the state. The Papacy slowly lost its
hold over the state. Monarchy, the ideas of nationalism and
democracy were strengthened. The people began to enjoy more
intellectual freedom, which resulted in the rapid progress in
the field of science and other intellectual areas.

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The American War of Independence and the French

Revolution too prepared the background for the World Wars in
its own way. These revolutions upheld and popularized the
principles of nationalism and democracy. The revolutionary spirit
spread to other countries of Europe. The Napoleonic Era
awakened the spirit of Nationalism. The people gave their first
loyalty to their nation. This spirit of nationalism led to many
wars resulting in national unity. It also led to the creation of
many new countries like Italy and Germany between 1815 and
1914. At the same time, as a result of the Reformation Movement
and scientific progress, the people of Europe advanced and
modernized rapidly. The wealth of Europe had increased
enormously as a result of the Industrial Revolution. They were
also successful in establishing colonies in different parts of the
world. But they had not yet learnt the art of settling their
territorial and other disputes with neighbouring states
peacefully. As a result, the peace of the world was disturbed
and the first half of the Twentieth century witnessed two major
wars, in which several countries from Europe and other parts of
the world participated. The wars caused great devastation and
loss of life on a scale which was unprecedented in human
history. These are known as First and Second World Wars.
10.1 The First World War [1914 – 1918]
The First World War was one of
the greatest, largest and most
destructive events in the history of
modern world. It was the first war,
in which such a large number of
countries from Europe and other
parts of the world were involved and
First World War
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affected either directly or indirectly. It destroyed more human

life and material than any other previous wars. The First World
War broke out in 1914 and came to an end in 1918. It primarily
started in Europe and soon it spread to many parts of the world.
It was the first conflict between the highly organized and well
armed countries of the Twentieth century. Hence, it was called
the ‘World War’. Nearly thirty countries participated in the war.
Causes:
1. Aggressive Nationalism:
Prior to the outbreak of the First World War aggressive
Nationalism had assumed dangerous proportions.
Nationalistic aspirations led to political rivalries. On the eve
of the war, Europe developed aggressive nationalism. It meant
love of one’s country and hatred towards the other countries.
The spirit of nationalism had created a number of new states
in Europe in the 19th century. Thus, patriotism took a
militant turn and ‘my country, right or wrong’, became the
guiding principle of nationalists. It was this nationalism that
made France to recover Alsace and Lorraine provinces and
Serbia to recover Bosnia and Herzegovina. Even Russia also
desired to extend southward. It was this competitive
patriotism which led to rivalry between Britain and Germany,
and they were forced to jump into military and naval
competition. Kaiser William II [1888-1918], the Emperor of
Germany believed in the superiority of German race. He
wanted to make Germany a first rate power in the world.
He believed in the policy of ‘World Power or downfall’. His
policy of colonial expansion became a threat to other colonial
empires of the European countries. This aggressive
nationalism was an important factor for the outbreak of the
First World War.

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2. Military Alliances:
After the Unification of Germany in 1871, its Chancellor
Otto Von Bismarck desired peace. Germany considered
France as its greatest enemy and Bismarck tried to isolate
France diplomatically. So, Bismarck became active in forming
alliances to strengthen Germany and isolate France. He
initially formed an alliance with Austria which resulted in
two rival alliances being formed – The Triple Alliance and
Triple Entente. The Triple Alliance was formed by Germany
consisting Germany, Austria and Italy. These powers were
also known as the Central Powers. The Triple Entente
emerged in 1907, out of the fear for Germany consisting of
France, Russia, and England. They were known as the Allies.
Each camp looked upon the other with jealousy and
suspicion. Formation of these groups created a tense
situation.

3. Arms Race:
The arms race was another
major cause. The
formation of two rival
camps viz., Triple Alliance
and Triple Entente led to
a keen competition in
manufacturing of war
materials among the
European nations. Each
nation began to increase
its military and naval
armaments. Germany
made tremendous First World War-Tanks
progress in the military to produce modern weapons like
tanks, submarines, etc. The warlike attitude of Kaiser William
II of Germany greatly alarmed England. So, England began
to strengthen its naval force. Nations like France, Russia
and others who were afraid of Germany began to strengthen
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their military power. France introduced compulsory military

training. Russia doubled its military budget. This arms race
created fear, suspicion, tension and distrust between one
another.

4. Imperialism and Economic Rivalry:

The most important source
Imperialism in
of international conflict was general refers to
Imperialism and Economic expanding one’s empire
Rivalry among the European and adding new territories
nations. Imperialism was a to one’s domain.
product of Industrial Revolution.
Colonialism means
It refers to the policy of establishing political
extending a country’s power by control over foreign
acquiring colonies. So, the countries by military or
colonial ambitions of the nations some other means, to
achieve political,
of Europe also led to the war. The
economic and market
colonies served as source for raw advantages.
materials and markets for their
finished products. The main commercial and industrial rivalry
existed between Germany and England. England had more
colonies. Germany tried to capture markets which were in the
hands of England which led to bitterness between the two
countries. German products were in great demand in many
countries. England was afraid of losing its markets. England
was not ready to give up any of her colonies but Germany wanted
them at any cost. It was evident in Africa. In Africa, when
Germany met the opposition of England and other European
countries, it did not hesitate to use force to acquire the colonies.
Thus Imperialism and Economic Rivalry became one of the
causes for the First World War.

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5. The Balkan Problems:

The weak and incompetent Sultan of Turkey was referred
to, as the ‘Sick Man of Europe’. The hold of Sultan on the
Christian states like Bulgaria, Bosnia, Rumania, etc in the
Balkan area was weakening. Taking advantage of his
weakness, Austria and Russia were trying to spread their
influence over the Balkan Peninsula. In 1908, Austria
annexed the Balkan states of Bosnia and Herzegovina by
violating the Berlin Treaty of 1878. The Berlin Treaty allowed
Austria only to supervise but not to annex them. The action
of Austria angered Russia and it backed Serbia against
Austria. Thus the hostility ran very high between the two
rival groups and led to the outbreak of the great war of
1914.
6. Role of the Newspapers:-
The Newspapers played an important role in widening the
gap between the two rival camps. The newspapers in all the
countries took up some point of dispute and tried to inflame
the nationalist feelings. Newspapers were responsible in
creating mistrust between the people of European nations.
7. Immediate Cause:
The immediate cause for the First World War was the
murder of Crown Prince of Austria, Archduke Francis
Ferdinand and his wife in the Bosnian capital, Sarajevo on
28th June, 1914. Gavrillo Princep, a student, who shot him
was a Serbian. Austria sent an ultimatum to Serbia to arrest
and handover the criminals. Serbia rejected the ultimatum.
So, Austria, backed by Germany, declared war on Serbia
on 28th July, 1914. Russia came to the help of Serbia, and
thus started the First World War.
Course:
When Austria declared war on Serbia, Russia supported
Serbia. Germany came to the aid of Austria. This brought other
countries into the war.
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In the war, Germany,

Austria, Turkey and Bulgaria
were on one side against
Serbia, Russia, France,
England, Belgium, Portugal,
etc. which formed the opposite
camp. In 1915, Italy deserted
the Triple Alliance, and
declared its support to the
Allies. Russia suffered severe
Biplanes of the First World War
losses in 1915, but England
continued to dominate the war with its naval supremacy.
Germany was also powerful on the seas. It had a large number
of submarines or U-Boats and inflicted much damage to the
enemies. In 1917, U.S.A. also joined the side of Allies, because
Germany destroyed the Lusitanian ship of England, in which
many Americans were travelling. Soon this war turned into a
global war. The scene now changed and the Allies went on
winning the battles.
Meanwhile, an internal revolution broke out in Russia in
1917. The Communist government, which came to power under
Lenin withdrew Russia from the war. The war was waged on
land, sea and for the first time in the air too. The modern
weapons like tanks, bombs and submarines were used in this
war. Austrian army was destroyed in Italy. Thereafter Turkey
and Bulgaria were also defeated and they surrendered to the
Allied Powers. Ultimately, Germany and its allies were defeated
on 11th November 1918. Kaiser William II, Emperor of Germany
fled to Holland. Thus, the First World War came to an end.

Activity: Collect various photographs of scenes of the First World War.

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Results:
1. The horrors and miseries of the war were plenty. The lasting
result of the war was the loss of millions of fittest men and
permanent disabling of many more. It has been estimated
that about 60 million soldiers took part in the war. Out of
them, about 10 million were killed and about 20 million
were wounded. Most of them were men below the age of 40.
Besides, millions of civilians died of starvation, disease and
violence. As a result, women were forced to work in the
factories, shops, hospitals, offices, schools, etc. They worked
in place of men and thus ended the traditional barrier
between men and women.
2. As a result of the war, four old empires were overthrown.
They were the Hapsburg of Austria, Hohenzollerns of
Germany, Ramanovs of Russia and the Turkish Sultanate
[Ottoman Empire]. Many new states were set up on the
ruins of old empires viz., Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Poland,
Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.

3. The Treaty of Versailles was an important outcome of the

war. By this Treaty Germany had to give up large number
of its territories and colonies. It was imposed a huge war
indemnity and its military strength was reduced.
4. It became common after the war to look to government for
guidance to solve economic, social and other problems of
the people. Government control over many aspects of life
increased. Acute shortage of goods led to inflation. Each
warring nation imposed heavy taxes to meet the war
expenses. World’s production decreased and the cost of living
shot up everywhere. The largest European creditor- nations
became debtor- nations.

5. The most important constructive result of the First World

War was the establishment of an international organization
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called the League of Nations to preserve the world peace by

avoiding future wars. The Paris Peace Conference accepted
the proposal of Woodrow Wilson. The League of Nations came
into existence in 1920 with its headquarters at Geneva in
Switzerland.

6. Countries like Poland, Belgium and Czechoslovakia became

independent after the war.

7. The Paris Peace Conference, 1919 officially ended the First

World War.

Treaty of Versailles, 1919:

After the First World War the Allied Powers met at Paris for
the first time to arrange the terms of Peace. In the Paris Peace
Conference the victorious Allies dictated the peace treaties. The
main participants in the conference were Woodrow Wilson, the
President of America, Llyod George, the Prime Minister of
England, Clemenceau, the Prime Minister of France and
Orlando, the Prime Minister of Italy. Five separate treaties were
signed by the Allied countries with Germany, Austria, Hungary,
Turkey and Bulgaria. Of them, the most important was the Treaty
of Versailles signed between the Allies and Germany on
28thJune, 1919. The date was the fifth anniversary of the murder
of Archduke, Francis Ferdinand of Austria. The Allied Powers
strongly held Germany responsible for the destruction and
suffering caused by the war. Germany was forced to sign the
Treaty. It was humiliated and hurt by this Treaty.
Provisions of the Treaty:
1. Alsace and Loraine provinces of Germany were given back
to France. France also acquired the Saar coal basin of

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Germany for a period of 15 years as a compensation for the

destruction of the coal mines in the north of France.
2. Schleswig and Holstein were given to Denmark by Germany.
Danzig was snatched away from Germany and declared a
free port.
3. Rhineland area was completely demilitarized. All existing
forts in the area were demolished and instructions were
given not to build any more forts.
4. The independence of Poland, Belgium and Czechoslovakia
was recognized by Germany.
5. Germany gave up all its colonies to the Allies. These were
divided among themselves by England, France, Japan and
others.
6. Germany was made responsible for the losses of First World
War. So, Germany was made to pay a huge war indemnity
of 6,600 million Pounds.
7. Germany was disarmed. The sizes of its army and navy were
reduced. German army was cut down to 100,000 soldiers.
The import and export of weapons were prohibited. It also
imposed restriction on the manufacture of machine guns
and rifles. The German warships were converted into
commercial ships. It was not allowed to maintain Tanks,
Submarines and Military aircrafts.

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Criticisms of the Treaty of Versailles:

The Treaty of Versailles was severely criticized. It was
not based on the principle of justice but on the spirit of
revenge. So, the Treaty created several new problems. It hurt
the feelings of the Germans. This led to ill feeling between
Germany and the Allies. The Treaty sowed the seeds for the
future wars. Further, that did not come up to the expectations
of the peace loving people of the different nations of the world.
The Allied powers should have treated Germany more
sympathetically because it hurt self pride of the nation.
The other great weakness was that the Treaty was
dictated and not negotiated peace. The Germans were simply
instructed to sign the Treaty. So, it generated a spirit of
revenge in the minds of Germans.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

The sufferings and miseries of the First World War forced
most of the nations to think of an international organization.
The President of U.S.A., Woodrow Wilson proposed the
formation of the League of Nations to bring about international
co-operation, peace and security. As a result, the League of
Nations was established on 1st January 1920. Its headquarters
was situated at Geneva in Switzerland. At first it had only 42
member nations and later the number rose to 63.
The most important aim of the League was to achieve
international peace and security and international co-
operation. It was also to work for the human welfare and
peaceful settlement of disputes. It was to make the strong
nations to give up warfare and reduce their armaments.
Organization: The League Nations had three principal
organs –
The Assembly: The Assembly was the supreme body of
the League. It consisted of representatives of all the member
nations. It was to meet at Geneva in Switzerland once a year.
Every member nation could send three representatives and
had only one vote.

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The Council: The council of the League was a small but

powerful body. At first it included only five permanent members
namely, U.S.A., U.K., France, Italy and Japan and four non-
permanent members. Later, Russia and Germany were given
permanent seats in the Council. The Council met thrice a
year.
The Secretariat: The League also consisted of Secretariat
under the Secretary-General. There were about seven
hundred officials to perform the administrative works. The
first Secretary-General of the League was Sir James Eric
Drummond of Britain.
Auxiliary Organs: The most important auxiliary organs
are Permanent Court of International Justice, the
International Labour Office and the Mandates Commission.
The permanent Court of International Justice consisted of 15
Judges and its headquarters was at The Hague in Holland.
Its main function was to settle international disputes. The
International Labour Office aimed to improve the labour
condition throughout the world. The Mandates Commission
was to supervise the colonial territories taken from the
defeated countries in the First World War.
The League of Nations did much useful work in the
political and other fields. But, later on, it could not work with
the same spirit and failed in its objectives. As a result, the
Second World War broke out in1939 and the League proved
ineffective and remained paralyzed. Hence, it met its death
on April 19th, 1946, when the League of Nations was officially
closed.

10.2 Rise of Dictatorships

The twenty years between the two World Wars were the
years of disorder and confusion in Europe. The First World War
created very difficult political as well as economic problems. An
outcome of the above situation was the rise of dictatorships in
Italy, Germany, Russia, etc. Democracy faced a danger from
political concepts like Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany.
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Fascism in Italy:
Italy came out of the First World War as a disappointed
victor because it received much less than what it expected at
the Paris Peace Settlement in 1919. Therefore, the Italian patriots
complained that they lost the peace although they won the
war. After the war Italy faced many problems that were social,
economic and political. The country faced bankruptcy,
starvation, unemployment and general lawlessness. Strikes and
lockouts of the industrial workers and riots and uprising of the
hungry mobs became the order of the day. The common man
struggled for peace and bread. Prices rose rapidly. Under such
circumstances the Fascist Party was founded by Benito
Mussolini. The term ‘Fascism’ has been derived from the word
‘fasces’ which means ‘bundle of rods’ with an axe – symbol of
power in the ancient Roman period.

Early Life:
Benito Mussolini was born in Italy
in 1883. His father Alessandro Mussolini
was a blacksmith and mother, Rosa was
a school teacher. He worked as a teacher
and journalist. Later, he edited a
Socialist paper, ‘Avanti’. After the First
World War he formed the Fascist Party
at Milan in 1919. Its members wore
black shirts and hence the Fascists were
called ‘Black Shirts’. They were patriotic,
anti-communists and stood for
nationalism. ‘Believe, obey and fight’ Benito Mussolini
were the watchwords of his party. Armed (1883-1945)
with guns and clubs, the Fascists broke
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communist and socialist meetings. They also put down trade

unions and peasant organizations. In 1922, Mussolini and his
followers marched to Rome, and occupied government offices,
Railways, Post and Telegraph, etc. King Victor Emmanuel III,
who was afraid of a civil war, asked Mussolini to form the
government. Immediately, he started the Fascist rule in Italy.
He suppressed all the opposition and became a dictator.
Fascism stood for the following principles –
1. Glorification of war
2. Importance to the state
3. Belief in Single party
4. Opposition to democracy and socialism
5 . Unquestioning supremacy of the regime
Achievements of Mussolini:
Mussolini restored order, and industrial strikes were totally
banned. Communists were mercilessly massacred. Education
was brought under the state control to spread fascist ideas.
Mussolini realized the importance of securing the support of
Church for his regime. So, he made peace with Pope Pius XI by
signing the ‘Lateran Treaty’ in 1929. The Pope recognized the
kingdom of Italy, and in return Mussolini recognized the
independence of the Vatican. Through Fascism, Mussolini
enforced order and discipline. He encouraged the production
of electricity, and used natural resources for the increase in
foreign trade. He improved agriculture, and developed the Italian
industry. Trade and commerce were revived. Construction of
railways and ship-building were given top priority. Militarism
was the main feature of the Fascist Party. Compulsory military
training was introduced. The army, navy and air force were
strengthened. Further, in order to increase the population,
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Italian parents with large families were rewarded with incentives

like tax exemption, employment, etc.

Foreign Policy:
After consolidating his position at home, Mussolini turned
his attention towards the expansion of Italy. To achieve this, he
followed a vigorous and aggressive foreign policy. Mussolini was
over ambitious. He publicly declared, ‘Italy must expand or
perish’. To achieve the goal, he conquered Abyssinia (Ethiopia)
in 1935 against the threat of League of Nations. Now, fearing
the involvement of Britain and France, Mussolini turned towards
Germany of Hitler. In October 1936, Italy and Germany formed
an alliance called Rome-Berlin Axis. In November 1936, Germany
entered into a pact with Japan called the Anti-Comintern Pact
against Russia. In 1937, Japan joined the axis and thus it
became the ‘ROME – BERLIN – TOKYO Axis’.

When the Second World War broke out, Mussolini fought

along with Germany against the Allies. The Allies captured the
Italian colonies in North Africa. They then invaded the main
land of Italy in 1943. Ultimately, Benito Mussolini was captured
and shot down by Italians themselves in 1945. Thus ended
Fascism in Italy.

Nazism in Germany:
Germany was defeated in the First World War. The Allies
then imposed the Treaty of Versailles on Germany. By this
Treaty Germany was deprived of all its colonies. Germany was
made to pay very heavy war indemnity to the Allies. The German
land and factories were destroyed. Soon after this, Germany
was burning with discontent, hatred and revenge. At the same
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time Germany had become bankrupt. Unemployment, hunger,

starvation, inflation and desperation became the order of the
day. At this time Adolf Hitler founded the Nazi party in 1919.

Early Life:
Adolf Hitler was born in Austria in
1889. His parents were Alois Hitler and
Clara. He was self-educated man and a
great orator. In the World War I, Hitler
joined the German army and won the Iron
Cross for his valour. After the war he
joined politics and organized the National
Socialist Party viz., the Nazi Party and
formed an army called Brown shirts.
‘Swastik’ was their symbol. In 1923, Hitler
tried to overthrow the government, but Adolf Hitler (1889-1945)

failed. He was sentenced to imprisonment and was released

after nine months. While in jail, Hitler wrote the famous book,
‘Mein Kempf’ (My Struggle). The book contained the Nazi
principles. After release from jail, he reorganized the Nazi Party
and strengthened it gradually.

The Nazi Party contested the elections for the ‘Reichstag’

(German Parliament). In 1933, President Hindenburg appointed
Hitler as the Chancellor. After the death of Hindenburg in 1934,
he combined the offices of the Chancellor and the President
and became a dictator.
The main features of Nazism are –
1. One party rule.
2. Nazification.
3. Racial Supremacy.
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4. Anti-Jewish and and anti-religious.

5. Importance to state.
6. Glorification of war.

The Nazi Party was made the only political party. Freedom
of press and speech were abolished by Hitler. He also centralized
all powers of central and local governments, coordinated all
labour and youth organizations, and controlled every aspect of
national life, including the press, all economic institutions, stage
and the cinema. Everybody and everything was Nazified within
the country.

Hitler was an opportunist and upheld the racial supremacy

of the Germans. In Hitler’s opinion, only the Germans were
competent enough to rule Europe. He was of the opinion that
the German Nordic (Aryan) race was the best in the world. Those,
who belong to other races like the Jews and others were expelled

Buchenwald Concentration Camp

from Germany. The Jews were held responsible for all the losses
incurred by the nation. They were tortured and killed. Hitler
organized a secret police known as ‘Gestapo’ to suppress all
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the opposition. Hitler set up the Concentration camps for the

elimination of Jews. The Nazi Germany deliberately killed about
six million Jews through various means like gas chamber,
starvation, electrocution, etc. He proclaimed the superiority of
the Aryan race over all other races. Drastic steps were taken to
appoint Nazis in all the key posts of the government to deprive
the Jews of their rights. Likewise, Communists were also killed
and eliminated. The Nazis opposed the religion, and did not
respect Christianity.

According to Hitler, the individual was for the nation and

not the nation for the individual. The individual should not
oppose the state and must be ready for all sacrifices.

Through a series of reforms, Hitler reorganized the

administration, strengthened the army and achieved general
prosperity of the country. Four year plans were started by him
to achieve economic development of the country. All economic
life was brought under the control of the state. Agriculture and
industry were improved. Huge construction programs were
started to remove unemployment. He also introduced
compulsory military training.

Hitler’s primary target was the Treaty of Versailles. It was

much against the state of Germany and weakened its military
strength. Further, Germany was to pay heavy war indemnity.
All these created discontent and dissatisfaction among the
Germans and Hitler took advantage of the situation. So, Hitler
was waiting for an opportunity to tear the Treaty. To implement
the above policies he was ably supported by men like Goebbels,
Goering, Rosenberg and others.

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Foreign Policy:
Hitler’s aim was to achieve total power and make Germany
a world power by acquiring more and more territories. Like
Mussolini, Hitler too glorified the war. Hitler ordered to expand
boundaries of Germany and followed a policy of naked
aggression.

Hitler withdrew from the Disarmament Conference and also

came out of the League of Nations in 1933. The aims of Nazi
Party with regard to foreign policy were union of all Germans
and acquisition of more territories. The program of re-armament
of Germany commenced in 1935. German troops marched into
Rhineland and occupied it in 1936. Further, Austria was
annexed. Adolf Hitler formed ‘ROME–BERLIN–TOKYO Axis’ in
1937 followed by attack on Czechoslovakia and Poland. Thus
the Second World War started. He won one country after another
in Europe. However, the Germans were defeated and it
surrendered to the Allies in 1945 and Adolf Hitler committed
suicide. The Nazi dictatorship thus came to an end.

10.3 Second World War [1939 – 1945]

After the First World War the League of Nations was

established in order to preserve the world peace and to promote
international co-operation. But the League, with all its ideals
failed to save the world from the war. After the great economic
depression of 1929, the international situation became worse
and the world was drifting towards the war. Another world war
became inevitable and the war broke out in 1939.The Second
World War lasted for six years from 1939 to 1945. It was fought
between the Axis Powers viz., Germany, Italy and Japan and
the Allied Powers viz., England, France, U.S.S.R. and U.S.A.
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This war was more disastrous than the First World War. For the
first time in human history, atom bombs were used. The war
ended with the crushing defeat of the Axis Powers.
Causes:
1. Treaty of Versailles:
The Treaty of Versailles, 1919 was too severe, and it
humiliated the Germans. The Allied Powers treated Germany
as they liked and the Germans could not tolerate it any
longer. The entire responsibility for the losses of the First
World War was put on Germany. The Treaty itself was based
on revenge. Germany was deprived of its colonies and coal
mines. Besides, its military was weakened, and it could not
pay the war indemnity. When Germany could not pay it,
France sent an army to occupy the Ruhr Valley, the only
rich industrial area left. The post-war economic difficulties
caused much discontent. So, Germany was waiting for an
opportunity to tear the Treaty of Versailles. Thus, the seeds
of the Second World War were sown by the Versailles Treaty.
2. Expansionist Policy of Japan and Italy:
Japan and Italy were not satisfied with the ‘Peace
Settlement’. They did not receive the proper share of the
war spoils. Later, these were the countries, hit hard, as
they had limited sources. So, with a view to solve their
economic problems, they turned to the policy of aggression
and expansion. Japan separated from Allied powers and
joined Germany. Its slogan was ‘Asia for Asians’. It decided
to liberate Asia from the Western yoke. Japan harboured
imperialistic aspirations. It developed strong navy and
targeted both Manchuria and China.
3. Rise of Dictators:
The rise of dictatorships in Italy under Benito Mussolini,
Germany under Adolf Hitler and Japan under the
government of Tojo was another cause for the war. They
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glorified the war. Mussolini advocated the martial virtues of

Italians and reviving the glories of old Roman Empire. Hitler
stood for rearmament, revenge and German domination.
He spoke of the racial superiority of the Germans and of
their mission to spread superior culture by war and
conquest. Japan wanted to have its own empire. Later, Italy,
Germany and Japan formed an alliance called the ‘ROME–
BERLIN–TOKYO Axis’ in 1937. It proved to be a great danger
to the world peace. Then, a totalitarian dictatorship under
Joseph Stalin was established in U.S.S.R. It was similar to
Hitler’s dictatorship. Like Hitler, Stalin also killed his
opponents without any mercy.
4. Colonial and Commercial Rivalry:
Another cause for the war was the colonial and commercial
rivalry. It was a sort of Economic Nationalism. It was a struggle
for raw materials, markets for their products and colonies
for excess population. After the First World War, Italy,
Germany and Japan were not satisfied. All these countries
were poor in natural resources. Added to this, the great
depression also affected the economies of these countries.
Non availability of raw materials and the absence of markets
for manufactured goods created a feeling of economic
suffocation. Under these conditions Italy, Germany and
Japan came together and embarked upon naked aggression.
5. Failure of the League of Nations:
The League of Nations became too weak and incompetent.
The League did not have its own army. It was dominated by
few countries like England and France. U.S.A. remained
out of the League. As a result, the League totally failed in
preserving peace in Europe. When hostility was growing
between the two groups the League remained silent. Taking
advantage of this, Japan invaded Manchuria in China, Italy
invaded Abyssinia and Germany invaded Rhineland and
Austria. The League of Nations failed to check these
aggressions, and also to prevent the arms race. It was
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unfortunate that the League of Nations had lost its

credibility and respect. It was sad that the leaders who
could have controlled the situation were not sincere in their
approach.

6. Rearmament:
The Peace Settlement of 1919 had completely disarmed
Germany. But Hitler asserted, “Rearmament was the only
road to power and national achievement”. Hitler withdrew
Germany from World Disarmament Conference and began
to re-arm. Adolf Hitler enormously increased the military
strength with all kinds of modern weapons, battle ships,
aero planes and submarines. Rearmament by Italy, Japan
and others ultimately led to the Second World War.

7. Immediate Cause:
On 1st September 1939, Hitler invaded Poland which
became the immediate cause for the Second World War.
Poland was an ally of England and France. Hence, Britain
and France declared war on Germany.

Activity: Collect various photographs of scenes of the Second World

War.

Course of the War:

Within a few months, Hitler occupied Denmark, Norway,
Holland, Belgium and France. Hitler then tried to intimidate
England by heavy bombardment and submarine warfare. London
and other cities were bombed heavily. England successfully
resisted German attacks. In June 1941, Hitler attacked U.S.S.R.
The German army advanced as far as Moscow and Leningrad.
Russia suffered heavy losses. Great Britain went to help Russia.
So, Russia joined with the Allies. At the end of 1941 Japan
joined Hitler. In December, 1941, Japan attacked the naval
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base of the U.S.A. at Pearl Harbour

in the Pacific Ocean. Several
American ships were sunk. This
forced America to join the war on
the side of the Allies. Japan
occupied Hong Kong, Philippines,
Malaya, Burma, etc.

Pearl Harbour - December

1941

In North Africa heavy fighting took place during 1941-43

between the British and Italian forces. Finally, Italians were
driven out of Libya. In 1942, Anglo-American forces occupied
Algeria and Tunis and expelled the enemies from Africa. Then,
the Allied forces occupied Italy in 1943, and Mussolini took
shelter in Germany. In September 1943, Italy unconditionally
surrendered to the Allies. By April 1945, the Allied Powers
occupied Berlin, the capital of Germany. Meanwhile, Mussolini
was assassinated, and Hitler ended his life by committing
suicide.

Even after the surrender of Italy

and Germany, Japan continued the
war. Meanwhile, the American
President F.D. Roosevelt died and was
succeeded by Harry S Truman. He
ordered American Air Force to carry
out an atomic attack on Japan.
Accordingly, an atom bomb called
‘Little Boy’ was dropped on the
Japanese industrial city of Hiroshima
Dropping of Atom bomb on
on 6th August 1945 and another bomb, Hiroshima [Japan]
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‘Fat Man’ was dropped on Nagasaki on 9th August 1945. The

destruction caused by them was so enormous that Japan
surrendered unconditionally to American forces. Thus ended
the most frightful Second World War after six years of bloody
fight.

Results:
1. The Second World War was the most destructive of all the
wars, fought until then. About 25 Million people were killed
and 50 Million were disabled. Millions of people later died
of starvation and diseases. There was a large scale
destruction of houses, industries and communication and
transport systems. The destruction of agricultural land led
to the shortage of food. After the war, most of the countries
faced the problems of post war reconstructions.
2. The World War II ended the dictatorships in Italy and
Germany. Italy was declared a Republic under Badogli, and
Germany was divided into four zones under U.S.A., U.S.S.R.,
Britain and France. A Tribunal was set up at Nuremberg to
conduct trial of leading Nazis. Japan gave up all its rights
on China. Japan was occupied by the Allied Powers. (U.S.A.)
3. European domination of the world ended after this war.
After the Second World War, U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. emerged
as two super powers.
4. The distrust between U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. increased after
the war. This led to what is known as the ‘Cold War’. The
rivalry of these two super powers has been the most
important feature of international relations since 1945. As
a result, world peace was constantly threatened.
5. The World War resulted in the victory of the principle of
Nationalism and the liquidation of Colonialism. The colonial
empires of European powers in Asia, Africa and Latin America
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came to an end. India, Ceylon, Indonesia and other countries

became independent after the war.
6. The Jews had become homeless during the Nazi regime in
Germany. About six Million Jews perished in the
concentration camps. After the war, with the help of U.S.A.,
a new home land (Israel) for the Jews was created in 1948.
7. Japan experienced disastrous effects of atomic weapons.
The entire atmosphere became poisonous. Most of the new
born children suffered from severe deformities.
8. The most important result of the World War Second was the
birth of United Nations Organization with the object of
preventing wars and maintaining peace in future.

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10.4 The United Nations Organization

The United Nations was born out of the ashes of the League
of Nations. Though the League of Nations failed, it gave the
idea of a world body to the minds of world statesmen to prevent
a Third World War and to maintain international peace and
security. This was a burning desire of world statesmen.

Realizing the enormous evils of the Second World War, the

American President F.D. Roosevelt and the British Prime
Minister Sir Winston Churchill were anxious to establish an
organization which would prevent war and secure peace. They
declared their intention in the Atlantic Charter in August 1941.

The Atlantic Charter was followed by a series of meetings

by the world leaders. Stalin, President of U.S.S.R. joined the
talks at a later stage. All such efforts led to the establishment of
United Nations Organization on 24th October 1945. 24th October
is celebrated as the U.N. Day. New York (U.S.A.) is the
Headquarters of the U.N.O. Initially, the U.N.O. had 51member
nations including India and it has 193 nations as of 2012. United
Nations recognized the following as official languages – English,
Spanish, French, Chinese, Russian and Arabic.

Aims and Objectives of the U.N.O.:

1. To maintain international peace and security.
2. To develop friendly relations among the nations.
3. To promote international co-operation in economic, social,
cultural, educational and medical fields.
4. To promote international fundamental human rights.
5. To promote higher standard of living.
6. To uphold international laws and agreements.
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Organs:
The U.N.O. consists of six principal organs. They are –
1. General assembly.
2. Security council.
3. Economic and social council.
4. Trusteeship council.
5. International court of justice.
6. Secretariat.

1. General Assembly: The U.N.O. Logo

The General Assembly is a consultative body of U.N.O. It
consists of representatives of all member nations. Each
member nation has one vote, but may send five
representatives. It is empowered to discuss any matter
relating to the maintenance of international peace and
security. The Assembly meets once a year in September.
But special sessions can be held at the request of majority
of the members of the Security Council. Its resolutions
require 2/3 majority. It elects the Secretary-General, non-
permanent members of the Security Council, members of
Economic and Social Council and Judges of International
Court of Justice, and also discusses budgetary questions.
The General Assembly elects its own President and Vice-
Presidents every year. Entry of any new member requires
of 2/3 majority of the General Assembly.

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2. Security Council:
The Security Council is the
executive body. It consists of
15 members - 5 permanent
and 10 non-permanent. The
permanent members are
U.S.A., England, France,
Russia and China. The non-
permanent members are The United Nations,
elected for a term of two Headquarters – New York
years. A measure to be [U.S.A.]

carried out in the Security

Council has to be accepted by 9 members including all the
5 permanent members. Any permanent member can ‘Veto’
any decision of the Security Council. ‘Veto’ is a special power
given to the five permanent members to negate any
resolution of the United Nations. The Security Council is
responsible for the prevention of aggression and to the
maintenance of international peace and security.

3. Economic and Social Council [ECOSOC]:

The Economic and Social Council consists of 54 members,
who are elected by the General Assembly for three years.
1/3 of them retire every year. The Council meets at least
twice a year. Its main function is to promote welfare around
the world, and to improve the economic, social, cultural,
educational, health and other related matters.

4. Trusteeship Council:
The Trusteeship Council consists of 14 members. All
permanent members of the Security Council are the
members of Trusteeship Council. Its duty is to investigate

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the conditions of Trust Territories and to advice the General

Assembly. In fact, all the 11 Trust Territories became
independent in 1994, which were detached from Japan and
Italy. As a result, in 1994 the Security Council decided
formally to suspend its operation and will meet as and when
required.

5. International Court of Justice:

The International Court of Justice is located at The Hague
in Netherlands. It consists of 15 Judges, who are elected by
the General Assembly. Its main function is to settle the
international disputes and it also acts as an advisory body.
The tenure of office of a judge is 9 years. But he is eligible
for re-election. No country can represent more than one
judge at the same time.
6. Secretariat:
Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General. It carries
on the day-to-day administration of the U.N.O. Its
headquarters is in New York. The term of the Secretary-
General is five years. It is the duty of the Secretary-General
to see that all branches of the U.N.O. function properly,
and to submit an annual report to the General Assembly
on the working of the U.N. He acts as the Secretary in all
meetings of the General Assembly, the Security Council
and the Economic and Social Council.
Trygve Lie of Norway was appointed as the first Secretary-General
in 1946.The present Secretary-General is Ban Ki-Moon of South
Korea (as on 2012)

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General Secretaries

No. Name Country Period

1. Trygve Lie Norway 1946-1953
2. Dag Hammarskjold Sweden 1953-1961
3. U Thant Myanmar (Burma) 1961-1971
4. Kurt Waldheim Austria 1972-1981
5. Javier Perez De Cuellar Peru 1982-1991
6. Boutros Boutros Ghali Egypt 1992-1997
7. Kofi Annan Ghana 1997-2006
8. Ban Ki-Moon South Korea 2007-

Besides these, there are a number of specialized agencies

which deal with specific international problems. Some of the
agencies are –
1. ILO: International Labour Organization with headquarters
at Geneva, Switzerland.
2. FAO: Food and Agricultural Organization with headquarters
at Rome, Italy.
3. UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization with headquarters at Paris, France.
4. IBRD: International Bank for Reconstruction and
Development with headquarters at Washington D.C., USA.
5. IMF: International Monetary Fund with headquarters at
Washington D.C., USA.
6. WHO: World Health Organization with headquarters at
Geneva, Switzerland.
7. WTO: World Trade Organization with headquarters at
Geneva, Switzerland.
8. IAEA: International Atomic Energy Agency with
headquarters at Vienna, Austria.
9. UNICEF: United Nations International Children’s Emergency
Fund with headquarters at New York, U.S.A.
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10. WMO: World Meteorological Organization with headquarters

at Geneva in Switzerland.
11. ICAO: International Civil Aviation Organization with
headquarters at Montreal, Canada.
Activity 1: Collect various emblems of the specialized agencies of the
U.N.O.

Achievements of the U.N.O.:

The U.N. has carried out several successful programs and
operations. The achievements of the U.N. may be grouped under
two headings, namely, political and non-political.
Political: In the political field, the U.N.O. has notable
achievements. The foremost achievement of the U.N. is that,
there has not been a global war and the use of nuclear weapons
since 1945.
The first issue that was solved by the U.N.O. was the case of
Iran. Russian troops were stationed on the northern borders of
Iran during the Second World War. After the war, Iran
complained to the U.N.O. So, the U.N.O. intervened and made
the Russian troops to withdraw from Iran in 1946.
• In 1947, a quarrel started in Indonesia between Holland
and Indonesia. It was settled by the U.N. in 1948.
• In September 1948, France, England and U.S.A. complained
to the Security Council about the blockade of Berlin by the
U.S.S.R. Later, an agreement was reached due to the efforts
of U.N.O.
• It was able to stop the fighting between the Israeli Jews and
Arabs in Palestine in 1948.
• The U.N.O. ordered cease - fire in Kashmir in 1948.

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• In the Korean crisis when war broke out between North

and South Korea, the U.N.O. used armed forces to settle
the dispute.
• The Suez Canal and Vietnam problems were solved with
the mediation of the U. N. O.
• It also put an end to the fighting between Iraq and Iran in
1989.
• Iraq occupied Kuwait in 1990. Immediately, Kuwait
approached U.N.O. for needful action. So, the U.N. made
Iraq vacate Kuwait in 1991.
• U.N.O. has worked to maintain peace in several countries
of the world. It has carried out peace-keeping operations in
Greece, Lebanon, Cyprus, Congo, Cambodia, Korea, Kosovo,
etc.
• South Africa was following the Apartheid policy. So, the
U.N. set up a special committee against it and imposed
sanctions against South Africa in 1954. Ultimately, the
Apartheid regime in South Africa came to an end in 1991
due to the efforts of the U.N.O.
Apartheid Problem in South Africa
In South Africa about 80% of the population were the black Negroes
and 20% were the Whites (British). But the government was dominated by
the Whites. The Negroes were deprived of all the political, economic and
social rights. This was the Apartheid policy or the racial discrimination
between the Whites and Blacks. This policy could be seen in the hotels,
hospitals, schools and colleges, railway bogies, beaches, etc.
Nelson Mandela, President of African National Congress started a
movement against the Apartheid policy. Mandela was kept in the Robin
island prison in 1964. With the efforts of the U.N.O. and others he was
released in 1990 after 27 years of imprisonment. Then, the Negroes came
to have their government under the President ship of Nelson Mandela.

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Non-Political:
• A notable achievement of the U.N.O. was the adoption of
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in the General
Assembly on 10th December 1948. The Declaration included
articles like the right to life, liberty and security of person,
freedom from slavery, freedom of thought, the right to vote,
to work, etc.

• U.N.O. has done excellent work through its specialized

agencies. The ILO has made the member nations to improve
the conditions of the labourers.

• FAO has assisted the nations to increase the food production

in farms, forests, fisheries and increase nutrition level. It
also helped to feed millions of hungry children.

• IMF and IBRD are giving funds for the economic

development of different backward countries.

• UNESCO has done much work in many backward countries

in the social, educational, economic, technological and other
fields. The U.N.O. helped the refugees of war, earthquake,
tsunami, etc. It has arranged for food, shelter and
rehabilitation of war victims throughout the world. The
U.N.O. has preserved many cultural sites throughout the
world viz., Hampi, Pattadakal, Konark, etc.

• UNICEF is doing its best to eradicate hunger and

malnutrition among children. In 1959, the General
Assembly adopted the ‘Declaration of the Right of the Child’.
It entitles the child to relief, protection in all circumstances,
social security to grow up and develop health, education,
etc.

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• WHO has tried to improve the condition of health of the

people. It has carried out a continuous efforts to eradicate
diseases like Malaria, Cholera, Small-pox, TB, Leprosy, Polio,
etc. Some diseases have been completely eradicated. It has
also aided children and other weaker social groups to meet
their special needs.
Indians in the U.N.O.
India has been actively involved with U.N.O. right from the
beginning. Many Indians have served in high positions in the UN.
VijayalakshmiPandit was the first woman President of the General
Assembly. Justice Dr. Nagendra Singh served as the President of the
International Court of Justice. Sir Ramaswamy Mudaliar worked as
the President of ECOSOC. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan was the President of
the UNESCO and Shiva Rao worked as the President of Trusteeship
Council. Shashi Taroor was an Under Secretary in the U.N.O.

Demand For The Expansion Of The Security Council

The Security Council of the United Nations Organization was

originally a body of eleven members with five permanent and six non-
permanent. The number was increased in 1963 to 15 due to the
increase in the membership of the U.N.O., but U.S.A, Russia, Britain,
France and China continued to be the permanent members. Now,
there is a demand as well as the need to add five more new countries
as permanent members because at present there are 193 member
nations in the U.N.O. The countries proposed to be included are India,
Japan, Nigeria, Brazil and Germany. India is accelerating its efforts
to get a permanent seat in the Security Council with ‘Veto’ power.
The non-aligned and Common Wealth countries have promised to
support India’s claim. In fact, India has taken up the leadership of
developing countries in many issues. The merits claimed are, India
is the world’s largest democracy and second most populous country of
the world and one of the fastest growing economies of the world.

For the expansion of the Security Council the U.N. General

Assembly has to vote with a 2/3 majority including the five permanent
members.

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Important Days Observed by the U.N.O.

27 January - International Day in memory of the Victims
of the Holocaust
4 February - World Cancer Day
20 February - World Day of Social Justice
8 March - International Women’s Day
22 March - World Water Day
7 April - World Health Day
25 April - World Malaria Day
1 May- World Labourer’s Day
3 May - World Press Freedom Day
15 May - International Day of Families
31 May - World No-Tobacco Day
1 June - Global Day of Parents
5 June - World Environment Day
14 June - World Blood Donor Day
11 July - World Population Day
19 August - World Humanitarian Day
15 September - International day of Democracy
21 September - International Day for Peace
27 September - World Tourism Day
2 October - International Day of Non-Violence
9 October - World Post Day
24 October - United Nations Day
14 November - World Diabetes Day
1 December - World Aids Day
10 December - Human Rights Day

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Questions
Answer in a word or one sentence (each carries 1Mark)

1. When did the First World War break out?

2. Who was the Emperor of Germany during the First World

War?

3. Mention the immediate cause for the First World War.

4. Why did U.S.A. join the First World War?

5. Which conference officially ended the First World War?

6. Who was the founder of Fascism ?

7. What is the meaning of the word ‘Fascism’?

8. Name the paper edited by Mussolini.

9. Who declared, ‘Italy must expand or perish’?

10. Where was Adolf Hitler born?

11. Who was the founder of Nazism?

12. Mention the book written by Hitler.

13. Name the German Parliament.

14. What is Gestapo?

15. Why did U.S.A. join the Second World War?

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16. Who ordered American Air Force to drop atom bombs on

Japan?

17. When was Israel created for the Jews?

18. When was the U.N.O. established?

19. Which day is celebrated as U.N. Day?

20. Where is the Headquarters of U.N.O.?

21. How many member nations are there in the U.N.O. at

present?

22. Where is the International Court of Justice?

23. Who is the present Secretary- General of the U.N.O.?

24. Expand (Any one)– ECOSOC, ILO, FAO, UNESCO, IBRD,

IMF, WHO and WTO.

Answer in two words or two sentences: (each carries

2 Marks)

1. Name the two rival alliances formed during the First World
War.

2. Name the Treaty signed by the Allied countries with

Germany. When was it signed?

3. Mention the four empires which were overthrown after the

First World War.

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4. When was the League of Nations established? Where was

its headquarters?

5. Write any two principles of Fascism.

6. Write any two Principles of Nazism.

7. Name the two rival Powers of the Second World War.

8. Name the Axis Powers.

9. Name the Allied Powers.

10. Name the cities of Japan where the atom bombs were
dropped during the Second World War.

11. Write any two aims of the U.N.O.

12. Name any two official languages of the U.N.O.

13. Mention the five permanent members of the Security

Council.

14. What is ‘Veto’ power?

Answer in 15 to 20 sentences (each carries 5 marks)

1. Describe the various results of the First World War.

2. Explain the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles.

3. Describe the achievements of Mussolini.

4. Explain the features of Nazism.

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5. State the results of the Second World War.

6. Write a note on the Organs of the U.N.O.

Answer in 30 to 40 sentences (each carries 10 Marks)

1. Explain the causes and results of the First World War.

2. Explain the causes and results of the Second World War.

3. Describe the political and non-political achievements of the

U.N.O.
❖❖❖❖❖

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CHAPTER 11
CONTEMPORARY WORLD
Introduction
The term ‘Contemporary History’ refers to the post World
War II period. It covers events such as, the Cold War
disintegration of Soviet Union, the formation of CIS, the Korean
and Vietnam wars, Afghan civil war, the stationing of U.S. forces
in Japan, and in South Korea, the Arab-Israeli conflict, the
Arab spring, Indian Independence, African civil war, formation
of the people’s Republic of China, etc. This chapter concentrates
upon Cold War, disintegration of U.S.S.R and the formation of
CIS.

At the end of the 20th Century, the world witnessed more

technological advancement compared to the preceding history.
Computers, the internet, and other modern technologies
radically altered daily lives, increased globalization and the
dominance of America in the modern world. It has caused anti-
western and anti-American feelings in various parts of the world,
especially in the Middle East.

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Contemporary World

In the contemporary era, the world is facing several issues.

First of all, wealth is concentrated among the Western
industrialized nations, along with a few Asian nations. Powerful
nations with large economies and wealthy individuals can
improve the rapidly evolving economies of the Third world.
However, developing countries face many challenges, e.g.:
Rapidly growing populations and the need to protect
environment. Secondly, Diseases threatening to destabilize
many regions of the world for e.g.: New viruses, such as SARS,
West Nile, Bird Flu and HIV. Terrorism, dictatorship, and the
spread of Nuclear Weapons are also issues requiring immediate
attention.

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Climate Change and global warming are some of the grave

problems. The changes in climate over the past century have
been attributed to various factors which have resulted in global
warming. It has affected the natural environment and human
life. E.g. : Ice-shelf disruption, rising sea level, and changes in
rainfall patterns. Water scarcity in some regions, changes in
mountain snow pack and adverse health effects are due to
warmer temperatures. The recent developments and
convergences in various fields of technology hold possible future
impacts.

Middle East: The region between the Mediterranean coast

and the North-Western Frontier of India and Pakistan is
described as the Middle East. Turkey, Egypt, Palestine, Iran,
Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Jordan are some of the important
countries of the Middle East.

West Asia: The term “West Asia” is used to denote the Arab
Countries extending from Syria to Egypt and also Israel.

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11.1 Cold War (1945 – 1991)

Meaning:
The term ‘Cold War’ came to be used after World War II.
Cold War was a sustained state of political and military tension
between the powers of the Western world led by United States
of America and the Communist world led by Soviet Union.

The U.S.A and Soviet Union emerged as super powers of

the world, contending against each other. The rivalry between
the two super powers led to the growth of a tense atmosphere.
This development in international relations has been denoted
by the term ‘Cold War’. It was a situation of no war and no
peace.

At the end of World War II, George Orwell, an English author

and journalist used ‘Cold War’ as a general term in his essay
‘You and the Atomic Bomb’ published in 1945. The term ‘Cold
War’ was specifically first used by the American Statesman
‘Bernard Baruch’ in 1947. Freidman said that ‘A world divided
into two camps is still a world living under the shadow of wars’.
Thus Cold War is not an armed war, it is better known as
‘Propaganda war’ and also era of uneasy peace.

Ideological Differences

During the Cold War era, there has been a struggle for
world leadership by rival political systems. This Cold War is not
only confined to U.S.A. or U.S.S.R. but it engulfed the entire
world as many of the countries associated themselves with one
super power or the other. It clearly indicates that the politics of
Cold War aimed at enhancing the spheres of influence of the
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super powers. Propaganda, espionage and military alliances

were used by the super powers to weaken each other and
enhance their own strength.

Causes for Cold War

During the World War II Soviet Union and the western

powers consisting of U.K., France and USA fought together
against Germany and its allies. But just after the War distrust
and suspicion loomed over Soviet Union and the Western
powers.

1. Russia’s refusal to evacuate from Iran:

After the World War II, Britain and USA withdrew their forces
from Iran, but the Soviet Union refused. Finally it was only
after the UN intervention that Russia withdrew its forces. It
embittered the relations between the Western powers and
Soviet Union.
2. Sovietization of Eastern Europe:

Soviet Union was accused of not honouring the pledges of

the Yalta and the Balkan agreements. At Yalta, the Western
powers recognized the military authority of Russia over
Eastern and Central Europe. But it was agreed that, in all
the liberated countries of Europe democratic institutions
would be established and free elections be held. After the
World War II the communist supported governments were
established in the entire Balkan region through the
intervention of Russia. The Russian intervention in Eastern
Europe was resented by the Western powers and they united
to check the spread of communism and Russian influence.

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The Importance of the Yalta Conference

‘Yalta’ is a place of resorts in the city of Crimea in present
Ukraine. This conference was held in 1945, Churchill of U.K Franklin
Roosevelt of U.S.A and Joseph Stalin of U.S.S.R participated in it. And
they agreed to divide Germany into three parts of occupation and a
fourth to be added if France agreed to participate. But France did not
respond.

3. Soviet influence in Greece:

In 1944 Greece secured its independence from Nazi rule

with the support of Britain. When the German forces left
Greece, the British entered Greece. According to a treaty
concluded between Soviet Union and Britain, Russia
recognized the British sphere of influence in Greece. At
the same time there was a clash between the communists
and royalists in Greece. The Western powers strongly
believed that Soviet Union had instigated a communist
revolution in Greece. The British Government sought the
support of U.S.A. Later on the Greek Government also sought
the support of America. In 1947 Truman, the President of
America announced both military and economic assistance
to Greece to check the communist influence in Greece.
4. Soviet influence in Turkey:

Just after the World War II Soviet Union exerted pressure

on Turkey to cede some of its territories. But Turkey refused
to oblige and also secured American assistance. USA followed
the policy of defending Turkey and Greece against the
possible attack of the Soviet Union. Truman, the President
of America enunciated his famous ‘Truman Doctrine’. U.S.
Congress immediately decided to extend economic and
military aid to Turkey.

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5. Problems relating to Germany:

The Soviet Union suffered heavy losses during World War II

against Germany. At the Yalta Conference Stalin demanded
10,000 million dollars as reparations from Germany. After
the war, the Soviet Union destroyed the German Industries
and transferred costly German machines to Russia, because
of which the German economy shattered. Britain and U.S.A.
had to give huge amount of economic aid to reconstruct
the German economy.
6. The secrecy of the Atom Bomb:

U.S.A kept the technology of the atom bomb a secret from

U.S.S.R, though Soviet Union was an ally of United States
during the war period. Stalin considered it as a betrayal of
trust and confidence in Russia. Moreover Soviet Union also
felt concerned about its own security.
7. Communist activities in the U.S.:

Soviet Union began to encourage communist activities and

espionage in United States of America. In 1945 it was
discovered by the American strategic services that some of
the secret documents had been spuriously passed on to
the communist Agency. More over some of the highly placed
officials had leaked out the atomic secrets and sent the
samples of uranium to the Soviet Union.
Major political events during Cold War period

After the World War II, Soviet Russia encouraged communist

movement in the Eastern European countries like Poland,
Bulgaria and Rumania.

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Truman Doctrine- 1947

It was advocated by Truman, the then
President of U.S. This policy aimed at – U.S
support to the people who are resisting armed
subjugation by armed minorities or out-side
pressures. Truman thought that such groups
and outside pressures will help totalitarian
regimes which in turn will pose a threat to international peace
and National security of U.S.A. By this policy he actually decided
to check communist expansion in Eastern Europe. By this
Doctrine, he provided Greece and Turkey economic and military
aid to the tune of 400 million dollars.

Marshal Plan
The Marshal plan was announced by U.S.A.
This plan was prepared by Secretary of State
George Marshall in 1947. In this plan he offered
American aid to promote recovery and
reconstruction of war torn European countries. But
the main aim was to contain communism in Europe.

Marshal plan Aid to Europe - 1948 - 1952 As shown is the Map.

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Molotov Plan :
Vyacheslav Molotov, the Foreign affairs minister of Russia
proposed the Molotov Plan. It was a response to the Marshall Plan
of U.S.A., Russia understood the intention behind Marshall Plan
and refused to accept it along with East European satellite nations.
It prepared its own Economic assistance to them, it is also known
as COMECON-The Council of Mutual Economic Assistance

Berlin Blockade (German problem)-1949 :

The Cold War tensions between Soviet Union and Western
powers increased due to the German problem. After the World
War II Germany was put under the occupation of victorious allies.
It was divided into East and West Germany. East Germany was
under Russian control. So the Russian President Stalin blocked
Berlin and cut off all land and sea contacts between West
Germany and Berlin. The Berlin Blockade was not a complete
blockade it allowed permitted access and exit through three air
corridors. The Blockade was withdrawn after eleven months. It
is the first Berlin crisis. America started anti-communist
propaganda all over the world.

C-47s unloading
The only three
at Tempelhof Airport in
permissible air
Berlin during the Berlin
corridors to Berlin.
Blockade
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In China communist regime headed by Mao-Tse-Tung came

into existence in 1949. U.S.S.R and China encouraged
communist Revolutions in other countries. In 1949 U.S.S.R.
tested the nuclear bomb. This added to the tension between
the U.S.S.R. and U.S.A. Many East European countries allied
themselves with the U.S.S.R. The U.S.S.R. and China signed a
defense treaty in 1950.

Civil war in Korea 1950-53

The Cold War intensified between 1950 and 1953 when
there was a civil war in Korea. The U.S.A. helped South Korea,
and China extended help to North Korea. The civil war ended
with the division of Korea into North Korea and South Korea.
In 1953, an armistice was concluded between the two Koreas.

The defense pacts like NATO, CEATO and CENTO were

formed under U.S. leadership. In response U.S.S.R signed
Warsaw Pact. A detailed information is given in the forth coming
pages.

Warsaw Pact-1955
In 1955 U.S.S.R.
formed the Warsaw pact
with East European
countries. Bulgaria,
Hungary, East Germany,
Czechoslovakia, Rumania
and Poland against
NATO. Warsaw is the
capital of Poland.

The Warsaw pact

intensified the rivalry U.S.A landed man on the moon
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between U.S.A and U.S.S.R. Testing of atomic and hydrogen

bomb and testing of Inter – Continental Ballistic Missiles (ICBM)
by U.S.S.R. and U.S.A, further intensified the Cold War. Even
in space research the competition between the two countries
intensified and the U.S.S.R. launched a spacecraft. In turn
U.S.A. landed a man on the moon.

Second Berlin Crisis – 1958-1961

In regard to the problem of Germany there was no
significant progress in the relations between the Western
powers and Soviet Union. A second Berlin Crisis began in
1958 with the Russian president Khrushchev’s ultimatum that,
West Berlin must be evacuated within six months. But this
crisis was averted and Khrushchev agreed to meet American
president Eisenhower. Khrushchev was also invited to U.S.A.
So by 1959 there was an improvement in the Soviet-American
relations.

In 1961 John F. Kennedy became the President of the U.S.A.

He tried to seek ‘areas of co-operation’ with Soviet Union. But
the circumstances were not favourable. Both were secretly
spying the other [K.G.B.- Russia, C.I.A.-America]. In 1961 a 25
mile long Berlin partition wall was constructed to check the
fleeing of people from East Berlin to West Berlin.

KGB : Komitet Gosudar stvennoj Bezopanoti

CIA : Central Intelligence Agency

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Cuban Crisis
Russia planned to station its missiles in Cuba. John F.
Kennedy, the President of U.S.A. blockaded Cuba, and there
by prevented the carrying of missiles warships, from entering
Cuba. Kennedy ordered to assassinate Castro, the President of
Cuba, but failed.
This took an ugly turn and the war between the two super
powers seemed inevitable. There was a fear of war in the air.
With the intervention of U.N.O. Khrushchev agreed to recall
the Russian military from Cuba, averting the crisis.
In October 1962, an American U-2 spy plane secretly photographed
nuclear missile sites being built by the Soviet Union on the island of
Cuba. President Kennedy did not want the Soviet Union and Cuba to
know that he had discovered the missiles. After several rounds of
talks with his advisors, Kennedy decided to place a naval blockade, or
a ring of ships, around Cuba. The aim of this (quarantine, as he called
it) was to prevent the Soviets from bringing in more military supplies.
He demanded the removal of the missiles already there and the
destruction of the sites.
Nuclear Test Ban Treaty - 1963
In 1963 Russia and England entered into NTBT(Nuclear Test
Ban Treaty) by which they agreed not to test nuclear weapons
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either in the air or at the bottom of the sea. With this agreement
the fear of Cold War also began to decrease.

SALT I PACT – 1973 and SALT II PACT – 1979 :

Nixon, the President of America and Brezhnev, the President
of Russia signed SALT I pact in 1973 [Strategic Arms Limitations
Talks] Brezhnev paid a goodwill visit to America. In 1979 Jimmy
Carter, the President of America tried to place-SALT II agreement.
But did not get a positive response from Russia.

The Vietnam War– 1955-1975:

There was a Civil War in Vietnam, between Democrats of
South Vietnam and Communists of North Vietnam. America
supported Democrats. China and Russia supported Communists.
So there was a fear of a war. America suffered heavy losses and
withdrew from Vietnam. The Vietnam War ended in 1975 and
Vietnam was united in the same year.

Richard Nixon With Mao In 1972 Leonid Brezhnev and Jimmy Carter in 1973
End of Cold War
Mikhail Gorbachev became the President of U.S.S.R in
1988. The Soviet economy was stagnant and faced a sharp fall
in foreign currency earnings, as a result of the downward slide
in oil prices. These issues prompted Gorbachev to initiate
measures to revive the ailing state. Gorbachev, announced an
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agenda of reforms called ‘Perestroika’, [reconstruction] and

Glasnost (openness). The Soviet alliance was on the brink of
collapse and this deprived Soviet military support to the
communist leaders of the Warsaw Pact states who were losing
power. The communist party was forced to surrender its 73
year old monopoly. The U.S.S.R was declared officially dissolved
on December 25, 1991, leaving the United States as a dominant
Military power. In 1992 George Bush (Sr), the President of USA
and Boris Yeltsin, the President of Russia met and ended the
Cold War.

Activity : Collect the details about the events of Cold war

which are not mentioned in the text.

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Summits 1985-1991
1) Geneva summit (I summit -1985)
In November 1985 [Geneva-Switzerland] Reagan and
Gorbachev agreed in principle to reduce each others
nuclear arsenal by 50 percent.
2) Reykjavik summit (II summit-1985)
It was held in Iceland. The Negotiations failed between
Regan and Gorbachev.
3) INF treaty (III Summit-1987)
The third summit in 1987 led to a breakthrough with the
signing of the Inter mediate Range Nuclear Forces Treaty
(INF) between U.S.S.R. and Soviet Union.
4) Moscow Summit (IV Summit-1989)
The Fourth summit was held in Moscow in 1989 Gorbachev
and George. H.W. Bush signed START I, (Strategic Arms
Reduction Treaty-I) in 1989.

Regional Military Pacts:

(1) NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization -1949)
NATO was established in 1949 at
Washington. This was a military
pact formed by 15 European
countries under the leadership of
America against Russia. The
members are America, Britain,
France, Belgium, Canada,
Portugal, Netherland,
Luxemburg, Italy, Norway,
Denmark, and Iceland. Later on NATO countries
Federal Republic of Germany, Greece and Turkey became
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its members. Hungary and Poland joined NATO in 1999

(presently NATO has 27 members). NATO members passed
a resolution to help its members if attacked by any foreign
power and fight the enemy together. The NATO has
contributory military and its headquarters is in Paris.
(2 ) SEATO (Manila Pact-1954)
The South East Asia Treaty Organization was born due to
the fear created by the spread of communism. The
establishment of communist rule in China further enhanced
the fear of the spread of communism in South East Asia
and Pacific regions. The United States and Western Powers
decided to establish a regional collective defense system.
After many discussions in various places, England, America,
France, Australia, New Zealand, Thailand, Philippines and
Pakistan met at Manila the capital of Philippines in 1954
and signed a pact, in the interest of South East Asia.
The chief purpose of the SEATO was to forestall the
communist aggression. This was put to test in the Vietnam
War. After a prolonged war America lost her prestige and
consequently the SEATO agreement was dissolved in 1975.

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(3) ANZUS Pact – 1951

It was established in 1951. It was a military pact between
Australia, New Zealand and America. By this pact the signatory
nations agreed to help each other in case of aggression on any
member in the Pacific region.

ANZUS: A – Australia, NZ- New Zealand, US – America.

(4) CENTO or THE BAGHDAD PACT-1955 (Central Treaty

Organization) :
The Baghdad Pact also known as CENTO was signed in 1955.
U.K took initiative in its organizing. But it did not join. Turkey
and Iraq were its members. Later England, Pakistan and
Iran joined it. It was an Anti-Soviet military block in the
Middle East. Karim Kaseem, the President of Iraq flouted
the Baghdad Pact in 1958. So CENTO failed to remain
military block and could not contain communist expansion.
(5) WARSAW Pact (1955-1991)

The details of the Warsaw Pact have already been discussed

in the major political events during the Cold War period. The
Pact came to an end in 1991 with the disintegration of U.S.S.R.

Effects of the Cold War

1. Both the United States of America and the Soviet Union
built up huge arsenals of atomic weapons and ballistic
missiles.
2. The military blocs NATO and the Warsaw Pact were formed
3. It led to destructive conflicts like the Vietnam War and the
Korean War.
4. The Soviet Union collapsed due to economic weaknesses.

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5. The demolition of the Berlin Wall unified the East Germany

and the West Germany.
6. The Warsaw Pact was dissolved.
7. The Baltic States and some former Soviet Republics achieved
independence.
8. America became the sole super power of the world.
9. Communism received a setback worldwide.

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11.2 Disintegration of Soviet Union:

1991
Russia, as a communist nation had drawn the attention
of the entire world since the Bolshevik Revolution in 1917. It
resulted in the emergence of Soviet Russia as a super power.
The world watched the political developments in Russia with a
keen interest. During the Cold War U.S.A. and U.S.S.R.
contested to extend their spheres of influence in various parts
of the world. With the disintegration of Soviet Union in 1991
America has emerged as the greatest power in the world.
Factors responsible for the disintegration of U.S.S.R :
• Too much restriction on individual liberty.
• Failure to establish equality among the people.
• Excessive importance to defense industry.
• Negligence of agriculture.
• Iron curtain policy
• Liberal policies introduced by Gorbachev.
• Conflicting cultural and ethnic groups.
Post-Soviet states in alphabetical order:
1. Armenia, 2. Azerbaijan, 3. Belarus, 4. Estonia, 5. Georgia,
6. Kazakhstan, 7. Kyrgyzstan, 8. Latvia, 9. Lithuania,
10. Moldova, 11. Russia, 12. Tajikistan, 13. Turkmenistan,
14. Ukraine, 15. Uzbekistan
Mikhail Gorbachev:
In 1988 Gorbachev was elected as president of the Soviet
Union. Very soon he became the most influential politician in
the U.S.S.R. He followed a unique policy by which several
changes were introduced in the administrative system of the
U.S.S.R. He tried to change the ‘Iron curtain’ image of Russia
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by following a liberal policy to restructure

the Soviet society and economy. Gorbachev
introduced the policy of openness in external
relations which was called ‘Glasnost’. In
order to reconstruct the society and economy
of Russia he started ‘Perestroika’. Thus, the
era of liberalization was inaugurated in the
Soviet Union.

Gorbachev tried to create a new humane and democratic

image of Socialism. He promised freedom of religion to the people
of all faiths. He paid due importance to human rights issues
and proceeded towards demilitarization in a phased manner.
Iron Curtain : The military, political, and ideological barrier
established between the Soviet bloc and western Europe from 1945 to
1990. It was a policy intended to keep the people aloof from outside
developments and similarly the developments within reaching the
outside world.

De-Stalinization: The process of discrediting and eliminating the

political policies, methods, and personal image of Joseph Stalin.

Birth of the Soviet opposition party:

The separatist movements started in different parts of the

U.S.S.R. It grew especially in Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia.
The central committee of the Soviet Communist Party felt that
the separatist elements in these Balkan states were taking
advantage of democracy and Glasnost to alienate themselves
from the rest of the country. The committee held that
‘Perestroika’ was creating a national awareness among the
people and encouraging them to develop ideas of self-
determination.

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The policies of Gorbachev were strongly criticized and his

authority was also questioned by a sizeable opposition group.
In 1989, a group of 368 legislators formed an opposition to
Gorbachev in the Soviet parliament. This event can be described
as ‘The Birth of Soviet Opposition Party’. The most prominent
opponents were the human rights activists like, Andrei Sakharov
and Boris Yeltsin. The opposition group came to be known as
‘Inter Regional Deputies Group’. Gorbachev had suggested a
number of reforms to restructure the economy and society of
Soviet Union. Initially Lithuania, Estonia and Latvia declared their
Sovereignty, which was approved by the Supreme Soviet, in 1990.
By October 1991 Azerbaijan declared itself a sovereign country.

The Catastrophe

Andrei Sakharaov, the famous dissident called for the

complete destruction of Soviet Union’s. ‘Empire-like structure’
built on oppression. He advocated the establishment of a
voluntary confederation. He wanted the Soviet Union to destroy
the centralized administration, which had been established by
Stalin. He urged that 75 Soviet Republics and Homelands, which
had been set aside for over 100 ethnic groups had to be granted
independence to the maximum extent.

Boris Yeltsin

In 1989 the Soviet Union proceeded towards a democratic

set up. The first ever multi candidate elections for a new super
parliament were held. Boris Yeltsin, an opponent of Gorbachev
emerged victorious. U.S.S.R. faced a downward trend in the
economic situation. Political stability was disturbed due to
ethnic violence at Azerbaijan and Armenia. Gorbachev was
unable to prevent the states from declaring their sovereignty
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and Independence one after the other. Boris Yeltsin, the

President of Russia emerged as the centre of power.

Coup d’état (1991)

A historic event took place in 1991 from August 19 to August

21. A group of hardliners overthrew the Government; they seized
power and deposed Gorbachev, who was on a holiday in Crimea.
An emergency was declared for six months. They explained that
Gorbachev was too ill to perform his professional functions. The
coup was a failure; it collapsed on August 21, 1991.There were
widespread agitations against the hardliners as they were
against their own countrymen. The Parliament reinstated
Gorbachev as the President. The leaders of the coup were
arrested and tried for treason. The dreams of Gorbachev were
shattered as the Republics broke away from the communist
rule and declared their Independence. The ‘Three Baltic states’,
Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia and Ukraine, Georgia, Uzbekistan,
Byeloruss, Moldavia and Kyrgystan left the Soviet Union.

Soon Gorbachev resigned on December 25, 1991 as head

of the communist party. The party was dissolved. The leaders
of 11 out of 12 Soviet Republics signed a historic agreement at
‘Alma-ata’. The agreement proclaimed a New Commonwealth
of Independent States. This signified the “Disintegration of the
Soviet Union”. Boris Yeltsin took over as the Head of the New
Commonwealth of Independent States.
Coup d’état - a sudden and decisive change of government illegally
or by force. Coup, putsch, takeover · group action - action taken by a
group of people

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Dissolution of the Soviet Union

Tanks at Red Square during the 1991 Soviet coup d’état attempt

UNI-POLAR WORLD
The end of the Cold War led to the emergence of a Uni-
polar world. After the World War II, the world was divided into
two poles the West led by USA. and the East led by U.S.S.R.
The disintegration of U.S.S.R led to the emergence of USA as
the only super power. As a result the Bipolar world became
Uni-polar world.

11.3 COMMON WEALTH OF INDEPENDENT

STATES (CIS)
CIS was founded in 1991, by the Republic of Belarus, the
Russian Federation and Ukraine. The leaders met in Belarus
and signed an agreement to form the Common Wealth of
Independent States at Minsk.

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CIS Flag CIS Emblem

C.I.S. CHARTER
Aims and objectives of CIS
1) All the members are Sovereign and Independent Nations.
2) The existing borders of each Republic was recognized.
3) To establish a free market ruble zone embracing the
Republics.
4) To establish a joint Defense Force of participating Republics.
5) To promote co-operation on cross-border crime prevention.
6) To prevent armed conflicts on the territory of the member states.
7) To co-ordinate the foreign and economic policies of member
states.

CIS Map

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PRESENT COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES

1) Azerbaijan 2) Armenia 3) Belarus 4) Georgia
5) Kazakhstan 6) Moldova 7) Kyrgyzstan 8)Russia
9)Tajikistan 10) Turkmenistan 11) Uzbekistan 12) Ukraine
The headquarters of CIS is at Minsk.

Signing the agreement which established the CIS

Independent Baltic States:

The following Baltic states refused to join CIS.

1) Estonia
2) Latvia
3) Lithuania

QUESTIONS
Answer in one word or sentence each (Each carries one
mark):
(1) When was the term ‘Cold War’ used for the first time?

(2) What is Cold War?

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(3) Who wrote an essay ‘You and the Atomic Bomb’?

(4) Name the American statesman to use the term ‘Cold War’
specifically.

(5) Who was Truman?

(6) What was the aim of Marshall Plan?

(7) In response to Marshal plan which plan was introduced

by Soviet Union?

(8) Expand NATO.

(9) Expand SEATO.

(10) Expand CENTO.

(11) When did U.S.S.R form the Warsaw Pact?

(12) In which year was the Berlin Wall constructed?

(13) Name the Russian Intelligence Agency.

(14) Name the American Intelligence Agency.

(15) When was Nuclear Test Ban Treaty signed?

(16) When did Vietnam War come to an end?

(17) Expand SALT.

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(18) In which year did the ‘Cold War’ end?

(19) Where is the head quarters of NATO?

(20) What was the main aim of SEATO?

(21) When did Soviet Union disintegrate?

(22) What is ‘Glasnost’?

(23) What is ‘Perestroika’?

(24) Who headed C.I.S. after the disintegration of Soviet Union?

(25) Where is the head quarters of C.I.S?

Answer in two words or two sentence each (Each carries Two

marks):

(1) Name any four member countries of NATO.

(2) Name any four member countries of SEATO.

(3) Name any four member countries of CENTO.

(4) Name the anti American military organization. When did

it come into existence?

(5) Name any two member countries of Warsaw Pact.

(6) Name any two Independent Baltic states.

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(7) Name the Presidents of America and Russia who ended

the Cold War.

(8) When was NATO established and Where?

(9) Who were the human rights activists of Russia?

Answer in about 15-20 sentences each (Each carries Five

marks) :

(1) Explain the causes for Cold War.

(2) Write a note on Berlin Blockade.

(3) Write a note on Second Berlin crisis.

(4) Write a note on SEATO and Warsaw Pact.

(5) What were the effects of Cold War?

(6) What are the factors responsible for the disintegration of

Russia?

(7) What are the aims and objectives of C.I.S?

Answer in 30-40 sentences each (Each carries Ten marks) :

(1) Explain Regional Military Pacts.

❖❖❖❖❖
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Chapter 12
Non–Aligned Movement–Emergence of
the Third world.
Non–Aligned Movement is an International union. It emerged
during Cold War period. This is a union of those countries that
decided to remain independent of American or Soviet Union
Blocs. The countries of Africa, Asia and Latin American
continents that became independent after the World War II are
the members of this union. The non-aligned countries are Third
world countries. Third world is a group of developing countries.
Since it does not identify itself with the two super powers of the
world, non-aligned movement and Third world are considered
one and the same. Non -Aligned Movement is working for world
peace. 120 countries of the world are members of this union. It
has 55% of world’s populations with 20% share in world’s
Economy.

Latin America:Mexico, Central and South America,

Cuba, Portorica and Caribbean Islands in the American
continent that used Spanish and Portuguese languages
are known as Latin America.

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Meaning:
The word Non–Alignment was first used by V.K. Krishna
Menon in his speech at the U.N.O in 1953. He was the external
Affairs Minister in Jawaharlal Nehru’s Cabinet. Later Nehru
used it again in his speech in Colombo in 1954.

America and USSR called the Non–Aligned Movement as a

group of Neutral countries. It was criticised that neutral denotes
inactiveness. Hence, Nehru used Non–Alignment instead of
Neutral. He interpreted Non–Alignment as dynamic neutrality.
Non–Alignment denotes active neutrality and protesting
peacefully the oppression of the two military blocs. As this
movement is outside the purview of America and Soviet Blocs,
it is called the ‘Third world Movement’.

In the views of Nehru, Non–Alignment is a Movement to

settle the international problems through peaceful and
harmonious means without the use of force of weapons.
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On the whole Non-Aligned Movement means opposing the

aggressive policy of power blocs, protecting freedom and equality
and developing peaceful co-existence without interfering in
the internal affairs of each other
First World: The capitalist military Bloc is called the first
world. These countries have developed scientifically,
technologically and economically. They are; America, Canada,
England, France, Australia, New Zealand, West Germany, Italy,
Portugal etc.

Second World (prior to 1991): Countries with communist

ideals are called second world countries. They were Russia,
Albania, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovak etc.

Third World: The term third world was first used by Algerian
writer Frantz Fanon. Developing or Non-Aligned countries are called
third world. They are India, Egypt, Yugoslavia, Brazil, Argentina,
Mexico, Zimbabwe, Congo, Kenya, Srilanka etc.

● The Soviet Union was dissolved in 1991 because of the reforms

of Gorbachev. This resulted in the disappearance of 2nd World
and only the First and Third World are now existing.

Principles of Non-Aligned Movement:

The Panchasheela principles accepted by India and China
in 1954 are the principles of Non–Aligned Movement.
They are,
● Mutual respect for each others regional integrity and
Sovereignty
● Mutual non–Aggression
● Non interference in internal affairs
● To develop friendly relations based on Mutual co-operation
and equality
● Peaceful co-existence
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Objectives of Non-Aligned Countries:

1. To reduce the intensity of Cold War between the two powerful
military blocs of America and Soviet Union and keep away
from the two blocs.
2. To settle international disputes through peaceful dialogues.
3. To Oppose colonialism and Imperialism and support
movement against them.
4. To support Atomic weapon reduction agreement and come
out of military agreements.
5. To oppose racial conflicts, class discrimination and Apartheid
and to stage a fight against them.
6. To condemn the acts of aggression, injustice of the power
blocs and to take measures to stop them.
7. To safeguard the weaker countries from the Economic
exploitation of the developed countries. To give financial
assistance to developing countries.
8. To protect the fundamental human rights
9. To solve problems like poverty, hunger and illiteracy faced
by Non-Aligned Nations.
10. To support the programmes undertaken by the United
Nations Organisation.
11. To remove Economic dependence and build self dependence.
12. To uphold democratic principles and popularise them.

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Formation of Non–Aligned Union

Picture of Belgrade conference 1961

Non-Aligned Movement is a movement by a group of

countries which neither aligned nor opposed the two power
blocs. The first summit of the Non-Aligned countries was held
at Belgrade in 1961. The 16th summit was held at Teheran in
Iran in 2012.

Any country which accepts the principles of Non-Alignment

can become the member of this union. A meeting is to be held
once in every three years. There is no specific Headquarter and
Non –Aligned Union has no provision for a General Secretary
as in UNO. But the President or Prime Minister of the host
nation works as the secretary for the succeeding three years.

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List of places and countries where Non-Aligned summits

were held:

Causes that led to the Emergence of Non-Aligned

Movement:
1. Birth of Nationalism:
As a result of the birth of nationalism, many Asian, African
and Latin American countries got Independence before the
Cold War. They decided to remain independent of power blocs.
2. Problems of Non-Aligned Countries:
Problems like Poverty, illiteracy, unemployment and
overpopulation generally faced by the third world countries
led to the rise of Non-Aligned Movement. It was inevitable
for these countries to join one ideology or an institution to
find solution to these problems.
3. Policy of World peace:
World peace was affected by the conflict between capitalist
and communist blocs. Hence Non-Aligned Movement
emerged to establish world peace.
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4. Economic Exploitation:
The Non-Aligned countries came together to free themselves
from the economic exploitation and dependence on
developed countries to achieve development.
5. To oppose the dominance of power blocs:
Non-Aligned countries came forward to oppose the two power
blocs of the world, which imposed their dominance over
them.
6. Principles of Panchasheela:
The Panchasheela principles of Nehru inspired the weaker
countries to protect their freedom and existence. It led to
the birth of Non-Aligned Movement.
7. Able Leadership:
Able leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Abdul Nasser, Marshal
Tito and Ahmad Sukarno played an important role in Non-
Aligned Movement.

8. Cold War:
Cold War started between the two power blocs. Non-Aligned
Movement was needed to bring it under control.
Features of Non-Aligned Countries:
1. Economic Backwardness:
Non-Aligned Countries are economically backward. These
countries have primitive Agriculture and weak industries.
Hence the national production and per capita income of
these countries is very less.
2. Dependence on others:
Non-Aligned Countries are too backward in the fields of
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Science, Technology and Military and are dependent on

developed countries for assistance.
3. Rural Structure:
Non-Aligned Countries comprise of more number of villages.
Many villages are deprived of basic necessities. These
countries are lagging behind since they are far away from
urbanization.
4. Over population:
Population is increasing because of poverty, illiteracy,
superstitions etc. The Governments have failed in checking
the growth of population. Programmes relating to population
control introduced by the governments have not reached
the expected level due to the disinterest of the people.
Increasing population is the cause of economic
backwardness.
5. Poverty and Hunger:
Poverty is a serious problem among the Non-Aligned
Countries. There is shortage of food grains in these countries.
They are dependent on the developed countries for food
grains. Majority of Africans live in poverty. Non-Aligned
countries are victims of poverty because of natural
calamities, migration, internal clashes, unsceintific
utilisation of natural resources etc. Countries like Nigeria,
Somalia, Uganda, Haiti, Angola, and Ethiopia are unable to
provide nutritious food.
6. Spread of Epidemics:
Negligence of Health is evident in the Non-Aligned Countries.
Hence epidemics are spreading in these countries. There is
scarcity of health services. The most dreaded disease AIDS
is on rising trend in these countries.
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7. Illiteracy:
The Educational development policies of Non-Aligned
Countries have failed. The number of illiterates has
increased. Literacy is less in African countries and the
literacy among women is also very less in Africa. Asian
countries are no exception to this.
8. Burden of Debt:
Most of the Non-Aligned Countries are reeling under foreign
debt. It is inevitable for them to borrow loans from world
economic institutions for their internal development plans.
They have been forced to borrow new loans to repay the old
loans and interests on them.
9. Migration:
Migration to safer places of other countries for employment,
food and self protection is common in these countries.
Migration is very high in Africa.

10. Water scarcity, unstable governments and lack of modern

military force are common in Non-Aligned countries.
Development of Non-Aligned Movement

List of Non-Aligned countries summits from 1961 to 2012

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India is the first country responsible for the emergence of

Non-Aligned Movement. India’s Prime Minister Jawaharalal
Nehru is one of the architects of Non-Aligned Movement. In a
meeting of the Asian countries in 1947 at New Delhi, the
participating countries felt the need of an organisation to solve
their problems. This in the future led to the origin of Non-Aligned
Movement.
Bandung Conference: 1955

Nehru, Nkrumah,Nasser,Sukarno and Tito

A conference of the African and Asian countries was held at

Bandung in Indonesia in the year 1955. Indonesian President
Ahmad Sukarno organised and presided over this conference
and 29 countries participated in it. Most important leaders who
participated in this conference were Indian Prime Minister
Jawaharalal Nehru, Ahmad Sukarno, the President of Indonesia,
Josip Broz Tito, the President of Yugoslavia, Abdul Nasser, the
President of Egypt, Kwame Nkrumah, the President of Ghana.
They are called as the founders of Non-Aligned Movement. They
desired peaceful, amicable, military, political, economic, bilateral
relationship with America and Soviet Union. Nehru mooted
panchasheela principles at the conference. It was seconded by
Nasser, Tito, and Sukarno.
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Bandung conference advocated the need for world peace.

The meeting expressed a desire to pose strong competition to
the developed countries. Thus the meeting at Delhi in 1947
and the Bandung conference led to Non-Aligned Movement.
Important Resolutions:
● To bring in mutual Economic Co-operation and Cultural
exchange between Afro-Asian countries.
● To give importance to International peaceful co-existence.
● Non interference in the internal affairs of other countries.
● Protection of fundamental human rights
● Not to align with the powerful military blocs of the world.
Belgrade Conference: 1961

Nasser, Tito, Nehru

The first conference of the Non-Aligned Movement was held

at Belgrade, the capital of Yugoslavia in the year 1961. The
conference was organised and presided over by Josip Broz Tito
the President of Yugoslavia. 25 countries from Africa and Asia
participated. Tito, Nehru and Nasser played a prominent role
in the conference. They have been called as ‘The Three
stalwarts’ (the Trio) of Non-Aligned bloc. International problems
were discussed here.
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Important Resolutions:

● To reduce the intensity of Cold War

● To oppose atomic weapons at the international level

● To oppose colonialism

● To implement disarmament

● To move along with U.N.O.

● To end Apartheid

● To strive for world peace.

The prominent countries that participated in this conference:

India, Afghanisthan, Algeria, Burma, Cambodia, Sri Lanka,

Cuba, Egypt, Ghana, Iraq etc.

Achievements of NAM:

Along with the United Nations Organisation Non-Aligned

Movement is trying to solve international problems peacefully.

Non-Aligned Movement has its role in the achievements of

U.N.O. The Achievements of Non-Aligned Movement are as

follows:-

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1. It has helped to decrease the intensity of Cold War.

2. Helped U.N.O. in resolving the issues pertaining to Korea,

Vietnam, Cuba and Kuwait.

3. Worked hard to end Apartheid in South Africa.

4. Inspired treaties to reduce Atomic weapons.

5. Worked to resist the dominance of power blocs.

6. Popularized democratic principles.

7. It is working hard to establish international peace.

8. It is trying to find solutions to the problems faced by member

nations.

9. It is fighting for the self reliance of member countries.

Limitations of NAM:

Non-Aligned Movement has been following the path of peace.

It has opposed military power blocs. The economically backward

and the countries that became independent during Cold War

period have come together to achieve political Sovereignty and

economic progress. Non-Aligned Movement neither has its own

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military nor economic power. Inevitably, they have sought

economic assistance from developed countries. This shows the

weakness of Non-Aligned Movement.

Limitations of Non-Aligned Movement can be seen in the

following few incidents:

● On 2nd August 1990, Kuwait occupied Iraq. Though these

two countries are members of Non-Aligned Movement, it

failed to solve this problem.

● Arabian countries do not have complete interest in the Non-

Aligned Movement.

● Non-Aligned Movement has failed to get such able leadership

recently as it had in the beginning .

● The internal disputes among the Non-Aligned countries and

the lack of unity have weakened it.

● Non-Aligned countries on the one hand are preaching

disarmament and on the other are purchasing armaments

from powerful countries.

● Non-Aligned countries do not have their own military power.

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It is impossible to achieve any thing through criticism and

peace talks.

● Non-Aligned countries have failed in checking terrorism.

India and Non-Aligned Movement:

India played an important role in the origin of Non-Aligned

Movement. Jawaharlal Nehru, the Prime Minister of India is

called the Architect of Non-Aligned Movement. His

‘Panchasheela’ formed the important principles of Non-Aligned

Movement. India has not only coined the word ‘Non-Alignment’

but has inspired it.

The following facts show the relation between India and

Non-Aligned Movement:

● India has good relation with the other Non-Aligned countries.

Nehru’s principles got world recognition in the Bandung

conference, which officially declared Non-Aligned policy.

● The 7th summit of Non-Aligned countries was held at Delhi

in 1983. India’s Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi presided

over the conference. She said we should become a united

voice in the international organizations. Disarmament,

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Economic development, technical help were some of the

issues that were discussed in this summit. India insisted

Israel to withdraw her troops from Palestine.

● At the 8th summit of Non-Aligned countries in Harare, the

then Indian Prime Minister Rajeev Gandhi demanded the

release of Nelson Mandela of South Africa. He also

established the ‘African Fund’ to support the blacks who

were fighting for their Rights and freedom.

● The 9 th summit of Non-Aligned countries was held at

Belgrade the capital of Yugoslavia. In this summit Rajeev

Gandhi gave a call for establishing ‘Global Protection Fund’

for the protection of the environment.

● At the 12th and 13th summits of Non-Aligned countries Indian

Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajapayee gave a call to take a

firm decision to combat international Terrorism. India also

supported nuclear disarmament.

● At the 14th summit, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh

spoke about international terrorism and nuclear

disarmament. At the 15th summit he brought to the notice

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of Non-Aligned countries, the Mumbai attacks and terrorism.

At the 16th summit held in Iran, Indian Prime Minister

Manmohan Singh advocated the need for international action

against the spread of nuclear armaments and terrorism. He

also gave a call to find a solution to the Syrian problem

acceptable to all.

In this way India has developed good relations with the Non-

Aligned Movement.

Questions:
Answer in one word or one sentence (Each carries one mark)

1. Who was the first to use the word ‘Non–Aligned’?

2. What is Non – Aligned Movement?

3. What according to Nehru is Non–Aligned Movement?

4. Where was the first summit of Non – Aligned countries held?

5. When was the Bandung conference held?

6. When was the Belgrade conference held?

7. Who was the Indian Prime Minister who participated in the

Bandung conference?

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8. Who was the Indonesian President who participated in the

Bandung conference?

9. Name the Egyptian President who participated in the

Bandung conference?

10. Who presided over the Non–Aligned Summit at Delhi?

Answer in two words or two sentences (Each carries two

Marks)

1. Who used the word ‘Non-Aligned’ for the first time? When?

2. Where and when did Nehru use the word ‘Non-Aligned’?

3. Write the two principles of Non-Aligned Movement.

4. When was the Bandung conference held? Who presided

over it?

5. Name the two leaders of Bandung conference.

6. Who were called as ‘The Three stalwarts’ (The Trio) of NAM?

7. When was the Belgrade summit held? Who presided over

it?

8. Where and in which year did the Non-Aligned Movement

begin?

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9. When was the first summit of Non-Aligned Countries held?

Who presided over it?

10. Where and when was the 7th Summit of Non-Aligned

countries held?

Answer in 15 to 20 sentences (Each carries five marks)

1. Describe the objectives of Non- Aligned Movement.

2. Describe the causes for the rise of Non-Aligned Movement.

3. Describe the features of Non-Aligned Movement.

4. Describe the achievements of Non-Aligned Movement.

5. What are the limitations of Non-Aligned Movement?

6. Write about the relationship between India and NAM.

IV. Answer in 30 to 40 sentences (Ten Marks)

1. Trace the development of Non-Aligned Movement.

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Chapter: 13 – MAP WORK:

HISTORICAL PLACES OF WORLD
IMPORTANCE
1. Babylonia 11. London
2. Athens 12. Paris
3. Rome 13. Waterloo
4. Alexandria 14. Berlin
5. Jerusalem 15. Moscow
6. Mecca 16. Versailles
7. Venice 17. Hiroshima
8. Constantinople 18. Nagasaki
9. Cape of Good Hope 19. New York
10. Lisbon 20. Geneva

Note:
1. Out of the given 20 places any Eight will be asked, of which
students have to mark Five places on the outline map of
the world. Five marks will be awarded for marking the places
correctly and other Five marks for writing the historical
importance of each marked place in two sentences.
2. The student should write the importance of the places as
explained in this book.
3. An alternative essay type question carrying Ten Marks will
be asked for Visually Challenged Students.
4. Paper selters should not ask more than 3 places from a
continent. The places should have minimum distance
between them so that they can be easily identified. Two
places from the same country should not be asked.
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1. Babylonia:
It is in present Iraq. It was the capital of Mesopotamian
Civilization. The famous law-giver Hammurabi ruled from
here. Nebuchadnezzar built the ‘Hanging Gardens’.
2. Athens:
It is the present capital city of Greece. It was one of the city-
states of Ancient Greek civilization. The city was named after
the Goddess Athena. The famous Parthenon Temple is
located here.
After Greeks, Athens was ruled by the Romans. In 15th
century C.E. it was captured by the Ottoman Turks. After
the Greek war of Independence in the 19th century Athens
was chosen as the capital of the newly independent Greek
state in 1834.

3. Rome:
It is the capital of Italy. It was also the capital of Roman
Empire. Vatican City in Rome is the centre of Pope, who is
the religious head of the Catholics.
According to a Roman legend Rome was founded by the
twins Romulus and Remus in 8 th century B.C.E.
According to another version the name is derived from
the Greek word ‘Rhome’ which means ‘strength’.

4. Alexandria:
It is in northern Egypt. It was founded by Alexander the
Great. It was intended to be the link between Greece and
the rich Nile Valley.
An Egyptian City, Rhakotis already existed on the shores
and later gave its name to Alexandria. In the Egyptian
language, it means ‘That which is built up’.

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5. Jerusalem:
It is in Israel. It is a holy city of the three major religions-
Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Jesus was crucified here
in 30 CE.

6. Mecca:
It is in Saudi Arabia. Prophet Muhammad, the founder of
Islam was born here. It is regarded as the holiest city of
Islam.

7. Venice:
It is in Italy. It was one of the centres of Trade and Commerce
during Medieval Period. Famous travellers Marco Polo and
Nicolo Polo belonged to this city.
Marco Polo in his book ‘Travels of Marco Polo the
Venetion’ gave a thrilling account about the richness of
the Asian Countries. His narrations inspired the
European explorers to discover new sea-routes.

8. Constantinople:
Presently called as Istanbul in Turkey. It was the capital of
Eastern Roman Empire. Ottoman Turks captured
Constantinople in 1453, which led to the discovery of new
sea routes.
The first name of the city was Byzantium, which was
founded in 7th Century B.C.E. by a Greek King Byzas.
Constantine the Great made it the new eastern capital of
the Roman Empire in 4th century C.E. Then the city came
to be known as Constantinople which means ‘The City
of Constantine’.

9. Cape of Good Hope:

It is in South Africa. Bartholomew Diaz called it ‘Cape of
Storms’. Later Vasco-da-gama renamed it as ‘Cape of Good
Hope’ under the direction of King John of Portugal, since it
gave hope for further explorations to reach India.
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10. Lisbon:
It is the capital city of Portugal. Most of the Portuguese
navigators, including Vasco-da-Gama of the Age of discovery
started their voyages from this city.
11. London:
It is the capital of UK, located on the banks of the river
Thames. It was the main centre of Industrial Revolution. It
is the famous centre of learning.
According to one origin, London meant ‘place belonging
to a man called ‘Londinos’. According to another view, it
is derived from the river Thames which flows through
London, that is ‘Lowonida’ meaning ‘river too wide to
ford’. Thus the etymology of London is uncertain.

12. Paris:
It is the capital city of France. Bourbon family ruled over
France till the French Revolution of 1789. In modern times
many historical treaties were signed here.
The name Paris is derived from that of its earliest
inhabitants, known as the ‘Parissi’ meaning ‘The
working People’ or ‘The Craftsmen’.
The city has many nicknames. The most famous one is
‘The City of Light’, due to its fame as a centre of education.
It is also called as ‘Paradise of Travellers’.

13. Waterloo:
It is in Belgium. In 1815, Napoleon fought his last battle
here against the Allied armies of Europe. This is famous as
‘ The Battle of Waterloo..

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14. Berlin:
Present capital city of Germany. It is located on the banks
of River Sparee. After World War II it was divided as East
and West Berlin and a dividing wall was built. In 1990 both
East and West Germanys were reunited and the Berlin wall
was removed.
15. Moscow:
It is the capital city of Russia, located on the banks of river
Moskva. It was one of the centre of Russian Revolution of
1917 and was made the capital of USSR.
The city of Moscow named after the river Moskva- meaning
‘The city by the Moskva River’.

16. Versailles:
It is in France. Louis XIV built the largest palace here. After
the World War I, Treaty of Versailles was signed here
between Germany and the Allied powers in 1919.
Earlier Versailles was a village. French ruler Louis XIII
used to go on hunting in the forest surrounding
Versailles. Pleased with the location he constructed a
hunting lodge in 1624. His successor, Louis XIV had it
expanded into one of the largest palace in the world. From
1682 he established his court at Versailles.

17. Hiroshima:
It is in Japan. The first Atomic Bomb was dropped on this
city by USA at the end of World War II in 1945. As a result
of this an estimated 80,000 people were killed.
Hiroshima means ‘Wide Island’. During the World War II
the city had large depots of military supplies. At the end
of the war when Japan did not surrender, on Monday,
August 6, 1945 at 8.15 AM an Atomic Bomb called ‘Little

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Boy’ was dropped on Hiroshima, directly killing an

estimated 80,000 people. The Oleander is the official
flower of the city of Hiroshima as it was the first to bloom
again after the explosion of the atomic bomb in 1945.

18. Nagasaki:
It is in Japan. During World War II America dropped atomic
bomb on August 9, 1945. As a result of this more than
70,000 people died.
Nagasaki means ‘Long cape’. It was founded by the
Portuguese in 16th century. During the World War II
atomic bomb called ‘Fat Man’ was dropped on Nagasaki.

19. New York:

It is located in USA. It was one of the colonies of British.
The Head Quarters of UNO is located here.
Both the state and city were named after the 17th Century
Duke of York, James Stuart of England and Scotland.
Originally it was a Dutch Colony. In 17th Century it was
called as ‘New Amsterdam’. Later on the English captured
it and called it as ‘New York’.

20. Geneva:
It is in Switzerland. It was one of the centres of Protestant
movement. International organizations like ILO, WHO, WTO
and GATT are located here.

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Questions:
1) Mark any Five of the following Historical places on the
outline map of world, and add an explanatory note on each
marked place in two sentences: 5+5=10

a) Waterloo b) Hiroshima c) Lisbon d) Moscow

e) Mecca f) Berlin g) Constantinople
h) Cape of Good Hope
2) Mark any Five of the following Historical places on the
outline map of world, and add an explanatory note on each
marked place in two sentences: 5+5=10

a) Rome b) Paris c) Nagasaki d) Babylonia

e) Alexandria f) London g) Geneva h) Athens

3) Mark any Five of the following Historical places on the

outline map of world, and add an explanatory note on each
marked place in two sentences: 5+5=10

a) Venice b) Versailles c) Jerusalem d) New York

e) Hiroshima f) Cape of Good Hope g) Moscow h) Mecca

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I P.U.C MODEL QUESTION PAPER

Sub Code: 21 WORLD HISTORY Total Questions: 37
Time: 3:15 Hours Max Marks:100

Note: (i) Write Sl. No’s of questions correctly.

(ii) Visually challenged students need to answer
question No. 31 ‘B’ instead of Map Question No.
31 ‘A’ in Part – D
(ii) Answer the Questions according to the
instructions given for the Questions.

PART – A
I. Answer the following questions in one word or one sen-
tence each:
10x1=10
1) Who wrote the book ‘The City of God’?
2) Name the ruler who started the construction of’ Great
Wall of China.
3) Who was Gaius Julius Caesar?
4) What is Hejira?
5) When did the Ottoman Turks capture Constantinople?
6) Who was the king ruling over Russia on the eve of
Russian Revolution?
7) Which was the last Battle of Napoleon Bonaparte?

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8) Which treaty ended the World War I.

9) Which is the famous book of Hitler?

10) Who used the term Non-Aligned Movement for the

first time?
PART – B
II. Answer any Ten of the following Questions in 2 words
or 2 sentences each: 10x2=20
11) Mention any two theories of ‘Origin of the Earth’.

12) Write any two factors that helped the growth of civili-
zation.

13) Name any two city- states of the ancient Greeks.

14) Write any two festivals of the Christians.

15) Who were the major intellectual personalities of the

Higher Middle Ages ?

16) What is Revolution?

17) Name any two British Colonies in America.

18) Which are the two important books of Karl Marx?

19) Who was the architect of unification of Germany? What

was his policy?

20) Who was Truman? What was the Provision of Truman

Doctrine?

21) Expand: CIS. Where is its head quarters located?

22) Who were called as ‘Trio’(Three Stalwarts) of Non-

aligned Movement bloc?

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PART – C
III. Answer any SIX of the following questions in 15 to 20
sentences each: 6x5=30

23) Write any Five uses of the study of History.

24) Explain any two factors of Human Evolution.

25) Briefly explain the teachings of Prophet Mohammed.

26) Give an account of the causes for the decline of Feu-

dalism.

27) Write a note on the development of literature during

Renaissance.

28) Explain the results of World War II.

29) Give an account of the Regional Military Pacts of the

Cold War.

30) Explain the role of India in Non-aligned Movement.

PART – D
IV. Answer the following questions as Indicated:

31 A) Mark any Five of the following Historical Places on

the outline map of the world provided to you and add
an explanatory note on each marked place in two
sentences. 5+5=10

(a)Rome. (b) Jerusalem (c) Cape of Good Hope.

(d) New York (e) London.

(f) Berlin. (g) Hiroshima. (h) Moscow.

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FOR VISUALLY CHALLENGED STUDENTS ONLY

31 B) Answer the following question in 30 to 40 sentences:
1x10=10

Describe the political, social and Economic life of the

Egyptian Civilization.
OR
Write a note on the role played by Mazzini, Cavour
and Garibaldi in the unification of Italy.

PART – E
V. Answer any two of the following questions in 30 to 40
sentences each: 2x10=20

32) Explain the contributions of the Greeks in the fields

of literature, Science and Philosophy.

33) Describe the role of Martin Luther in the Reformation

Movement.

34) Briefly write about the causes and results of the

French Revolution of 1789.

35) Describe the achievements of UNO.

PART –F
VI. 36) Match the following: 5

1. Nehru Helio- Centric Theory

2. Nebuchadnezzar New Economic Policy
3. Copernicus Red Shirts
4. Lenin Discovery of India
5. Garibaldi Hanging Garden of Babylonia
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37) Arrange the following events in Chronological

Order: 5
1. Treaty of Versailles
2. Bandung Conference
3. Construction of Parthenon Temple
4. Unification of Germany
5. Invention of Printing Press

I PUC - World History

SCHEME OF VALUATION
PART – A
I 1. St. Augustine. 1

2. Shih Hu Wang Ti. 1

3. Great general, dictator, reformer and the symbol of

Ancient Rome. 1

4. The secret journey of Prophet Mohammed from Mecca

to Madina. 1

5. 1453 CE. 1

6. Tsar Nicholas II. 1

7. The battle of Waterloo. 1

8. Treaty of Paris in 1919. 1

9. Mein Kampf or My Struggle. 1

10. V.K. Krishna Menon of India. 1

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PART – B

II 11. Steady Earth theory, Pulsating theory, the Big Bang

theory, etc., (Any two) 1+1

12. Deposition of fertile soil, supply of water, favourable

climate, plenty of food, river helped the growth of trade.
(Any two) 1+1

13. Athens, Sparta, Corinth & Thebes. (Any Two) 1+1

14. Christmas, Good Friday, Easter Sunday. (Any Two)1+1

15. Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon, Peter Abelard &

St. Thomas Aquinas. (Any Two) 1+1

16. Term derived from Latin ‘revolutio’ which means

turnaround. Fundamental change in power
organizational structure in a short period. 2

17. New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Rhode Island,

Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Mary Land, Virginia,
North Carolina, South Carolina, Delaware, Pennsylvania
& Georgia. (Any Two) 1+1

18. Communist Manifesto and Das capital. 1+1

19. Bismarck – Blood and Iron Policy 1+1

20. The president of USA. By this he provided Greece and

Turkey Economic and military aid to the tune of 400
million dollars. 1+1

21. Common Wealth of Independent States- Minsk. 1+1

22. Josip Broz Tito, Nehru & Gamal Abdul Nasser. 1+1
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PART – C
III 23. History is the memory of the ancient pasts, teaches
religious tolerance, the source of Inspiration, promotes
patriotism, a laboratory of social sciences, infuses noble
ideals, helps to broaden our outlook, it has professional
uses & removes prejudices. (Each in 2 or 3 sentences)
5
24. Climate change, growth in Brain size, Food & shelter,
Bipedalism, Tool making, language, Domestication of
animals & commencement of agriculture. (Any two with
8 to 10 sentences each) 5
25. Faith called Islam, means “Submission to God Allah”.
Sacred book Quran. Five pillars of Islam- Kalima, Namaz,
Zaqqat, Roza & Hajj & other teachings. 5
26. Rise of strong monarchies, shifting of loyalty, growth of
commerce & industry, dominance of money economy,
building of strong armies by Kings, scarcity of labourers,
mutual fighting between feudal Loards.
[2-3 sentences on each]. 5
27. Writings about man & his activities- humanist movement
development of vernacular languages of Europe.
Leonardo Bruni translated the books of Plato. Aristotle
& Socrates to Italian, Petrarch- sonnets, Dante- Divine
comedy, Boccaccio – Decameron, Erasmus- Praise &
Folly; Machiavelli- The Prince, Cervantes- Don Quixote,
Thomas Moore – Utopia, Milton – Paradise lost, William
Shakespeare – 57 plays, Julius Caesar, Hamlet, Romeo
Juliet, others etc., 5
28. Most destructive war, the end of dictatorships in Italy &
Germany, USA & USSR emerged super powers, led to
the cold war, victory of the principle of Nationalism &
the liquidation of colonialism. Creation of Israel for Jews,
disastrous effects of atomic weapons in Japan, the birth
of UNO to prevent future wars & maintaining peace. 5
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29. i.NATO in 1949 at Washington under the leadership of

America – 27 European Countries to fight against Russia.
ii. SEATO (Manila pact – 1954) to resist the Communist
aggression.iii.ANZUSPACT-1951 – America, New Zeeland
& Australia to help each other in the pacific region.
iv.CENTO (The Baghdad Pact 1955) – Britain, Turkey,
Iraq, Pakistan & Iran anti-Soviet block in the Middle East.
v. Warsaw Pact (1955 to 1991) under Russia-East
European rival organization Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia,
Hungary, Poland & others, Russia became more
powerful. It was dissolved in 1991. 5
30. Origin in India, Pancha sheela Principles, Nehru
considered as its architect, 7th NAM summit held at New
Delhi in 1983-Indira Gandhi, 8th summit at Harare-Rajiv
Gandhi appealed for the release of Nelson Mandela- In
the 12th and 13th summit Atal Bihari Vajpayee gave call
to impose ban on atomic bombs & International
Terrorism. In the 15 th summit Man Mohan Singh
condemned the attack on Bombay & Terrorism & also
supported nuclear disarmament. 5

PART – D
IV. 31 (a) a) Rome: Capital of Italy. Capital of Roman Empire.
Vatican City – centre of Pope. 1
b) Jerusalem: In Israel- holy city of Judaism,
Christianity & Islam. Jesus crucified here. 1
c) Cape of Good Hope: In South Africa. Diaz called
‘cape of storms’. Renamed as ‘Cape of Good Hope’.
1
d) New York: In U.S.A. One of the 13 British Colonies.
Head Quarters of U.N.O is located here. 1
e) London: Capital of U.K. centre of Industrial
Revolution. 1

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f) Berlin: Capital of Germany. After World War II

divided as East & West Berlin. Reunified in 1990.
1
g) Hiroshima: In Japan. Atomic Bomb dropped by
USA in 1945. 80000 killed. 1
h) Moscow: Capital of Russia. One of the centres of
Russian Revolution of 1917. 1

FOR VISUALLY CHALLENGED STUDENTS ONLY

31(b) City-States formed- Birth of kingdoms – 30 dynasties

ruled Egypt. Egyptian Kings called ‘Pharoes’ –
representative of God. Menes united upper and lower
Egypt – The periods of Old, Middle and New Kingdoms.
King Thutmose I – Queen Hatshepsut, First empress in
the history of world.Three Classes in the society – Upper,
Middle and Slaves – Women enjoyed high status – equal
share in the ancestral property- Incestuous marriages.
Agrarian Economy- Crops like wheat, Barley, Cotton,
Peas, Garlic, Fruits and vegetables- Canals and Shadoof
irrigations- Crops and Manufacturers- Trade and
Commerce- Barter system.
OR
Role of Mazzani- ‘soul of Italian unification’.”Pen is
mightier than sword” infused patriotism- founded ‘ Young
Italy ’ in 1831. He was banished. Guided
movement.Count De-Cavour- Prime Minister of Victor
Emmanuel II. Got the help of other European countries-
Participated in Crimean War. Got the sympathy of France
regarding Italian unification- War with Austria-
Conquered Lombardy- Other states like Modena, Parma,
Tuscany, Romagna, Umbry and others merged with
SardiniaGaribaldi: Great patriot, ‘Sword of Italian
unification- Founded an army- Red Shirts- Conquered

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states like Sicily and Naples.In 1861 Italian unification

declared, Turin became the capital- By 1870 states of
Venetia and Rome were conquered and achieved
complete unification and Rome became capital.
10

PART-E
V 32 Literature: Epics, Poetry, Drama and History- Homer’s
epics called Illiad and Odyssey, Lyric poets- Pindar and
Sappo. In drama tragedies- Aschylus, Sophocles,
Euripides and their writings. Aristophances comic poet.
Historians Herodotus, Thucydides, Plutarch who wrote
biographies. Orator Demosthenes.Science: Aristotle,
study of natural science. Theophrastus- Botany.
Hippocrates- Father of Medicine. Herephilus on Anatomy.
Aristarchus on Earth revolve round the sun. Ptolemy on
universe. Pythagoras and Euclid on Mathematics.
Archimedes was another scientist Philosophy:
Philosophia- ‘Love of wisdom’. Famous philosophers –
Socrates, Plato and Aristotle- their ideas and works.10
33 Role of Martin Luther(1483-1546) leader of reformation
movement- Born in Germany, Masters Degree in
Theology and became professor of Theology. Visited Rome
in 1511. Shocked at the worldliness of the Pope- Evil
practices- sale of indulgences. Wrote the book ‘The
Manifesto of Reformation’. ‘95 Theses’-Pasted them on
the church door at Wittenberg. Luther attached doctrines
of the catholic church. Pope Leo X excommunicated
Luther- Papal Bull. Translated Bible into German-
Established Lutheran National Church- Thus Protestant
movement started.Conflict between Catholics and
Protestants- ‘Peace of Augusburg in 1555 recognized
Lutheranism. It spread to many other European
counties. 10
34 French Revolution of 1789- Against the royal
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despotism.Causes: 1. Political: Bourbon dynasty ruled-

absolute monarchs- Louis XIV, Louis XV and Louis XVI-
Neglected the interests of the people- led a luxurious
life. Louis XVI was the puppet of the queen 2. Social:
Social inequality- privileged and unprivileged classes-
discrimination 3. Economic: Defective and unfair
taxation policy- Clergy and Nobles exempted from all
taxes. Commoners had to pay all taxes- The sufferings
of peasants and workers. 4. Intellectual: Montesquieu,
Voltaire, Rousseau and Diderot- The Spirit Of Laws, The
Letters on the English, Social Contract- Principles-
Liberty, Equality and fraternity. 5. Influence of American
War of Independence.6. Immediate cause- Financial
bankruptcy of France.Results: 1. Abolished absolute
monarchy- Ended feudalism and hereditary
aristocracy.2. Ended the special privileges of the clergy
and nobility.3. Upheld ‘Doctrine of Popular Sovereignty’.
4. Popularized ideas of liberty, equality and fraternity.
5. Spread unity and taught the principle of nationalism.
6. Caused heavy bloodshed- Nearly 17000 were killed
during ‘ The Reign of Terror’. 7. Revolution gave an
opportunity for the rise of Napoleon as Military dictator
of France. ‘The Child of Revolution’.
( 6 Marks for causes and 4 Marks for results) 10
35 Achievements of the U.N.O- Political and Non Political :
1) Russian Troops stationed on Northern Iran were made
to withdraw.
2) Quarrel between Holland and Indonesia settled in
1948
3) The U.N.O ordered cease-fire in Kashmir in 1948
4) Dispute between North and South Korea settled
5) The Suez Canal and Vietnam problems solved
6) Occupation of Kuwait by Iraq in 1991- Iraq was ordered
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352 I PUC - History

to withdraw its troops.

7) Carried out peace- keeping operations in Greece,
Cyprus, Lebanon, Congo, Cambodia etc
8) Ended apartheid regime in South Africa in 1991.
Non Political:
1) Declaration of Human Rights on 10th December 1948
2) I.L.O improved the conditions of labourers
3) FAO- increased the food production
4) IMF and IBRD provided funds for economic
development
5) UNESCO- Achievements in various fields- Preserved
many cultural sites 6)UNICEF- Eradicate hunger and
malnutrition among children- WHO improved the
health of the people. 10

PART – F
V 36 1) Nehru - Discovery of India
2) Nebuchadnezzar - Hanging Garden of
Babylonia
3) Copernicus - Helio – Centric Theory
4) Lenin - New Economic Policy
5) Garibaldi - Red Shirts 5

37 1) Construction of Parthenon temple. 5

2) Invention of printing press.
3) Unification of Germany.
4) Treaty of Versailles.
5) Bandung Conference.

❖❖❖❖❖

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Notes

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