UNIT I - SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Meaning of Social construction of Gender
1.3.1 Sex
1.3.2 Gender
1.3.3 Sex and gender: what is the difference?
1.3.4 Sex verses Gender
1.4 Gender and Biology
1.5 Equality and Equity
1.5.1 Gender Equality
1.5.2 Gender equality competence
1.5.3 Gender equality competence development
1.5.4 Gender equality training
1.5.5 Importance of Gender Equality
1.5.6 Sustainable Development Goal 5: Gender equality
1.5.7 Gender Equity
1.5.8 Equality vs. Equity
1.5.9 The Benefits of Gender Equity
1.5.10 Preference for Sons
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Gender is a social construct that impacts attitudes, roles, responsibilities and behavior patterns of boys
men and women in all societies. Increasing attention has been given to the importance of achievi
equality in education. To date, however, most efforts have focused on addressing gender parity - an equ
or proportion of girls and boys accessing educational opportunities. Although simple gender parity may
to measure, gender equality encompasses a wider concept, of which gender parity is only a part. Gend
moves beyond access and requires that girls and boys also experience the same levels of quality and ou
education. One of the key impediments to achieving gender equality in education is that it cannot be ad
a vacuum; rather, educational institutions are products of the inequalities that exist in larger societies. E
institutions are shaped by the societal forces that perpetuate gender‐based discrimination; yet, they ca
essential tools to effect great
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change throughout a community or social context. Behaviors and beliefs
Gender NOTES formed in schools and educational institutions can have a lasting impact
on gender relations in society. Education systems are both a result of
external forces and instrumental to perpetuating or alleviating gender
disparity around the world. This unit emphasis the social construction of
gender, gender and biology, gender equality and equity. This unit
creates a lot of inputs for the prospective students about the gender
issues, gender dynamics and gender roles.
1.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to:
 describe the social construction of gender
 describe the concept of gender and sex
 recognize the difference between gender and sex
 explain the gender differences from biology perspective
 Identify the importance of Gender equality vs. equity
 describe the gender roles and development
1.3 MEANING OF SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF
GENDER
Social construction is a social process in which both individual
and other social processes are intrinsically related. Every construction or
image of the world is influenced by the individual ‘s experience of the
society and his/her interaction with various social processes. Therefore,
many often it is argued that the social construction itself carries
subjective biases as it is shaped by individual experience. Social
construction is also influenced and dominated by the interests of a
particular group or class of people. For instance, in Pakistan power and
education rest with a few elite who don‘t take interest in the
development of the human resources of the majority. In this sense, the
culture, norms, ideologies, and values of the dominant group are used to
justify and sustain a particular form of social construction. Hence social
constructions through which we understand the everyday life try to
classify people on the basis of caste, class, religion, community, kinship,
gender and so on. The classification of people is the product of social
construction and also forms an integral part of the social processes.
Social processes such as primary socialization and the presence of social
institutions help to produce an accepted kind of social construction.
Hence, gender is the product of such social construction.
Gender is socially constructed and a result of socio-cultural
influences throughout an individual's development (Schneider, Gruman
& Coutts, 2005). Gender identity can be affected by, and is different
from one society to another depending on the way the members of
Self-instructional Material society evaluate the role of females and males. Our gender identity can
be influenced from the ethnicity of the group, their historical and
cultural background, family values and religion. Often people confuse or Social Construction of Gender
misuse the terms gender and sex. The term sex refers to the biological
NOTES
distinction of being male and female (Schneider, Gruman & Coutts,
2005). To make the distinction clearer one could consider that we inherit
the sex but we learn our gender (Boss, 2008). Gender is a structural
feature of society and the sociological significance of gender is that it is a
devise by which society controls its members (Henslin, 2006). Gender
like social class and race can be used to socially categorize people and
even lead to prejudice and discrimination. Prejudice is a set of attitudes,
more likely unfavorable, towards members of a group
(Pennsylvania State University, 2011).

The idea of social construction of gender sees society, not

biological sex differences, as the basis for gender identity (Anderson,
Logio & Taylor, 2005). There are many different processes by which the
expectations associated with being a boy or a girl is passed on through
society. For instance, one could see this from the moment a child comes
into the world and from the fact that he/she has to face a "blue" or "pink"
reality. The social construction of gender could be further been seen by
the way parents behave to their children, by their expectations about how
their children should behave and act, and by the toys they buy for them.
For example, girls are supposed to play with dolls and be sweet and
emotional and boys are supposed to play with action figures and be
aggressive and rational. Therefore, clothes, toys, and even the language
used with young children follow the trend of stereotyping gender.
Children learn by modeling and the messages they receive and act
accordingly. An example similar to the dress code we having for children
can also be seen with adults, particularly in the colors, fabrics and
designs specific to each gender. Another example is the situation of a
female working in the business field that is expected to dress in
masculine way in order to be considered successful and to be taken more
seriously. This could demonstrate again how social influences affect
gender expectations and shape behaviors and norm regarding gender.

Apart from the family, which is the first agent of socialization

and learning gender identity, children learn from other sources
such as

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school. Starting from the first years of school, including day care center
Gender NOTES years, children learn their gender identity from playing and interacting
with other children and care providers. By visiting a child care program
one may notice that the environment is arranged in ways to promote
gender identity. Most likely there will be an area staged as the
housekeeping corner where girls play and there will be another area with
building blocks and tool kit items where the boys play. However, it is
believed by several that the kind of toys and roles children play affect
their future and the skills they learn. Playing with blocks is considered
giving experience in spatial relations and in mathematical concepts,
where playing with dolls and dramatic role playing is associated with
learning to be a nurturer (Conzalez-Mena, 2006). As children grow
more stereotype ideas are involve regarding which subjects are
favorable and suitable for each gender. For instance, the most obvious
example is math and probably all of us have heard the notion that boys
are better in math than girls. Therefore, one could see that again social
influence affects perception about gender identity and roles. However,
perceptions such as this can lead to stereotype threads which are the fear
or nervousness that one's behavior will exemplify a negative stereotype
about his in-group and thereby in essence confirming the accuracy of
the stereotype.
Furthermore, the media also affects and influences gender
identity. For instance, children are constantly bombarded with shows
depicting gender stereotype models from toys marketed as for boys or
girls, to children's TV programs and shows. It is common for the
children's programs to emphasize the role of the male "hero" who saves
the weak female. Children interpret these messages as "real life" which
shapes their reality, behavior, and expectations of their gender role.
Additionally, cultural and religious beliefs and attitudes have a
serious impact on gender identity and in many cases promote stereotype
beliefs against women and lead to gender discrimination. When it comes
to culture and religious influences in a society regarding the view of
gender it is believed that the concept of institutionalized sexism is
appropriate to describe this situation. Institutionalized sexism is the
sexist attitudes that are held by the vast majority of people living in a
society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm (Aronson,
Wilson, & Akert, 2011).
Society constructs our gender and categorizes its members
similar as it does with age, ethnicity, race, social class and status.
However, the categorization according to gender is another way of
manipulating members of a society and to promote inequalities. There
are obvious biological and anthropological differences between the two
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sexes but we cannot use these differences to infer conclusions and
provide stereotyped models about gender. However, no matter the form,
sexism has overall negative consequences and results in stereotyping
 women, and even prejudice and discrimination. Social Construction of Gender
1.3.1 Sex
NOTES
The differences between male and female sexes are anatomical
and physiological. "Sex" tends to relate to biological differences. For
instance, male and female genitalia, both internal and external are
different. Similarly, the levels and types of hormones present in male and
female bodies are different.
Genetic factors define the sex of an individual. Women have 46
chromosomes including two Xs and men have 46 including an X and a
Y. The Y chromosome is dominant and carries the signal for the embryo
to begin growing testes. Both men and women
have testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone. However, women have
higher levels of estrogen and progesterone, and men have higher levels of
testosterone.
The male/female split is often seen as binary, but this is not entirely true.
For instance, some men are born with two or three X chromosomes, just
as some women are born with a Y chromosome. In some cases, a child is
born with a mix between female and male genitalia. They are sometimes
termed intersex, and the parents may decide which gender to assign to the
child. Intersex individuals account for around 1 in 1,500 births. Some
people believe that sex should be considered a continuum rather than two
mutually exclusive categories.
Examples of differences or characteristics related to sex:

 Males have testicles, female do not.

 Females have breasts, males do not.
 Female baby tends to weigh less than male baby
 Females can get pregnant, males do not.
 Males have more possibility of having mustache than females
 Males have thick voices than female

1.3.2 Gender
Gender tends to denote the social and cultural role of each sex
within a given society. Rather than being purely assigned by genetics, as
sex differences generally are, people often develop their gender roles in
response to their environment, including family interactions, the media,
peers, and education.
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines gender as:
"Gender refers to the socially constructed characteristics of women
and men, such as norms, roles, and relationships of and between
groups of women and men. It varies from society to society and can
be changed."
Gender roles in some societies are more rigid than those in others. The
degree of decision-making and financial responsibility expected of each Self-instructional Material
gender and the time that women or men are expected to spend on
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homemaking and rearing children varies between cultures. Within the
Gender NOTES wider culture, families too have their norms.
Examples of differences or characteristics related to sex:
 A woman does more household work than men.
 Professions like nursing is said to be more suited for women
than men
 Almost 120 years ago, women were not allowed to vote.
 In more Islamized countries, women have to cover maximum
part of their body while men do not have to.
13.3 Sex and Gender: What is the Difference?
Sex and Gender are two words that refer to the differences
between males and females. Though these two terms are commonly
used interchangeably, there is a distinct difference between sex and
gender. The main difference between sex and gender is that sex refers to
the biological and physiological differences between males and
females whereas gender refers to the social differences between men
and women.
Historically, the terms "sex" and "gender" have been used
interchangeably, but their uses are becoming increasingly distinct, and it
is important to understand the differences between the two. In general
terms,
SEX VERSUS GENDER

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Material
 SEX GENDER
Sex refers to the biological and Gender refers to the social and
physiological differences cultural differences between men and
between man and women women
Sex has two main two Gender has two main categories:
categories: male and female masculine and feminine
Sex remains the same regardless Gender roles, expectations may
of time and culture differ across time and culture
Sex is created by the Gender distinctions are created by
reproduction needs, that is social norms
biological features

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NOTE

1.4 GENDER AND BIOLOGY

It is important to distinguish between sex and gender. Sex refers

to a person‘s biological make-up as male or female. Typically, a person‘s
genotype (genetic makeup) and phenotype (observable traits) are used to
determine a person‘s sex. Males are defined as having an XY
23rd chromosome, while females are defined as having an XX
23rd chromosome (though tests have revealed variations in chromosomes,
including XXY, XYY, and XXX). Scientists have linked a person‘s
23rd chromosome to the development of a sexed phenotype.
Anatomically, males and females have different reproductive organs: a
penis, testicles, and scrotum for males, and a vagina, uterus, and ovaries
for females. Other anatomical differences include the development of
breasts among females, and the presence of a menstrual cycle.

While sex is the determination of whether a person is biologically

male or female, gender is the socio-cultural determination of
understanding of what it means to be a man or a woman. Sex is largely
constant across different cultures; in virtually any country, a person with
XY chromosomes and male reproductive organs is considered male.
Gender, however, takes many forms and is shaped by religious, political,
legal, philosophical, linguistic, and other traditions. For example, in some
countries, wearing make-up is associated with women and is seen as
feminine. Elsewhere, men routinely wear make-up and it is seen as
masculine. Across history in most parts of the world, women have been
denied access to economic independence and legal and political rights
more often than men have. This oppression is based on cultural
understandings of women as the weaker sex, but is often linked to
females‘ biological capacity for bearing and nursing children.

Some physical differences between the male and female sexes are
thought to occur as a result of both biological and cultural processes. For
example, on average, males have more upper body strength than females.
This difference is partially the result of differences in the biological
development of the musculoskeletal system, but is exacerbated by the
cultural tendency for men to use their upper body muscles more than Self-instructional Material
Social Construction of
women through physical labor and athletics. Similarly, males have a
Gender NOTES shorter life expectancy than females do, on average. Again, this may
partially result from different biological make-ups, but decreased life-
expectancy gaps in developed countries prove that cultural institutions
contribute to the gap. When men and women have similar careers and
lifestyles the life-expectancy gap decreases.

1.4 GENDER EQUALITY AND EQUITY

1.5.1 Gender Equality

This refers to the equal rights, responsibilities and opportunities of
women and men and girls and boys. Equality does not mean that women
and men will become the same but that women’s and men’s rights,
responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether they are
born male or female. Gender equality implies that the interests, needs
and priorities of both women and men are taken into consideration,
recognizing the diversity of different groups of women and men. Gender
equality is not a women’s issue but should concern and fully engage
men as well as women. Equality between women and men is seen both
as a human rights issue and as a precondition for, and indicator of,
sustainable people-centered development.

1.5.2 Gender equality competence

Refers to the skills, attributes and behaviors that people need in
order to mainstream gender effectively. It implies theoretical and
practical knowledge of the various tools that can be used for this
process. It requires recognition of the fact that no political or
organizational action is gender-neutral and that women and men are
affected by policies in different ways.
1.5.3 Gender equality competence development

A term broader than gender equality training, as it is understood to

include a wide range of different educational tools and processes,
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Material  Face to face training events and courses of study;

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  Staff induction; Social Construction of Gender
 Online modules;
NOTES
 Guidance materials and compendia of resources;
 Consultancy arrangements;
 Networks for sharing expertise.
1.5.4 Gender equality training
Is a broad concept which encompasses any educational tool or
process that aims to make policy-makers and other actors more aware of
gender equality issues, build their gender competence and enable them to
promote gender equality goals in their work at all levels? Gender equality
training has been understood to cover a wide range of different
educational tools and processes: face to face training events and courses
of study, staff induction, online modules, guidance materials and related
resources, consultancy arrangements, and networks for sharing expertise.
1.5.5 Importance of Gender Equality
Worldwide, most countries recognize that equal rights should
exist between men and women. Many have produced regulations
intended to fight discrimination and programs granting women access to
health, education, and economic rights such as land ownership. However,
the fact remains that women have fewer opportunities than men to benefit
from economic development, with lower participation in the labor force.

Even in the most advanced countries, their wages average 73

percent of those of men. International programs such as the Millennium
Development Goals point out the benefits of addressing gender
inequality and the positive impact this can have on poverty reduction.
The principle of gender equity in the workplace is generally accepted,
discriminatory practices persist in many organizations despite regulations
to the contrary. It is important to create an open and friendly atmosphere
to address gender discrimination issues; therefore, it is critical to involve
men and women rather than only women. Because gender biases are
embedded in culture, it is very difficult to eliminate them without having
a holistic view and involving men as a part of the solution.

1.5.6 Sustainable Development Goal 5: Gender equality

Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls

Empowering women and promoting gender equality is crucial to
accelerating sustainable development. Ending all forms of discrimination
against women and girls is not only a basic human right, but it also has a
multiplier effect across all other development areas.
Since 2000, UNDP together with our UN partners and the rest of the
global community has made gender equality central to our work, and we
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have seen some remarkable successes. More girls are now in school
Gender NOTES compared to 15 years ago, and most regions have reached gender parity
in primary education. Women now make up to 41 percent of paid
workers outside of agriculture, compared to 35 percent in 1990.
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) aim to build on these
achievements to ensure that there is an end to discrimination against
women and girls everywhere. There are still gross inequalities in access
to paid employment in some regions, and significant gaps between men
and women in the labor market. Sexual violence and exploitation, the
unequal division of unpaid care and domestic work, and discrimination
in public decision making, all remain huge barriers. Gender equality is
one of 17 Global Goals that make up the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. An integrated approach is crucial for progress across the
multiple goals.

1.5.7 Gender Equity

Gender Equity is the process of allocating resources, programs, and
decision making fairly to both males and females without any
discrimination on the basis of sex…and addressing any imbalances in
the benefits available to males and females. This requires ensuring that
everyone has access to a full range of opportunities to achieve the
social, psychological and physical benefits. It does not necessarily mean
making the same programs and facilities available to both males and
females. Gender equity requires that girls and women be provided with
a full range of activity and program choices that meet their needs,
interests and experiences. Therefore, some activities may be the same as
those offered to boys and men, some may be altered, and some may be
altogether different.
1.5.8 Equality vs. Equity
There is sometimes confusion about the difference between the
concepts of equality and equity. Usage often depends on the sector and
country in question. In Canada, in the sport and physical activity system,
the use of gender equity is most common.
In contrast to equity, gender equality is the process of allocating
resources, programs and decision making so that males and females
have the same (therefore females and males would each receive 50% of
the resources, facilities, and each have access to the same programs, e.g.
if there was a male program, there would also be a female program).
While the goal of treating everyone the same may seem noble, the
principle of equal treatment tends to ignore the fact that people differ in
their capacities, interests, resources and experiences.
Equality focuses on creating the same starting line for
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everyone. Equity has the goal of providing everyone with the full range
of opportunities and benefits – the same finish line.
1.5.9 The Benefits of Gender Equity

Organizations have much to gain by committing themselves to achieving

gender equity:

 Fully representing the population base and tapping the

resources of every member results in a larger, stronger and
more effective organization.
 Skilled women provide the organization with an important
talent pool of administrators, coaches and officials.
 Taking the lead in promoting girls and women brings prestige
and support to the organization.
 Working together, women and men can learn to build equal
partnerships.
 By fulfilling their legal responsibility to treat fairly everyone
involved in the organization and making a commitment to
gender equity, organizations avoid a negative public image as
well as the time and expense of dealing with unnecessary
lawsuits.
Why do we need equity? We need gender equity now. Those are
words often uttered in social justice circles, and recently, across a
number of headlines. What does that mean? More broadly, how is
gender equity different than gender equality?

If gender equality is the end, gender equity is the means.

Gender equality "does not mean that women and men will become the
same, but that women’s and men‘s rights, responsibilities and
opportunities will not depend on whether they are born male or
female.‖ Gender equity means fairness of treatment for women and
men, according to their respective needs. This may include equal
treatment or treatment that is different, but which is considered
equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations, and opportunities.
When we talk about opportunity, we’re talking about ensuring
opportunity is not limited simply on the basis of gender. We are talking
about correcting for gender biases so that economic outcomes improve
for all.
1.5.10 Preference for Sons
Cultural institutions in India, particularly those of patrilineality
(inheritance through male descendants) and patrilocality (married couples
living with or near the husband’s parents), play a central role in
perpetuating gender inequality and ideas about gender-appropriate
behavior. A culturally ingrained parental preference for sons —
emanating from their importance as caregivers for parents in old age — is linked to poorer
consequences for daughters.
The dowry system, involving a cash or in-kind payment from the bride‘s
family to the groom‘s at the time of marriage, is another institution that
disempowers women. Such parental preferences are reflected in
increasingly masculine sex ratios in India. In 2011, there were 919 girls
under age six per 1000 boys, despite sex determination being outlawed
in India.
India ranked 87th out of 144 countries on the Global Gender Gap Index
2016 by the World Economic Forum, with a ranking of 136 in the
economic sphere, 113 in educational attainment and only 142 in health
and survival. These figures reflect the state of gender disparity in the
country, and the lack of effective measures to address the issue. Even
though the government of India has launched several programs such as
Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, Women Helpline, etc, to further this cause,
the scope for other stakeholders to contribute is immense.
Understanding the impact of gender interventions can help develop
effective models that can be scaled. Though the process of achieving
gender equity is gradual and inter-generational, it will still be within our
reach if concerted and comprehensive action is taken.

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