Here is a chapter-wise and concept-wise brief overview, drawing information from the

provided sources:

Chapter 1: Heredity and Evolution

 Heredity and Hereditary Changes

o Heredity is the transfer of biological characters from one generation to
another via genes.
o Gregor Johann Mendel is considered the pioneer of modern genetics.
o Hugo de Vries's mutational theory (1901) explained sudden changes in
heredity.
o Walter Sutton (1902) observed paired chromosomes in grasshopper cells,
leading to research on genetic material.
o Oswald Avery, Maclyn McCarty, and Colin McLeod (1944) proved that
DNA is the genetic material in all living organisms except viruses.
o Francois Jacob and Jacques Monod (1961) proposed a model for protein
synthesis using DNA in bacterial cells, uncovering genetic codes.
o Recombinant DNA technology emerged from this, with vast scope in genetic
engineering.
o The science of heredity is useful for diagnosing, treating, and preventing
hereditary disorders, producing hybrid varieties of animals and plants, and
in industrial processes using microbes.
 Transcription, Translation, and Translocation
o Central Dogma: DNA synthesizes proteins via RNA.
o Transcription: RNA synthesis from a DNA strand. mRNA is produced
complementary to the DNA sequence, with uracil replacing thymine.
o Translation: Protein synthesis from mRNA.
 mRNA carries a coded message from DNA into the cytoplasm.
 Each amino acid code consists of three nucleotides, called a 'triplet
codon'.
 Dr. Har Govind Khorana significantly contributed to the discovery
of triplet codons for 20 amino acids, receiving the Nobel Prize in 1968.
 tRNA supplies amino acids based on mRNA codons, using
complementary 'anticodons'.
 Amino acids are bonded by peptide bonds with rRNA's help.
o Translocation: Ribosome movement along mRNA by one triplet codon
distance during protein synthesis.
o Complex proteins formed control body functions and appearance.
 Mutation
o Definition: Sudden changes in genes, sometimes due to a nucleotide changing
its position.
o Mutations can be minor or considerable, potentially causing genetic disorders
like sickle cell anaemia.
o Diagram 1.3 in the source illustrates Main Sequence vs. Replacement due to
mutation.
 Evolution
 o Definition: Gradual change in living organisms over a long duration, a very
slow process leading to development.
o Includes changes from stars and planets to Earth's biosphere.
o Formation of new species in response to natural selection.
o Theory of Evolution: Protoplasm formed in the ocean, leading to unicellular
organisms, then larger, more complex ones over 300 crore years. This process
is all-round and multi-dimensional, leading to diverse organisms.
 Evidences of Evolution
o 1. Morphological Evidences: Similarities in external features (e.g., mouth
structure, eye position, hair distribution in animals; leaf shape, venation,
petiole in plants) suggest common origin and ancestors.
o 2. Anatomical Evidences: Similarities in bone structure and joints across
different animals (e.g., human hand, ox foreleg, whale flipper, bat patagium),
despite different uses, indicate a common ancestor.
 Diagram 1.5 in the source shows the structure of bones in these
animals.
o 3. Vestigial Organs: Degenerated or underdeveloped useless organs.
 Examples in humans: Appendix, ear pinna muscles, tail-bone
(coccyx), wisdom teeth, body hairs.
 These organs may be functional in other animals (e.g., appendix in
ruminants, ear muscles in monkeys).
 Diagram 1.6 shows human vestigial organs.
o 4. Palaeontological Evidences: Study of fossils (remnants/impressions of
buried organisms) provides information about past life and evolution.
 Diagram 1.7 illustrates some fossils.
 Diagram 1.8 shows sedimentary rocks and fossils.
 Carbon dating method (developed by Willard Libby, Nobel Prize
1960) uses the decay of C-14 to determine the age of fossils, aiding in
deducing information about ancient organisms.
o 5. Connecting Links: Organisms with morphological characters relating them
to two different groups.
 Examples:
 Peripatus: Connects annelida and arthropoda (segmented
body, thin cuticle, parapodia-like organs like annelids; tracheal
respiration, open circulatory system like arthropods).
 Duck-billed platypus: Lays eggs (like reptiles) but has
mammary glands and hairs (like mammals).
 Lungfish: Respires with lungs (like amphibians) despite being
a fish.
 These examples suggest evolutionary pathways (mammals from
reptiles, amphibians from fishes).
 Diagram 1.9 shows some animals with special characteristics,
including Peripatus and Lungfish.
o 6. Embryological Evidences: Comparative study of vertebrate embryonic
stages shows extreme similarities in initial stages, indicating common origin.
 Diagram 1.10 shows embryos during different stages.
 Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
o Proposed by Charles Darwin (English biologist, 1809-1882).
o Based on observations of innumerable plant and animal specimens, detailed in
his book ‘Origin of Species’.
 o Key concepts:
 Organisms reproduce prolifically and compete for survival.
 Only those with modifications essential for winning competition
sustain.
 Natural selection: Nature selects only the fittest organisms to live; the
rest perish.
 Selected organisms reproduce, giving rise to new species with specific
characters.
o Objections:
 Natural selection is not the only factor for evolution.
 No explanation for useful/useless modifications.
 No explanation for slow vs. abrupt changes.
o Despite objections, Darwin's work is considered a milestone in evolution.
 Lamarckism
o Proposed by Jean-Baptiste Lamarck (French naturalist, 1744-1829).
o Principle of ‘use or disuse of organs’: Morphological changes in living
organisms are due to activities or laziness.
o Ancestry of acquired characters: Characters acquired during an organism's
lifespan are transferred to the next generation.
o Examples:
 Giraffe's long neck from extending it to browse tall plants.
 Ironsmith's strong shoulders from frequent hammering.
 Weak wings of ostrich/emu due to no use.
 Swan/duck's legs useful for swimming due to living in water.
 Snakes lost legs due to body modifications for burrowing.
 Diagram 1.11 shows a giraffe.
o Disproved: The concept of acquired characters being transferred generation-
to-generation was rejected, as modifications brought in are not transferred.
 Speciation
o Definition: Formation of new species of plants and animals as an effect of
evolution.
o A species is a group of organisms that can produce fertile individuals through
natural reproduction.
o Factors: Genetic variation, geographical, and reproductive changes/isolation.
 Human Evolution
o Biodiversity formed from unicellular organisms due to evolution.
o Timeline:
 Approx. 7 crore years ago: Monkey-like animals evolved from
ancestors similar to modern lemurs (after dinosaurs disappeared).
 Approx. 4 crore years ago: Tail disappeared in African monkey-like
animals; brain enlarged, hands improved, evolving into ape-like
animals.
 Ape-like animals reached South/North-East Asia, evolving into gibbon
and orang-utan.
 Approx. 2.5 crore years ago: Gorilla and chimpanzee evolved from
ape-like animals remaining in Africa.
 Approx. 2 crore years ago: First human-like animals with erect posture,
using hands, evolved.
 Ramapithecus ape from North India and East Africa is the first record
of human-like animal.
  Approx. 40 lakh years ago: South African ape evolved, becoming more
intelligent.
 Approx. 20 lakh years ago: Morphology of human-like animals
resembled genus Homo, leading to skilled human.
 Approx. 15 lakh years ago: Human walking with erect posture evolved
(existed in China/Indonesia).
 Evolution of upright man continued for 1 lakh years, discovering fire.
 Brain of 50 thousand-year-old man was sufficiently evolved (Homo
sapiens).
 Neanderthal man is considered the first example of wise-man.
 Cro-Magnon man evolved approx. 50 thousand years ago, with faster
evolution thereafter.
 Approx. 10 thousand years ago: Wise-man started agriculture, reared
cattle, established cities, cultural development, art of writing.
 Modern sciences emerged 400 years ago, industrial society 200 years
ago.
o Diagram 1.12 shows the journey of human evolution.
o Diagram 1.13 shows the development of the human brain.
o Diagram 1.14 shows the Neanderthal man.

Chapter 2: Life Processes in Living Organisms Part - 1

 Living Organisms and Life Processes

o Organ-systems (digestive, respiratory, circulatory, excretory, control) work in
coordination for continuous energy.
o Carbohydrates, fats, and lipids are main energy sources, harvested by
mitochondria.
o Oxygen is also necessary for energy production.
o Foodstuffs and oxygen are transported via the circulatory system.
o Plants are autotrophs, storing food in various parts.
o We obtain nutrients (carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals) from
plant materials.
o Carbohydrates (milk, fruits, cereals) provide 4 Kcal energy per gram.
 Cellular Respiration
o Glucose (carbohydrate) is oxidized step-by-step in cells.
o Occurs by two methods: aerobic respiration (with oxygen) and anaerobic
respiration (without oxygen).
o Diagram 2.1 shows the human respiratory system.
o Aerobic Respiration (Glucose oxidized in three steps):
 1. Glycolysis:
 Occurs in cytoplasm.
 Glucose is oxidized to form two molecules of pyruvic acid,
ATP, NADH2, and water.
 Pyruvic acid converts to Acetyl-Coenzyme-A, releasing
NADH2 and CO2.
 Also known as Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas pathway (EMP
pathway), discovered by Gustav Embden, Otto Meyerhof, and
Jacob Parnas.
  2. Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle):
 Occurs in mitochondria.
 Acetyl-CoA is completely oxidized through cyclical reactions.
 Produces CO2, H2O, NADH2, FADH2.
 Discovered by Sir Hans Krebs (Nobel Prize 1953).
 Diagram 2.2 shows Mitochondria and Tri-carboxylic acid
cycle.
 3. Electron Transfer Chain Reaction:
 Occurs in mitochondria.
 NADH2 and FADH2 molecules participate.
 Produces 3 ATP from each NADH2 molecule and 2 ATP
from each FADH2 molecule.
 Water molecules are also formed.
 Overall: Glucose is completely oxidized, producing CO2, H2O, and
energy.
 Diagram illustrates the process of energy production through aerobic
respiration of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.
o ATP: Adenosine Triphosphate
 Energy-rich molecule, energy stored in phosphate bonds.
 Called the ‘energy currency’ of the cell.
 Chemically: Triphosphate molecule from adenosine ribonucleoside
(adenine, pentose sugar-ribose, three phosphate groups).
 Energy is derived by breaking phosphate bonds.
 Diagram 3.3 shows ATP: Energy Currency.
o Anaerobic Respiration
 Performed by organisms unable to live in oxygen (e.g., many bacteria).
 Steps: Glycolysis and Fermentation.
 Incomplete glucose oxidation, yielding less energy.
 Pyruvic acid converts to organic acids or alcohol (fermentation).
 Higher plants, animals (muscle cells during exercise), and aerobic
microorganisms can perform it under oxygen depletion.
 Accumulation of lactic acid in muscle cells causes tiredness.
 Energy from Different Food Components
o Lipids and Proteins are used for energy if carbohydrates are insufficient
(fasting/hunger).
 Lipids convert to fatty acids, proteins to amino acids.
 Fatty acids and amino acids convert to Acetyl-CoA, then energy via
Krebs cycle.
o Proteins:
 Macromolecules formed by amino acids.
 Animal origin proteins are 'first class'.
 Yield 4 Kcal energy per gram.
 Digested into amino acids, absorbed, and transported to cells.
 Cells produce various proteins: melanin, keratin (skin), ossein (bones),
cell membrane proteins, enzymes, insulin, trypsin (pancreas),
hormones (pituitary), actin, myosin (muscles), hemoglobin, antibodies
(blood).
 Excess amino acids are not stored; broken down, ammonia eliminated,
or converted to substances like glucose via gluconeogenesis.
  RUBISCO, an enzyme in plant chloroplasts, is the most abundant
protein in nature.
 Diagram 2.4 shows proteins and different amino acids obtained.
o Lipids:
 Formed by chemical bonds between fatty acids and alcohol.
 Digested into fatty acids and alcohol.
 Fatty acids used to produce: phospholipids (for plasma membrane),
hormones (progesterone, estrogen, testosterone, aldosterone), nerve
cell axon coverings.
 Yield 9 KCal energy per gram.
 Excess stored in adipose connective tissue.
o Vitamins:
 Heterogeneous compounds essential for body processes.
 Main types: A, B, C, D, E, K.
 Fat-soluble: A, D, E, K; Water-soluble: B, C.
 Riboflavin (B2) and nicotinamide (B3) are necessary for NADH2 and
FADH2 production.
o Water: 65-70% of body weight, 70% in cells, 90% in blood plasma. Essential
nutrient; even little loss disturbs body function.
o Fibers: Essential nutrients; cannot be digested but aid digestion and egestion.
Obtained from leafy vegetables, fruits, cereals.
 Cell Division: An Essential Life Process
o Enables formation of new organisms, multicellular growth, and restoration of
emaciated body.
o Two types: Mitosis and Meiosis.
o Before division, chromosome number doubles (2n to 4n).
o Diagram 2.5 shows chromosome structure.
o Mitosis:
 Occurs in somatic cells and stem cells.
 Two main steps: Karyokinesis (nuclear division) and Cytokinesis
(cytoplasmic division).
 Karyokinesis phases:
 A. Prophase: Chromosome condensation (short, thick, sister
chromatids), centriole duplication and movement to poles,
nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear.
 B. Metaphase: Nuclear membrane disappears, chromosomes
completely condensed and visible, arranged parallel to
equatorial plane, spindle fibers form between centromere and
centrioles.
 C. Anaphase: Centromeres split, sister chromatids separate
into daughter chromosomes, pulled to opposite poles by spindle
fibers (like bunch of bananas).
 D. Telophase: Chromosomes decondense, thread-like, become
invisible; nuclear membrane forms around each set at poles,
two daughter nuclei form, nucleolus reappears, spindle fibers
disappear.
 Cytokinesis: Cytoplasm divides. Notch forms at equatorial plane
(animal cells) or cell plate forms (plant cells), creating two new
daughter cells.
  Importance: Growth, restoration of emaciated body, wound healing,
blood cell formation.
 Diagram 2.6 illustrates mitosis phases.
 Diagram 2.7 illustrates cytokinesis.
o Meiosis:
 Occurs in germ cells.
 Two stages: Meiosis-I and Meiosis-II.
 Meiosis-I: Recombination/crossing over occurs between homologous
chromosomes; homologous chromosomes divide into two haploid
cells.
 Meiosis-II: Similar to mitosis; two haploid daughter cells from
Meiosis-I divide, separating recombined sister chromatids, forming
four haploid daughter cells.
 Process for gamete production and spore formation.
 Four haploid (n) daughter cells from one diploid (2n) cell.
 Genetic recombination makes daughter cells genetically different from
parent and each other.
 Diagram 2.8 shows Meiosis Part-I and 2.9 shows Meiosis Part -II.

Chapter 3: Life Processes in Living Organisms Part - 2

 Reproduction
o Definition: Formation of new organism of same species by earlier existing
organism.
o Essential for maintaining continuity of species.
o Contributes to evolution of species.
o Two main methods: Asexual reproduction and Sexual reproduction.
o Diagram 3.1 shows some life processes.
 Asexual Reproduction
o Definition: Formation of new organism without involvement of gametes.
o Uniparental.
o Occurs by mitotic cell division.
o New organism has exact genetic similarity to parent (no genetic
recombination).
o Advantage: Fast process.
o A. Asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms:
 1. Binary Fission: Parent cell divides into two similar daughter cells.
 Occurs by mitosis or amitosis.
 Examples: Prokaryotes (bacteria), Protists (Amoeba,
Paramecium, Euglena), eukaryotic cell-organelles
(mitochondria, chloroplasts).
 Axis of fission differs: Amoeba (simple binary fission, any
plane), Paramecium (transverse binary fission), Euglena
(longitudinal binary fission).
 Usually in favourable conditions (abundant food).
 Diagram 3.2 shows simple binary fission in Amoeba.
 Diagram 3.3 shows transverse binary fission in Paramecium.
 Diagram 3.4 shows longitudinal binary fission in Euglena.
  2. Multiple Fission: Performed by Amoeba and other protists.
 Under adverse conditions (lack of food), Amoeba stops
pseudopodia formation, becomes rounded, and forms a
protective covering (Cyst).
 Many nuclei form by repeated nuclear divisions, followed by
cytoplasmic division, forming many amoebulae.
 Cyst breaks under favourable conditions, releasing
amoebulae.
 Diagram 3.5 shows multiple fission.
 3. Budding:
 Occurs in yeast (unicellular fungus).
 Parent yeast cell produces two daughter nuclei by mitotic
division.
 A small bulge (bud) appears on the surface, one daughter
nucleus enters.
 Bud grows, separates, and lives independently.
 Diagram 3.6 shows budding.
o B. Asexual reproduction in Multicellular organisms:
 1. Fragmentation: Parent body breaks into many fragments, each
becoming an independent new organism.
 Examples: Spirogyra (algae), Sycon (sponges).
 Diagram 3.7 shows fragmentation.
 2. Regeneration: Ability to regrow lost body parts or form new
organisms from fragments.
 Limited regeneration: Wall lizard regrows tail.
 Full regeneration: Planaria breaks into two parts, each
regenerating the missing part to form two new Planaria.
 Diagram 3.8 shows regeneration.
 3. Budding:
 In Hydra, an outgrowth (bud) forms by repeated division of
regenerative cells.
 Bud grows into a small hydra, continuous with parent's dermal
layers and digestive cavity for nutrition.
 Separates to live independently when grown.
 Diagram 3.9 shows budding in Hydra.
 4. Vegetative Propagation: Reproduction in plants using vegetative
parts (root, stem, leaf, bud).
 Examples: Potatoes (eyes on tuber), Bryophyllum (buds on
leaf margin), Sugarcane & grasses (buds on nodes).
 Diagram 3.10 shows vegetative reproduction.
 5. Spore Formation:
 Occurs in fungi like Mucor.
 Filamentous body with sporangia that burst to release spores.
 Spores germinate in moist, warm places to form new fungal
colonies.
 Diagram 3.11 shows spore formation.
 Sexual Reproduction
o Definition: Occurs with the help of two germ cells (female gamete and male
gamete).
o Two main processes: Gamete formation and Fertilization.
o Involves two parents (male and female).
o New individual has recombined genes from both parents, showing similarities
and differences.
o Genetic variation helps organisms adjust to changing environments and
prevent extinction.
o 1. Gamete formation: Gametes are formed by meiosis, reducing chromosome
number to half (haploid gametes).
o 2. Fertilization: Union of haploid male and female gametes to form a diploid
zygote. Zygote divides by mitosis to form an embryo, which develops into a
new individual.
o A. Sexual reproduction in plants:
 Flower: Structural unit of sexual reproduction.
 Floral whorls (arranged outside-in):
 Accessory whorls (protection):
 Calyx: Members are sepals (green).
 Corolla: Members are petals (variously colored).
 Essential whorls (reproduction):
 Androecium: Male whorl, members are stamens
(produce pollen grains in anther).
 Gynoecium: Female whorl, members are carpels (may
be separate/united).
 Ovary (basal end) containing ovules.
 Style (hollow, from ovary).
 Stigma (tip of style).
 Flower types:
 Bisexual: Both androecium and gynoecium present (e.g.,
Hibiscus).
 Unisexual: Only one whorl present (e.g., Papaya - male flower
has androecium, female flower has gynoecium).
 Pedicel: Stalk for support; pedicellate (with stalk), sessile (without
stalk).
 Embryo sac: Formed in each ovule by meiosis, containing a haploid
egg cell and two haploid polar nuclei.
 Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma.
 Agents: Abiotic (wind, water), Biotic (insects, animals).
 Stigma becomes sticky.
 Self-pollination: Within one flower or two flowers on same
plant.
 Cross-pollination: Between two flowers on two plants of same
species.
 Fertilization in plants:
 Pollen germinates on stigma, forming a long pollen tube and
two male gametes.
 Pollen tube reaches embryo sac via style, bursts, releasing male
gametes.
 Double fertilization: One male gamete unites with egg cell to
form zygote; second male gamete unites with two polar nuclei
to form endosperm.
 Diagram 3.14 illustrates double fertilization in angiosperms.
  Seed germination: Ovule develops into seed, ovary into fruit after
fertilization. Seeds germinate under favorable conditions, zygote
develops using endosperm food to form a new plantlet.
 Diagram 3.12 shows parts of a flower.
 Diagram 3.13 shows a Papaya flower.
 Diagram 3.15 shows seed germination.
o B. Sexual reproduction in human being:
 Sex chromosomes: XY in men, XX in women.
 X-chromosome in both, Y-chromosome only in men.
 Human male reproductive system:
 Organs: Testes (in scrotum, outside abdominal cavity), various
ducts (rete testis, vas efferens, epididymis, vas deferens,
ejaculatory duct, urinogenital duct), and glands (seminal
vesicle, prostate gland, Cowper's glands).
 Sperms produced in seminiferous tubules by meiosis, mature
as they move through ducts.
 Semen formed from sperms and glandular secretions.
 Diagram 3.16 shows the human male reproductive system.
 Human female reproductive system:
 Organs (in abdominal cavity): Pair of ovaries, pair of oviducts,
single uterus, and vagina. Also, Bartholin's gland.
 Ovum released alternately from each ovary monthly.
 Oviduct (funnel-like, ciliated inner surface) pushes oocyte to
uterus.
 Diagram 3.17 shows the human female reproductive system.
 Gamete Formation:
 Sperms produced in testes from puberty till death.
 Female foetus has 2-4 million immature oocytes in ovaries at
birth.
 One oocyte matures and is released monthly from puberty up to
menopause (approx. 45 years).
 Menopause: Stoppage of female reproductive system function
due to irregular/stopped hormone secretion.
 Germ cells (2n: 44+XX/XY) divide by meiosis to form haploid
gametes (n: 22+X or 22+Y).
 Two types of sperms (22+X or 22+Y), only one type of oocytes
(22+X).
 Older oocytes (40-50 years) near menopause have diminished
division ability; if fertilized, new-borns may have abnormalities
like Down’s syndrome.
 Fertilization:
 Internal in humans: Union of sperm and ovum to form zygote.
 Occurs in the oviduct.
 Millions of sperms travel from vagina-uterus-oviduct; one
fertilizes the single ovum.
 Diagram 3.18 shows fertilization.
 Diagram 3.19 shows sex determination in human being.
 Development and Birth:
 Zygote undergoes repeated mitotic divisions, forms embryo,
pushed to uterus.
  Implantation in uterus, then further development.
 Placenta forms for food supply during uterine growth.
 Embryonic development approx. nine months.
 Diagram 3.20 shows growth of an embryo.
 Menstrual Cycle:
 Repetitive changes in female reproductive system every 28-30
days from puberty.
 Controlled by four hormones: Follicle Stimulating Hormone
(FSH), Luteinizing Hormone (LH), Estrogen, Progesterone.
 FSH develops follicles and oocyte in ovary.
 Developing follicle secretes Estrogen, which
develops/regenerates uterine endometrium.
 LH causes follicle to burst, releasing oocyte (ovulation).
 Remaining follicle forms corpus luteum, secreting
Progesterone.
 Progesterone activates endometrial glands, preparing for
embryo implantation.
 If no fertilization/implantation within 24 hours, corpus luteum
becomes inactive, transforms to corpus albicans;
estrogen/progesterone secretion stops.
 Endometrium degenerates, discarded through vagina with
bleeding (menstruation) for approx. five days.
 Cycle stops during implantation/pregnancy and breastfeeding.
 Women may experience pain, weakness, infection risk during
menstruation; need rest and hygiene.
 Diagram 3.21 shows the menstrual cycle.
 Reproduction and Modern Technology
o Help for childless couples (issues with oocyte production, oviduct,
implantation in women; sperm absence/movement/anomalies in men).
o In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): Fertilization in a test-tube, then embryo
implanted in woman's uterus. Used for low sperm count, oviduct obstacles.
 Diagram 3.22 shows fertilization in a test tube.
o Surrogacy: For women with implantation problems. Oocyte fertilized in test-
tube with husband's sperm, embryo implanted in a surrogate mother's uterus.
 Diagram 3.23 shows surrogacy.
o Sperm Bank/Semen Bank: Collection and storage of semen from desired
men after check-up, similar to blood bank. Used for couples with male sperm
production issues; donor name kept secret.
o Twins: Two embryos develop simultaneously.
 Monozygotic twins: From single embryo; cells divide into two groups
early in development (within 8 days). Genetically identical, same
gender. If cells divide after 8 days, conjoined (Siamese) twins may
form.
 Dizygotic twins: Two oocytes fertilized by two separate sperms,
forming two zygotes. Genetically different, may be different genders.
 Diagram 3.24 shows twin girls.
 Reproductive Health
o Health: Physical, mental, and social strength.
o Lack of awareness due to social customs, illiteracy, shyness.
 o Importance of hygiene of private organs, especially for women during
menstrual cycle.
o Sexual diseases:
 Syphilis (bacterial): Chancre on genitals/body, rash, fever, joint
inflammation, alopecia.
 Gonorrhoea (bacterial): Painful/burning urination, pus discharge,
inflammation of urinary tract, anus, throat, eyes.
 Population Explosion
o Definition: Excessive population growth in short duration.
o Problems: Unemployment, decreasing per capita income, increasing loan,
stress on natural resources.
o Solution: Population control, essential through family planning.
o Table shows India's population growth from 1901 to 2011.

Chapter 4: Environmental management

 Ecosystem – A review
o Definition: Formed by biotic and abiotic factors and their interactions.
o All factors (producers, herbivores, predators, decomposers) are important for
environmental balance.
o Diagram 4.1 shows a food chain.
o Components:
 Abiotic: Inorganic substances (Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Calcium,
Iron, Sodium, Potassium), Organic substances (Proteins,
Carbohydrates, fats), Physical factors (Air, water, vapor, minerals, soil,
sunlight).
 Biotic: Autotrophic (producers), Heterotrophic (primary, secondary,
tertiary consumers - animals), Decomposers (microbes).
o Food Chain and Food Web: Relationships between organisms for energy
transfer.
 Environment and Ecosystem
o Environment: Broad concept; physical, chemical, and biological factors
affecting living organisms. Conditions in surrounding, including biotic,
abiotic, natural, and artificial factors.
o Types: Natural environment (air, water, land, organisms), Artificial
environment.
o Ecology: Science studying interactions between biotic and abiotic factors of
the environment.
o Ecosystem: Basic functional unit to study ecology; biotic and abiotic factors
in a definite geographical area and their interactions.
o Environmental balance is maintained by natural cycles (water, carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen) and food chains.
o Human existence depends on nature; responsibility to preserve it for future
generations.
 Environmental Conservation
o Environmental pollution: Contamination or unnecessary/unacceptable
change in environment due to natural events or human activities.
 Direct/indirect harmful changes in physical, chemical, biological properties of
air, water, soil.
o Causes: Population explosion, fast industrialization, indiscriminate use of
natural resources, deforestation, unplanned urbanization.
o Types of pollution: Air, water, sound, soil, thermal, light, radioactive.
 Diagram 4.2 shows fog and pollution in a city.
 Radioactive pollution:
 Natural (UV, IR radiation) and Artificial (X-rays, atomic
energy plants).
 Major mishaps: Chernobyl, Windscale, Three Miles Island.
 Effects: Cancerous ulceration, tissue destruction, genetic
changes, vision problems.
o Need for environmental conservation: To solve natural/artificial problems,
maintain natural balance.
o History of conservation efforts:
 1972: United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) established.
 1985: India established a separate environmental department (Ministry
of environment and forests).
o Social Responsibility: Human has a crucial role in maintaining/improving
environmental balance. Public participation is vital.
o Laws enacted about environmental conservation:
 Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980: Prohibits non-forest use of forest
land without central government permission; 15-day imprisonment for
disobedience.
 Environmental (Protection) Act, 1986: Controls pollution, punishes
harm to environment; prohibits releasing pollutants beyond permissible
limits; 5-year imprisonment or Rs. 1 lakh fine.
 National Green Tribunal established in 2010 for effective
implementation of laws.
 Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Bans trading rare animals, use of
articles from wild animal parts, compels disclosure of wild animal
artifact stock.
 Other rules: Sound Pollution (Control & Prevention) Rule, 2000;
Biomedical Waste (Management & Handling) Rule, 1998; E-waste
(Management & Handling) Rule, 2011.
o Jadav Molai Payeng: Planted a forest over 1360 acres in Assam over 30
years, awarded Padmashree. Shows single person's impact on conservation.
 Environmental Conservation and Biodiversity
o Biodiversity: Richness of living organisms due to varieties of organisms,
ecosystems, and genetic variations.
o Levels of Biodiversity:
 Genetic Diversity: Diversity among organisms of same species (e.g.,
each human is different).
 Species Diversity: Innumerable species of plants, animals, microbes.
 Ecosystem Diversity: Many ecosystems in each region, formed by
interactions between plants, animals, habitat, and environment. Types:
natural and artificial.
o How to conserve biodiversity:
 Protecting rare species.
 Establishing national parks and sanctuaries.
  Declaring bioreserves.
 Projects for special species conservation.
 Conserving all plants and animals.
 Observing rules.
 Maintaining record of traditional knowledge.
o Sacred Groves: Forests conserved in the name of god, considered sacred;
sanctuaries conserved by society, not government. Over 13,000 in India.
 Diagram 4.3 shows a sacred grove.
o International Environment Organizations: IUCN, IPCC, UNEP, World
Wildlife Fund, Bird Life International, Green Climate Fund.
o Voluntary Organizations: Bombay Natural History Society, CPR
environment group, Gandhi Peace Foundation, Chipko Centre, Centre for
Environment Education, Kerala Science Literature Council, Indian Agro
Industries Foundation, Vikram Sarabhai Community Science Centre.
o Endangered Heritage Places of the Country:
 Western Ghats: Endangered due to mining, natural gas search;
threatening Asiatic lion and wild bison habitats.
 Manas National Park (Assam): Under threat from dams,
indiscriminate water use; threatening tiger and rhino.
 Sunderban National Park (West Bengal): Reserved for tigers;
threatened by dams, deforestation, excessive fishing.
o Hotspots of Biodiversity: 34 highly sensitive spots worldwide; 86% already
destroyed; only 2.3% Earth area remains. India has many species in eastern
jungles and 1,500 endemic plant species in Western Ghats.
o My Role in Environment: Defined roles like conservator, organizer, guide,
plant-friend in aspects of conservation, awareness, prevention, preservation,
production, and control.
o Classification of Threatened Species:
 Endangered Species: Number declined or habitat shrunk, near
extinction if not conserved (e.g., Lion-tailed monkey, lesser florican).
 Diagram 4.4 shows a Lion-tailed monkey.
 Rare Species: Considerably declined, endemic, may become extinct
fast (e.g., Red panda, Musk deer).
 Diagram 4.5 shows a Red Panda.
 Vulnerable Species: Extremely less and continuously declining (e.g.,
Tiger, Lion).
 Indeterminate Species: Appear endangered but no definite info due to
behavioral habits (e.g., Giant squirrel).
 IUCN prepares 'Red List' of endangered species; pink pages for
endangered, green for previously endangered but now safe.

Chapter 5: Towards Green Energy

 Energy and Use of Energy

o Energy is a primary need in modern civilization.
o Needed in different forms: mechanical, chemical, sound, light, heat.
o Energy can be converted from one form to another.
 Generation of Electrical Energy
 o Most power plants based on electromagnetic induction, invented by Michael
Faraday.
 Principle: Magnetic field change around a conductor generates
potential difference.
 Achieved by rotating magnet around stationary conductor or moving
conductor in stationary field.
 Diagram 5.1 illustrates electromagnetic induction.
o Electric generator: Machine based on this principle.
o Turbine: Used to rotate the magnet in generator; has blades driven by liquid
or gas flow (kinetic energy).
 Diagram 5.2 illustrates a steam turbine.
o Flow chart for electricity generation: Energy source -> Turbine ->
Generator -> Electrical energy.
 Diagram 5.4 shows the flow chart.
o Types of power stations differ based on the energy source used to rotate the
turbine.
 Thermal Energy Based Electric Power Station
o Uses steam to rotate the turbine.
o Process:

1. Coal (fuel) burns in a boiler, generating high-temperature, high-

pressure steam.
2. Steam drives the turbine.
3. Turbine rotates the generator, producing electrical energy.
4. Steam is converted back to water in a condenser (cooled by water
circulated from a cooling tower) and re-circulated to the boiler.
o Energy Transformation: Chemical energy (coal) -> Thermal energy ->
Kinetic energy (steam) -> Kinetic energy (turbine) -> Electrical energy.

 Diagram 5.6 shows energy transformation in thermal power plant.

o Schematic: Boiler, turbine, generator, condenser, cooling tower, stack for
combustion gases.
 Diagram 5.5 shows the flow chart of generation using thermal energy.
 Diagram 5.7 shows schematics of thermal power plant.
o Problems:

1. Air pollution: Burning coal emits harmful gases (CO2, SOx, NOx).
Incomplete combustion forms CO. Increases CO2 leading to global
warming. NOx causes acid rain.
2. Soot particles released, causing respiratory problems.
3. Limited reserves of coal (approx. 200 years left globally).
 Power Plant Based on Nuclear Energy
o Also uses steam turbine to rotate the generator.
o Energy Source: Fission of nuclei of atoms like Uranium or Plutonium
generates high-temperature, high-pressure steam.
o Nuclear Fission: Neutron bombards Uranium-235, forming unstable
Uranium-236, which fissions into Barium and Krypton, releasing three
neutrons and 200 MeV energy. These neutrons cause a chain reaction.

 Diagram 5.10 shows nuclear fission (chain reaction).

 o Controlled chain reaction in nuclear reactor releases thermal energy for
electricity.
o Energy Transformation: Nuclear energy -> Thermal energy -> Kinetic
energy (steam) -> Kinetic energy (turbine) -> Electrical Energy.
 Diagram 5.9 shows energy transformation in nuclear power plant.
o Schematic: Nuclear reactor, system for steam generation, steam turbine,
generator, system for converting steam back to water.
 Diagram 5.8 shows the flow chart of nuclear power plant.
 Diagram 5.11 shows the schematic diagram of nuclear power plant.
o Advantages: No fossil fuel burning, so no air pollution.
o Problems:

1. Radioactive nuclear waste emits harmful radiations; safe disposal is a

challenge.
2. Fatal accidents possible, leading to release of very harmful radiations.
 Power Generation Plant Based on Energy of Natural Gas
o Turbine run by high-temperature, high-pressure gas from combustion of
natural gas.
o Process:
1. Compressor introduces pressurized air into combustion chamber.
2. Natural gas burns in combustion chamber, generating hot, high-
pressure gas.
3. Gas runs the turbine.
4. Turbine drives the generator to produce electricity.
o Energy Transformation: Chemical energy (natural gas) -> Kinetic energy
(due to combustion of natural gas) -> Kinetic energy (turbine) -> Electrical
energy.

 Diagram 5.13 shows transformation of energy in power plant using

energy of natural gas.
o Advantages: Higher efficiency than coal-based plants. Less pollution as
natural gas contains no sulphur.
o Schematic: Compressor, combustion chamber, gas turbine, generator.
 Diagram 5.12 shows arrangement in power plant based on energy of
natural gas.
 Diagram 5.14 shows schematic of power plant based on natural gas.
o Problems: Natural gas reserves are limited (approx. 200-300 years left
globally).
 Electric Energy Generation and Environment
o Generation from fossil fuels (coal, natural gas) and nuclear fuels (uranium,
plutonium) is not environment friendly.
o Contributes to air pollution, global warming, acid rain, respiratory problems.
o Fossil fuels took millions of years to form and are limited.
o Nuclear energy poses waste disposal and accident risks.
 Towards Environment Friendly Energy / Green Energy
o Green energy: Electricity generation methods that avoid environmental
problems associated with fossil/nuclear fuels.
o Sources are perpetual/never-ending.
o Examples: Water reservoir, wind, sunlight, biofuels.
o Hydroelectric Energy:
 Source: Kinetic energy in flowing water or potential energy in water
reservoir.
 Process:
1. Potential energy in water stored in dam converts to kinetic
energy.
2. Fast flowing water from dam drives a water turbine at the
bottom.
3. Turbine drives the generator to produce electricity.
 Energy Transformation: Potential energy (water) -> Kinetic energy
(flowing water) -> Kinetic energy (turbine) -> Electrical energy.

 Diagram 5.16 shows energy transformation in hydroelectric

power plant.
 Schematic: Water reservoir, wall, penstock (channel), power house,
turbine, generator, sluice gates.
 Diagram 5.15 shows different stages in hydroelectric power
plant.
 Diagram 5.17 shows schematic diagram of Hydroelectric power
plant.
 Diagram 5.18 shows Koyana Dam.
 Advantages: No fuel burnt, no air pollution. Electricity can be
generated as needed if water storage is sufficient. Water reservoir
replenished during rainy season, leading to uninterrupted power.
 Problems:

1. Submergence of villages, towns, forests, fertile land due to

back-water, leading to displacement and rehabilitation
issues.
2. Obstruction of river flow can have adverse effects on river
life.
 Debate exists whether it is truly environment friendly due to these
issues.
o Electricity Generation using Wind-Energy:
 Source: Kinetic energy in wind.
 Wind-turbine: Machine converting kinetic energy of wind to
electrical energy.
 Process:
1. Wind strikes blades of turbine, making them rotate.
2. Axle of turbine connected to electric generator via a gear-box
(increases rotations per unit time).
3. Rotating blades drive turbine, which drives generator to
produce electricity.
 Energy Transformation: Kinetic energy (wind) -> Kinetic energy
(turbine) -> Electric energy.

 Diagram 5.21 shows transformation of energy in wind energy.

 Schematic: Blades, shaft, gear box, generator, support.
 Diagram 5.19 shows stages in electric generator using wind
energy.
  Diagram 5.20 shows schematic of a wind mill.
 Diagram 5.22 shows various wind turbines.
 Advantages: Clean energy source.
 Limitations: Requires sufficient wind velocity, not available
everywhere.
o Electric Energy Generation using Solar Energy:
 Two main ways:
 1. Solar Photovoltaic Cell:
 Converts solar radiation energy directly into electrical
energy (DC) via solar photovoltaic effect.
 Cells made of semiconductor material (e.g., silicon).
 A 1 cm² silicon cell generates approx. 30 mA current
and 0.5 V potential difference. Potential difference is
independent of area.
 Connecting cells:
 Series: Potential differences add (VTotal =
V1+V2), current remains same (I = I1=I2).
 Parallel: Currents add (I = I1+I2), potential
difference remains same (V = V1=V2).
 Many cells connected in series/parallel form solar
panels, then solar strings, and finally solar arrays to
generate required current/voltage.
 Diagram 5.23 shows solar cells in series.
 Diagram 5.24 shows solar cells in parallel.
 Diagram 5.25 shows a solar panel.
 Diagram 5.26 shows solar cell to solar array.
 Efficiency around 15%.
 DC power needs inverter to convert to AC for most
domestic/industrial equipment.
 For DC applications (e.g., LED lights), energy can be
used directly, or stored in batteries for night use.
 Advantages: No fuel combustion, no air pollution.
 Limitations: Generates electricity only during day-
time.
 Diagram 5.27 shows conversion of energy generated by
cells to AC form.
 Diagram 5.28 shows schematic of a solar photovoltaic
station.
 2. Solar Thermal Power Plant:
 Converts solar radiation into thermal energy first.
 Thermal energy then drives a turbine-generator system.
 Process:

1. Reflectors concentrate sunlight on absorbers.

2. Solar energy converted to heat energy in
absorbers.
3. Heat generates steam to drive the turbine and
generator.
 Diagram 5.29 shows different stages in solar thermal
power plant and schematic of solar thermal power plant.
Chapter 6: Animal Classification

 Animal Classification
o Definition: Formation of groups and sub-groups of animals based on
similarities and differences.
o Benefits:
1. Convenient study of animals.
2. Study of a few animals helps understand an entire group.
3. Provides insight into animal evolution.
4. Animals can be easily and accurately identified.
5. Helps understand relationships with other organisms.
6. Helps understand habitat and role in nature.
7. Helps understand animal adaptations.
 History of Animal Classification
o Aristotle: First to classify animals based on body size, habits, and habitats
(Artificial method).
o Followed by Theophrastus, Pliny, John Ray, Linnaeus.
o Later, Natural system of classification based on body organization, cell
types, chromosomes, biochemical properties.
o System based on evolution by Dobzhansky and Meyer.
o Recently, Carl Woese also proposed classification.
 Traditional Method of Animal Classification
o Based on presence or absence of notochord.
o 1. Non-chordates:

Characters: No rod-like notochord support. Pharyngeal gill-slits

absent. Nerve cord (if present) on ventral side, solid, paired. Heart (if
present) on dorsal side.
 Phyla: Protozoa, Porifera, Coelentarata/Cnidaria, Platyhelminthes,
Aschelminthes, Annelida, Arthropoda, Mollusca, Echinodermata,
Hemichordata.
o 2. Chordates:
 Characters: Body supported by notochord. Pharyngeal gill-slits or
lungs for respiration. Single, tubular nerve cord on dorsal side. Heart
on ventral side.
 Notochord: Long rod-like supporting structure on dorsal side, isolates
nerve tissue.
 Subphyla: Urochordata, Cephalochordata, Vertebrata.
 Sub-phylum Vertebrata further divided into six classes:
Cyclostomata, Pisces, Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia.
 Diagram 6.2 shows characteristics of Chordates.
 Diagram 6.3 shows Conventional System of Animal Classification.
 New System of Classification (Robert Whittaker's Five Kingdom System)
o All multicellular animals in Kingdom: Animalia.
o Based on criteria like: Body organization, Body symmetry, Body cavity,
Germinal layers, Segmentation.
o Criteria for New System of Classification:
 A. Grades of Organization:
  Protoplasmic grade: All life functions by same single cell
(e.g., unicellular organisms like Amoeba, Paramecium).
 Diagram 6.4 shows Protoplasmic-grade organization.
 Cellular grade: Multicellular animals with cells but no tissues
(e.g., Phylum-Porifera).
 Diagram 6.5 shows Cellular grade organization.
 Cell-tissue grade: Cells form tissues to perform functions (e.g.,
Phylum-Cnidaria).
 Diagram 6.6 shows Cell-Tissue grade organization.
 Tissue-Organ grade: Tissues form some organs, but no
complete organ systems (e.g., flatworms).
 Diagram 6.7 shows Tissue-Organ grade organization.
 Organ-system grade: Different organs joined to form organ
systems for specific functions (e.g., Crab, Frog, Human).
 Diagram 6.8 shows Organ-System grade of
organization.
 B. Body Symmetry:
 Asymmetrical Body: No imaginary axis yields two equal
halves (e.g., some sponges).
 Radial Symmetry: Imaginary cut through central axis yields
two equal halves (e.g., Starfish - five planes).
 Bilateral Symmetry: Only one imaginary axis yields two equal
halves (e.g., Insects, fishes, human).
 Diagram 6.9 shows types of body symmetry.
 C. Germ Layers: Diploblastic and Triploblastic:
 Formed during embryonic development, giving rise to tissues.
 Diploblastic: Only two germ layers (Endoderm & Ectoderm)
(e.g., Cnidarians).
 Triploblastic: Three germ layers (Endoderm, Ectoderm &
Mesoderm) (most other animals).
 Diagram 6.10 shows Diploblastic and Triploblastic.
 D. Body cavity (Coelom): Cavity between body wall and internal
organs.
 Eucoelomate: True body cavity formed from mesoderm (e.g.,
Annelida and subsequent phyla).
 Acoelomate: Body cavity absent (e.g., Porifera, Cnidaria,
Platyhelminthes).
 Pseudocoelomates: Body cavity present but not formed in the
typical way (e.g., Aschelminthes).
 Diagram 6.11 shows animal types as per body cavity.
 E. Body Segmentation: Body divided into small, similar units
(segments) (e.g., Earthworm from Annelida).
 Kingdom - Animalia: Phyla Details (Based on new system criteria)
o Phylum - Porifera:
 Simplest body plan ('Sponges'), numerous pores (Ostia and Oscula).
 Aquatic (mostly marine, few freshwater).
 Mostly asymmetrical body.
 Specialized collar cells.
 Sedentary (attached to substratum).
  Spongy body supported by spicules (calcium carbonate or silica) or
spongin fibres.
 Feed on small organisms taken with water.
 Reproduce by budding (asexual) and/or sexual method; good
regeneration ability.
 Examples: Sycon, Euspongia (Bath sponge), Hyalonema, Euplectella.
 Diagram 6.12 shows animals in Porifera phylum.
o Phylum - Coelenterata/Cnidaria:
 Body cylindrical (Polyp) or umbrella-like (Medusa).
 Mostly marine, few freshwater.
 Radially symmetrical and diploblastic.
 Cnidoblast-bearing tentacles around mouth for capturing prey and
protection (inject toxin).
 Examples: Hydra, Adamsia (Sea anemone), Physalia (Portuguese-man-
of-war), Aurelia (Jellyfish), Corals.
 Diagram 6.13 shows animals in Cnidaria phylum.
o Phylum - Platyhelminthes:
 Body slender and flat (like leaf/strip), called 'flatworms'.
 Mostly endoparasites, few free-living/aquatic.
 Acoelomate and bilaterally symmetrical.
 Triploblastic (endoderm, ectoderm, mesoderm).
 Hermaphrodite (male and female systems in same animal).
 Examples: Planaria, Liver fluke, Tapeworm.
 Diagram 6.14 shows animals in phylum Platyhelminthes.
o Phylum - Aschelminthes:
 Body long, thread-like or cylindrical, called 'round worms'.
 Free-living (aquatic/terrestrial) or endoparasites.
 Triploblastic and pseudocoelomate.
 Non-segmented body, covered with tough cuticle.
 Unisexual.
 Examples: Ascaris (Intestinal worm), Filarial worm, Loa loa (Eye
worm).
 Diagram 6.15 shows animals in phylum Aschelminthes.
o Phylum - Annelida:
 Body long, cylindrical, and metamerically segmented.
 Mostly free-living, few ectoparasites; marine, freshwater, or terrestrial.
 Triploblastic, bilaterally symmetrical, and eucoelomate.
 Locomotion with setae or parapodia or suckers.
 Body covered with special cuticle.
 Either hermaphrodite or unisexual.
 Examples: Earthworm, Leech, Nereis.
 Diagram 6.16 shows animals in phylum Annelida.
o Phylum - Arthropoda:
 Have jointed appendages.
 Largest phylum with highest number of animals; highly successful.
 Found in all habitats (deepest oceans to highest mountains).
 Triploblastic, eucoelomate, bilaterally symmetrical, and
segmented.
 Chitinous exoskeleton.
 Unisexual.
  Examples: Crab, spider, scorpion, millipede, centipede, cockroach,
butterfly, honey bee.
 Diagram 6.17 shows animals in phylum Arthropoda.
o Phylum - Mollusca:
 Body soft and slimy, called 'mollusc'.
 Second largest phylum.
 Aquatic or terrestrial (mostly marine aquatic).
 Triploblastic, eucoelomate, non-segmented, and soft.
 Except snails, body shows bilateral symmetry.
 Body divided into head, foot, and visceral mass.
 Visceral mass covered with mantle, which secretes a hard, calcareous
shell (external, internal, or absent).
 Unisexual.
 Examples: Bivalve, Snail, Octopus.
 Octopus: Most clever non-chordate, can change color, performs
swimming, creeping, walking locomotion.
 Diagram 6.18 shows animals in phylum Mollusca.
o Phylum - Echinodermata:
 Calcareous spines on body.
 Found only in ocean.
 Triploblastic, eucoelomate.
 Radially symmetrical in adult stage, but bilateral symmetry in
larval stage.
 Locomotion with tube-feet (also for prey capture). Some sedentary.
 Skeleton of calcareous spines and/or ossicles (plates).
 Good ability of regeneration.
 Mostly unisexual.
 Examples: Starfish, sea-urchin, brittle star, sea-cucumber.
 Diagram 6.19 shows animals in phylum Echinodermata.
o Phylum - Hemichordata:
 Body divided into proboscis, collar, and trunk.
 Notochord present only in proboscis region (hence 'hemichordates').
 Also called 'acorn worms'.
 Marine animals, live in burrows in sand.
 One to many pharyngeal gill slits.
 Unisexual or hermaphrodite.
 Examples: Balanoglossus, Saccoglossus.
 Balanoglossus is considered a connecting link between non-
chordates and chordates.
 Diagram 6.20 shows animals in phylum Hemichordata.
 Phylum - Chordata: Subphyla and Classes:
o A. Subphylum - Urochordata:
 Marine animals.
 Body covered by skin-like test or tunic.
 Larvae are free-swimming, notochord only in tail region; hence
Urochordata.
 Larvae metamorphose into adults after settling.
 Generally hermaphrodite.
 Examples: Herdmania, Doliolum, Oikopleura.
 Diagram 6.21 shows animals in Sub-phylum Urochordata.
o B. Subphylum - Cephalochordata:
 Small, fish-like, marine animals.
 Notochord present throughout the body length.
 Pharynx very large, contains gill-slits.
 Unisexual.
 Example: Amphioxus.
 Diagram 6.21 (mislabelled as Urochordata, but shows Amphioxus)
shows animals in Sub-phylum Cephalochordata.
o C. Subphylum - Vertebrata/Craniata:
 Notochord replaced by vertebral column.
 Well-developed head.
 Brain protected by cranium.
 Endoskeleton cartilaginous or bony.
 Some jaw-less (Agnatha), some with jaws (Gnathostomata).
 Divided into six classes:
 a. Class- Cyclostomata:
 Jaw-less mouth with sucker.
 Skin soft, without scales.
 Paired appendages absent.
 Endoskeleton cartilaginous.
 Most are ectoparasites.
 Examples: Petromyzon, Myxine.
 Diagram 6.23 shows Class Cyclostomata-Petromyzon.
 b. Class- Pisces:
 Cold-blooded (Poikilotherms) aquatic animals (marine
and freshwater).
 Spindle-shaped body to minimize water resistance.
 Paired and un-paired fins for swimming; tail fin for
steering.
 Exoskeleton as scales; endoskeleton cartilaginous or
bony.
 Respiration with gills.
 Examples: Rohu, Pomfret, Seahorse, Shark, Electric
ray, Sting ray.
 Diagram 6.24 shows Class Pisces: Scoliodon (Dog
fish).
 c. Class- Amphibia:
 Strictly aquatic during larval life (aquatic respiration);
adult life in water/on land (aquatic/aerial respiration).
 Two pairs of appendages; digits without claws.
 Exoskeleton absent; skin without derivatives, usually
kept moist for respiration.
 External ear absent, but tympanum present.
 Neck absent; prominent eyes with eyelids.
 Examples: Frog, Toad, Salamander.
 Diagram 6.25 shows Class Amphibia: Frog and Toad.
 d. Class- Reptilia:
 First true terrestrial animals with creeping
movement.
 Cold-blooded (poikilotherms).
  Creep on land as body cannot be lifted.
 Skin dry and scaly.
 Neck present between head & trunk.
 External ear absent.
 Digits with claws.
 Examples: Tortoise, Lizard, Snake.
 Diagram 6.26 shows Class-Reptilia: Wall lizard.
 e. Class- Aves:
 Completely adapted for aerial life.
 Warm-blooded (Homeotherms) (can maintain
constant body temperature).
 Spindle-shaped body to minimize air resistance.
 Forelimbs modified into wings. Digits covered with
scales, bear claws.
 Exoskeleton as feathers.
 Neck present; jaws modified into beak.
 Examples: Peacock, Parrot, Pigeon, Duck, Penguin.
 Diagram 6.27 shows Class- Aves: Pigeon.
 f. Class- Mammalia:
 Typical character: Presence of mammary glands.
 Warm-blooded.
 Body divided into head, neck, trunk, and tail.
 Digits with nails, claws, or hooves.
 Exoskeleton as hairs or fur.
 Examples: Elephant, Human, Kangaroo, Dolphin, Bat.
 Diagram 6.28 shows Class-Mammalia: Bat.

Chapter 7: Introduction to Microbiology

 Applied Microbiology
o Branch of biology studying enzymes related to prokaryotes and eukaryotic
microbes, proteins, applied genetics, molecular biology.
o Used for societal benefits, producing food and medicines on a large scale.
 Industrial Microbiology
o Related to commercial use of microbes, including economic, social, and
environment-related processes and products.
o Main features:
 Various productions via fermentation (e.g., bread, cheese, wine,
chemicals, enzymes, nutrients, medicines).
 Use of microbes for garbage management and pollution control.
 Products
o A. Dairy Products: Milk converted into products for preservation and
improved texture/taste/flavor.
 Yoghurt: Produced with Lactobacilli (inoculant).
 Industrial production uses condensed milk powder.
 Bacterial strains: Streptococcus thermophilus and
Lactobacillus delbrueckii (1:1 proportion).
  Streptococcus forms lactic acid, causing proteins to gel (dense
consistency).
 Lactobacilli form acetaldehyde-like compounds (characteristic
taste).
 Fruit juices can be mixed for flavors.
 Shelf life and probiotic properties improved by pasteurization.
 Butter: Sweet cream and cultured types; microbes used for cultured
variety.
 Cheese production: Large-scale production from cow milk.
 Milk mixed with Lactobacillus lactis, Lactobacillus
cremoris, Streptococcus thermophilus for sourness.
 Whey (water) removed for dense texture.
 Traditionally, rennet enzyme from cattle gut was used; now,
protease enzyme from fungi produces vegetarian cheese.
 Process: cutting solid yoghurt, washing, rubbing, salting,
mixing microbes/pigments/flavors, pressing, ripening.
 Fresh cheese is soft (cottage, cream, mozzarella).
 Semi-hard (cheddar) after 3-12 months.
 Very hard (parmesan) after 12-18 months.
 Diagram 7.1 shows Cheese and Butter.
o Probiotics:
 Milk products containing active bacteria (e.g., Lactobacillus
acidophilus, Lactobacillus casei, Bifidobacterium bifidum).
 Maintain balance of intestinal microorganisms: increase beneficial
microbes (aiding digestion), decrease harmful ones (e.g., Clostridium).
 Improve resistance, lower ill-effects of harmful metabolic substances.
 Make microbes active again after antibiotic use.
 Available in yoghurt, kefir, sauerkraut, dark chocolate, miso soup,
pickles, oils, artificial sweeteners, microalgae (Spirulina, Chlorella).
 Used for diarrhoea treatment and poultry.
 Diagram 7.2 shows Probiotics.
o Bread:
 Dough formed by mixing flour, baker’s yeast (Saccharomyces
cerevisiae), water, salt, etc..
 Yeast fermentation of carbohydrates produces carbon dioxide (CO2)
and ethanol.
 CO2 makes dough rise and bread spongy.
 Yeast contains carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals,
making bread nutritive.
o Vinegar Production:
 Used for sour taste and preservation (pickles, sauce).
 Chemically: 4% acetic acid (CH3COOH).
 Process:

1. Ethanol obtained by fermentation of carbon compounds (fruit

juices, molasses, starch) with Saccharomyces cerevisiae.
2. Bacterial strains Acetobacter and Glucanobacter degrade
ethanol to acetic acid and by-products.
3. Acetic acid separated by rarefaction, bleached with potassium
ferrocyanide, pasteurized.
 4. Small quantity of SO2 gas mixed to produce vinegar.
 Diagram 7.3 shows Vinegar.
o Soya Sauce: Produced by fermenting wheat/rice flour and soyabean mixture
with Aspergillus oryzae.
 Diagram 7.4 shows Aspergillus oryzae.
o Production of Beverages: Microbes used to separate seeds from fruit (Coffee,
Cocoa) or ferment juice (Wine from Grapes, Cider from Apple).
 Diagram 7.5 shows some ingredients of beverages production.
o Microbial Enzymes:
 Used in chemical industry instead of chemical catalysts.
 Active at low temperature, pH, pressure, saving energy and needing
less erosion-proof instruments.
 Specific processes, minimizing unnecessary by-products and
purification expenses.
 Eco-friendly: waste elimination/decomposition avoided, enzymes can
be reused.
 Examples: oxido-reductases, transferases, hydrolases, lyases,
isomerases, ligases.
 Used in detergents for dirt removal at low temperatures.
 Used to obtain glucose and fructose syrup from corn flour (Bacilli,
Streptomyces).
 Used in cheese, plant extracts, textile, leather, paper industries.
 Diagram 7.6 shows Aspergilus niger.
 Table of organic acids obtained by microbial processing and their uses.
o Xanthan gum:
 Obtained by fermentation of starch and molasses with Xanthomonas
species.
 Imparts thickness to ice creams, puddings, chocolates, etc..
 Used in pigments, fertilizers, weedicides, textile pigments, toothpaste,
high-quality paper.
o Biofuel:
 Renewable source of energy, available in solid (coal, dung, crop
residue), liquid (vegetable oils, alcohol), gaseous (gobar gas, coal gas)
forms.
 Considered reliable fuels of the future.
 Gaseous fuel (methane): obtained by microbial anaerobic
decomposition of urban, agricultural, industrial waste.
 Ethanol: Clean (smokeless) fuel from molasses fermentation by
Saccharomyces yeast.
 Hydrogen gas: Fuel of future; released during bio-photolysis of water
by bacteria performing photoreduction.
 Industrial chemicals (alcohols, acetone, organic acids, fatty acids,
polysaccharides) also produced microbially.
 Diagram 7.8 shows biofuel production.
 Diagram 7.7 shows Saccharomyces (yeast).
o Antibiotics:
 Control diseases in human and animals.
 Obtained from different types of bacteria and fungi.
 Examples: penicillin, cephalosporins, erythromycin, streptomycin,
tetracyclines, vancomycin, rifamycin (effective against tuberculosis).
 Microbial Pollution Control
o Used for solid waste disposal via biogas plant and compost production.
o Land-filling sites:
 Degradable urban waste used.
 Pits lined with plastic sheets (prevents leaching).
 Waste dumped, covered with soil, saw dust, leafy waste, specific
biochemicals; bioreactors mixed.
 Microbes decompose waste; best quality compost formed.
 Sites can be reused after compost removal.
 Diagram 7.9 shows a modern landfill site.
o Sewage Management:
 In cities, sewage carried to processing units for microbial treatment.
 Microbes decompose carbon compounds (releasing methane, CO2) and
destroy pathogens (cholera, typhoid).
 Phenol oxidizing bacteria decompose xenobiotic chemicals.
 Sludge settles and can be used as fertilizer.
 Treated water is environmentally safe.
 Microbes used for bioremediation of sewage-polluted environment.
 Clean Technology (Role of microbes in environmental clean-up)
o Microbes decompose manmade chemicals.
o Some microbes remove sulphur from fuels.
o Thiobacilli and sulphobacilli convert metals (copper, iron, uranium, zinc)
into compounds before leaching.
o Oil Spills cleaning:
 Pseudomonas spp. and Alcanovorax borkumensis
(hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria - HCB) destroy pyridines and other
chemicals in oil spills.
 HCB decompose hydrocarbons, react carbon with oxygen to form CO2
and water.
 Diagram 7.10 shows Alcanovorax borkumensis, 7.11 shows
Pseudomonas, 7.12 shows Acidobacillus.
o Plastic decomposition:
 Species like Vibrio, Ideonella sakaiensis can decompose PET
(Polyethylene Terephthalate Polyester).
 Actinomycetes, Streptomyces, Nocardia, Actinoplanes can
decompose rubber.
 Biodegradable polylactic acid plastic should be used.
o Acid Rain Control:
 Sulphuric acid in acid rain and mine materials causes metal erosion.
 Acidophillium spp. and Acidobacillus ferroxidens use sulphuric
acid as energy source, controlling soil pollution.
o Uranium Salt Conversion:
 Geobacter convert water-soluble uranium salts (from electroplating
waste/atomic energy plants) into insoluble salts, preventing
groundwater contamination.
 Diagram 7.13 shows Geobacter.
 Microbes and Farming
o **Microbial Inoculants * Bacterial and fungal toxins directly integrated into
plants using biotechnology.
 Toxic to insects, preventing plant consumption.
  Fungi and viruses also used as pesticides.
 Spinosad (by-product of fermentation) is a biopesticide.
 Diagram 7.14 shows caterpillar feeding on leaf.

Chapter 8: Cell Biology and Biotechnology

 Cell Biology (Cytology)

o Study of cell structure, types, organelles, and cell division.
o Revolutionary changes in human health due to cell biology.
o Research institutes: National Center for Cell Science (Pune), Instem
(Bengaluru).
 Stem Cells
o Definition: Special types of cells in multicellular organisms that give rise to
all other cell types and play important role in wound healing.
o New organism formed from zygote is initially a mass of alike stem cells.
o Differentiation: During development, these cells form different types of cells,
tissues, and perform various functions.
o Pleuripotency: Property of stem cells to be primary, undifferentiated cells
with self-multiplying ability, parent cells of all human cells.
o Can transform into desired cells, tissues, and organs with biochemical stimulus
if collected before differentiation (5th-7th day of conception).
o Sources of Stem Cells:
 Embryonic Stem Cells: Cells of embryo before differentiation (before
14th day of conception).
 Adult Stem Cells: Red bone marrow, adipose connective tissue, blood.
 Cord blood (umbilical cord) immediately after birth.
o Stem Cell Preservation: Samples collected and kept in liquid nitrogen at -
135°C to -190°C.
o Uses of Stem Cells:

1. Regenerative Therapy:
 Cell Therapy: Replace dead cells in diabetes, myocardial
infarction, Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s diseases.
 Produce blood cells for anaemia, thalassemia, leukemia.
2. Organ Transplantation: Produce and transplant organs like kidney
and liver in case of failure.

 Diagram 8.2 shows stem cells and organs.

 Diagram 8.3 shows stem cells therapy [2 age of donor and recipient.
o Posthumous (after death) donation of body and organs: Organs can remain
functional for some period after death and can save lives.
o Many government and social organizations work to increase awareness.
o Transplantation of Human Organs Act, 1994 (amended 2009, 2011, 2014)
ensures transparency.
o Diagram 8.4 shows organs that can be donated.
 Biotechnology
 o Definition: Bringing about artificial genetic changes and hybridization in
organisms for human welfare.
o Includes cytology, biochemistry, molecular biology, genetic engineering.
o Significant progress in agriculture and pharmacy.
o Main areas:

1. Use of microbial abilities (yoghurt, alcohol production).

2. Use of cell productivity (antibiotics, vaccines).
3. Use of bio-molecules (DNA, proteins).
4. Development of desired quality plants/animals/products by gene
manipulation (e.g., human growth hormone from genetically modified
bacteria).
5. Use of genetic and non-genetic techniques (tissue culture, hybrid
seeds).
o Benefits:
1. Increased per hectare yield, irrespective of land limitation.
2. Minimized disease control expenses due to resistant varieties.
3. Increased yield per annum from fast fruit setting varieties.
4. Development of stress-resistant varieties (temperature, water-stress,
soil fertility).
o Development in India:

 National Biotechnology Board (1982).

 Transformed to Department of Biotechnology (1986) under Ministry
of Science and Technology.
 Various institutes (National Institute of Immunology, National Centre
for Cell Science, etc.) work under this department.
 Commercial Applications of Biotechnology [276-]. * Bt Brinjal: Developed using
Bacillus thuringiensis gene; kills pest. * Golden Rice: Gene synthesizing Vitamin A
(Beta carotene) introduced; 23 times more beta carotene than normal rice. *
Herbicide tolerant plants: Developed to selectively destroy weeds without harming
the main crop. * Diagram 8.5 shows some crops. * c. Biofertilizers: Instead of
chemical fertilizers, improve nitrogen fixation and phosphate solubilization. * Mainly
bacteria: Rhizobium, Azotobacter, Nostoc, Anabaena; and plants like Azolla. *
Diagram 8.6 shows Azolla.
o 2. Animal Husbandry:
 Methods: Artificial insemination and embryo transfer.
 Improves quantity and quality of animal products (milk, meat, wool).
 Develops stronger animals for hard work.
o 3. Human Health: Diagnosis and treatment of diseases.
 Identify gene role in diseases; early diagnosis (diabetes, heart diseases,
AIDS, dengue).
 a. Vaccines and Vaccination:
 Vaccine: Antigen-containing material for permanent/temporary
immunity.
 Traditionally: Killed/partially killed pathogens (risk of
contracting disease).
 Biotechnology: Artificially produced antigens using gene from
pathogen; safer. Pure proteins injected (safest way).
  More thermo-stable, active longer (e.g., polio, hepatitis
vaccines).
 Edible Vaccines: Work in progress; transgenic potatoes
producing immunity against bacteria like Vibrio cholerae,
Escherichia coli.
 Diagram 8.7 shows transgenic potatoes.
 b. Treatment: Production of hormones (insulin, somatotropin) and
blood clotting factors.
 Insulin: Now prepared with bacteria (human insulin gene
inserted into bacteria genome), previously from horse pancreas.
 c. Interferon: Small protein molecule for viral diseases; produced by
transgenic E. coli.
 d. Gene therapy: Treat genetic disorders in somatic cells (e.g.,
Phenylketonuria - PKU, affecting liver cells).
 e. Cloning: Production of replica of any cell, organ, or entire
organism.
 i. Reproductive cloning: Clone produced by fusion of somatic
cell nucleus with enucleated ovum (no sperm needed).
(Example: Dolly the sheep, 1996).
 ii. Therapeutic cloning: Stem cells derived from lab-formed
cell (somatic cell nucleus + enucleated egg cell) used to treat
various diseases.
 Gene cloning: Millions of copies of same gene for gene
therapy.
 Potential to control hereditary diseases, enhance specific
tendencies, but human cloning faces worldwide opposition.
o 4. Industrial Products / White Biotechnology: Less expensive processes for
industrial chemicals (e.g., alcohol from sugar molasses using transgenic
yeast).
o 5. Environment and Biotechnology: Solves environmental problems.
 Cleaning of Oil Spillage in Oceans: Oil-digesting and fast
multiplying bacteria (e.g radiodurans* (radiation resistant) absorbs
radiations from radioactive debris. Grasses (alfalfa, clover, rye) for
phyto-remediation.
o 6. Food Biotechnology: Oldest use of biotechnology for food items (bread,
cheese, wine, beer, yoghurt, vinegar).
o 7. DNA Fingerprinting:
 Each person's DNA sequence is unique, like fingerprints.
 Used in forensic sciences to establish identity of criminals (from body
parts at crime scene) or paternity.
 Research performed in Center for DNA Fingerprinting and
Diagnostics, Hyderabad.
 Important Stages in Agricultural Development
o Green Revolution:
 Increased food grain production using improvised dwarf varieties
(wheat, rice), proper fertilizers/pesticides, water management.
 Saved large population from hunger.
 Contributors: Dr. Norman Borlaug (USA), **]:
 Production of useful aquatic organisms using water.
  Pisciculture: Cultivating fishes, shrimps, lobsters, aquatic
plants/animals.
 Govt. of India launched 'Nil-Kranti Mission-2016' (NKM-16) to
encourage pisciculture.
 Diagram 8.9 shows Pisciculture: Prawns.
o Apiculture: Honey collection from bee hives using artificial bee boxes to
avoid destruction of hive and bees.
 Diagram 8.12 shows Apiculture.
o Organic Farming:
 Complete ban on chemical fertilizers and pesticides.
 Use of local, sturdy varieties to maintain natural balance.
 Addresses problems of soil fertility decline and pest infestation from
chemical use.
 Humus formation by earthworms/fungi makes essential elements
available.
 Contrast with hydroponics (soil-less farming using liquid chemical
fertilizers with harmful effects).
 Insecticides: Poisons (DDT, malathion) causing bio-magnification in
food web, harmful to humans/animals.
 Diagram 8.10 shows fertilizers and insecticides.
 Diagram 8.11 shows Oil cake and Vermiculture.
o Cultivation of Medicinal Plants:
 India has rich biodiversity and tradition of ayurveda.
 * Diagram 8.14 shows Mango processing Unit.


Chapter 9: Social Health

 Social Health
o Definition: The ability of a person to establish relationships with other
persons and to change one’s own behaviour according to changing social
conditions.
o Factors for good social health: Strong personality, many friends/relatives,
proper use of time (loneliness/peer-group), trust in others, respect/acceptance
for others.
o Diagram 9.1 shows factors affecting social health, including financial status,
education, basic needs, social environment, job opportunities, water, transport,
safety, treatment, toilets, political conditions, playgrounds, residential area.
 Factors Disturbing / Endangering Social Health
o 1. Mental Stress:
 Increased competition in education, employment, business.
 Loneliness and stress in children due to nuclear families and parents
working outdoors.
 Gender inequality (bindings * Leads to addiction, permanently
damaging nervous system (brain), muscle system, heart.
 Carcinogenic effects of tobacco on mouth and lungs.
 Alcoholism: Decreases efficiency of nervous system (brain) and liver;
shortens lifespan. Hinders brain development in adolescents, slowing
 memorization/learning. Leads to social, mental, familial, and physical
illness.
 Diagram 9.3 shows Addiction control.
o 3. Chronic Diseases:
 Ignorance towards people suffering from chronic diseases (AIDS, T.B.,
Leprosy, mental health disorders) and old persons.
 Increases old age homes, harming social health.
o 4. Communication Media and Excessive Use of Modern Technology:
 Excessive, unnecessary, irrational use is a sensitive issue for social
health.
 Cell phone users often unaware of surroundings; a form of addiction
[310-consuming games causing economic losses, loss of concentration,
can be fatal.
 Inappropriate content: Internet information misused for
inappropriate videos. Government regulates/bans such websites/films.
 "Selfiecide": Indulging in selfies without awareness of risks, leading
to accidents (drowning, falling).
 Lack of empathy: People uploading road accident videos instead of
helping victims.
 Mentally ill behavior: Domestic violence, threatening/hitting children,
sending suicide videos to gain sympathy are mental illnesses.
 Diagram 9.5 shows different situations (playing then vs. now).
 Diagram 9.6 shows a boy using a cell phone while eating.
 Diagram 9.7 shows a selfie on the road.
 Diagram 9.8 shows a pedestrian making a video clip of an accident.
o 5. Cyber Crimes:
 Definition: Misuse of electronic media for destructive/unnatural
activities.
 Examples:
 Disclosure of personal info (Aadhar/PAN/credit/debit card
numbers, PINs).
 Consumer deception (inferior/impaired items online).
 Bank transactions without consent.
 Hacking: Obtaining/misusing confidential info from internet
via computer programs.
 Fake social media accounts for teasing/financial
exploitation.2000** (amended 2008): Punishments for cyber
crime (imprisonment for 3 years, fine up to 5 lakh).
Maharashtra is first state to start separate cyber crime unit.
 Diagram 9.9 shows cheating of consumers.
 Stress Management
o Laughter Clubs: Relieve mental stress by laughing loudly.
 Diagram 9.10 shows a Laughter Club.
o Communication: Expressing feelings with friends, peers, cousins, teachers,
parents helps relieve stress.
o Hobbies: Material collection, photography, reading, cooking, sculpturing,
drawing, rangoli, dancing, etc. - properly utilize free hours. Divert
energy/mind to positive thinking.
o Music/Singing: Keeps happy, drives away stress, changes mindset.
 o Outdoor Games: Physical exercise, improves discipline, interaction, unity,
reduces loneliness, makes social.
o Nature: Gardening, bird watching, lingering in nature, rearing domestic
animals - create positive mindset, improve confidence.
o Awareness: Keeping aware of surroundings, neutralizing negative thoughts
(e.g., revenge).
o Physical activities: Exercising, massaging, visiting spas, Yoga (discipline,
balanced food, meditation, deep breathing, yogic sleep, yogasanas).
o Meditation: Improves concentration, imparts positivity.
o Personality development: Cultivating time management, duty planning,
decision power [ for children in distress.
o Diagram 9.11 shows Counselling.

Chapter 10: Disaster Management

 Disaster
o Definition (UN): A sudden event leading to huge loss of life and property.
o Characteristics: Occurs suddenly, cannot be predicted, precautions not
possible. Causes sudden environmental changes and damage.
o Types:
 Natural Disasters: Floods, wet/dry famine, cyclones, earthquakes,
volcanoes.
 Man-made Disasters: Due to human use of natural resources or
unplanned actions (e.g., unknown poisonous gases, atomic tests,
accidents, international war, fire, bomb blast, forced migration,
terrorism, rapes, child labor).
o Effects: Long-term impacts on economy, social, cultural, political, law,
administration, etc.. Life in affected area totally disturbed.
o *Vari Diagram 10.1 shows some disasters.
o Classification by cause:
 Geological: Earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, landslides, erosion,
flooding.
 Atmospheric: Hot/cold waves, snow-storms, cyclones, hail storm,
drought, flood, meteorite, sun spots.
 Biological: Plant (forest fire, fungal disease, weed); Animal (infectious
viruses/bacteria like cholera, malaria, plague; insects, poisonous
animal bites).
 Man-Made: Unknown poisonous gases, atomic test, unplanned action,
accident, international war, fire, bomb blast, forced migration,
terrorism, rapes, child labor.
 Effects / Impact of Disaster
o Serious effects: Collapsing bridges, coastal village flooding, food shortage
(floods); collapsing houses, land cracks (earthquake); environmental damage
(forest fire, drought).
o Economic: Sudden increase in expenditure, shortage of funds for other
sectors, decreased* Professional: Stress on workers, collapsing transport
system, shortage of facilities.
 o Diagram showing various effects of disaster.
o Nature and Scope: Understanding the nature and gravity involves considering
changes before/during/after disaster, duration of effects.
 The Nature and Extent of Disaster (Phases)
o Six phases: Pre-disaster, Warning, Emergency, Rehabilitation, Recovery,
Reconstruction.
o Three important aspects for common citizens:
 1. Phase of Emergency: Maximum lives saved by quick actions.
Actions: search/rescue, medical aid, first aid, restoring communication,
removing people from affected area. Gravity estimated in this phase.
 2. Transitional Phase: Rehabilitation starts after disaster subsides.
Actions: clearing debris, restoring water supply/roads for normalcy.
Rehabilitation of victims (monetary, livelihood) important to soothe
mental stress.
 ** due to increasing risk from atomic energy. Direct citizen
participation necessary.
 Disaster Management
o Definition: Prevention, arrangements to face, or ability to face disasters.
Minimizing losses in a planned manner.
o Objectives:

1.Saving human life and releasing people during calamity.

2.Supplying essential commodities to reduce disaster effects.
3.Restoring human life by creating reconciliation.
4.Rehabilitating disaster victims.
5.Taking protective measures to reduce future intensity.
o Key Aspects of Disaster Management Cycle:

 Preparation: Plan to minimize destruction.

 Redemption: Plan for minimizing damage to society/country.
 Preparedness: Plan for quick public/administration response.
 Impact of disaster: Review intensity of disaster aspects and
management.
 Response: Immediate action after incidence.
o Post-disaster management:
 Providing necessary help to victims.
 Participation of local people in aid arrangement.
 Quick establishment of help centers (control centers).
 Categorizing/delivering help material and continuous review.
 Always being prepared for rescue.
o Avoidance of natural disasters impossible, but losses can be minimized. Man-
made disasters can be avoided.
o Structure of Disaster Management Authority:
 Disaster Management Act, 2005 passed in India.
 Flow chart shows control/coordination from national to village level.
 National: Chairman - Prime Minister.
 State: Chairman - Chief Minister.
 District: Chairman - Collector (responsible for planning,
coordinating, controlling rehabilitation; designing schemes).
 **Tal, building collapse).
 First Aid and Emergency Action
o First Aid: Primary help offered to victims before actual medical treatment.
o Objectives:
 Saving lives.
 Preventing deterioration of victim's condition.
 Relieving pains.
 Attempting to improve the condition.
o Transportation methods for patients: Cradle method, carrying on back,
carrying on two hands (depend on victim's condition). 10.2 (second instance)
shows various disasters.
 Mock Drill
o Definition: A practice to check preparedness for facing disaster early. Virtual
situation created to check reaction time.
o Trained personnel observe responsibilities to check execution of plan. Checks
efficacy of disaster redressal system.
o Arranged by fire fighters (e.g., in schools: extinguishing fire, rescuing trapped
people), police force, voluntary organizations.
o Objectives:

1. Evaluating response to disaster.

2. Improving coordination between disaster control departments.
3. Identification of own abilities.
4. Improving ability of quick response.
5. Checking competency of planned actions.
6. Identifying possible errors and risks.