Concepts and Connections:

A Publication for Leadership Educators

Critical Perspectives in
Leadership Education

Volume 22; Issue 2 2018

1
 Inside This Issue:

4 Renewing the Vow, Changing the Commitments:

The Call to Infuse Critical Perspectives into Leadership
Education
by John P. Dugan, Ph.D. and Natasha T. Turman, Ph.D.

9 Scholarship and Research Updates: Engaging in

Critical Research
by Cobretti D. Williams, M.A. and Susan R. Komives, Ed.D.

13 Learning by Design: Reflections for Facilitators in

Critical Leadership Education
by Amy C. Barnes, Ed.D.

16 Program Spotlight: Undergraduate Leadership Studies

at Loyola University Chicago
by Michelle Kusel, M.Ed.

18 Critical Perspectives in Practice: Balancing Leadership

Development, Community Engagement, and Identity
Work
by Juan Cruz Mendizabal and Kathy L. Guthrie, Ph.D.

NCLP Staff
Director - Dr. Craig Slack
Coordinator - Courtney Holder
Concepts & Connections Editor - Melanie Pflucker Valderrama
Listserv and Customer Services - Pamela Gouws

2
Introduction to Theme
by Courtney Holder

When I think back to my graduate curriculum in Student Affairs, being introduced to critical
theory and the resulting philosophical and sociological movement stands out as one of most
tangibly transformative learning processes I have experienced. Across courses in Social Jus-
tice Education, Student Development Theory, and Critical Pedagogy, the work of Freire, Adams,
Bell, Griffin, hooks, Kozol and so many others led to a constant status of feeling upended, over-
whelmed, angry, discombobulated, frustrated, and uncertain all at the same time.

Not until years into my time as a full-time professional in leadership education did I finally have
a perfect word to describe that feeling. ‘Pizzled’- what John Dugan refers to as “simultaneously
pissed and puzzled”- reverberated through my ears at the 2017 National Leadership Symposium.
I soaked up the words of Dugan, Sonja Ospina, and Larry Roper as they dripped out onto over 25
pages of notes I took over the three day experience. As Scholars for the week, they guided par-
ticipants in a roller coaster of reframing leadership through a critical lens, a ride that picked up
where my graduate courses had left off. An important bridge was built between the theory and
my everyday work in student leadership programming and instruction.

I am energized by the work that is surfacing at the intersection of critical paradigms and lead-
ership education. The practitioners, faculty, researchers, and scholars in this Concepts and
Connections issue are leading the way in practices and research that pushes us to examine
stocks of knowledge and social location, to deconstruct and reconstruct dominant leadership
narratives, and ultimately to embrace a critical hope in our work. I encourage you to spend time
with this issue and the questions posed by authors. Dig in to the references and resources men-
tioned. Engage in some critical reflection with a colleague. Don’t shy away from this important
conversation.

National Clearinghouse for Leadership Programs

1110 Adele H. Stamp Student Union
Center for Campus Life
University of Maryland
College Park, MD
nclp.umd.edu

National Clearinghouse
@ed_lead
for Leadership Programs

3
Renewing the Vow, Changing the Commitments:
The Call to Infuse Critical Perspectives into
Leadership Education
by John P. Dugan, Ph.D. and Natasha T. Turman, Ph.D.

Countless articles on college student more essential. To what extent does the
leadership begin by stating the centrality of literature reflect and perpetuate a dominant
leadership as an educational outcome. narrative? How does leadership education
Authors typically point to college and contribute to students’ abilities to
university mission statements as evidence successfully navigate, thrive, and disrupt the
of the calls to prepare future generations of socially stratified systems in which they live
citizen leaders. Attempts to deliver on this vow and work? In what ways do leadership training,
have contributed to the generation of a large education, and development represent and
body of empirical research, theories, and protect the status quo and elitism? How are
models designed to address the unique needs white supremacy, racism, sexism, genderism,
of the population, and innovative pedagogies ableism, and other ideologies entrenched in
to maximize the return on investment from the delivery of content and pedagogies?
leadership interventions.
If you are starting to worry that this article
The vow to leverage higher education as a has gone off the rails or are confused about
vehicle for leadership development brought how we went from talking about the centrality
with it a number of implicit commitments that of leadership as an educational outcome to
have evolved over time. For example, what white supremacy, then take a deep breath.
started as a focus on “polishing diamonds” We are going to ask you to interrogate your
through the investment of significant hidden commitments related to leadership.
resources in positional leaders in student This critically reflexive turn is essential to the
organizations, eventually expanded to continued evolution of college student
recognize the value of developing the leadership as well as to more fully live the vow
leadership potential of all students. Similarly, that higher education serve as a catalyst for
an over-emphasis on building leader traits, social progress.
capacities, and competencies continues to
move in the direction of more balanced What Are Critical Perspectives?
approaches to better account for
developmental considerations (e.g., efficacy, Let’s start by clarifying some terminology. The
motivation, resilience) influencing leadership troubling of implicit commitments in college
learning. Some implicit commitments became student leadership development necessitates
explicit through the professionalization of the application of critical perspectives. In
the field and emergence of scholarship that leadership education the term critical is most
offered greater insight and direction (Komives, often associated with critical thinking, or
Dugan, Owen, Wagner, Slack, & Associates, “reasonable reflective thinking focused on
2011). Others, however, remain implicit – deciding what to do or believe” (Ennis, 1993, p.
silently shaping the form and function of 180). Critical thinking is absolutely key to
college student leadership development. leadership learning, but the adoption of
critical perspectives takes the concept a
The professionalization of college student step further.
leadership development makes the
interrogation of hidden commitments even

4
Derived from critical social theories (e.g., The What is the Value Added of Infusing Critical
Frankfurt School, critical race theory, multiple Perspectives?
feminisms), critical perspectives place at the
center of analysis the unequal distribution Hopefully, you are seeing how the
of resources and structural inequalities that application of critical perspectives could aid
characterize societies (Agger, 2013; Anyon, with the examination of implicit commitments
2009; Brookfield, 2005; Kincheloe, 2008; in college student leadership development
Levinson et al., 2011). This centering of both for us as educators as well as in the
power dynamics is for the express purpose delivery of leadership education. Scholars in
of envisioning a more just future. Let’s use an the broader leadership studies literature have
example to clarify how critical thinking and long called for the application of critical
critical perspectives differ. Critical thinking perspectives, although this work often
would examine the strengths and weaknesses remains at the margins (Carroll, Ford, & Taylor,
associated with a particular leadership theory 2015; Dugan, 2017; Kezar, Carducci, &
while critical perspectives would extend the Contreras-McGavin, 2006; Preskill &
analysis to examine the theory’s underlying Brookfield, 2009; Western, 2013). The college
power dynamics and how its application both student leadership literature is not much
exacerbates and redresses inequality. Critical better.
perspectives would also empower the learner
to adapt or change the theory to more fully So, what is the value added from the
realize its potential as a tool to advance social infusion of critical perspectives? Why adopt
justice. an entirely new approach to how leadership is
learned? From a theoretical standpoint, most
Thus, the shift to critical perspectives in any contemporary leadership theories (e.g., the
field alters the fundamental ways in which social change model, transformational
educative processes unfold (Freire, 2000; leadership, servant leadership) are predicated
Giroux, 2001; Kincheloe, 2008; Leonardo, 2004). on empowerment, the collective good, and/or
Learning is no longer about solely assessing social justice. Yet, few if any of these theories
the strengths and weaknesses of a body of actually incorporate explicit considerations
literature but questioning the fundamental about how those goals are achieved. At a base
assumptions that undergird it. Knowledge is level, critical perspectives offer an opportunity
constructed versus consumed and to bring into better alignment our theoretical
regurgitated. Learners are situated as beliefs and practical actions.
authoritative in their own right, cultivating
their agency to conceive and act. Most From a practical standpoint, critical
importantly, learners develop the requisite perspectives disrupt heroic leader myths,
cognitive capacities to examine their own leadership as an inherent good, and the cult
positionality, identify the ways in which social of individual achievement (Alvesson & Spicer,
systems and structures shape power 2014; Collinson, 2011). Critical perspectives
dynamics, and deconstruct as well as catalyze movement beyond individual leader
reconstruct both knowledge and practice to development and toward collective
move toward a more democratic and socially leadership development. They also expand
just future. So, here is our question for you… the “leadership tent” by acknowledging and
to what extent do our leadership education centering the experiences of minoritized
efforts contribute to this? Can we honestly say peoples whose contributions to the
that this is at the heart of our work? leadership literature are all too often co-opted
by the dominant narrative or rendered
invisible. Ultimately, Calhoun (1991) argued
that critical perspectives aid “practical actors
[to] deal with social change by helping them

5
“At the core of this is responsibility for learning the
undergirding tenets and meaning-
uncovering our own making processes associated with
the application of critical perspectives
hidden commitments and is essential.
how they shape the ways What learning would be most helpful
for your own development as a critical
in which we engage in leadership educator?
What hidden commitments are
college student implicitly shaping how you

leadership development.” approach leadership education?

Context and Identity:

see beyond the immediacy of what is an any All too often leadership development
particular moment to conceptualize occurs in a vacuum that fails to
something of what could be” (p. 9). acknowledge the deep influences of
context and identity. This is evident in
Critical Perspectives in Practice the dominant literature which almost
unilaterally fails to address the ways
Everything up to this point begs the in which social location (e.g., the
question—what would the infusion of critical positions one holds in society based
perspectives look like in practice? This issue on a variety of identity memberships)
of Concepts & Connections is dedicated to the shapes how a person understands,
exploration of this question. However, we’d like experiences, and enacts leadership.
to offer a starting point for you as a leadership Consider, for example, whether a
educator. This work begins not with what we cisgender, woman of color could
do to students, but how we prepare ourselves engage in conflict, leverage authority,
to engage in this work. At the core of this is or take calculated risks and have it
uncovering our own hidden commitments and received in the same ways as a
how they shape the ways in which we engage cisgender, white man. Research
in college student leadership development. demonstrates social identity all too
Unveiling hidden commitments begins with often mediates how leadership
the following: capacities are received, privileging
those with dominant identities (Eagly
Taking Responsibility for Learning: & Chin, 2010; Scott & Brown, 2006;
The integration of critical perspectives Rosette, Leonardelli, & Phillips, 2008;
into leadership development requires Rosette & Livingston, 2013).
both the acquisition of content As a leadership educator, how
knowledge and the continuous do your multiple and intersecting
cultivation of cognitive skills. The identities frame the ways in which you
former means studying the bases of show up and are received in
critical social theories. The latter environments?
requires purposefully exercising the To what extent do you identify and
mind to develop higher order abilities disrupt the ideologies of social
such as meta-cognition, dialectical stratification (e.g., white supremacy,
thinking, and social perspective-taking. genderism, homophobia, ableism) that
Ultimately, one cannot wait for some permeate the dominant literature in
perfect understanding or development leadership?
threshold to begin the work of infusing
critical perspectives into leadership Reduction Versus Complexity:
education. However, taking The infusion of critical perspectives
6
We have an obligation to in how we understand leadership
development and engage in leadership
look below the surface at education. Yet, delivering on the vow to

the underlying and often

leverage higher education as a vehicle for
college student leadership development is
implicit commitments that constrained by the limited attention paid to
our hidden commitments in this work. We
frame leadership have an obligation to look below the surface at
the underlying and often implicit
education. commitments that frame leadership
Critical perspectives provide education. Critical perspectives provide us
with the tools to do just that.
us with the tools to do
Let’s be clear here — we are by no means
just that. suggesting the integration of critical
perspectives is an easy process. The shift in
into leadership education provides our collective work will not occur overnight.
few easy answers and more often than Indeed, it will require collective
not increases ambiguity and commitments to working together to
complexity. Infusing critical trouble the very foundations of what we do
perspectives disrupts the type of and how we do it. However, we believe a
prescriptive approaches to leadership critical approach is essential to better align
education that suggest simple our espoused and actualized values related to
solutions and the recipe-like leadership development. Leadership
enactment of capacities and educators, it is time to renew our vow, but
competencies. Leadership educators change the commitments.
must learn to (1) developmentally
sequence the ways in which critical References
perspectives are introduced to
facilitate student learning, and (2) Agger, B. (2013). Critical social theories (3rd ed.).
increase both students’ comfort with Oxford University Press.
ambiguity and sense of agency to
construct knowledge. None of this is Alvesson, M., & Spicer, A. (2014). Critical perspectives
possible if educators are not on leadership. In D. V. Day (Ed), The Oxford handbook
themselves comfortable with these of leadership and organizations (pp. 40-56). Oxford
processes and adaptive in their University Press.
approach to learning.
How might you handle resistance from Anyon, J. (2009). Introduction: Critical social theory,
those who want easy answers and educational research, and intellectual agency. In J.
tangible applications of content? Anyon (Ed.), Theory and educational research: Toward
In what ways might your own critical social explanation (pp. 1-23). New York, NY:
developmental readiness intersect Routledge.
with the readiness of those with whom
you are working? Brookfield, S. D. (2005). The power of critical theory:
Liberating adult learning and teaching. San Francisco,
Conclusion CA: Jossey-Bass.

College student leadership development Calhoun, C. (1991). Critical social theory: Culture,
currently sits at a critical juncture in its history, and the challenge of difference. Cambridge,
evolution. The professionalization of the field
has contributed to significant improvements
7
MA: Blackwell.
Preskill, S., & Brookfield, S. D. (2009). Learning as a way
Carroll, B., Ford, J., Scott, & Taylor, S. (Eds.). (2015). of leading: Lessons from the struggle for social justice.
Leadership: Contemporary critical perspectives. Los San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Angeles, CA: Sage.
Rosette, A. S., Leonardelli, G. J., Phillips, K. W. (2008).
Collinson, D. (2011). Critical leadership studies. In A. The white standard: Racial bias in leader
Bryman, D. Collinson, K. Grint, B. Jackson, & M. categorization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93, 758-
Uhl-Bien (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of leadership (pp. 777.
181-194). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Rosette, A. S., & Livingston, R. W. (2012). Failure is not
Dugan, J. P. (2017). Leadership theory: Cultivating an option for Black women: Effects of organizational
critical perspectives. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. performance on leaders with single versus
dual-subordinate identities. Journal of Experimental
Eagly, A. H., & Chin, J. L. (2010). Diversity and leadership Social Psychology, 48, 1162-1167.
in a changing world. American Psychologist, 65,
216-224. Scott, K. A., & Brown, D. J. (2006). Female first, leader
second? Gender bias in the encoding of leadership
Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human
NY: Bloomsbury. Decision Processes, 101, 230–242

Ennis, R. H. (1991). Critical thinking: A streamlined Western, S. (2013). Leadership: A critical text (2nd ed.).
conception. Teaching Philosophy, 14, 5-25. Los Angeles, CA: Sage.

Giroux, H. A. (2001). Theory and resistance in John P. Dugan, Ph.D. is Director of Program
education: Towards a pedagogy for the opposition. Quality, Design, and Assessment for Youth &
Westport, CT: Bergin & Garvey. Engagement Programs for The Aspen
Institute. John reached the rank of full
Kezar, A. J., Carducci, R., & Contreras-McGavin, M. professor in the Higher Education graduate
(2006). Rethinking the “L” word in higher education: program at Loyola University Chicago, where
The revolution in research on leadership. ASHE Higher he taught courses on leadership, human
Education Report, 31(6). San Francisco, CA: development, and multiculturalism. Prior to
Jossey-Bass. that, he worked in leadership education at
University of Maryland, College Park and
Kincheloe, J. L. (2008). Critical pedagogy primer. New University of Nevada, Las Vegas.
York, NY: Peter Lang.
Natasha T. Turman, Ph.D. is a visiting
Komives, S. R., Dugan, J. P., Owen, J. E., Wagner, W., assistant professor at Miami University, Oxford
Slack, C., & Associates. (2011). Handbook for student Ohio for the Department of Educational
leadership development (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Leadership, Student Affairs in Higher
Jossey-Bass. Education Program. Natasha has served as
a Project Manager for the Multi-Institutional
Leonardo, Z. (2004). Critical social theory and Study of Leadership at Loyola University
transformative knowledge: The functions of criticism Chicago.
in quality education. Educational Researcher, 33, 11-18.

Levinson, B. A. U., Gross, J. P. K., Hanks, C., Heimer

Dadds, J., Kumasi, K. D., Link, J., & Metro-Roland, D.
(2011). Beyond critique: Exploring critical social
theories and education. Boulder, CO: Paradigm.

8
Scholarship and Research Updates:
Engaging in Critical Research
by Cobretti D. Williams, M.A. and Susan R. Komives, Ed.D.

The demands and external pressures of the much distance leadership research must
world call for leadership scholars and cover before cultivating research that
educators to produce a more enlightened embraces critical leadership practices.
understanding and practice of leadership.
Although diverse leaders signal a step in the Confronting Hegemonic Research Design
right direction, the design of leadership
research has only recently begun to disrupt There are a handful of elements that
dominant narratives of leadership practices continue to reinforce hegemonic ontology and
for the greater part of a century. Critical axiology in mainstream leadership literature.
research must address how hegemony First, we consider the problematic emphasis
manifests itself in the idealization of on positivist paradigms of leadership; that is a
cisgender, White men in leadership research universal, object way of learning and
design. In this article, we argue that in order to practicing leadership. With the exception of a
produce the leaders needed to build an few noted studies that employ critical
equitable society, we must trouble the quantitative methods such as the Multi-
foundations of leadership research that Institutional Study of Leadership (e.g., Dugan,
impacts the practice of leaders. This approach Komives, & Segar, 2008), this troubling
must move beyond entity studies (i.e., the epistemological foundation instills
person as leader) to the study of leadership as generalizations about leadership that lack a
a process among people and foster a contextual understanding of social identity
relational, shared function. in leadership. Further, an objective paradigm
typically does not acknowledge how the social
The Progress of Critical Leadership identities of the research participants impact
Research the design and outcomes. Moreover, absence
of researcher identity perpetuates stocks of
As noted in the lead article in this issue, knowledge that privilege White men
critical social theory (CST) has direct roots to approaches and normalizes dismissal of
the work of many German scholars (e.g., critical, diverse perspectives in leadership
Gadamer, Habermas, Levinson et al., 2015) and (Dugan, 2017). As White men hold formal
others like Paolo Freire (2000) who examined leadership and authority, efforts are
assumptions of power in social systems and detracted from shared leadership orientations
structures seeking liberating pedagogies and and ignore the valuable efforts of informal
practices. Leadership has slowly embraced leadership roles (Liu & Baker, 2016).
elements of CST with an emphasis on the
collective dimensions of leadership and an Good Practices and Recommendations for
underlying desire for social change Critical Leadership Research
(Ospina & Su, 2009). Leadership studies such
as Uhl-Bien (2006) are also starting to focus Researchers should review good examples
on leadership as a socially constructed of CST applications in research in the design
process. Additionally, there is a growing body and implementation of their own studies. For
of work understanding leadership with example, Alemán (2009) and Nixon (2016)
attention to social identity (e.g., Livingston, provide great applications of CST as a
Rosette, & Washington, 2012). However, there is theoretical framework, centering the social

9
location of participants as the guiding social import. This may include social
principle through which to understand their change, expanding people’s
nuanced experiences. As well, an earlier study discourses, ways of seeing and
by Kezar (2002) shows how scholars can be understanding the world (these are not
intentional in sampling strategies to mutually exclusive) (Cohen & Crabtree,
contextualize the difference in power, 2006).
position, and authority among formal and
informal leaders within an organization. Resources
Additionally, look no further than Alvesson,
Hardey, and Harley (2008) for a Readers beginning their exploration in CST
demonstration of critical reflexivity as they and leadership studies and leadership
defined and demonstrated how researcher education will find John Dugan’s new book,
identity impacts participants, analysis, and Leadership Theory: Cultivating Critical
research design. All of these examples provide Perspectives (2017) and the
concrete yet innovative ways tenets of CST accompanying Leadership Theory:
can be applied to enhance critical studies of A Facilitator’s Guide for Cultivating Critical
leadership. Perspectives (Dugan, Turman, Barnes, &
Torrez, 2017) to be engaging and approach-
In conclusion, CST research requires able, including compelling counter narratives.
challenging such design elements as Collinson’s (2011) overview chapter, “Critical
disciplinary orientation, positionality, Leadership Studies” also provides foundation-
intersectionality, and centering identity in a al grounding, as does Alvesson and Spicer’s
CST framework. The Robert Woods Johnson excellent chapter, “Critical Perspectives on
Foundation’s Qualitative Research Guidelines Leadership”.
Project has a nice overview of critical methods
including criteria for ‘good’ research applying Various established journals such as the
critical theory. These criteria are: Journal of College Student Development and
the Journal of Higher Education are
(1) Researchers need to discuss the increasingly publishing pieces that use critical
meaning and implications of the theories. Several graduate programs in higher
concepts developed. education and student affairs, such as Loyola
(2) Researchers need to attend to University Chicago (Journal of Critical
tensions in competitive research Scholarship on Higher Education and
orientations. Student Affairs)
1
and Iowa State (Journal of
(3) Criteria for research should be Critical Thought and Practice), have
based on community agreement, and started new, open-access journals that
researchers have the responsibility to feature CST perspectives and approaches.
justify their work and address and Likewise, readers might review NCORE’s new
answer to any tension that manifests Journal Committed to Social Change on Race &
itself in the research endeavor. Ethnicity (JCSCORE) along with well-
(4) Generally, the complete established journals that feature CST such as
philosophical grounds for the research the Journal of Social Issues, Sex Roles,
decisions made during a research Phenomenology + Pedagogy, and
project cannot be articulated in a International Journal of Qualitative Studies
manuscript, but some attempt should in Education.
be made to articulate these briefly.
(5) Some general description of References
alternative research orientations,
approaches or ways of seeing should Alemán Jr, E. (2009). Through the prism of critical race
be discussed to foster accountability. theory: Niceness and Latina/o leadership in the
(6) The research endeavor should have
10
politics of education. Journal of Latinos and Kumasi, K., & Link, J. (2015). Beyond critique: Exploring
Education, 8(4), 290-311. critical social theories and education. Boulder, CO:
Routledge.
Alvesson, M., Hardy, C., & Harley, B. (2008). Reflecting
on reflexivity: Reflexive textual practices in Liu, H., & Baker, C. (2016). White knights: Leadership as
organization and management theory. Journal of the heroicisation of whiteness. Leadership, 12, 420-
Management Studies, 45(3), 480-501. 448.

Alvesson, M., & Spicer, A. (2014). Critical perspectives Livingston, R. W., Rosette, A. S., & Washington, E. F.
on leadership. In D. V. Day (Ed), The Oxford handbook of (2012). Can an agentic Black woman get ahead? The
leadership and organizations (pp. 40-56). New York, NY: impact of race and interpersonal dominance on
Oxford University Press. perceptions of female leaders. Psychological Science,
23, 354-358.
Cohen, D., & Crabtree, B. (2006). Qualitative research
guidelines project. Robert Wood Johnson Founda- Nixon, M. L. (2016). Experiences of women of color
tion. Retrieved from http://www.qualres.org/Home- university chief diversity officers. Journal of Diversity
Crit-3518.html in Higher Education. Advance online publication.

Collinson, D. (2011). Critical leadership studies. In A. Ospina, S., & Su, C. (2009). Weaving color lines: Race,
Bryman, D. Collinson, K. Grint, B. Jackson, & M. ethnicity, and the work of leadership in social change
Uhl-Bien (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of leadership (pp. organizations. Leadership, 5(2), 131-170.
181-194). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Parker, L., & Villalpando, O. (2007). A racecialized per-
Dugan, J. P. (2017). Leadership theory: Cultivating spective on education leadership: Critical race theory
critical perspectives. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. in educational administration. Educational
Administration Quarterly, 43, 519-524.
Dugan, J. P., Komives, S. R., & Segar, T. C. (2008).
College student capacity for socially responsible Uhl-Bien, M. (2006). Relational leadership theory:
leadership: Understanding norms and influences of Exploring the social processes of leadership and
race, gender, and sexual orientation. NASPA journal, organizing. The Leadership Quarterly, 17, 654-676.
45, 475-500.
Cobretti D. Williams, M.A. is a doctoral
Dugan, J. P., Turman, N., Barnes, A., & Torrez, M. A. student and research assistant in the Loyola
(2017). Leadership theory: A facilitator’s guide for University Chicago Higher Education program.
cultivating critical perspectives. San Francisco, CA: Cobretti also serves as the Editorial Assistant
Jossey-Bass. for the Journal of Student Affairs Research
and Practice and the Editor in Chief for the
Freire, P. (2000). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York, Journal of Critical Scholarship on Higher
NY: Bloomsbury. Education and Student Affairs.

Kezar, A. (2002). Reconstructing static images of Susan R. Komives, Ed.D. is professor emerita
leadership: An application of positionality theory. at the University of Maryland. She is the
Journal of Leadership Studies, 8(3), 94-109. co-author or co-editor of a dozen books
including Exploring Leadership, the Handbook
Kezar, A., Carducci, R., & Contreras-McGavin, M. (2006). of Student Leadership Development, and
Rethinking the” L” word in higher education: The Leadership for a Better World. A former
revolution of research on leadership: ASHE higher president of ACPA and CAS, she is
education report. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. co-founder of NCLP, former co-PI of MSL,
and a board member of ILA.
Levinson, B. A., Gross, J. P., Hanks, C., Dadds, J. H.,

11
Upcoming Events

December 09 – 11, 2018

Doubletree by Hilton at the entrance to
Universal | Orlando, FL

The Leadership Educators Institute (LEI) has

a rich history of convening professionals
committed to leadership development for
nearly 10 years. A partnership between
NASPA - Student Affairs Administrators in
Higher Education, ACPA-College Student
Educators International, and the Leadership and democratic engagement:
National Clearinghouse for Leadership The role we play and messages we send
Programs (NCLP), LEI provides a unique July 16-19, 2018
opportunity for all professional levels within University of Tampa, FL
our field to engage in critical dialogue to
support leadership development. In its 30th year, NLS is an intensive,
interactive, and intimate opportunity to
Registration and details available at: connect with noted scholars and
www.naspa.org/events/2018LEI practitioners around current topics in
leadership. Guided by the 2018 Scholars -
Important Dates Dr. Renée T. White, Dr. Barbara Jacoby, and
June 1, 2018: Call for Programs Deadline Abby Kiesa - participants will engage in a
July 6, 2018: Program Schedule Details critical, reflective, and practical examination
Posted Online of the intersection of leadership education
September 21, 2018: Early-Bird Registration and democratic practice. The National
Deadline Leadership Symposium is co-sponsored by
November 5, 2018: Regular Registration NACA and NCLP.
Deadline
November 1, 2018: Hotel Reservation Register at: https://www.naca.org/NLS/.
Deadline
Important Dates
June 8, 2018: Early Registration Deadline
June 22, 2018: Regular Registration
Deadline

12
Learning by Design: Reflections for Facilitators in
Critical Leadership Education
By Amy C. Barnes, Ed.D.

It was about halfway through the autumn To preface my response, I felt good about the
semester in my master’s level course on community we had built in the class. I had
student leadership development and group already interrogated my privilege with the
facilitation. We had studied transformative students and talked about ways that I planned
learning, the leadership identity development to give away some of my authoritative power
model, designing leadership curriculum that to allow for more open dialogue. I didn’t feel
could be used in and out of class settings, like the comment was adversarial at all. I was
and we had just begun to explore leadership actually excited she felt comfortable enough
theory. I was excited to utilize John Dugan’s to ask it.
new book, Critical Perspectives of Leadership
Theory, to help guide the conversation. So, in that moment, I checked in with my
feelings and reconsidered my privilege as I
The first week of using the new text went well. stood there, all eyes on me. In the past, I might
During the second week, we began diving into have been a little defensive, but I wasn’t this
the impact of power and privilege in time. I dug deep, though I was nervous be-
leadership contexts, critiquing our past cause I knew the importance of my response.
understandings of leadership. We also started I owed it to the class to give my most honest,
to employ the deconstruction and reconstruc- authentic response.
tion tools as a way to better understand the
intersections of power and leadership. I was “I am not sure that I have an answer for you.
feeling positive about the dialogue thus far. Clearly, I am here doing it, but I am open to
Students were not shying away from critique the question. What does everyone else think?
and asking tough questions. I also was aware I am really interested in hearing your critique
of power dynamics between students and my around this question. Let’s dig in together.”
own power and privilege in the space.
I reflected the question back to the class. I
As someone with fairly high levels of empathy, recognized how White people often take
I feel that I am adept at sensing the mood in power away from those who come from
the room when I am facilitating, always trying marginalized identities in dialogues around
to observe body language to consider how topics of justice, decolonization, or
students are feeling about a discussion. And intersectionality. Even though I had other
while there was some hesitation at times as plans for the remainder of the three hour
we talked, students were engaging, asking course that day, I knew the critique and
tough questions, sharing their stories when discussion that followed would be time well
they felt compelled, and challenging each oth- spent, even if it meant my authority was
er’s opinions. I was feeling confident we were questioned and critiqued.
making progress when I recognized a student
with her hand raised. I share this story with you for two reasons.
First, I believe that as a White leadership
“Can White people do this work?” educator, it is imperative that we do
significant, critical reflective work in order to
Her question was delivered quickly and simply, prepare ourselves for challenging questions
being met with silence in the room. All eyes where we may even be the target of criticism.
turned to me, the White instructor, to see how I
would react. 13
“Like our students, it is too to shy away from including challenging
content, making space for discomfort and
easy for educators to shy dialogue, or responding to criticism when we
make mistakes or missteps.
away from including
challenging content, Often, we ask our students to be vulnerable
without considering the power dynamics that
making space for exist in a classroom space. It can be
significantly more challenging for students
discomfort and dialogue, from marginalized backgrounds to share their

or responding to criticism stories. Additionally, it is important to question

whether or not you as the instructor/facilitator
when we make mistakes or have been vulnerable in sharing or in
responding to questions and critiques.
missteps.” Research indicates a tendency for instructors
to resist vulnerability, especially when the
It isn’t enough to talk about how we tension between our ideals of practice and our
understand concepts or are aware of our actual practice are challenged (Cutri &
privilege. We also have to realize that our Whiting, 2015).
privileged identities often cause us to miss
the ways in which we can oppress or further I view my role in this course and in other
marginalize students in our classrooms even leadership courses as helping to develop
though we “mean well.” future leadership educators in higher
education contexts. Therefore, it is essential
There are a plethora of well-meaning “non- that I spend significant time focused on
racist” White people (Patton & Bondi, 2015) and challenging institutionalized and systemic
women in particular (Accapadi, 2007), who oppression as it relates to leadership
want to help support a number of social contexts. It is important that we have an
justice issues. In reality, as a collective, this expectation for our students to work toward
group is often complicit in maintaining equity and justice, and that we as educators
systems of oppression throughout education, take the responsibility “for shaping
the justice system, healthcare, etc. We need to institutional and program-level policies and
stop being surprised, offended, hurt, or practices” (Bondi, 2012, p. 406).
defensive when someone questions our
intentions, our authenticity, or our opinions. I go back to the question my student asked
Every time that happens, we have an often to remind myself that questioning our
opportunity to open ourselves up to learning motives, our good intentions, and our practice
and growth. is key to progress. There are so many factors
that contribute to an individual educator’s
I also share this story because I am approach and preparation. I know that for me,
interested in how we can help leadership this looks like a constant state of discomfort. If
educators critique their own practice and I am comfortable, then I have stopped
provide opportunities for growth as challenging myself and thus could be
instructors. Research has shown the complicit in maintaining dominant narratives
importance of creating a sense of discomfort and ideologies about leadership. I am also
in social justice education and to subsequent- aware that if I want to continue to research
ly help students manage and reconcile the and teach on the topic of leadership
emotions they feel in response (Boler, 2004). development, I must remain aware and
Like our students, it is too easy for educators concerned that leadership is not equitable,
accessible to all, or inclusive in most spaces.

14
In regards to the question the student posed – discomfort and vulnerability in multicultural teacher
I still don’t have one clear answer or response. education. Teachers and Teaching, 21(8), 1010-1025.
I think there are certainly times when White
facilitators need to take a step back and make Dugan, J.P. (2017). Leadership theory: Cultivating
space for people from marginalized identities critical perspectives. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
to take the lead. But there are also endless
reasons why those of us with privilege have to Patton, L. D., & Bondi, S. (2015). Nice White men or
dig in and help advocate for justice, especially social justice allies?: Using critical race theory to
in leadership spaces. During our discussion in examine how White male faculty and administrators
class great points were made about engage in ally work. Race Ethnicity and Education,
facilitator training, how to measure the 18(4), 488-514.
success of a facilitator, and the potential harm
that can occur when facilitators do not take Amy C. Barnes, Ed.D. is a Clinical Assistant
the time to critically reflect. As a result of that Professor and Director of the Educational
discussion, I was reminded that as a White Doctorate in the Higher Education and
leadership educator, it is important I use the Student Affairs program at Ohio State
power I have to challenge systems of University. Amy was also a co-author for
oppression on behalf of the students I Leadership Theory: Facilitator’s Guide for
interact with every day. They are the future Cultivating Critical Perspectives.
leaders and we all need to do better.

You may be left wondering – what can I do to

improve? My best advice is to check in with
yourself. Reflect on your biases. Educate
yourself by reading articles that challenge you
to think differently. Review your syllabi, your
workshop designs, and your programs and
ask yourself if they are inclusive of voices and
experiences of marginalized leaders. Be
prepared to receive criticism and then
incorporate the feedback. Learn to apologize
sincerely when you make a mistake – we all
The Socially Responsible
make them in this work. It isn’t easy to lean in, Leadership Scale is now
but remember, this should be an available online! Visit http://srls.
uncomfortable process. “You can choose
courage or you can choose comfort.
umd.edu/ for more information.
But you cannot have both.” – Brené Brown.

References

Accapadi, M. M. (2007). When White women cry: How

White women’s tears oppress women of color. College
Student Affairs Journal, 26(2), 208-215.

Bondi, S. (2012). Students and institutions protecting

Whiteness as property. A Critical Race Theory
analysis of student affairs preparation. Journal of
Student Affairs Research and Practice, 49(4), 397-414.

Cutri, R.M. & Whiting, E.F. (2015). The emotional work of

15
Program Spotlight: Undergraduate Leadership
Studies at Loyola University Chicago
by Michelle Kusel, M.Ed.

As leadership educators, we scour curriculum, reflection with critical thinking skills to

theories, and texts in hopes of creating a deepen a student’s understanding of
synergistic combination that will make our leadership in this increasingly complex world.
students have the long-awaited ‘ah-ha’
moment where their minds metaphorically The minor was designed with high impact
explode. You see them sitting in class, wheels learning experiences at the core to maximize
turning. You hear them talking with peers student learning (Kuh, 2008). These
frustrated, excited, and perhaps a bit “pizzled” experiences include: an internship,
(Day & Drath, 2012). service-learning, a capstone seminar, and
an ePortfolio. The program’s learning
Yes, pizzled. My spell checker doesn’t like the outcomes include that graduates will
word either, don’t worry. It’s a combination of demonstrate:
pissed off and puzzled and is the crux of one of • an understanding of leadership theory
the newest leadership theory texts available, along with contextual influences on the
Leadership Theory: Cultivating Critical practice of leadership
Perspectives by Dr. John Dugan. This text • an understanding of ethical
serves as the foundation for the considerations in the pursuit of
Undergraduate Leadership Studies Minor at leadership for social justice
Loyola University Chicago and as the author • the capacity to apply knowledge and
states, “the learning of leadership should skills related to leadership in their
invoke alternating feelings of frustration and unique disciplinary contexts and
excitement if it is treated as the complex and career fields (“Leadership Studies,”
deeply personal phenomenon that it is” 2017).
(Dugan, 2017, p. 3).
This is accomplished through four required
Dugan would describe the intentions of the core courses (12 hours) and two electives (6
Undergraduate Leadership Studies Minor hours). The curriculum design in both
curriculum as“the crashing of waves”. We loosely and tightly coupled with Dr. John
must guide, challenge, support, and teach Dugan’s Leadership Theory Cultivating Critical
students but then BAM. Imitating waves Perspectives text. Dugan appeals to a variety
crashing into the rocks on Lake Michigan, the of backgrounds, notably by bringing each
same rocks that serve as the scenic theory to life with a real-world example at the
background for Loyola University Chicago, end of each chapter.
Dugan slaps his hands together and we talk
about pizzling the students just enough to In the first required core class, students
keep them caring. Lather. Rinse. Repeat. engage in the Chicago community, with 25
hours of a service-learning opportunity while
The interdisciplinary minor is designed to reflecting on their personal and leadership
complement co-curricular offerings at Loyola identities and how these identities play into
University Chicago, exposing students to the broader social systems. This course is
diverse theories and perspectives on offered through both open and
leadership. Classes in the minor provide space community-specific enrollment. Different
for students to examine how social justice and communities that have been offered to
ethics are (messily) intertwined in the practice participate in the course include: student
of leadership. We couple critical self- athletes, leadership learning community
16
students, bridge transition students, and STAR References
(Students Together Are Reaching Success)
mentors. While leadership theory is discussed Day, D. V., & Drath, W. (2012). A dialogue on theorizing
in this first course, it is not the focus. The relational leadership. In M. Uhl & Bien & S. M. Ospina
message we hope students leave ELPS 125 (Eds.), Advancing relational leadership research:
with is to learn to question and how to A dialogue among perspectives (pp. 227– 251). Charlotte,
question. We also hope they begin to NC: Information Age Publishing.
understand the importance of deconstruction
and reconstruction of ourselves and the world Dugan, J. P. (2017). Leadership Theory: Cultivating Critical
around us. Perspectives [Kindle edition]. Retrieved from Amazon.
com.
In the second course, ELPS 222: Foundations
of Ethics and Social Justice in Leadership, the Echoing Green (2017). Retrieved from http://www.echo-
students dive deep into leadership theory. One inggreen.org/fellowship
of the primary takeaways students report is
the confidence to deconstruct and Kuh, G.D. (2008). High-Impact Educational Practices:
reconstruct their own leadership theory. What They Are, Who Has Access to Them, and Why They
This confidence carries into the final two core Matter [eBook edition]. AAC&U. Retrieved from https://
classes as the students are asked to take on a www.aacu.org/publications-research/publications/
proactive role in their learning. high-impact-educational-practices-what-they-are-
who-has-access-0
ELPS 223: Contextual Influences in Applied
Leadership Internship is a hybrid class where Leadership Studies (2017). Retrieved from https://www.
students complete a 75-hour internship in luc.edu/education/undergrad/minors/leadership-
their major or area of passion. The minor core studies/
courses round out with ELPS 325: Leadership
Studies Capstone. This course flips the Michelle Kusel is currently a Ph.D. student in
classroom for a good part of the semester, the Higher Education program at Loyola
asking the students to reflect and teach their University Chicago. Michelle’s research
peers content from the other leadership interests focus on the influence of social media
studies minor courses. The course aims to on student leadership perception, awareness,
help students recognize and acknowledge and experiences. Michelle is an instructor in
that they are “innovators, instigators, the Undergraduate Leadership Studies
pioneers, and rebels that reject the status quo Minor as well as manages the logistics of the
and drive positive social change all over the minor. She has published both research and
world” (“Echoing Green,” 2017) while light-hearted educational pieces and has
developing a fellowship application to served as the editor for Concepts and
solve a social issue in the world. Finally, Connections. She has been recognized by
students complete two electives. One the American College Personnel Association
elective must be taken in students’ primary (ACPA) as an Annuit Coeptis Award winner.
college of enrollment.

Celebrating its fifth semester, the minor has

over 40 students enrolled, spanning all grade
levels and majors. Students have taken their
knowledge and general pizzlement into
conference presentations, national dialogues,
and their continued education or employment.

17
Critical Perspectives in Practice: Balancing
Leadership Development, Community Engagement,
and Identity Work
by Juan Cruz Mendizabal and Kathy L. Guthrie, Ph.D.

As educators, understanding different become the Center for Leadership & Social
strategies for teaching leader and leadership Change. The merger created an enhanced
development from a critical lens is essential. capacity for engaging students in leadership
The Center for Leadership and Social Change education, identity development, and
(Center) at Florida State University seeks to community engagement. Building on a
integrate critical perspectives and practices collective 55 years of wisdom and experience,
through programs and services for students. the Center integrates diversity, leadership,
However, as we create educational and service to facilitate educational
opportunities, tensions arise in how to do this experiences for students. With this historical
critical work. We will provide a brief overview perspective in mind, the Center aims to look at
of the Center and two beautiful, but challeng- leadership development with a critical
ing tensions we are currently exploring in our perspective, especially with community
programs: 1) the competing priorities between engagement and identity work at our core.
community-centered service engagement
versus student leadership development, and Community-Centered Service Engagement
2) the implicit liberal nature of our community and Student Leadership Development
engagement programs as they intersect with
leadership development, social justice, and A major tension in the work we do regarding
identity pedagogy. leader and leadership development is
using community engagement as a
Evolution of the Center for Leadership and pedagogy. Stoecker (2016) challenges the idea
Social Change of traditional service-learning contending
offices use vulnerable community members
Before digging into the complexities of how we as experiments in a laboratory, often
put critical perspectives into practice, leveraging academic privilege to capitalize on
context is important. We want to provide a their own research, resumes, and
brief history of the Center for Leadership developmental opportunities. Stoecker (2016)
and Social Change (http://thecenter.fsu. purports student learning and development
edu/about/history). The work in the Center is will continue to occur even with a paradigm
rooted in three former offices at Florida State shift that prioritizes student learning as the
University. These offices include the Center for least intentional aspect of service-learning.
Multicultural Affairs, established in 1972; Cen- This creates tension for our work to achieve
ter for Civic Education and Service, this delicate balance of serving both the
established in 1995; and the LEAD Center, community while attending to the needs of
established in 2004. In 2007, through the leader and leadership development in our
recognition of shared values and vision, the students. Put differently, if the pendulum
LEAD Center and the Center for Civic swings too far into the liberating service-
Education and Service created a new center learning model, we risk compromising the
for the training, development, education, and quality of service yet again because our
engagement of responsible citizenship and students still need to own the responsibility
effective leadership: the Center for Leadership and vision skills attendant to a leader identity.
and Civic Education. In 2012, the Center for
Multicultural Affairs and the Center for
Leadership & Civic Education merged to 18
“When we work with Leadership Development for All

students to understand In the current divisive political climate, we have

asked ourselves whether our programs are ac-
the how and why of social cessible to leaders across the spectrum
change, leadership of political identities. Beyond examining
leadership styles of political leaders,
development emerges as another tension is uncovered considering
scathing critiques of the community service
the foundation of our work. initiatives in higher education from those who

Leadership development, believe community engagement should

re-center itself on volunteerism, not a liberal
both formal and informal, infusion of power, privilege, and social justice.

helps us mobilize students The National Association of Scholars (2017)

from ‘talking shop’ to

specifically calls for a return to “Civics
Education,” which describes a renewed focus on
actively creating change.” policy, law, and other systems-based responses
guided by faculty members and other
organizations. This shift would eliminate the
An example of this tension and how the Center
student affairs presence in service-learning and
implemented a critical perspective to
community engagement practices,
leadership development comes from the
especially as a pedagogy for leadership
Moellership program. The Moellership
development. This fuels the second tension we
Program provides a stipend of up to $4,000
contend with: the implicit liberal nature of our
to support students in 8-12 weeks of summer
community engagement programs. Some of
service at a non-profit agency. Using Stoeck-
the questions guiding our introspection include:
er’s (2016) framework, this program risks the
Could it ever be possible for us to teach students
dangers of being completely student-
about social issues without talking about the
centered in service and leadership
constituents of the community organizations
development. To balance this, the Center
with which we partner? Could we say we have
implemented Tania Mitchell’s Social Justice
effectively done our job without asking students
Sensemaking model (2014) in a bi-weekly
to examine their identities before they enter
curriculum, which focuses on identity
employment so they understand how they show
development in the context of privilege and
up? Would students’ understanding of leadership
oppression, probing students to understand
be complete without considering the broader
how their identities may be oppressive to the
social context within which their energies are
communities they are working with and how
expended?
they might minimize the power imbalance.
Looking at leader and leadership development
The Center reviewed all marketing and program
from a critical perspective, especially when
overviews to see if exclusive language or
using community engagement as a central
practices suggesting only “social justice
pedagogy, a delicate balance is needed.
warriors” are welcome. Given our history, we
Keeping the quality of service at the core of
continually ask ourselves about our responsibil-
what we do, yet creating space where
ity to infuse identity work into our practices and
students can develop the skills that come with
how our Center is uniquely positioned in higher
leader identity, self-efficacy, and capacity,
education given our intellectual and practical
should be of primary concern.
intersections. When we work with students to
understand the how and why of social change,
leadership development emerges as the

19
foundation of our work. Leadership References
development, both formal and informal, helps
us mobilize students from “talking shop” to National Association of Scholars. (2017, January). Mak-
actively creating change. Because we believe ing citizens: How American universities teach civics.
every student can lead, every student should Retrieved from https://www.nas.org/images/docu-
be able to participate in our Center. The ments/NAS_makingCitizens_executiveSummary.pdf
complexity arises when we examine what kind
of change students are intending to make and Stoecker, R. (2016). Liberating service learning and the
our own implicit and explicit biases in rest of higher education civic engagement. Philadel-
facilitating this process. phia, PA: Temple University Press.
Mitchell, T. D. (2014). How service-learning enacts so-
Conclusions cial justice sensemaking. Journal of Critical Thought
and Praxis, 2(2), Article 6.
Issues of complexity should be anticipated
when using critical perspectives in teaching Juan Cruz Mendizabal, is a Program
leadership. As we continue critical Coordinator for Community-Based
conversations around our work, we Initiatives at the Center for Leadership and
perpetually challenge ourselves to investigate Social Change at Florida State University.
our programs for inclusivity. Leadership
education emphasizes the process of Kathy L. Guthrie, Ph.D. is an Associate
self-awareness as a key to leading effectively; Professor of Higher Education in the
therefore, leadership educators must be able Department of Educational Leadership and
to hold the truth of their students’ processes, Policy Studies at Florida State University. In
examining their own tensions between addition to teaching in the Higher Education
inclusivity and positive social change. In 2018, program, Kathy also serves as the Director of
we see the worlds of leadership, community the Leadership Learning Research Center and
engagement, and identity intersecting in new coordinates the Undergraduate Certificate in
and exciting ways. As leadership educators, Leadership Studies.
our challenge is to adapt to and thrive in the
complexity, inviting all of our students to
participate in the evolution.

Issue editors Kelli K. Smith, Gail S.

Rooney, and Gayle Spencer and se-
ries editors Susan R. Komives and
Kathy L. Guthrie are excited to
release the Spring 2018
announcement for New Directions
For Student Leadership, No. 157
Leadership Development for Career
Readiness in University Settings.
To view this free issue and to learn
more, visit wileyonlinelibrary.com/
journal/ndsl or follow us on twitter
@NDStuLead.

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