CLASSICAL ROME

GRANT ALLEN'S
HISTORICAL GUIDES

PARIS. By Grant Allen.

THE CITIES OF BELGIUM. By Grant Allen.
FLORENCE. By Grant Allen.
VENICE. By Grant Allen.
THE CITIES OF NORTHERN ITALY. By
G. C. Williamson, Litt.D.
THE UMBRIAN TOWNS. By J. W. and A. M.
Cruickshank.
CHRISTIAN ROME. By J. W. and A. M.
Cruickshank.
SMALLER TUSCAN TOWNS. By J. W. and
A. M. Cruickshank. [/ n preparation.

Fcap. 8vo. Cloth. Round corners.

 WR
J
xRANT ALLEN'S HISTORICAL GUIDES

CLASSICAL
ROME

H. STUART JONES, M.A.

FORMERLY DIRECTOR OF THE BRITISH SCHOOL AT ROME

LONDON : GRANT RICHARDS LTD.

NEW YORK : A. WESSELS COMPANY
FLORENCE: SUCC. B . SEEBER
PLYMODTH : W.\I. BRENDON AND SON, LTD., PRINTERS
 TO

COUNTESS HEDWIG OK XESSELRODE-REICHENSTEIX

. . . es ist alles beseelt in deinen heiligen Mauern,

Ewige Roma.
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2010 with funding from
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 PREFACE

NOT only do fresh discoveries alter the aspect of

ancient sites, but the monuments in Roman museums
are frequently rearranged, and new acquisitions are ex-
hibited. No effort to keep abreast of such changes can be
entirely successful, but this guide has been brought up to
date as far as possible. The author is indebted to Dr. Ashby,
Director of the British School at Rome, for information
supplied while the sheets were passing through the press.
For the rest, he will only take this opportunity of acknow-
ledging the great debt which he, like all students of Roman
antiquities, owes to the writings of Wolfgang Helbig,
Christian Huelsen, and Walther Amelung.

November, 19 10.
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE

IN order to keep the volumes of this guide within a

size convenient to the traveller, the book has been
divided into two parts — the one dealing with Classical, the
other with Christian Rome.
Classical Rome possesses a double interest for the modern
visitor : firstly — and chiefly — on account of her unique posi-
tion in history as the first and last capital of a world-empire
embracing western civilisation ; secondly, as the latest
home of classical art, where many of the finest works of
Greek craftsmen were ultimately housed, and practically all
were represented by copies, many of which are still pre-
served in her museums. Some will find a greater attraction
in the monuments which illustrate the history of the Roman
people, from its obscure beginnings to its Imperial splen-
dour, others in the art treasures of the Roman collections
and the story which they tell to the trained eye ; but no one
who wishes to enjoy to the full what Rome can give him
should neglect either field of study.
It would be impossible to arrange the monuments de-
scribed in this book in strictly chronological order without
much waste of space, nor would it be advisable for the
traveller whose time is limited to visit them in such order.
So much of the history of Rome is contained in the Forum,
the Sacred Way, and the Palatine that they must claim
attention first ; in the framework thus supplied other monu-
ments will easily find their places. Next should come a
visit to the Capitol, where, apart from the historical associa-
tions of the site, the art collections of the Museo Capitolino
and the Palazzo dei Conservatori furnish a conspectus of
x INTRODUCTORY NOTE

ancient art in all its periods, ending, as is fit, with that of

the Roman Empire, embodied in Imperial portraits and
historical reliefs. It is but a few steps from the Capitol to
the region of the Imperial Fora on the one side, and on
the other lies the Campus Martius. In these quarters the
traveller will learn something of the transformation wrought
by the Emperors in Central Rome. Climbing the Eastern
heights, he will realise how the region of parks, palaces,
and baths formed an outer ring about the busy quarters of
the city, and in the Villa Borghese and the Museo delle
Terme he will continue his study of ancient sculpture. At
the east extremity of the Caelian is the Lateran, with its
museum of sculpture, and crossing the Caelian into the
valley by which the Appian Way issues from Rome, we come
to the imposing ruins of the Baths of Caracalla, and com-
plete our circuit by a visit to the Aventine and the riverside
quarter. There still remains the right bank of the Tiber,
with the great collections of the Vatican, which must be
visited again and again.
The sections of this book follow the order given above ;
museums are described in their topographical surroundings.
They may of course be visited at any time, and the student
of ancient sculpture who has sufficient time at his disposal
will arrange his programme in accordance with his predomi-
nant interest ; but there are two, the Museo Kircheriano
(p. 175) and the Villa di Papa Giulio, described in the
thirteenth section, which are chiefly instructive to those
Concerned with the origins of Rome and its place in Early
Italy. They should therefore be visited early by those who
desire to trace the history of the Roman people systemati-
cally from primitive times.
A short section on the walls of Rome is inserted at the
close of the book. Both die early and the late lines of
fortification are well worthy of study and most interesting
to follow ; but the traveller need not, indeed should not,
begin with an examination of them.
No time should be lost in making the ascent of the
Janiculum in order to enjoy the view of Rome described on
 INTRODUCTORY NOTE xi

p. 4, and gain a general idea of the city and its surround-

ings. Before the construction of the railway, travellers
approaching Rome from the N. by carriage entered it by the
Porta S. Pancrazio and at once saw it under its most impres-
sive aspect ; and those who arrive by train and lose this
splendid prospect should at once make good the deficiency.
The view of Central Rome from the tower of the Palazzo
del Senatore (p. 5) deserves an early visit.
Monuments and remains of antiquity outside the walls
of Rome are not described in this book, since it is intended
to include them in a separate volume.
 CONTEXTS
PAGE
vii
Preface ix
Introductory Note ....

Time-Table
xvii
XV
How to Use these Guide-Books .
67
Map of Classical Rome. XX
84
I. Origins and Growth of Rome I

II. Roman Architecture

III. Ancient Sculpture in Roman Collec

IV. The Forum
V. The Sacred Way and its Monuments
VI. Thf. Palatine .
164
VII. The Capitol . 189
100 229
VIII. The Imperial Fora 151
IX. The Campus Martiu.^
X. The Eastern Heights 4-
XI. The C. t.i.ian and Ayentine .

XII. The Right Bank of the Tiber 26S

XIII. The Villa Di Papa Giulio .

XIV. The Walls of Rome 354
Index
363>
35
 69
87
LIST OF PLANS 43
PAGE
XX
Map ok Classical Rome.
The Forum Romanum .... 105

The Sacred Way and its Monuments. 109

137
The Palatine
153
Museo Capitolino, ground floor
199
Museo Capitolino, upper floor .
Palazzo dei Conservatori, first floor 273
The Fora of the Emperors .
Museo delle Terme, ground floor .
211
Museo delle Terme, upper floor
The Vatican Museum ....
 TIME-TABLE
OF ROMAN MUSEUMS, Etc.

[These are of three classes — Papal, National, and Muni-

cipal. To the first belong the collections in the Vatican and
Lateran palaces ; to the second the two Museums on the
Capitol, the Antiquarium, the Museo Barracco and some
minor monuments ; to the third the Museo delle Terme,
the Museo Kircheriano, the Villa Borghese (now Villa
Umberto Primo), the Villa di Papa Giulio and the re-
maining monuments and excavations. Free admission
to these collections can be obtained by students recom-
mended by recognised institutions under certain con-
ditions. The British School of Archaeology, Palazzo
Odescalchi, the American School of Classical Studies, Via
Vicenza 5, and the British and American Archaeological
Society, Via San Nicolo da Tolentino 72, are of great service
to students of antiquity].
In the followinglist M = Municipal, N = National, P = Papal.
Angelo, Castle of S. (N.) 9-4, Sundays 10-2 1 lira; Sun. free
Antiquarium (M.) . . 9-5 50 c.
Barracco, Museo (M.) . Tues. and Fri. 10-2 free. Sun. free
Borghese, Villa (X. . 10-4, Sun. 10-1 1 lira*
Capitoline Museum (M. ) . 10-4, Sun. 10-1 1 lira, Sun. free
Culosseum (N. ) . . 9 (Sun. 10) till sun- 50 c.
down
Columbarium of Pom pun- 10 till sundown 25 c.
ius Hylas(M.)
Conservatori, Palazzo dei 10-4, Sun. 10-1 1 lira;* Sun.
M.) free
Forum Romanum (N. ) . 9 (Sun. 10) till sun- 1 lira ; Sun. free
down
Kircherian Museum (N.) . 10-4, Sun. 10-1 1 lira: Sun free
xvi TIME-TABLE
Lateran Museum (P.) . Tues. and Thurs. I lira; Sat. free
10-3, Sat. 10-1
Palatine (N.) . . . 9 (Sun. 10) till sun- 1 lira ; Sun. tree
down
Papa Giulio. Villa di (N.) 10-4, Sun. 10- 1 1 lira ; Sun. free
Scipios, Tombs of (M. ) . 10 till sundown 25 c.
Tabularium (M.) . . 10-4, Sun. closed 1 lira"
Terme, Museo delle (N.) . 10-4, Sun. 10-1 1 lira ; Sun. free
Thermae of Caracalla (N.) 9 (Sun.
down 10) till sun- 1 lira ; Sun. free

Vatican Museum and 10-3, Sat. 10-1 t 1 lira ; Sat. free

Library (P.)

* Tickets (l lira) are sold at the entrance of the Capitoline

Museum, and admit to the Palazzo dei Conservatori and Tabularium.
t The Etruscan collection is shown on Mondays and Thursdays.
Egyptian (and Galleria Lapidaria) on Tuesdays and Fridays, the
Galleria dei Candelabri on Wednesdays.
 HOW TO USE THESE GUIDE-
BOOKS

r I ^HE portions of this book intended to be read at

■*■ leisure at home, before proceeding to explore each
town or monument, are enclosed in brackets \thus\ The
portion relating to each principal object should be
quietly read and digested before a 7'isit, and referred to
again afterwards. The portion to be read on the spot
is made as brief as possible, and is printed in large legible
type, so as to be easily read in the dim light of churches,
chapels, and galleries. The keynote words are printed
in bold type, to catch the eye. Where objects are
numbered, the numbers used are always those of the latest
official catalogues.
Baedeker's Guides are so printed that each principal
portion can be detached entire from the volume. The
traveller who uses Baedeker is advised to carry in his
pocket one such portion, referring to the place he is then
visiting, together with the plan of the town, 'while carrying
this book in his hand. These guides do not profess to
supply practical information.
See little at a time, and see it thoroughly. Never
attempt to "do" any place or any monument. By follow-
ing strictly the order in which objects are noticed in this
book, you will gain a conception of the historical evolu =
tion of the town which you cannot obtain if you go about
looking at churches and palaces haphazard. The order is
arranged, not unite chronologically, but on a definite plan,
which greatly facilitates comprehension of the subject.
 MAP OF CLASSICAL ROME

This map represents in a simplified form the growth of

Rome from the earliest period, i/i which the Palatine was
fortified as an isolated height to the time of Aurelian
1 a.d. 270-275), when the walls by which the eity is still for
the most part enclosed were built. The limits of the Septi-
niontium {p. 6) are roughly indicated thus , and those
of the city of the kings, including the Quirinal settlement
{p. 6), are shown thus x x x x , where they do ?iot coincide
with those of the Septimontium. The inner line of wall
is the "Servian" (p. 7), the outer that of Aurelian. The
principal lines of road, a few modern streets, and some of the
chief landmarks of Imperial Rome 'Baths, Mausolea, etc.)
are also shown, together with the course of the principal
aqueducts of which remains are to be seen. Note that the
Vatican and the northern half of the Janicttlum lay outside
of the ancient city : they were laid out as Imperial parks
(see p. 10). The Vatican and the district between it and the
Tiber (including the Mausoleum of Hadrian) -were separately
fortified by Pope Leo IV a.d. 845-S57) in consequence of the
Saracenic invasions, and hence bore the name of the " Leonine
city.'' The fortification of the entire city, including the I'att-
can and Janicttlum, was begun by Paul III 1 534-1 550)
according to the design of Antonio da Sangallo, but was not
completed until the reign of Urban I 'III (1623- 1644 .
5 E %5 ^
3 s 5 S 5 *: ,
* 3 S 33 £& "',„
 I

ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF ROME

IT is sometimes asserted or implied that Rome was, from
her geographical position, inevitably destined to become
the mistress of the ancient world. This is a strange ex-
aggeration. Geographical conditions are no doubt of great
importance in moulding the channels along which the
course of history runs : but history is made by men and
races, and their qualities are the determining factors. It
was not inevitable that the earliest civilisations should spring
up in the valleys of the Nile and the Euphrates, rather than
in that of the Mississippi ; neither was it necessary (though
it was natural) that the unification of higher culture should
take place in the basin of the Mediterranean. Nor, again,
was a central position in the central peninsula of that basin
an indispensable requisite for the city whose political power
was to accomplish this work of unification. Carthage, for
example, was equally fitted by her geographical position to
carry out the task. Nevertheless Rome, once occupied by
a race endowed with the gift of ruling, was favourably
placed for the growth of her external influence. Her hills,
once embraced in a well-contrived chain of defences, made
her position one of great strength, while leaving room for
a large population within the walls. She was far enough
from the sea to be secure against pirates, and was practically
at the head of navigation of the most considerable water-
way in Central Italy. In the conquest of the peninsula her
central position gave her an important strategical advantage,
seeing that there was no bond of union between her enemies
2 ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF ROME [i.
to N. and S. But it was the genius of her inhabitants
— their disciplined valour in war, their love of social order
in peace, and their essentially practical spirit in every re-
lation of life — which enabled them to press their natural
advantages to the uttermost. When their history begins, we
find them a primitive people, just emerging from barbarism,
on the borderland between two higher cultures, that of the
Etruscans to the N., and that of the Greek settlers to the
S. To the former they were for a century or more subject,
and although they succeeded in throwing off the yoke of
the Tarquins, they derived the externals of higher civilisa-
tion from their rulers. In art and architecture, in ritual
and religion, and in a host of other matters, the traces of
Etruscan influence on Rome were indelible. Nevertheless,
the Romans had the genius of progress and assimilation
which was lacking to their neighbours, condemned by this
defect to a gradual decline from the state of pomp and
luxury made familiar to us by their painted tombs. From
the Greeks of S. Italy Rome had not to fear political sub-
jection. When she came directly into contact with them,
she had already given proof of the unifying and organising
power which enabled her to transcend the limits of the
Greek city-state in the absorption of the Latin race and its
kindred stocks, and it was easy to see that no limits could
be set to the process of expansion thus begun.
Who were this people so uniquely gifted, and whence did
they come ? From their language we can infer that they
belonged to the stock from which sprang the progressive
races of civilised Europe — Celt, Teuton, and Greek — as
well as the " Iranian " peoples of Central Asia and Persia
and the Hindus. It was once thought that the close like-
ness between the Latin and Greek languages pointed to a
time when these two peoples lived together ; but it is now
recognised that to the scientific philologist the resemblances
between Latin and Celtic are equally significant, and the
most that can be said is that, wherever we may place the
cradle of the Indo-European or "Aryan" race, those branches
which pushed their way westward and southward must at
i.] ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF ROME 3
one time have been near neighbours in Central Europe.
Prehistoric archseology tells us a good deal as to the
successive forms of culture which have prevailed in Italy
from the Old Stone Age onwards ; but it is always hard to
be sure that a change of civilisation implies a change of
race. Nevertheless, it is somewhat more than probable
that the first "Italic" peoples of Indo-European descent,
amongst whom may have been the ancestors of the Romans,
entered Italy from the X.E. at the beginning of the Age
of Bronze, bringing weapons and tools of the new metal
from Central Europe.1 They lived at first in pile-villages
built in shallow water or in bogs, then on similar platforms,
raised on dry land and surrounded by a moat ; and primi-
tive as were their dwellings and manners, they already
manifested a genius for order and for the subordination of
the individual to the community. Some centuries later,
just as bronze had displaced stone, so iron ousted bronze ;
and with the dawn of the Early Iron Age came a second
wave of immigration from Central Europe and a great shifting
of populations in Italy. Hitherto the Italic peoples had been
confined to the valley of the Po and the N.W. slopes of the
Apennines, except for a few adventurous settlers who had
made their way down the Adriatic coast : now, learning the
use of iron, they hewed their way across the Apennines,
dispossessed the weaker populations, and established them-
selves along the eastern coasts of Italy. There is a thick
cluster of their settlements about the Alban hills, and we
can now point to the burial-place of some of the earliest
inhabitants of Rome itself in the necropolis adjoining the
Forum (p. 76). This "Latin" race was poorer than the
Italic stocks of N. Italy, whose cemeteries are found about
Bologna as well as in Tuscany, whither the Etruscans had
not yet penetrated ; but the future was theirs. Archaeology
enables us to trace their gradual advance. The coming of
1 The "Neolithic" inhabitants of Italy survived in historical
times in the N.W. under the name of Ligurians. Probably they
were a branch of the race which raised the megalithic monuments
of Europe and Africa (e.g. Stonehenge).
4 ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF ROME [i.
the Etruscans — a people whose origin and affinities are still
an unsolved problem — brought many changes in Central
Italy, particularly the adoption (for a time) of interment in
place of cremation ; and very soon Greek manufactures
began to find their way to Rome. From the Greek colonies
came the art of writing, as yet unknown in Italy ; and with
writing history begins.
Rome will always be known as the city of the Seven
Hills ; but not all of these were sharply defined eminences.
The best general impression of the city and its surroundings
is obtained by ascending the Janiculum and surveying the
view either from the piazza in front of S. Pietro in Montorio,
or from the summit of the hill, crowned by the equestrian
statue of Garibaldi. It will be seen that the Tiber makes a
deep furrow through the undulating plain of volcanic origin
known as the Campagna. To the S. rises the extinct volcano,
which, with its subsidiary craters, forms the Alban hills,
dotted with towns of which the most conspicuous is Frascati,
some 200 feet below the site of the ancient Tusculum. To
the E. we see the Sabine hills, a limestone formation jutting
out from the Apennines, whose summits are visible in the
background. In the upper valley of the Tiber the isolated
peak of Soracte stands out clearly. From the top of the
Janiculum the view extends to the N. as far as the line of
heights which marks the edge of the Ciminian forest ; that,
like the Alban hills, had its active volcanoes in remote times.
The action of the Tiber repeats on a larger scale that of
the numerous streams which plough the Campagna with
furrows in the friable volcanic earth, leaving, in place of a
uniform tableland, groups of detached heights and promon-
tories. As the river approaches the site of Rome it makes a
bend to the right, skirting the base of the western heights.
The low-lying ground, now thickly covered with buildings
on the left bank, is the Campus Martius, which was only
gradually included in the circuit of the city. The range of
hills facing the Janiculum bore various names. To the
N. it was the Hill of Gardens, and the name is still partly
applicable to it, for the groves of the Pincio and the
I.] ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF ROME 5
Villa Medici occupy most of its area. This was never
counted amongst the Seven Hills. Then comes a long
spur which juts out under the name of (1) the Quirinal,
first to the S.W. and afterwards to the S. from the table-
land. At the corner is the Royal Palace, and near the
extremity we see the Torre di Xerone. A much shorter
spur (2) the Yiminal, is marked by the huge pile of the
Ministry of Finance. Next comes (3) the Esquiline, which
fills a large space in the background of the panorama : the
Campanile of S. Maria Maggiore stands at its northern
extremity. All these hills in reality form a single indented
plateau. In the foreground is a group of heights formed
on the left bank of the Tiber, where its channel narrows
by the action of tributary streams. The northernmost is
(4 the Capitoline, marked by the Campanile of the Palazzo
del Senatore, which is in reality a prolongation of the
Quirinal. The valley which now separates them, as will
be seen later, is partly at least artificial. Next we see
5 the Palatine with its cypresses and the ruins of the
Imperial palaces ; and somewhat to the S.W. of it (6) the
Aventine, with the church of Santa Sabina and the new
Benedictine Monastery of St. Anselmo. Only one of the
seven hills is hidden — (7) the Qelian, a ridge projecting
from the southern extremity of the Esquiline and ending in
a square-topped eminence to the E. of the Palatine.
The statues on the roof of St. John Lateran, which tower
above the cypresses of the Villa Mills, mark its eastern
extremity.
The panorama just described gives an excellent impres-
sion of the city at the height of its development ; hut its
early growth is best appreciated by mounting the tower of
the Palazzo del Senatore (p. 150). It will be seen how the
Palatine, which, before the lower levels were drained, was
protected on three sides by marsh and stream, and con-
nected with the main tableland only by the saddle of the
Velia upon which the Arch of Titus now stands), was well
fitted to receive the first defensible settlement on the site of
Rome. That it was indeed the original city was an accepted
6 ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF ROME [i.
tradition amongst the Romans, and there is no valid reason
for calling it in question. The remains of the Flavian
Palace (p. 94) now fill the central depression which originally
divided the hill into two parts, the westernmost being the
Palatine proper, or "hill of Pales,1' the shepherd's god,
while that nearest to the Capitol was called the Cermalus.
But the process of growth was not long in beginning.
Upon the two spurs thrown out by the Esquiline — the
Cispius, upon which S. Maria Maggiore stands, and the
Oppius, which lies behind S. Pietro in Vincoli, the church
which crowns the western extremity of the hill called
Fagutal, the beech-grove — as well as on the slope of the
Ca?lian facing the Palatine, called Sucusa, there sprang up
villages which entered into association with the inhabitants
of the Palatine. The religious tie which united them found
expression in the "Feast of the Seven Hills" {Septimontium^
celebrated on December 11 even in Imperial times. The
Seven Hills were not those of classical tradition ; the
names usually given are Palatine, Cermalus, Yelia, Cispius,
Oppius, Fagutal, Sucusa, for which last we sometimes find
Caelius.
It would be misleading to speak of the Septimontium as a
city : it was rather a cluster of villages, one of which had
its burial - place, discovered in recent years in the low-
lying ground to the X. of the Yelia. It is worthy of note,
however, that the term mons was never applied by the
Romans to the heights which lay outside the circuit of this
community : the Yiminal and Quirinal were called colles,
and the gate by which the city was entered on this side was
the Colline Gate. On these hills another settlement, said to
be of Sabine origin, was formed at an early date. Its
burial-places have been discovered on the summit of the
Quirinal, which takes its name from the Sabine divinity
Quirinus. Such at least is the account given by Y;irn>.
the greatest of Roman antiquarians ; but the Sabine
affinities of the settlers on the Quirinal have been disputed
by Mommsen and other scholars. In any case, Rome, in
the proper sense of the name, came into existence when the
I.) ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF ROME 7
Palatine and Quirinal settlements were fused in a single
community, which planted its citadel on the Capitol,
established its market in the Forum — which must have been
to some extent drained, probably by the regulation of the
stream which in time became the "Great Sewer" {Cloaca
Maxima) — and had its meeting-place (Comitium) under the
shadow of the Capitol, at the N.E. extremity of the Forum.
According to Roman tradition, this city was first fortified
by Servius Tullius, to whom were ascribed the remains of the
great wall of masonry still preserved in some places. This
tradition cannot, however, be accepted. The character of
the masonry, the measurements of the blocks, the forms of
the masons' marks engraved thereon, all point to the fourth
century B.C. as the period when the existing wall was built ;
we hear of fortifications constructed after the evacuation of
Rome by the Gauls, who sacked it in 390 B.C., and there is
every reason to think that the almost impregnable defences
supplied by the "Servian" wall were erected in order to
guard against a recurrence of that catastrophe. That the
City of the Kings had its defences is very probable : but
they certainly did not enclose the vast area encircled by the
walls whose origin is in question. On the Quirinal and
Esquiline burial-places have been discovered beneath or
within the line of the wall, and as interment within the city
was prohibited, it is clear that in this region the later fortin-
cation took in a considerably extended area. It was planned
on a generous scale. Starting from the river at the point
nearest to the foot of the Capitol, it followed the line of that
hill and the Quirinal up to the point where it juts out from the
table land. Here it turned sharply to the S.E., and as
this side of Rome was deficient in natural strength, an em-
bankment {agger) and fosse were constructed, nearly a
mile long. Hence the wall ran down into the depression
which separates the Esquiline from the Caslian, climbed the
latter hill and skirted its southern slope, then crossing
another narrow valley embraced not only the Aventine
proper, but also the height to the S.E. known as the
Lesser Aventine vupon which the church of S. Saba stands .
8 ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF ROME [i.
and finally reached the river at a point nearly two hundred
yards below that from which it started. The system of
defence was completed by a fort on the Janiculum : and the
ancient "bridge of piles" {pons sitblicius), which tradition
ascribed to Ancus Martius, gave the only access to the right
bank of the Tiber. This bridge, in accordance with an
inviolable tradition, was built solely of wood, and hence all
trace of it has disappeared ; but it must have stood some-
where near the modern Ponte Palatine1 The " Servian "
fortification was admirably planned for defensive purposes,
and no doubt included a considerable area (especially on the
W.) which was but sparsely inhabited. The Forum was
the centre of the city's life, and the valleys adjoining it,
especially the Subura (corresponding nearly with the lower
part of the Via Cavour) and the Velabrum, between the
Palatine and Capitol, were crowded quarters. The cattle-
market or Forum Boarium (Piazza Bocca di Verita) was by
the river-side, and the vegetable-market or Forum Holitorium
(Piazza Montanara and its neighbourhood) was without the
river-gate on the edge of the Campus Martius. The Field
of Mars itself, however, now the most densely populated
region in Rome, was as yet unoccupied, save by temples and
public buildings, the earliest of which was the temple of
Apollo founded in 431 B.C., whose remains are near to the
church of S. Maria in Campitelli. The dwellings of the
rich were to be found on the Palatine, the Velia, and the
crest of the Oppius facing the Palatine which was called
the Carinye or ''keels," where S. Pietro in Yincoli now
stands. The Aventine is declared by tradition to have
been parcelled out amongst the plebs in 456 B.C., and it
remained throughout Republican history their stronghold ;
doubtless it was also inhabited by the mercantile class,
whose business was in the docks and warehouses by the
river-side in the modern "Testaccio" quarter. It was
1 The " Ponte Rotto,'' or " broken bridge," as the remains just
above the Ponte Palatino are called, is all that is left of the Pons
.Emilius, the first stone bridge built in Rome in the second
century B.C.
I.] ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF ROME 9
excluded from the sacred precinct of the pomerium until the
time of Sulla.
It is hard for us to picture to ourselves the Early Rome of
which so little remains except the foundations of temples,
beginning with that of Jupiter the Best and Greatest and
his associates, Juno and Minerva, which dates from the
establishment of the Republic (p. ioo). We can form a
somewhat better idea of the new Rome which came into
being in the second century B.C. when Carthage and the
Hellenistic monarchies of Macedon and Syria had been
humbled by the mistress of Italy. Little indeed survives
to recall the Rome of the Gracchi : temples, porticoes and
colonnades have either been destroyed or restored in the
style of the Empire ; but those who are familiar with
Pompeii may form some idea from the buildings of the
" Tufa period " in that town of the style of architecture and
decoration which prevailed in second-century Rome. The
Romans, however, were beginning to learn the use of
travertine (see below, p. 14), the most characteristic of
their building materials, which was hardly used at all by
the Pompeians. Some account of the transformation as it
affected the Forum and its surroundings will be found
on p. 42.
The finest surviving monument of Republican architecture
is the Tabularium which dominates the northern end of the
Forum (p. 47) ; this, however, belongs to the century of
Civil war, during which little was done to beautify the city.
The grandiose schemes of Caesar (who is said to have
planned a great extension of the city boundaries by the
alteration of the channel of the Tiber so as to embrace the
modern Prati di Castello) were never completely carried out ;
but Augustus gave effect to many of his ideas. For ex-
ample, the changed aspect of the Forum Romanum, with its
new orientation, was clue to the dictator ; his own Forum,
with its temple of Venus Genetrix, was the first of the group
of monumental piazzas raised by the Emperors in the centre
of the city. The Campus Martius, too, upon which import-
ant public buildings such as the Flaminian Circus and the
io ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF ROME [i.
Portico of Metellus Macedonicus (146 B.C.) with its gallery
of painting and sculpture had sprung up in Republican
times, received an added splendour at the hands of Augustus
and his colleague Agrippa. Julius Caesar had determined to
transfer the meetings of the assembly of the people from
the Comitium to the Field of Mars, and though the Comitia
ceased to be of any political importance under the Empire,
the polling-booths (Scepta) which he had planned beside the
" Broad Street " (via Lata, now the Corso) were set up on a
magnificent scale by Agrippa, who also gave to Rome the
first of its People's Palaces under the name of Thermae or
Baths, fed by the newly-built Aqua Virgo (p. 182). Close to
these was the Pantheon, or " all holy ;' temple of the
divinities which protected the Julian house, now represented
by Hadrian's rotunda. The theatres of Balbus and
Marcellus (p. 166 f.), the Altar of Peace (p. 184), and the
Mausoleum built by Augustus for himself and his house
(p. 185), were amongst the other buildings set up in the
Campus Martius under the first of the Emperors. Now,
too, the ring of parks by which the populous quarters of the
city were encircled, was laid out and beautified. Some were
already in the possession of the Imperial family, such as the
"grove of the Caesars" in the Trastevere : others were the
property of great commoners, such as the " Gardens of
Maecenas" on the Esquiline, laid out upon the site of one
of the plague-spots of ancient Rome, the " puticuli " or
trenches outside the Servian enceinte in which the bodies of
the pauper and the slave were cast pell-mell, or the "gardens
of Sallust " in the modern " Ludovisi quarter," on the slopes
of the Quirinal and Pincian and in the valley between those
hills, in which some of the most famous remains of ancient
sculpture have been brought to light. The former were
bequeathed to Augustus by his trusted adviser : the latter
became the property of Tiberius ; and one by one the
remainder, with scarcely an exception, passed into Imperial
hands.
Augustus did much fur the municipal administration
of Rome, dividing the city into fourteen wards and creating
1. 1 ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF ROME n
a police force and fire brigade. But the influx of population
from all parts of the newly-founded Empire led to all the
evils of jerry-building and overcrowding with which modern
cities are so painfully familiar. It is sometimes said that the
Great Fire of Nero (a.D. 64) led to a clearance of the slums ;
it is even hinted that Nero brought it about with that end in
view ; but the first of these propositions is unprovable, and
the second improbable. We read in Tacitus of measures
enacted in order to prevent the recurrence of such a
calamity1 : but the third satire of Juvenal (familiar to most
Englishmen through the free imitation in Dr. Johnson's
London) shows that the old evils soon sprang into fresh life.
In one quarter, however, the fire wrought a great change —
on the western slopes of the Esquiline and in the adjoining
valleys. Nero took advantage of the destruction of these
quarters to build his Golden House on the vacant site. This
was not a single palace, but an immense park, with lakes
and woods, containing a number of residences ; and Nero's
action in thus appropriating to himself so vast an area
enabled later emperors to turn the site to public uses. Thus
the Colosseum was built on the site of one of its lakes ; the
Baths of Titus were close to the main palace, and those
afterwards built in their immediate neighbourhood by Trajan
were actually based upon some of its richly decorated
chambers, which were turned into foundations. Much of the
rebuilding was the work of the Flavian emperors, who
enlarged the ideal boundary of the ftomerium and claimed
the New Rome as their foundation.
To Trajan Rome owed the most magnificent of the
Imperial Fora (p. 155), while Hadrian is represented at the
present day by two of the most characteristic monuments
of Rome — the Pantheon and the Mausoleum, which is now
the Castle of St. Angelo. The Column of M. Aurelius is
the most conspicuous monument of the Antonine dynasty,
while that of the Severi which followed left its mark on the

1 e.g. Streets were widened, the height of houses limited, ami

the lower parts of houses were built of peperino only.
12 ORIGINS AND GROWTH OF ROME [i.
greater part of the buildings of the Early Empire, which
were restored and embellished with a profusion of costly
materials. The Baths of Caracalla typify the colossal
constructions with which the later rulers of Rome sought to
outdo their predecessors.
In the years of turmoil which followed the extinction of the
dynasty of Septimius Severus the emperors had neither the
means nor the leisure to add to the glories of their city ;
the population, moreover, which had perhaps reached one
million in the first century, had declined from the days
of M. Aurelius onwards. When in a.d. 271 Aurelian was
forced by the imminent peril of barbarian invasion to fortify
Rome, the walls no longer embraced the whole of Augustus'
city. Once again — and for the last time— there was an
outburst of building activity. The founders of absolute-
monarchy — Diocletian and Constantine — though they spent
but little time in their capital, gave to it the crowning
examples of giant architecture — the Baths on the Quirinal
and the New Basilica on the Sacred Way. But the first
Christian Emperor transferred the seat of his government to
the Bosphorus. ' The Eternal City entered upon a new
phase of its existence, and gradually put on a new dress as
the capital of a spiritual Empire. Henceforth its story
is that of Christian Rome.
 II

ROMAN ARCHITECTURE
A. Materials

FOR the understanding of the architectural remains of

ancient Rome some knowledge of their materials is
necessary. In early times the volcanic rock of which
the hills were formed was quarried on the spot. This tufa,
as it is called, consists of volcanic scoriae, which in some
places are so loose that they can be dug with a spade,
while in others they have been bound by pressure into a
soft, friable stone varying in colour from greenish-yellow (in
which form it is called cappellaccio) to deep brown. The
walls of the Palatine, the Servian wall, and the podia of the
early temples such as that of Jupiter Capitolinus, Saturn,
and the Castores, are built of this material, which weathers
badly unless protected by a coating of stucco. Under the
early Republic no other stone was used by Roman builders,
but more durable materials came into use in the third and
succeeding centuries B.C. Two varieties of a hard stone
formed by the action of hot water upon a conglomerate of
volcanic ashes and sand were found in the neighbourhood
of Rome, one near Gabii, hence known to the Romans as
lapis Gafrinus, now called sperone, the other in the Alban
hills, called in ancient times lapis Albanns and at the
present day peperino, from the scoriae like peppercorns
with which it is dotted. Both varieties may be observed in
the outer wall of the Forum of Augustus (p. 154) : sperone
is the material used in the facade of the Tabularium
(p. 47). But the most characteristic of Roman building
i4 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE [II.
materials is travertine, which was not in common use
before the latter part of the second century B.C., and was
for a long while employed but sparingly either for such
architectural members as were subject to special stress
or for ornamental details. Thus the voussoirs of the Arco
de' Pantani (p. 154), by which the Forum of Augustus is
entered, are of travertine, whilst the remainder of the arch
and the surrounding walls are of fiefiermo; again, in the
so-called Temple of Fortuna Yirilis (p. 265) the angle
columns, as well as the remaining capitals, the entablature
and some other members are of travertine, whereas the
temple as a whole is built of tufa. Travertine, which
derives its name from that of lapis Tiburtinus applied to
it by the Romans because it was quarried in the neighbour-
hood of Tibur (Tivoli), is a creamy-white limestone found
in the Sabine hills. It is an almost pure carbonate of
lime deposited in running water, laminated in structure and
full of small cavities and fissures. It acquires a mellow
golden tint when exposed to weather, and is no mean
substitute for the marbles of Greece. The great monuments
of the Empire, such as the Colosseum, afford conspicuous
examples of its use.
Rome furnishes no examples of " Cyclopean " or
" Polygonal " masonry, formed with blocks of irregular
shape ; even the earliest specimens of walling, such as the
retaining wall of the Comitium (p. 53) show almost regular
horizontal courses, and classical examples of opus ■ quadratum,
as the Romans called their coursed masonry (e.g. the
"Servian" walls and the facade of the Tabularium), show
a regular arrangement of standard blocks, four feet in
length and two feet square in section, laid in alternate
courses of " headers " and " stretchers," so that two of the
former range with one of the latter. This practice, however,
did not survive the introduction of travertine as a building
material ; this was not so easily worked as tufa, and to
avoid waste was cut into blocks of varying size, so that
courses of uniform height and regular jointing are not
usually found. Sometimes, however, an appearance of
ii.] ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 15
regularity was given by the use of false joints, e.g. in the
tomb of Csecilia Metella on the Appian way.
The Romans, like the Greeks, generally laid their masonry
dry, i.e. without mortar ; the blocks were made to fit ac-
curately, and in Greece, though not very commonly in
Kome (except under the Empire) were further secured by
clamps and dowels. A thin bed of lime is sometimes found
between the joints in early buildings ; but mortar in the
proper sense was not used in Greece or Italy until the third
century B.C. It was soon discovered that by mixing lime
with a chocolate-coloured volcanic earth, called by the
Romans pitlvis Puteolanits because it was quarried in large
quantities around Puteoli (Pozzuoli, near Naples) and known
in modern times as pozzolana, an immensely powerful
cement could be formed. This concrete was used by the
Romans from the beginning of the first century B.C., or
earlier, as their principal building material. Without it they
could never have raised the great domes and vaulted halls
such as the Pantheon and the Basilica of Constantine,
which are the triumphs of their architectural style. Rigid
as a rock, and yet comparatively light, it could be used
to form cupolas and vaults of great span without exerting
the powerful lateral thrust of a stone arch, since it rested
on the supporting walls almost like a metal lid. In the
Basilica of Constantine (p. 78) may be seen huge
fragments of such vaults projecting from the side walls
without support except from the cohesiveness of the
material. In laying foundations and substructures the
concrete was poured in a semi-fluid state into a framework
of timber and thus cast. Into the fluid cement were thrown
fragments of stone, etc., which are seen scattered through
the mass like raisins in a plum-cake. The date at which
such structures were raised can often be inferred from the
nature of the materials used for filling. In early times
lumps of tufa only were used : later we find peperino and
lava, and in Imperial times brick, travertine, and even
marble. The timber framework was generally removed
when the concrete had set ; but the prints left by the
16 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE [n.
boarding may clearly be seen in the face of the concrete,
as for instance in the foundations of the Flavian palace
on the Palatine (p. 95). The framework was sometimes
left in its place, and we can now and then see the
carbonised remains of the boarding, e.g. in the founda-
tion of the equestrian statue of Domitian in the Forum
(p. 60).
Except in foundations, concrete was scarcely ever left
without facing ; of this several kinds are distinguished, and
serve to date roughly the buildings in which they are found.
In the last century of the Republic the face of the concrete
was studded with irregular lumps of tufa of pyramidal form,
presenting the appearance of a wall built with small stones.
A good example may be seen in the arcades at the N.
end of the Forum called the " Rostra of Caesar." This was
called opus incertum. It was gradually superseded by opus
reticulatum (" net-work "), in which the blocks were cut to a
regular pyramidal shape and laid corner to corner in
a lozenge pattern. This was very common under the Early
Empire : a good example of the Augustan period may be
seen in the " House of Livia" on the Palatine (p. 91). For
the arches and angles of walls thus constructed tufa voussoirs
and quoins were used until about the close of the reign of
Augustus, when it became the custom to use brick for these
purposes ; and in time it became usual to face the wall itself
with triangular bricks or fragments of roof-tiles (tester), the
pointed ends of which tailed into the concrete. This opus
testaceum was used in conjunction with panels of opus reticu-
latum up to Hadrian's time— excellent examples may Be
seen in his Villa at Tivoli — but under the later emperors
brick facing alone was in use. The thickness of the bricks
and thinness of the beds of cement furnish an index to the
date of Imperial buildings. Under Nero and the Flavian
emperors the thickness of the bricks is from three to four
times as great as that of the rriortar-joints ; but as time went
on the joints grew thicker and the bricks somewhat thinner.
In the walls of Aurelian bricks and joints are about equal in
thickness. Towards the close of the third century courses
ii. I ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 17
of small tufa blocks were used in alternation with bricks.
This has been called opus mixtum.
Even the facings which have just been described were
not allowed to remain visible except in rare instances, such
as the brick arches of the extension of the Claudian aqueduct"
built by Nero on the Caelian (p. 242). Walls were usually
covered with stucco (tectoriutri), and when this was to receive
painted decoration several coats of fine marble cement were
used. The walls of public buildings, however, were often
faced with slabs of coloured marble, to obtain which every
province of the Empire was ransacked. Few such walls
have been allowed to retain their ancient decoration, for
vast quantities of marble found their way into mediaeval
lime-kilns, and what the lime-burners left was largely used
by the builders of modern times for the adornment of
churches : a good example may be seen in the Barracks of
the Seventh Cohort of Yigiles (p. 270).
The well-known boast of Augustus that he " found Rome
brick and left it marble '"' must be understood in the sense
that the importation of marble on a large scale for use in
wall- decoration began in his time ; for except in this form
marble was rarely used by the Romans for building pur-
poses. Almost the only structure built of solid marble in
Rome was the Regia, as restored in 36 B.C. (p. 74). The
varieties of marble found in Roman buildings are of great
number : a collection of more than one thousand specimens
made by Pietro Corsi was sold to the University of Oxford in
1827, and is there preserved. There is a collection of some
six hundred specimens in the University of the Sapienza at
Rome. The traveller will find much useful information on
this subject in the Rev. H. W. Pullen's Handbook of Ancient
Reman Marbles which contains a list of Roman buildings
with the specimens found therein.1 Only a few of the kinds
more commonly met with can be mentioned here : it may

1 Mr. Brindley (chairman of '■'Mar/nor, Limited") has corrected

many erroneous views as to the provenance of ancient marbles : see
his article in the Journal of the Royal Institute of British Archi-
tects, 1S93.
18 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE [n.

be premised that the term "marble" is used in its wider

acceptation, and not confined to calcareous rocks which
have undergone crystallisation.
A. White (statuary) and grey marbles. Original Greek
statues are generally made of Pentelic, or (not so commonly)
of Parian marble ; the latter may be distinguished by its
coarser grain and larger crystals. The great majority of
Roman copies (which form the bulk of the statues in the
museums of Rome) are of Luna marble quarried at Carrara,
of a pure ivory-white and smooth texture.
The marble of Mount Hymettus in Attica, veined with
bluish grey, and the grey marble known as bigio antico,
were much used for columns. Those of S. Maria Maggiore
and S. Pietro in Vincoli are examples of the former ; some
of those in S. Martino ai Monti are of the latter material.
[The name bigio moi-alo is given to a very different
marble, black with white veins, of which the Centaurs in
the Salone of the Museo Capitolino are made.]
B, Coloured marbles. The commonest of these are the
following :—

(a) Giallo Antico, the "Numidian marble" of the

ancients, quarried in N. Africa. Pale yellow with
deeper flushes, veined with orange and pink.

(&) Pavonazzetto, the " Phrygian marble " of antiquity,

dark purple in grain with veins of white.
These two marbles, together with green serpen-
tine, are commonly found in pavements, e.g. in the
Triclinium of the Flavian palace on the Palatine
(p. 95) and the Atrium Yestae (p. 75).

(c) Porta santa (so called because the " Holy Doors "
of the great basilicas have jambs of this marble),
found in various shades of pink or flesh colour
with irregular markings in white and red, is
generally identified with the " Marble of Iasus" of
the ancients. But ancient quarries of it have been
found in the island of Chios, and it may be the
II.] ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 19
ancient " Chian marble/' Its varieties may be
studied in the fountain of the Piazza Colonna. The
facing of the hemicycle behind the rostra (p. 57)
is of this marble.

d Cipollino ("onion-stone," so called from its layers

of white and pale green which flake off like the
rinds of an onion), the ancient " marble of Carystus "
in Eubcea. The most familiar example is furnished
by the columns of the Temple of Antoninus and
Faustina (p. 76).

(>') Rosso antico, a deep red marble, sometimes used

in Imperial times for statues, such as the Dancing
Faun of the Capitol (p. 126), and
(/) Nero antico, a black marble, generally with white
veins, probably to be identified with the ancient
'• marble of Ta?narus,': were both quarried in
Laconia.

{(/) Fior di persico " peach-blossom ") is sometimes

supposed to have been the " Molossian marble " of
the ancients, found in Epirus, but it seems to have
been quarried in the island of Elba. It is a highly
variegated marble with markings of red, white,
peach-blossom, lilac, etc. Two columns of it may
be seen in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Con-
servatori.

C. Conglomerates or " pudding-stones " (" breccia "). The

term covers an immense variety of rocks, composed of all
kinds of materials cemented together under pressure.
(a) Affricano, which owes its name to the presence of
black amongst its markings, the prevailing tone
of which is pink or red (not unlike that of porta
santa), often with a tinge of green, was quarried in
the .Egean, perhaps in Chios. A number of frag-
mentary columns may be seen in the Basilica
./Emilia (p. 63).
» ROMAN ARCHITECTURE [n.
(b) Breccia verde, found in Egypt, with fragments
of granite, porphyry, etc., in a green paste. A
fragment of a column may be seen in the Palazzo
dei Conservator!.

(c) Breccia corallina, coral -red with fragments of

pink. Two columns of a yellowish variety stand
in the Cortile del Belvedere.
(</) Breccia di Settebasi, which takes its name from the
remains of an ancient villa at " Roma Vecchia ': on
the Latin Way, owned in ancient times by Septimius
Bassus, varies from grey to blue with oblong mark-
ings of several colours. A column in the fountain
of the Piazza dell' Esedra is of a greenish variety.
(e) Breccia di Quintiliolo, named from the Villa of
the Quintilii on the Appian Way, and found in
small quantities in Hadrian's Villa, the rarest and
most highly prized of the breccias, may be distin-
guished by its golden, green, and tortoise-shell
markings on an almost black ground.

D. Volcanic rocks.
(a) Qranite, both red and grey, was imported from
Egypt. The columns of the Temple of Saturn
(p. 49) and the Portico of the Pantheon (p. 173)
furnish examples.
(b) Porphyry, also quarried in Egypt. The red variety
is the most prized, and was used for sculptures, e.g.
the "Sarcophagi of Constantine and Helena" in the
Vatican (p. 272), and a fragment of a colossal
statue in the Atrio of the Museo Capitolino.
Green porphyry, often (but wrongly) called Ser-
pentine, isvery common in pavements (see above).
(c) Basalt, a very dark green rock, was used for
statuary under the Empire. The boy Hercules of
the Museo Capitolino (p. 121) and a statue of a
youthful athlete in the Museo delle Terme are
examples.
!i.] ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 21

Verde antico, a true " serpentine :'— so called

from its dull green colour resembling a serpent's
skin — is thought to have been the Lapis atracius
of the ancients, quarried in Thessaly, but is not
now found there. There are two columns in the
Palazzo dei Conservatory and a fine slab in the Sala
degli Animali of the Vatican. The Palazzo dei
Conservatori also has the figure of a dog sculptured
in a variety named Verde ranocchia from its frog-
like markings.

E. Alabaster. By this is meant, not the crystalline

variety of gypsum to which that name is now applied, but
a crystallised deposit of carbonate of lime formed by the
filtration of water in stalactitic caves. The finest oriental
alabaster known to the ancients was found in Egypt ; it was
also quarried in North Africa (near Tlemsen).

B.— Principles of Construction and Decoration

There is an essential difference between Greek and Roman
architecture. The Greeks, whether they used marble, stone,
or wood, gave stability to their buildings by the direct sup=
port of the horizontal members on columns or piers strong
enough to bear the weight. Thus in a Greek doorway we
do not find an arch, but a lintel ; in a Greek roof we do
not see a vault or dome, but an imitation in marble of
joists and beams. This is the simplest possible system of
construction, and the beauty of Greek architecture — which
achieved perfection within its self-imposed limits — is due (i)
to the nicely calculated scheme of proportions which
governed the dimensions of the several members ; (ii) to
the harmony between decoration and structural function
— e.g. the absence of ornament (except simple flutings,
which emphasise the vertical lines) on supporting members,
such as the column, and the restriction of sculptured decora-
tion to spaces such as the pediment which were free from
strain. In these respects the Greek temple may be said
to exhaust the possibilities of rectilinear architecture.
22 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE [n.
When we turn to the monuments of Rome we notice that
the most characteristic are not the temples — which to the
untrained eye seem to differ but little from those of the
Greeks — but buildings of a new type, such as the Tabu =
larium, the Colosseum, the Pantheon, the Baths of
Caracalla, or the Basilica of Constantine. It will be
observed that these serve civil, not religious, purposes
(with the exception of the Pantheon) : this fact by itself
illustrates the practical Roman spirit. But there is more
than this. The distinctive feature of this new architecture
is the use of the arch, the vault, and the dome, which not
only carries with it a wholly new series of external effects,
depending on the prominence of curves instead of straight
lines, but also implies a complete revolution in constructive
principles. The weight of the superstructure is not upheld
by direct vertical support, but distributed by means of the
lateral thrust, which is called into play by the principle
of the arch, and thus concentrated on certain points to
which exceptional strength is given. From this root prin-
ciple spring the later developments of architecture, not only
Byzantine and Romanesque, but also Gothic ; and a careful
study of Roman building tends to show that many of the
characteristic features of the later styles were present in
germ in Roman architecture.
The question must be asked, Did the Romans owe any-
thing to their predecessors in this respect? It cannot, of
course, be denied that the constructive use of the arch was
known from very early times. The Greeks of the Hellen-
istic age employed it in substructures and passages, but
they never erected the main framework of their buildings
on this system, nor did they give external prominence to
the arch. It is often held that the Etruscans were the
creators of the arcuated style, and there is a limited truth
in this statement. The monumental gateways of their
cities made the use of the arch conspicuous ; and when we
examine their rock-hewn tombs, which reproduce the forms
of their buildings, we sec that the vault and dome must have
been familiar to them. These facts give them the right to
n.] ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 23
be considered the pioneers of the new style : but the
credit of developing its inherent possibilities belongs to
the Romans.
In the previous section it was shown that it was the dis-
covery of pozzolana concrete, with its union of rigidity
and lightness, which emboldened the Romans to attempt
the erection of their gigantic vaults and domes. It was,
however, only by gradual stages that they acquired such
mastery over their materials. We have a good example of
early vaulting in the Tabularium p. 150 , and the Colos=
seum is contrived with a remarkable economy of space and
material as a system of vaulted galleries and staircases ;
but there is as yet no attempt to cover great spaces in this
manner. Note that the basilicas of early date, such as the
Basilica Julia, although they had vaulted corridors, were
roofed with timber. In the Pantheon, which (as we shall
see, p. 173) belongs to the reign of Hadrian, we have a
simple but intensely impressive example of the artistic
handling of internal space which the new architecture
made possible. The proportions of the building are of
the simplest. The height of the cupola is the same as that
of the drum upon which it rests, and the total height of the
building is therefore the same as the diameter of the pave-
ment. It is just this simplicity which gives us the same
aesthetic pleasure in contemplating a Roman interior
which we feel when we look at the exterior of a Greek
temple. This form of art has never been lost in Italy, and
to its revival at the Renaissance we owe the cupola of
St. Peter's. There is, however, much more than meets the
eye in the dome of the Pantheon. Its original aspect has
been changed (see p. 173). and recent examinations have
brought to light what even in ancient times was hidden by
the decoration, viz. the fact that an elaborate system of
brick relieving arches runs through the whole of the con-
crete. The Roman builders did not trust only to the rigid
cohesiveness of their material ; they could not, in fact, have
done so, so long as the mass retained any of its fluidity.
Moreover, the drum is not, in fact, solid throughout, and the
24 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE [n.
experienced architect can discern in its structure the begin-
nings of an articulated system of supports between
which the weight is distributed. In the domed halls of
Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli, which are almost contemporary
with the Pantheon, we find some bold extensions of this
principle ; but a long period was to elapse before the seed
thus sown bore its full fruit.
From the decline of the arts which set in with the third
century A.D. architecture — if we set aside the element of
plastic decoration — was exempt. To the opening years of
the century belong the Baths of Caracalla, whose remains
form the most striking enseinble amongst Roman imperial
constructions. They will be described in their place : it will
suffice to note that the centra! hall with its quadripartite
vaulting in three bays surpassed all that the Roman builder
had hitherto attempted. It was, however, outdone by the
Baths of Diocletian, built at the close of the same century,
where the great hall preserves something of its aspect as an
interior, in spite of the restorations which have made it into
a Christian church. To the architectural student there are
other features of no less interest than these colossal interiors
in third-century architecture. The Pantheon solved the
(relatively) easy problem of the cupola supported by a circular
drum : the next step was to construct a dome over a rect=
angular space, and we find this attempted in one of the
minor halls of the Baths of Caracalla (p. 260). We do not
here find the perfect pendentive, or spherical triangle, at the
angles of the building ; but this became known to the
Romans in the course of the century which followed. A
more complicated problem is attacked in the so-called
"Temple of Minerva Medica" (p. 222), where the ground
space is decagonal : the cupola is built up on a framework
of brick arches, and thus lightened, besides being pierced
with windows. Crossing the border of the fourth century,
we come to the Basilica of Constantine, in which the type
exemplified by the great halls of the Thermae is ingeniously
adapted to the purposes of the earlier halls of justice, while
the place of the surrounding corridors is taken by vaulted
ii.] ROMAN ARCHITECTURE 25

bays so planned that the whole building is self-contained (see

the description, p. 79). The history of the cupola culminates
in a monument which, though Christian in date and purpose,
is thoroughly classical in conception (and even in decora-
tion). This is the Mausoleum of S. Costanza (see Christian
Rome, p. 329), where we have a cupola lighted with windows,
carried not on a solid drum, but on twelve couples of columns,
and buttressed by a circular ambulatory roofed with a barrel
vault— an exquisitely articulated piece of design.
The strength of Roman architecture lies in construction,
its weakness in decoration. Here the genius of the Greeks
had found perfect expression ; and the forms which it had
bequeathed to the Roman builder were embodied in a
classical tradition impossible to break. The three orders
of columns — Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian — were retained
with certain modifications of detail which need not here be
explained : the Corinthian, as being the most elaborate,
was by far the most popular under the Empire. Two were
added : (i) the Tuscan, a simplified Doric without the
flutings, due, as its name implies, to the Etruscans, and (ii)
the Composite, of which the first dated example is to be
seen in the Arch of Titus : this is simply a variety of the
Corinthian in which the capital is enriched Jay scrolls or
volutes borrowed from the Ionic order. What the Romans
failed to do was to devise a new system of decoration
appropriate to their new methods of construction. We
know that their interiors were panelled with coloured marbles
and (later) covered with brilliant mosaics — of which those
of the Christian churches, e.g. S. Maria Maggiore {Christian
Rome, p. 235 -the theory of an early date has not, however,
stood the test of criticism) can give us some idea, and the
coffered vaults with their gilded rosettes must have added
to the blaze of splendour. Externally, however, the difficulty
of bringing about a harmony such as existed in Greek
architecture between decoration and function was not
overcome. The scheme which is characteristically Roman
is that which we see in the Colosseum. Here the three
Greek orders are superposed, the Doric taking the lowest
26 ROMAN ARCHITECTURE [n.
and the Corinthian the highest place ; and each range of
engaged columns appears to carry an architrave running
round the arcades. The result is certainly effective, and it
is easy to account for its immense popularity ; but the
columns and architraves are of course not structural
members at all, but elements in a decorative scheme of
lines. From the use of the engaged column as an ornament
it was but a step to the employment of the free column in
the same way ; and the columns (with returned architraves)
which flank the bays of the later triumphal arches, such as
that of Septimius Severus, are signal instances of the
divorce between decoration and structural function.
Another fault of Roman taste lay in excess of ornament.
Here the Greek artists had showed conspicuous self-restraint.
The Romans departed from the classical Hellenic standard
in various ways. Firstly, they covered (either partly or
wholly) with ornament surfaces which would have been left
smooth by the Greeks ; secondly, they multiplied and
enriched the mouldings proper to the orders ; thirdly, they
made the simple vegetable forms which played so large
a part in Greek ornament more elaborate. The cornices
preserved in the Tabularium (p. 149), and the architectural
slabs and pilasters in the Lateran Museum (p. 232), will
illustrate these points.
 Ill

ANCIENT SCULPTURE IN ROMAN

COLLECTIONS
THE Romans were not devoid of artistic endowment.
Setting aside their unique achievement in the domain
of architecture, which has been treated separately, they
must be credited with the production of masterpieces in
portrait=scuIpture and in historical bas = relief which
entitle them to a definite place — and that no mean one —
amongst the artistic nations. At the same time, it is ob-
vious that their national temperament was practical rather
than ideal, and that in art as in literature the seeds of native
genius implanted in their race were fertilised only by contact
with Hellenic civilisation in its later phases. When we
speak of Roman art, we mean that of the last century of the
Republic and the first four centuries of the Empire ; and
though this in itself is of sufficient interest to form a special
field of study, it does not possess a tithe of the importance
which belongs to Greek art. The Romans were them-
selves admirers of the Greek genius and its products
as ardent as any of our own contemporaries. Not that
this faculty of appreciation existed from early times. It
is true that from the very beginnings of Republican
history we hear of Greek craftsmen summoned to adorn
the buildings of Rome. A temple built in 496 B.C. to
Ceres, Liber, and Libera was decorated in the archaic
style of that period with painted terra-cottas by two
Greek artists : a century and a half later statues of
Pythagoras and Alcibiades, the wisest and bravest of the
28 ANCIENT SCULPTURE [m.
Greeks, were set up in the Comitium, and doubtless brought
from Athens. But the predominant influence in Early
Rome was that of the Etruscans, whose art was of a
different order from that of the Greeks. A visit to the
Etruscan collection at the Vatican (p. 343) will do more
than any description to make the visitor realise how, with
all its realism and individuality, it lacked the dignity and
restraint, as well as the incommunicable sense of the
beautiful, which made Greek art unique. Marble quarries
were not worked in Italy until late Republican times, so
that the Etruscans, when they did not employ volcanic stone
or terra-cotta, were forced to use bronze, in the working of
which they were justly celebrated. The "Mars of Todi "
(though found in Umbria) will illustrate Etruscan bronze-
work ; for terra-cotta we have a rich material in the sarco-
phagi and ash-chests, and the later phases of this form of
sculpture, in which the influence of contemporary Greek art
is clearly discernible, may be seen in the Sculptures from
Falerii, in the Villa di Papa Giulio (p. 353). The importa=
tion of Greek works into Rome began with the conquest
of Syracuse in 212 B.C., and from thenceforth each victory
won meant the spoliation of the conquered cities in order
that the triumph of the Roman commander might, if
possible, surpass those which had preceded it in magnifi-
cence. For a century or more love of display rather than
genuine admiration of the beautiful was the ruling motive
in this unbridled license of plunder; but when "captive-
Greece enslaved her fierce conqueror and brought the arts
into rustic Latium," a true aesthetic appreciation of Greek
masterpieces came into being : connoisseurship and criticism
were common in the closing days of the Republic — in spite
of the conventional sneers of Cicero in his attack on Verres
— and although the prevailing taste was for strictly classical
models, the Roman collectors adorned their palaces, villas,
and parks with works of all periods. For those who
could not afford to possess originals copies were produced,
mainly by Greeks working in Rome, and under the Empire
the city and the belt of villas by which it was surrounded
HI.] ANCIENT SCULPTURE 29

win- crowded with statues' representing every phase of

Hellenic and Hellenistic sculpture. From the days of the
Renaissance, when originals such as the Laocoon (p. 29)
and copies like the Apollo of the Belvedere (p. 303) were
brought to light and inspired unbounded enthusiasm, there
has been a constant stream of discoveries, peopling the
museums and private collections of Rome (and for that
matter of Northern Europe) with statues and reliefs, whose
inestimable value for us lies in the fact that they fill in some
measure the great gaps in the history of Greek sculpture
caused by the destruction of all but a fraction of its original
monuments. The first serious and scientific attempt to
retrace the outlines of the history of ancient art was made
by VYinckelmann, the librarian of Cardinal Albani, in the
eighteenth century ; and his success was remarkable in
view of the second-hand evidence of the copies upon which
he was forced to rely. The archaeological discoveries of the
nineteenth century, beginning with the transportation of
the Parthenon sculptures to London (which in itself was
equivalent to many discoveries) have placed us in an
entirely new relation to the sculptures of the Roman
collections. Few indeed are the masterpieces of the Greek
sculptors which have been restored to us — the Hermes of
Praxiteles stands almost alone — but enough original work
has come to light in Greece and Asia Minor to enable us to
measure the interval which separates even the best copy
turned out by the workshops of Imperial Rome from the
living handiwork of the Greek master's chisel. Three facts
deserve to be constantly remembered as we pass through
the Roman sculpture galleries : (1) Most of the finest Greek
statues were of bronze, and these were copied in marble
as it was cheaper and easier to work. Now bronze
reflects light, while marble absorbs it; and the effect
of the copies is therefore very different from that of the
originals. Again, a bronze figure needs no artificial
support, whilst a marble statue must have a tree-trunk or
some other support to give it stability, and ugly bars or
puntelli have to be inserted to prop up projecting parts
3o ANCIENT SCULPTURE [in.
such as extended arms. Some copyists showed great
ingenuity in adapting their models to the conditions of the
new material ; see, for example, what is said as to the Apollo
of the Belvedere (p. 303). (2) All ancient marbles were
coloured ; in some few instances traces of the colour
remain (see on the statue of Augustus from Prima Porta,
p. 322) ; but they never suffice to give an. impression of the
original effect.1 (3) Except in the recently formed collections,
such as that of the Museo delle Terme, the statu.es (which
were seldom perfect when discovered) have been cleaned
with acids, polished, worked over, and the missing parts
restored, often in a thoroughly misleading manner.
The sculptures in the Roman museums are not, un-
fortunately, arranged in such a way that visitors may study
the works of various schools and periods continuously,
although certain classes of monuments, such as Roman or
Greek portrait-busts, are sometimes grouped together. In
order, therefore, that the traveller may properly appreciate
the aesthetic value of the works which he sees, he should
acquire some preliminary notion of the stages through which
Greek art passed in its growth, maturity, and decline. A
well-arranged museum of casts, such as that formed by
Professor Loewy in Via della Marmorata 94. will be found of
great service. The Museo Barracco (p. 185) contains some-
thing like an epitome of the history of Greek sculpture. Pro-
fessor Ernest Gardner's Handbook of Greek Sculpture is of
convenient size, and should be read by all who wish to study
the subject with profit. The principal passages of ancient
writers dealing with the history of sculpture are given with
an English translation) in Stuart Jones's Select Passages of
Ancient Writers Illustrative of the History of Greek
Sculpture.
Archaic sculpture, under which is included all the work of
Greek artists prior to the attainment of naturalism and the

1 Those who have visited Constantinople will have been able to

form some conception of the effect of painting as applied to
from the sarcophagi of Sidon.
m. J ANCIENT SCULPTURE 31
abandonment of convention in the middle of the fifth century
B.C is, naturally, not very largely represented in the Roman
collections. ' There was, however, a taste for such works in
the time of Augustus, who sent to Greece for statues by
Bupalus and Athenis, artists of the sixth century B.C., in
order to decorate the pediment of his new temple of Apollo
on the Palatine, and to this fashion we o\\ e the preservation
of some examples of the work of the earlier schools. The
earliest athletic sculpture and the progress made in the
treatment of the nude, in which the Greeks were to achieve
an unique distinction, cannot be adequately studied in Rome :
but there are good examples of female statues, whether of
the type whose elaborate and elegant drapery points to Ionic
influence, or of the simpler and more truly artistic style in
which the reaction of Greece proper asserted itself (see on
the statues in the Capitoline Museum, p 105). For the
development of sculpture in the fifth century we have
abundant material. The school to which we owe the pedi-
ment-sculptures ofyEgina, now in Munich, is not, indeed,
represented except by some heads in the Barracco collection
(p. 187) : but the athletic sculptors of the fifth century,
whether Attic or Peloponnesian, were clearly favourites with
the Roman public. Rome possesses several copies of the
famous discobolus of MYRON p. 219), in which Greek art
sprang suddenly to maturity and attacked a problem of im-
mense difficulty with complete success. Less daring, but
no less instructive to the student of form, are the standing
figures ot Polyclitus — the Doryphoros and Diadu
menos : the former is represented by a complete figure
in the Braccio Xuovo p. 321). The standing discobolus
of the Sala della Biga (p. 333) reproduces another master-
piece of fifth-century athletic sculpture of the Attic school ;
while the girl = runner of the Galleria dei Candelabri (p. 337)
and the Boy extracting a thorn in the Palazzo dei Con-

1 The visitor will find a collection of works belonging to this

period in the ,;Roo.n of Archaic Sculpture" in the Palazzo dei
Conservators
32 ANCIENT SCULPTURE [ill.
servatori are graceful and individual products of the Pelopon-
nesian school. In religious sculpture we have the colossal
head of a goddess (p. 206), and the throne of Aphrodite
(p. 206), both in the Ludovisi collection ; and the Attic
school of Phidias and his associates furnished the originals
of many statues in the Roman museums, such as the Apollo
of the Museo delle Terme (p. 212). To the Athenian
sculptors, moreover, we owe the beginnings of portraiture,
illustrated by the inscribed bust of Anacreon in the Palazzo
dei Conservatori (p. 136), and the heads of Athenian
Generals, including the Pericles of the Sala delle Muse (p.
281) which reproduces a work by Cresilas. The severity
and idealism of fifth-century sculpture, in all its schools, may
be studied in the several types of Amazon represented in
the museums (see p. 123). In the latter half of the fifth
century Attic artists began to represent flowing draperies
with exquisite refinement : we owe to this school the
Maenad of the Palazzo dei Conservatori (p. 142), the so-
called "Venus Genetrix" (see p. 298), and other works.
For the study of sculpture in the fourth century, when the
Greek artists attained the supreme expression of physical
beauty — if at the expense of a certain lowering of their ideals
of divinity — abundant material is to be found in Rome. Both
the Attic school, represented by Scopas and Praxiteles,
and that of Sicyon in the Peloponnese, which continued the
traditions of Polyclitus and had for its great master Lvsippus,
are distinctly revealed to us in fine copies. The Cnidian
Aphrodite, resting Satyr, and lizard=slaying Apollo of
Praxiteles (pp. 274, 130, 291) were amongst his most famous
works, and surpassed in fame the extant Hermes of Olympia,
to which the so-called Antinous of the Belvedere (p. 306)
is nearly akin. Scopas may be studied in the Meleager of the
Vatican (p. 307), together with the better copy of the head
in the garden of the Villa Medici, and in the numerous
replicas of the head of his Heracles (p. 106, etc.). Beside
these two great figures the other Attic sculptors of the fourth
century stand out somewhat less distinctly. To its earlier
years belong Timotheos, of whose style we gain some idea
in.] ANCIENT SCULPTURE 33
from the Leda of the Capitol (p. ill), and CEPHISODOTUS,
the father of Praxiteles, to whose statue of Hermes with the
infant Dionysus we must assign the child's figure in the
Museo delle Terme (p. 203). Leochares was famous for
his Ganymede, a poor copy of which is in the Galleria dei
Candelabri (p. 325) ; if the view held by many high authori-
ties be accepted, we have a far finer example of his style in
the Apollo of the Belvedere (p. 303). He was employed
about the middle of the fifth century on the sculptured
decoration of the Mausoleum, the remains of which are in
the British Museum, together with Scopas, Timotheos, and
Bryaxis, who in his later years created a fresh type of
divinity — Sarapis, the Gneco-Egyptian god worshipped in
the newly-founded Alexandria : of this we have a copy in
the Rotunda of the Vatican (p. 277). The Peloponnesian
school is fortunately represented by its greatest masterpiece,
the Apoxyomenos or "athlete scraping himself" of Lysip.
PUS in the Braccio Nuovo (p. 326), whose influence is trace-
able in many other works, such as the Silenus and infant
Dionysus, also in the Braccio Nuovo (p. 322). He was
the only sculptor privileged to portray Alexander the
Great, and we therefore catch echoes of his style in such
heads as that of Alexander as the Sun=god in the
Capitoline Museum (p. 129). His pupil, Eutychides,
executed a statue which personified the "Fortune of
Antioch" ; of this we have a small copy in the Galleria dei
Candelabri (p. 337). Such are a few of the lost master-
pieces of the fourth century which the Roman copies help us
to re-create ; and when we have studied them, we are able to
recognise in a host of other statues and reliefs the style of
that period, and to understand how the ancient critics were
ifi doubt whether to assign to Scopas or Praxiteles the
group of the Niobids, to which belong some isolated
figures of great interest (pp. no, 324). The advance in
portraiture from the conventional, half-ideal types of the
fifth century to the masterly characterisation of the close of
the fourth is easy to trace, if we examine such a series as
the portraits of Plato (p. 284) — derived from an original by
L)
34 ANCIENT SCULPTURE [in.
the Attic artist SlLANION— of Sophocles (p. 235) and
Euripides (p. 118), rendered according to the taste of the
latter half of the century, when they were executed for the
adornment of the theatre at Athens, and of Demosthenes
(p. 326) ; this last lelongs properly to the third century,
since the original was the work of POLYEUCTUS, and was
set up in 280 B.C.
We have now crossed the threshold of a new age — that
usually termed Hellenistic, when the conquests of Alexander
had enlarged the bounds of the Greek world, and the estab-
lishment of powerful monarchies by his successors had
created a new type of society — luxurious, cosmopolitan,
critical, and intensely " modern." The stream of art now
flowed in many currents ; rival schools sprang into existence,
and there were not wanting reactionary tendencies : but on
the whole the most striking characteristic of the age was its
realism, embodied in such works as the drunken old
woman of Myron the younger, (p. 109) the original of
which was at Smyrna, or the fisherman of the Galleria dei
Candelabri (p. 336). The genre figure of the boy with the
goose (p. 127), after Boethus of Chalcedon, is the only
work of this kind whose artist is known : but the crouching
Aphrodite (p. 299) of Doedalsas the Bithynian is little
more than a life-study labelled with the name of a goddess.
Ideal sculpture, however, was produced as largely as ever.
The most important school was that of Pergamon, whose
artists were fortunate in drawing their inspiration from the
last triumph of Greek over barbarian — the victories of the
Attalid kings over the Celts who invaded Asia Minor in the
first half of the third century B.C. Beside the famous altar
whose reliefs are now in the Berlin Museum, Attalus I caused
a number of figures and groups, either directly illustrating or
symbolically recalling his defeat of the Gauls, to be set up on
the citadel of Pergamon and on the Acropolis at Athens. To
the former class belong the "Dying Gaul " in the Capitoline
Museum (p. 128) and the " Gaul and his wife " of the Ludo-
visi collection : the latter are represented by a figure in
the Vatican (p. 338). The school from which proceeded
III.] ANCIENT SCULPTURE 35
these works must also be credited with such a fine creation
as the Triton of the Galleria delle Statue (p. 289). Perga-
mene artists of a later generation returned to the calmer
spirit of the classical period ; their work is nobly represented
by the figure of a goddess in the room of the Dying Gaul
(p. 128). The school of Rhodes, which after the subjugation
of Greece by the Romans, succeeded to the position held
by that of Pergamon, is represented by its masterpiece, and
that the original, viz. the Laocoon (p. 300), a work whose
poignant realism tends to obscure its religious significance :
and the Centaurs of the Capitol, copied in the second cen-
tury A.D. by two Asiatic artists, have been assigned to the
same place and period. To the Alexandrian school we
must ascribe the figure of the Nile (p. 328) ; but it does
not seem to have been as important as those of Pergamon
and Rhodes. Besides the works above-mentioned, there
are a number of others of which we can only say that they
are of Hellenistic date and style without specifying their
place of origin. Such as the sleeping- Ariadne of the
Galleria delle Statue (p. 286) and the Hermaphrodite of
the Museo delle Terme (p. 215). In this latter museum the
bronze boxer (p. 211) illustrates later athletic sculpture
and the bronze statue of a king (p. 212) is a striking ex-
ample of idealised portraiture. A single head in the Capi-
toline Museum (p. no) recalls the work of the one artist
from the Greek mainland who achieved greatness in religious
sculpture — Damophon of Messene. Numerous types of
Aphrodite — the latest being that of the Capitol (p. m) —
show the Hellenistic spirit in its gradual development.
Roman female statues display a wealth of motives in the
treatment of drapery which is inherited from the Hellenistic
schools, especially those of Asia Minor — the " Pudicitia "
type (p. 324) is a good example. The portraits of philo-
sophers and poets which belong to the Hellenistic age are
discernible by their intense realism of detail, yet firm grasp
of the broad traits of character: the " pseudo=Seneca "
(p. 1 16) and the Zeno of the Capitol (p. 129) are conspicuous
examples. In bas-relief there was a growing tendency to
36 ANCIENT SCULPTURE [in.
introduce accessories, especially landscape, which must be
attributed to the influence of the schools of painting : it is,
unfortunately, seldom clear whether the reliefs which are
preserved to us belong to this or to the succeeding age.
The Room of the Philosophers (p. 116) contains some
examples.
Towards the close of the period, when even the shadow of
Hellenic independence had ceased to exist, it seemed as
though the creative power of Greek artists was spent :
classicism became the dominant tendency and continued
to reign under the newly-founded Empire of Augustus.
The motives of Attic sculpture — mostly of the fifth century —
were copied or adapted to fresh needs. We can trace a
succession of sculptors — Pasiteles, the founder of the
school, of whom we read in Pliny, Stephanus, his pupil,
the artist of a statue in the Villa Albani based on a fifth-
century athletic type, and Stephanus' pupil Menelaus, to
whom we owe the group of "Orestes and Electra" in
the Ludovisi collection (p. 207). The colossal head of
Juno in the same collection (p. 209) is the finest creation of
this school, dating from the first century a.d. A singular
fashion was the imitation of Archaic Sculpture by these
"Neo-Attic" artists, especially in decorative work for the
adornment of well-heads, candelabra, marble vases, etc.
The Capitoline Puteal (p. 112) with a procession of Twelve
Gods is a striking illustration of this.
In the meantime a Roman national art was brought to
the birth. The first manifestation of it is seen in the
portrait busts of Republican date, excellent examples of
which may be seen in the Museo Chiaramonti (p. 313 f),
distinguishable at a glance by their hard features and un-
sparing realism even from the least ideal of Greek portraits.
We see here the self-assertion of a spirit which had already
found expression in Etruscan art (see above), and was
wholly in harmony with the Roman national character.
But in the cosmopolitan capital of the world its development
was checked by the fashion which dictated the importation
and imitation of Greek products ; the bronze "Camillus"
in.] ANCIENT SCULPTURE 37
of the Palazzo dei Conservatori (p. 144), though Roman in
subject, is unmistakably a creation of the Neo- Attic school.
And in Augustan art, filled as it is with the spirit of the
New Empire — the traveller may study it in two of its
masterpieces, the statue of Augustus from Prima Porta
in the Braccio Nuovo (p. 322), and the reliefs of the Ara
Pacis (p. 204) — the form is supplied by Greek classicism.
In order to grasp the main outlines of the history of Roman
art nothing is more instructive than the attentive study
of the Imperial portraits \ and not only those in the
"Room of the Emperors1' in the Capitoline Museum, where
some periods are ill-represented. Thus the "young
Augustus" of the Sala dei Busti (p. 293), the Tiberius of
the Museo Chiaramonti (p. 316), the statues from Cervetri
in the Lateran (p. 234), the Claudius of the Vatican Rotunda
(p. 276), and the Corbulo of the Sala dei Filosofi (p. 118), may
be taken as typical of the art which flourished under the
first dynasty — somewhat cold, academic, and unprogressive ;
while the finest examples of Roman portraiture belong to the
succeeding period of the Flavian emperors, and may be
appreciated by examining the Vespasian of the " Museo
delle Terme" (p. 200) and, above all, the so-called "Mark
Antony" of the Braccio Nuovo. The merit of these works
lies in the masterly skill with which the characteristic traits
of the subject are emphasised without overloading of detail.
This phase of art was short-lived ; a harder style, recalling

1 Note that the shape of a bust indicates the date of a portrait.

Under Augustus and his dynasty only the collar-bone and a
portion of the breast is shown ; in the Flavian period we have the
outline of the shoulders ; under Trajan the armpit is included ;
under Hadrian part of the upper arm ; and still more under the
Antonines. In the following century half-lengths are found, but
there is also a return to earlier forms. In using this criterion, the
traveller must be careful to note whether head and bust are
contemporary, i.e. whether the bust is unbroken at the neck,
since a large number of the portrait-heads in Roman museums are
set on busts which are either modern or, if ancient, of a different
period from the head.
38 ANCIENT SCULPTURE [in.
that of the Republican portraits, came into vogue under
Trajan, and is illustrated by his portraits. Hadrian, whose
features are familiar from the colossal bust in the Vatican
Rotunda (p. 279), and many others — he set the fashion of
wearing a beard, which furnishes a useful criterion of date
— was a phil-Hellenist, and there was, as we shall see, a
return to classicism under his rule. The portraits of his
favourite Antinous show this tendency ; but a singular
innovation in portraiture which dates from this period, viz.
the plastic indication of the iris and pupil of the eye,
points in an entirely new direction. From the late Hellen-
istic period onwards there had been a tendency (see below)
to overstep the conventional boundary between the spheres
of painting and sculpture ; ! and from the middle of the
second century A.D. onwards Roman sculptors devoted
themselves to the search after effective contrasts of light
and shadow, smooth and complex surfaces, etc., in which
the influence of pictorial principles is shown. In por-
traiture this is manifest in the busts of the Antonine period,
such as that of Commodus in the Palazzo dei Conservatori
(p. 139). After the fall of the dynasty of Septimius Severus
— whose successor Caracalla is portrayed in a number of
very remarkable busts — there was a gradual decline in art,
as in material prosperity ; but the Roman portrait-sculptors
held their own, and created a new style which, with all its
parsimony of viea?is (the hair is merely blocked out and
sprinkled with incised chisel-strokes) achieved the oui which
they kept before them, viz. the mercilessly faithful reproduc-
tion of the characteristic features, however repulsive, of their
subjects. This practice dates from the time of Caracalla,
but it culminates in the art to which we owe the wonderful
portraits of Philip the Arabian in the Braccio Nuovo
(p. 329), and of an unnamed Roman in the Sala delle
Colombe (p. 109). There was a strange revival of something
1 In this connection the growing use of costly materials,
often difficult to work — such as porphyry, green basalt, and the
like — for sculpture, should be noted. This practice marks the
decline of true artistic feeling.
in.] ANCIENT SCULPTURE 39
like the Antonine style under Gallienus (cf. p. 115); but
the economic and political calamities which all but over-
whelmed Rome in the middle of the third century A.D. gave
the death-blow to naturalistic art. The revival of the
Imperial power by Diocletian and Constantine brought
into being a new state, ruled by naked despotism, a new
society, held together by ties of hereditary caste, and a new
art, in which the Oriental influence, which had lain at the
root of the transformation beginning in the Antonine age,
was completely triumphant. The Nearer East, with all its
vast ingenuity in the elaboration of ornament, has never
excelled in the representation of the human figure (which is,
of course, deliberately shunned by the peoples who main-
tain the Judaic tradition) ; and works of the Constantinian
and later periods, such as colossal heads in the Palazzo dei
Conservatori (pp. 132,145) and Room of the Emperors (p. 1 15),
recall by their fixed, expressionless gaze, the " frontal "
types, stiff and symmetrical, of the earliest Oriental sculp-
ture. The statues of magistrates holding the mappa
in the Palazzo dei Conservatori p. 140) are good examples
of later Roman work.
Historical reliefs exhibit the same phases of develop-
ment as portraiture, and are equally deserving of study.
The Ara Pacis Augustae has already been mentioned :
there is no monument of* like importance which we can
assign to the first hundred years of the Empire — the relief
from Cervetri in the Lateran (p. 235 may be mentioned.
In the Flavian period, however, we have the Arch of Titus,
with its scenes from the Jewish triumph of the Emperor,
conceived and executed with the supreme "art which conceals
art," and some fragments in the museums (pp. 236, 303). '
There are a number of monuments dating from the reign of
Trajan, and illustrating the purely historical and thoroughly
Roman sculpture of his time. Many of them belong to the
Great Frieze which once adorned his Forum (p. 163) ; but

1 The fine circular panels on the Arch of Constantine seem

to belong to the Flavian epoch.
40 ANCIENT SCULPTURE [in.
they are now scattered. Some slabs were used to decorate
the Arch of Constantine: others are in the portico of the
Villa Borghese ; one is in the Villa Medici (see p. 190).
Above all, there is the Column of Trajan, less technically
perfect, but far more interesting as a historical document.
Never again did Roman sculptors rise to the same height,
inspired by the triumphs of Roman valour. The panels in
the Palazzo dei Conservatori belonging to the reigns of
Hadrian and Antoninus Pius are conventional and un-
inspired :and the most remarkable monument of the time
is the base of the Antonine Column in the Giardino della
Pigna (p. 331), where beside the apotheosis of the Emperor
and his consort on the front, reproducing traditional motives
in a "classicising" style, we find a new art endeavouring to
find expression in the cavalry manoeuvres of the sides.
The Column of Marcus Aurelius, a direct imitation of
that of Trajan, shows the development of these new
principles ; the oblong panels on the Attic of the Arch of
Constantine are of the same date. But the sculptors of
these monuments had lost their grasp of the true principles
of relief — a crowd of detached figures does not produce the
effect of a picture conceived as a whole and concentrated in
space. The reliefs of the Arch of Severus show the rapid
decline of this school. The third century has little to show
in the field of historical sculpture* but the narrow bands of
relief on the Arch of Constantine, illustrating the military
exploits of that Emperor (perhaps also of Diocletian), should
be studied as showing that in the Orientalised art of the
new monarchy relief has become an ornamental adjunct of
architecture with little substantive interest.
Most of the works described in the above summary are
public in character ; much might be written on the private
art of the Imperial period, and especially on the sarco=
phagi. Cremation was the ordinary practice amongst the
Romans of the Republic : the family of the Scipios were
almost alone in retaining the old custom of burial, and
hence we find the Sarcophagus of Scipio Barbatus in the
Vatican (p. 309). But under the Empire, and more especially
in.] ANCIENT SCULPTURE 41

after A.D. 100, the dead were often interred — especially the
wealthier ; and the Roman museums and palaces are rich in
sarcophagi, usually adorned with scenes from Greek myth-
ology, in which it is not always easy to trace even a remote
allusion to the life beyond the grave. The sleep of Endy-
mion or Ariadne may typify the slumber of death : the un-
timely end of Hippolytus is a natural subject : the prevalence
of Dionysiac scenes is explained by the connection of Bacchic
worship with the doctrine of immortality. It is not so easy
to see why, for example, Achilles should be represented
as he throws off his disguise and leaves the palace of
Lycomedes (p. 107), unless it be that the scene recalls his
choice of a short but glorious life. Scenes from the circus,
with chariots driven by Cupids, must be taken as symbolical
of the race of life : the Muses possibly indicate the literary
pursuits of the dead. A few — but only a few — sarcophagi
have historical subjects, such as the battle of Greek and
Gaul in the Capitoline Museum (p. io6\ a strange second-
century sarcophagus in the Museo delle Terme (p. 219), and
a very fine example of third-century art, probably dating
from the time of Gordian III (a.d. 238-44) in the Ludovisi
collection (p. 207). The sarcophagi of the third century are
peculiarly valuable to us in the absence of monumental
reliefs belonging to that period. Moreover, they illustrate
the insensible transition which leads from Roman to
Early Christian Art (see Christian Rome, p. 53 sqq.). On
the Christian sarcophagi the cycle of Biblical subjects takes
the place o'f that of Greek mythology : the symbolical mean-
ing of the scenes does not always lie on the surface (as in
the case of the Pagan sarcophagi) ; and the artistic principles
are the same in both.
 IV

THE FORUM

\r I ^HE hollow between the Palatine, the Capitol, and the

spurs of the eastern hills was the natural centre of
intercourse between the communities which occupied the
heights ; but until it had been drained, its marshy nature
rendered it unfit to play the part for which it was
destined. Tradition ascribed to Tarquinius Superbus, the
last Etruscan king of Rome, the construction of the Great
Sewer {cloaca maxima), which may still be traced from the
Forum of Nerva (p. 155) to its outflow into the Tiber
(p. 266). An existing stream was regulated and converted
into an open drain, and by this means much of the boggy
soil was reclaimed. Traces of the original marsh, however,
long remained, and one of these — the Lacus Curtius —
acquired a legendary importance which caused its memory
to be preserved. The Forum proper was, as it still is, an
open space unencumbered by buildings ; it was first paved
in the second century B.C. At its N.E. corner was the
Comitium, the focus and centre of political life ; it
was overlooked by the Senate house and partly enclosed
by a platform. These were traditionally ascribed to Tullus
Hostilius. In the centre of the platform was a monument
venerated as the tomb of the legendary founder of Rome,
until in later times it was buried and its place marked by a
pavement of black marble. Hard by was the prison, built
according to tradition by Ancus Martius, which always re-
mained modest in its dimensions since imprisonment as a
punishment was foreign to Roman usage. Overlooking the
 43

IV. THE FORUM

Comitium was the precinct of Vulcan with its rock-hewn

altar ; Saturn, too, and his consort, Ops, were worshipped
at the foot of the Capitol ; but the religious centre of early
Rome lay at the opposite extremity of the Forum. Here
was the sacred hearth of Vesta, tended in primitive times
by the daughters of the King, whose house, the Regia, was
close at hand ; here, too, the sacred spring of Juturna,

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THE FORUM ROMANUM

from which the Vestals drew water for ritual use. From
the northern gate of the Palatine issued the Sacred Way,
which, descending the slopes of the Velia, passed between
the Regia and the shrine of Vesta, and was merged in the
Forum.
To the early days of the Republic belong two temples,
which after many restorations still present important re-
mains oftheir former grandeur— that of Saturn at the feet of
44 THE FORUM [iv.
the Capitol built in 497 B.C., and that of Castor and Pollux
— the " Castores," as the Romans called the Heavenly
Twins — hard by the spring of Juturna, at which they were
said to have watered their milk-white steeds when they
brought the news of the victory of Lake Regillus to Rome
(496 B.C.). In 366 B.C. the close of the long struggle
between patricians and plebeians was signalised by the
erection of a temple of Concord on the slope of the Capitol
overlooking the Comitium ; and the subjugation of the
Latins in 338 B.C. by the Consul Gaius Maenius was com-
memorated not only by the adornment of the speaker's
platform with the beaks of the captured ships, whence it
took the name of "the Rostra," but by the erection in the
Comitium of the " column of Masnius," a monument which
received its counterpart in 260 B.C., when Gaius Duilius, the
first admiral of the Roman fleet, was allowed to set up the
Columna Rostrata, a restoration of which, together with
the inscription re-engraved under the Early Empire, may
be seen in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (p. 132). The
Forum was by now not so much a market=place as a
business centre. On either side of the piazza were rows
of taberncc, used by bankers and money-changers, and
above them were galleries, likewise ascribed to the Maenius
already mentioned, from which a crowd of spectators could
watch the public or private games celebrated in the Forum
itself.
The transformation of Rome under Greek influence
which belongs to the second century B.C. (p. 9) left its
mark upon the Forum. Strangely enough, it was Cato the
Elder, who, in spite of his antipathy towards Greek culture,
built (in 185 B.C.) the first of the basilica, or Public Halls,
which were to become so conspicuous a feature of the
Forum. The Basilica Porcia, as it was called, was at the
foot of the Arx, i.e. at the N.W. corner of the Forum. In
179 B.C. the censors, M. /Emilius Lepidus and M. Fulvius
Nobilior, built a second Basilica on the N. side of the
piazza, and nine years later Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus
added a third on the southern side.
i v.J THE FORUM 45
In 145 B.C. the meetings of the Legislative Assembly of
the people {comitia trilnita were transferred, at the instance
of the tribune, C. Licinius Crassus, from the Comitium to
the larger area of the Forum, and henceforward the
speakers who mounted the Rostra turned their backs
upon the Senate-house in order to face the multitude.
Then the Forum became the scene of the fierce political
strife which from the time of the Gracchi to the establish-
ment of the Empire, raged without intermission. In
121 B.C, after the fall of Gaius Gracchus, the consul,
L. Opimius, rebuilt the Temple of Concord, and Q. Fabius
Maximus, the conqueror of the Allobroges in S. Gaul, set
up a monumental archway close to the Regia, where the
Sacred Way entered the Forum. Twice during the
struggles of the succeeding century fire made havoc of its
buildings. In 83 B.C. the Senate-house was destroyed and
rebuilt by Sulla, and a few years later the Tabularium with
its monumental arcade was built by Q. Lutatius Catulus.
In 52 B.C., when the body of Clodius was burnt in the
Comitium by the mob, the Senate-house once more
perished in the flames and was rebuilt by Faustus Sulla,
the son of the Dictator.
To Julius Caesar we must trace the transformation by
which the Forum received its present orientation and aspect.
Even while campaigning in Gaul his brain conceived
the plan of rebuilding the basilica; to X. and S., trans-
ferring the seat of the popular assembly to the Campus
Martius and building a second Forum to connect the two.
The Rostra was to be moved to the western extremity of
the Forum and placed at the foot of the Capitol, and a new
Senate House was to be built. These plans were only
partly carried out in the Dictator's lifetime, but carried to
completion by Augustus. The Basilica and Forum which
bore the Julian name were dedicated, though unfinished,
in 46 B.C. ; the Basilica /Emilia — on the northern side of the
Forum — was not dedicated until 29 B.C. Augustus rebuilt
the Senate House, raised the level of the Forum throughout,
and set up a temple to the deified Julius at its eastern
46 THE FORUM [iv.
extremity, which faced the new Rostra, and had its fagade
adorned in the same manner. The temples of Saturn,
Concord, and the Castores were restored under his auspices,
and a triumphal arch commemorating the restoration of
the standards taken by the Parthians from Crassus was
erected on the line of the Sacred Way.
Later emperors added but little to the adornment of
the Forum. The temple built by Tiberius in honour of
Augustus was hidden by that of the Castores, and the
only sanctuary added to those immediately adjoining the
Forum was the temple of Vespasian and Titus, which
marked the central portion of the Tabularium. Two
triumphal arches were built at the foot of the Capitol — to
the west that of Tiberius, of which only the foundations
remain ; to the east that of Septimius Severus.
In a.d. 283-4 a great conflagration once more devastated
the Forum, and Diocletian thereafter finally rebuilt the
• Senate House in the form which, as the church of S.
Adriano, still preserves. The bases of the columns, once
crowned with honorary statues, which stand in front of the
Basilica Julia, belong to the same period ; the column of
Phocas is later by some three centuries. By this time the
era of destruction had already begun.]
Descending from the Capitol by the Via dell' Arco di
Settimio Severo (to the east of the Palazzo del Senatore) we
find ourselves opposite to the arch of Septimius Severus
on the road which skirts the northern edge of the Forum.
Immediately to the L. is the church of S. Giuseppe dei
Falegnami (or S. Pietro in Carcere). Below this church are
the remains of the Career or prison, the building of which
was ascribed by the Romans to Ancus Marcius. Christian
tradition recognises in it the place of confinement of SS.
Peter and Paul. From the portico of the church we can see
the doorway of the prison, with an inscription set up by C.
Vibius Rufinus and M. Cocceius Nerva (grandfather of the
Emperor Nerva), consuls under Tiberius. From the sacristy
we descend by a modern staircase to a vaulted chamber
built of tufa (with some blocks of travertine) ; this is the
iv.] THE FORUM 47
only part of the prison now accessible. Another staircase
leads to the Tullianum, at a still lower level, which was
only entered in ancient times by a hole in the roof. The
name means "well-house" (from iulhis = spring), and there
is in fact a spring of water in its floor. The chamber has
the shape of a horseshoe, and was originally roofed with a
corbelled domical vault, resembling such primitive work as
the so-called "Treasury of Atreus" and other graves at
Mycenae. At a later date the upper portion of this cupola
was removed, and replaced by a flat roof. The Tullianum
was used as a place of execution. Here Jugurtha and
Vercingetorix were put to death after being led in triumph ;
here, too, the Catilinarian conspirators were strangled by
Cicero's orders. The flight of steps leading from the
prison to the Capitol takes the place of the Scalae
Gemoniae, or "Stairway of Sighs," where the bodies of
criminals were exposed before they were drawn with a hook
to the Tiber and cast into the river. Such was the fate
which befel Sejanus and not a few of the emperors.
Farther to the L. are the churches of S. Martina and S.
Adriano, between which the Via Bonella now runs. Until
the sixteenth century they formed a single building, which
included the Curia or Senate House (S. Adriano — see below,
p. 51), the Secretarium Senatus (S. Martina), and the
Atrium Minervae, or ' Court of Minerva,' a courtyard sur-
rounded by porticos, which took its name from a chapel
dedicated to Minerva by Domitian.
Turning to the R. we pass in front of the Tabularium, or
Public Record Office, built by Q. Lutatius Catulus, the
Consul of 78 B.C., and leader of the Conservative or
"Optimate" party. It is easy to distinguish the original
building with its massive wall of sperone — the finest example
of Republican building — from the upper stories partly of
mediaeval construction, partly the work of Michel Angelo,
which transformed it into the " Palazzo del Senatore.'' All
the bays of the arcade which overlooked the Forum have
been blocked save one, which is worthy of attention as
illustrating the economy in the use of travertine practised
48 THE FORUM [iv.
by Roman builders under the Republic. The columns are
of sperone, the capitals and architraves of the more precious
material. The Tabularium is entered from the Capitol, and
the interior is described on p. 149 f.
Between the Tabularium and the modern road we see
first the concrete foundations of the Temple of Concord,
built by M. Furius Camillus in 366 B.C., on the conclusion
of the struggle between the orders and the admission of
plebeians to the consulship, restored by L. Opimius in 121
B.C., and again rebuilt by Tiberius in the reign of Augustus
(a.d. 7-10). A still later restoration was commemorated by
an inscription now lost. As rebuilt by Tiberius, the temple
was oblong in form, the breadth being almost double of the
depth ; in the middle of the front was a portico approached
by a flight of steps. Tiberius filled the temple with master-
pieces of Greek sculpture and painting. Its walls and
pavement were decorated with costly marbles, some
remains of which were found in 1817. The threshold, which
is still preserved, was formed by enormous blocks of
portasanta. A piece of the cornice may be seen in the Tabul-
arium. Some of the richly ornamental column-bases are in
the Museo Capitolino, and two capitals in the Palazzo dei
Conservatory
Next to the temple of Concord was that of Vespasian
and Titus, erected in a.d. 80. The base upon which the
statues of the deified emperors stood may be seen at the
back of the building. The three columns still standing, as
well as the richly decorated frieze (adorned with bucrania
and sacrificial instruments) and cornice, doubtless belong to
the original temple, though the inscription partly preserved
on the entablature and copied when still complete by a
mediaeval traveller records that the temple was restored by
Septimius Severus and Caracalla.
In the angle formed by the Tabularium and the ascent to
the Capitol, on the line of the ancient Clivus Capitolinus, is
a portico of cipollino columns (those of travertine are the
work of a modern restorer) with figured capitals represent-
ing trophies. A series of small chambers open on the
iv.] THE FORUM 49
colonnade. These were, no doubt, the shrines of the twelve
Olympian gods, for the building is identified by an in-
scription on the architrave as the Porticus Deorum Cotisen-
tium, or colonnade of the assembled gods, whose statues
of gilded bronze are mentioned by Varro. The building was
restored in the fourth century A.D. by Vettius Agorius
Praetextatus, one of the latest champions of expiring pagan-
ism. Beneath it are seven chambers (tabernae) opening on
to the narrow passage between the portico and the temple
of Vespasian. Close to the W. end of the passage is a
doorway in the ground floor of the Tabularium which was
blocked up by the building of the temple. Notice the use of
travertine for the flat arch which takes the place of a
intel.
On the opposite side of the road is the lofty substructure
of the Temple of Saturn. The eight columns of red and
grey granite still standing belong to a late restoration, as
the inscription on the architrave records. The work was
carelessly done : the bases of the columns are irregular in
size, and one of the columns (no doubt taken from some
other building) is inverted. The temple was originally built
in 498 B.C., and restored in 42 B.C. by L. Munatius Plancus,
to whose building the high podium of travertine seems to
belong. In its vaults was housed the public treasury of
Rome, or aerarium Saturni. This was rifled by Caesar at
the commencement of the Civil War, and found to contain
15,000 gold and 30,000 silver ingots and 30,000,000 sesterces
(,£300,000) of coined money.
Turning to the L. we soon reach the entrance to the
excavations, and descending the slope enter the Basilica
Julia, begun by Julius Caesar and completed by Augustus,
who was forced to rebuild it after a fire, and dedicated the
restored structure in A.D. 12 to the memory of his grandsons,
Gaius and Lucius Caesar. It was again restored by
Diocletian after the great fire of a.d. 283-4. The rows
of dwarf brick piers, which have been set up in modern
imes, indicate clearly enough the ground plan of the build-
ng. It had a long central hall, measuring 82 by 18
E
5o THE FORUM [iv.
metres, surrounded by a corridor and galleries opening
on to the nave by a two-storeyed arcade, and lit by a
clerestory. To the S. there was an outer corridor
bordered by a row of chambers (tabernae) used by money-
changers ;on the N. the Basilica was approached from
the Forum by a flight of steps and a portico with an arcade
of two storeys. One of the lower piers has been restored
in travertine, with an engaged half-column, in recent times.
The aisles and galleries were vaulted and decorated in
stucco ; some fragments of this are preserved at the S.W.
corner, where the ancient piers have been reinforced with
modern brickwork. The nave was paved with coloured
marbles — giallo an/ico, affrica7io and pavonazzetto—oi which
some fragmentary slabs remain ; the aisles had a pavement
of white marble, upon which were scratched boards for
games {tabulae lusoriae) with inscriptions, such as vinces
gaudes fierdes plangis, " the winner's joy the loser's tears,"
and the like.
Close to the restored pier of the portico will be seen two
pedestals bearing the name of Gabinius Vettius Probianus,
city-prefect, in a.d. 416, who repaired the damage done to
the Basilica by the Goths under Alaric, and beside it upon
them rest the bases of statues described as " the work of
Polyclitus" and "the work of Timarchus." As to such
inscriptions compare what is said on p. 196 about the
Dioscuri of Monte Cavallo.
The Basilica Julia served not only as an exchange and
a promenade for loungers, but also as a law court, where
the centumviri, a jury of one hundred, usually divided into
four panels for the trial of civil causes, held its sittings.
Pliny the Younger mentions a cause cilebre in which he
pleaded before a plenary session of the four panels, at
which not only the nave of the Basilica, but also the
galleries, were crowded with spectators.
In the Middle Ages the ruins of the Basilica were used
as a rope-walk, and a small church built at the western end
was called S. Maria in Cannapara ("in the rope-walk'');
some remains of this church may be seen.
iv.] THE FORUM 51
At either end of the Basilica we can trace the ancient
streets by which the Forum was approached from the S.W. —
to the W. the Vicus Jugarius or "street of the yoke-
makers," which followed the line of the modern Via della
Consolazione at the foot of the Capitol, to the E. the Vicus
Tuscus or " street of the Etruscans ; '' this latter passed
between the Basilica Julia and the temple of Castor and
Pollux, and continued beneath the slope of the Palatine to
the cattle-market.
Along the front of the Basilica runs the Sacred Way, paved
with polygonal blocks of lava. Excavations in the centre
of the road have brought to light a series of rectangular
pits lined with slabs of tufa. The bottom of these was left
open, but the top was closed with a lid. Such pits have
also been found in front of the Rostra, and -in the line
whose centre is occupied by the temple of Julius Csesar ;
others, again, of earlier date and with a different orienta-
tion in the Comitium. Comm. Boni believes that they are
" augural pits," into which offerings were cast when the
lines of the Comitium and Forum were marked out, so that
those which we see in front of the Basilica Julia mark the
complete change in orientation due to the execution of the
Dictator's plan (p. 45).
The seven unsightly brick foundations which stand on
the edge of the Sacred Way were originally faced with
marble and crowned with columns, two of which — one of
pavonazzetto, the other of grey granite — were re-erected in
1899. They date from the time of Diocletian, and no doubt
supported honorary statues. Passing the westernmost of
these we cross the Forum, proceed directly to its N.W.
corner, and approach the Comitium, originally the meet-
ing place of all assemblies of the Roman people, but in later
times only used for those of the thirty lictors who repre-
sented the Comitia atria/a, which transacted certain formal
business and passed Private Acts, such as adoptions. The
church of S. Adriano, which overlooks it on the north,
is the ancient Curia or Senate-house, rebuilt by Diocletian,
and converted into a Christian church in the seventh
52 THE FORUM [iv.
century a.d. The facade, which now displays bare brick-
work, was once faced with marble slabs in the lower and
stucco in the upper portion ; some fragments of the latter
may be seen just below the cornice.
We can see at a glance how the accumulation of rubbish
has gradually raised the level of the Forum. In front of
the building is the concrete core of a flight of steps which
led to the original doorway, which has been filled up with
fragments of marble, porphyry columns, and inscriptions.
On either side may be seen graves, one of which contains
a skeleton, excavated in the brickwork after the raising of
the ground level. The modern doorway, whose threshold
takes the place of the lintel of the original entrance, belongs
to the seventeenth century, when the ancient bronze doors
were removed to the principal entrance of the Basilica of
St. John Lateran, which they still adorn.
The enlargement of the Senate-house by Julius Caesar
considerably reduced the size of the Comitium. It has been
excavated in several places down to the virgin soil, and
something of its earlier history can be traced. Opposite to
the door of the Senate-house is a circular marble base,
which once supported a fountain, resting partly on the strip
of marble pavement immediately in front of the Senate-
house, partly on the travertine paving of the Comitium,
which dates from the later Empire. If we stand here and
look towards the Senate-house we see beneath our feet
a small piece of pavement made of neatly squared slabs
of travertine, whose orientation coincides almost exactly
with the cardinal points of the compass ; this belongs to the
Republican Comitium in its latest period. Below this
again will be seen some remains of tufa steps leading down
to an early pavement made of broken tufa ; these steps,
which must belong to a very early period, are parallel with
the front of the Senate-house. If we now turn our backs to
Senate-house we see immediately to our right a pedestal
originally set up in the reign of Antoninus Pius (a.D. 154),
but re-dedicated in the name of Maxentius (the opponent of
Constantine at the battle of the Milvian Bridge) to " Father
iv. i THE FOR CM 53

Mars the Unconquered" and the founder of his "Eternal

City" on April 21, the birthday of Rome. Below us on our
left arc the remains of a flight of tufa steps which led up
to a raised platform ; they are interrupted by lozenge-shaped
"augural pits," resembling those which we saw beside the
Sacred Way. Returning to the line of the street we see the
retaining wall of this platform in not quite regular opus
quadratum made of narrow blo:ks of tufa, and turning to
the right approach a zinc roof which covers a pavement of
black marble, with a rude curb of white slabs on the level
of the late pavement. It certainly belongs in its present
form to late Imperial times, and was perhaps restored by
Maxentius, but we cannot fail to connect it with the Black
Stone {lapis niger) mentioned by the Roman antiquarians
from the time of Yarro onwards, which was said to mark
the site of the tomb of Romulus, or, according to others,
of Faustulus the shepherd, who brought up the twin
founders of Rome. Beneath the black pavement a remark-
able group of monuments was discovered in 1901. To the
left we see two parallel bases of tufa with a carved mould-
ing, between which is a small block of tufa resembling an
altar. Behind these is a rectangular tufa platform. We
are told by ancient authorities that two lions guarded the
tomb of Romulus, and that this tomb was "on," "before,"
or "behind" the Rostra. It is natural to suppose that the
parallel bases are those which supported the lions, and that
the platform is part of the Rostra. Across the front of this
group of monuments runs the lowest course of the flight
of tufa steps already mentioned, and immediately to the
right of the " tomb of Romulus " we see on a second step
a truncated conical column of yellow tufa ; behind this is
the lower part of a pyramidal pillar with bevelled edges,
bearing an inscription engraved in extremely ancient char-
acters, probably of the sixth or fifth century B.C. The
inscription runs in vertical lines, alternately from top to
bottom and bottom to top,1 so that only the beginnings and
1 This was termed in Greek boustrophedon ; the word denotes
the movement of an ox ploughing in alternate furrows.
54 THE FORUM [iv.
ends of certain lines can be read. Its meaning is quite
obscure, but it certainly mentions the "King" (PECEI =
regt), his kalator or " summoner,'' and his "carriages,"
iouxmenta. As the date of the inscription is undetermined,
we cannot tell whether the King is one of the early rulers of
Rome, or the rex sacromm, who succeeded to his religious
functions. Certain ceremonies were, we know, performed
by the latter in the Comitium in historical times, and it
is possible that the inscription refers to them.
The monuments just described were buried under a mass
of sacrificial remains and votive offerings, ranging in date
from the sixth to the first century B.C., mixed up in the
utmost confusion. It follows that the materials were not
deposited on the spot until the first century B.C., when (as we
must infer from Varro's statement) the Black Stone was laid
to mark the site. Julius Caesar, it would seem, restored the
pavement and probably raised its level : fragments of the
marble of which it was made have been found in the under-
ground corridors to be mentioned presently. The partial
destruction of the monuments underlying the Black Stone
must date from the time of their burial ; and the difficulty
of attributing such an act to the Romans of the first century
has given rise to various theories — e.g. that the havoc was
wrought by the Gauls in B.C. 390 ; but the supposition can
hardly be reconciled with the conditions of the votive
deposit, and the lion-tomb itself seems to be later than that
date.
Leaving this group of monuments, we proceed to the
N.W., observing the curved drain walled with opus reti-
culatum which marks the boundary of the Republican
comitium. We may, perhaps, conceive of the original
boundary as a complete semicircle (in the centre of which
would be the Rostra), and thus understand what ancient
writers mean when they speak of the " horns of the Com-
itium," marked by the statues of Pythagoras and Alci-
biades, which were set up in obedience to an oracle of the
Delphic priestess as "the wisest and bravest of the
Greeks."
iv.] THE FORUM 55
In the space immediately to the S. ot the Black Stone
are the remains of monuments of the later Empire. The most
noticeable relic is a square base of white marble adorned on
all sides with reliefs carved in the decadent style of the early
fourth century A.D. The date is fixed by the inscription on the
front — CcEsarum decennaliafeliciter — which refers to the cele-
brations of A.D. 303, when the " Caesars " Constantius and
Galerius completed the tenth, and the " Augusti " Diocle-
tian and Maximian the twentieth, year of their rule. The
corresponding pedestal set up in honour of Diocletian and
his colleague was found about 1500, but has been lost.
Both originally stood in front of the Senate-house. The
sculptures on the back and sides of the pedestal of the
" C.esars " are interesting as examples of the decline of art.
They represent an Emperor sacrificing to Rome and Mars,
a civil procession, and the pig, sheep, and ox of the Suove-
taurilia being led to sacrifice. Note these last and compare
them with the Trajanic reliefs presently to be described.
Between this base and the Black Stone are fragments of
marble blocks which belonged to monuments set up in
honour of Stilicho, the general of Honorius and opponent
of Alaric. The name of Stilicho was erased after his fall
and murder in A.D. 408.
Overlooking the Comitium on the W. was the Area
Volcani (or Yolcanal), i.e. the precinct sacred to Volcanus,
the god of destroying fire. Here, according to legend,
Romulus convoked the Senate of the Fathers ; here, too,
before the building of the Rostra, magistrates addressed the
assembled people. The virgin rock is here cut into rough
steps, and a large platform or altar has been hewn in the
tufa, covered with cement and painted red. It shows signs
of having been damaged and restored. In order to reach
this platform we pass through the Arch of Septimius
Severus, built in A.D. 203 in honour of that Emperor and
his sons Caracalla and Geta. The inscription on the attic
can be read from the matrices, although the bronze lettering
has disappeared. It will be seen that the last two letters of
the third and the whole of the fourth line are cut deeper than
56 THE FORUM [iv.
the rest and have taken the place of other words which have
been chiselled out. These words gave the name and title
of Geta, the younger son of Severus, who was murdered by
his elder brother Caracalla in a.d. 211 ; they were then
erased and the titles " Father of the fatherland, best
and bravest of princes " added to those of Severus and
Caracalla. The reliefs of the arch, especially those of the piers
above the sidebays, illustrate the decadence of art after the
Antonine period, and the development of " bird's-eye per-
spective "(p. 184) until the relief almost resembles a map.
The subjects are taken from the Oriental campaigns of
Severus, who in A.D. 193 attacked the Parthian and Arab
allies of his rival, Pescennius Niger, and annexed Meso-
potamia to the Empire, and in A.D. 198-9 invaded Parthia
and captured its two capitals, Ctesiphon and Seleucia ; but
the interpretation of its details has not as yet been at-
tempted with success. The reliefs which adorn the pedestals
of the eight composite columns which flank the bays of the
arch represent Oriental prisoners led in chains by Roman
legionaries. Like many other triumphal arches, that of
Severus was not intended for traffic and was approached by
a flight of steps leading to the central passage : under the
later Empire the level of the Forum in front of the arch was
lowered, and three longer flights were constructed as ap-
proaches to the three bays. We can see how the travertine
foundations of the arch, which thus became exposed, were
faced with marble slabs.
To the S. of the arch of Severus are the remains of the
Rostra as rebuilt in Imperial times. The removal of the
Rostra from the Comitium to the Forum was part of
Julius Caesar's great scheme of reconstruction ; but it
was not carried out in his lifetime. The building which
we now see consists of two parts. In front we have
a rectangular platform built of opus quadrat um in tufa,
which has been restored in modern times in order to
receive the marble cornice which can be largely pieced
together from extant fragments. In the front may be
seen the holes in which the ship's prows which formed
iv. I THE FORUM 57
the conventional ornament of this and — as we shall see
— other platforms were fixed. The facade was divided into
compartments by bronze pilasters and frames ; a ship's prow
was placed in the centre of each compartment and another
fixed in the centre of each pilaster. At the Northern end of
the platform a rudely built extension will be noticed ; this is
partly formed of architectural members taken from other
buildings and roughly hacked into shape. It dates from
A.D. 470, as an inscription shows, and was perhaps raised in
order to restore the symmetry of the Forum which had
been impaired by the erection of honorary columns on its
southern side. Passing to the back of the Rostra we see
the remains of the travertine piers and back wall of brick
by which the platform was supported, and observe how
these supports were strengthened in late times by additional
brickwork. The reason of this was that the platform be-
came overweighted by honorary statues. Some idea of its
appearance is given by a bas-relief on the Arch of Con-
stantine, described on p. 253. Behind the rectangular
platform is a semicircular structure, faced in its Northern
half only with slabs of porta santa divided by pilasters of
Affricano, resting on a marble plinth upon whose blocks
letters of the Greek alphabet are inscribed. These letters
do not form a continuous series, and it is clear that the
blocks were removed from some other building. It will also
be noticed that at the angle next to the Arch of Severus the
plinth has been hacked away in order to fit that of the side-
wall of the Rostra. The relation of the two buildings is
best explained as follows. The hemicycle was planned by
Caesar and completed by Augustus : it was approached (as
may be seen from the back) by a flight of steps at the base
of the Capitol, and served to carry the Rostra until the time
of the Flavian Emperors, or possibly Trajan, who built the
rectangular platform adjoining and connected with it. Until
the time of Septimius Severus this was still approached by
the curved flight of steps at the back : but when that
Emperor built his triumphal arch he unroofed part of the
platform, forming a small court of irregular shape, gave to
58 THE FORUM [iv.
the exposed portion of the hemicycle its marble facing
and built a stairway from the open court to the platform
above.
At the northern end of the hemicycle are the remains of
a large circular pedestal in brick-faced concrete ; the monu-
ment which it bore was the Umbilicus Urbis Romae, or
" Navel of the City of Rome," marking its ideal centre,
which is mentioned in the fourth-century descriptions. It
was long supposed that the "Golden Milestone" set up
by Augustus, upon which the distances from Rome to the
principal cities of the empire were given, stood at the other
extremity of the hemicyle, since it was known to have been
below the Temple of Saturn : but no remains of it were found
there. What we do see is a small paved court, which can be
identified (by means of an inscription discovered in the six-
teenth century and since destroyed) as the Schola or office
of the curule sediles. It has been called the Schola Xantha,
since a certain A. Fabius Xanthus was one of its builders.
Behind this court may be seen a row of low arcades
faced with carefully jointed opus incertum — almost regular
enough to be called opus reticulation : the vaulted chambers
under these arcades have a pavement of pounded brick.
These arcades have been supposed to represent the Rostra
as first reconstructed accord to Julius Caesars plan ; but
they are in reality a viaduct built to support the Clivus
Capitolinus — the winding street which prolonged the Sacred
Way and gave access to the Capitol. Its pavement is well
preserved below and in front of the Temple of Saturn ; the
viaduct was probably built when the temple was restored
and enlarged by Plancus (in 42 B.c).
At the S. end of the arcades are the foundations of the
Arch of Tiberius, built to commemorate the recovery of
the eagles lost in the disaster which befell Varus in a.d. 9.
The Sacred Way did not pass through the arch, but curved
slightly to the N. in order to avoid it.
As we turn eastwards and approach the centre of the
Forum we pass the Column of Phocas, resting on a
pedestal with nine steps. This is the "column with the
IV.] THE FORUM 59

buried base" ol Byron's poem. The inscription (discovered

in i Si I ) shows that Smaragdus, the "exarch" or governor
of the Byzantine possessions in Italy, set up on the column
a statue of the Emperor Phocas in A.D. 608. Phocas was
a tyrant of low origin and abominable cruelty ; he presented
the Pantheon to Boniface IV (p. 174). The column, how-
ever, existed before his time, and was probably erected in
honour of Diocletian. The steps of the pedestal were added
by Smaragdus, and are made of materials taken from the
surrounding buildings.
In the centre of the Forum Piazza will be seen a number
of apertures giving access to the subterranean corridors,
which intersect at right angles, forming a chess-board
pattern. These are very carefully finished in concrete
and tufa, and the vaulted chambers at the intersections,
in the roofs of which are the openings, contained wooden
frames for small lifts raised by pulleys, which were worked
by windlasses standing in the corridors. We know that
Julius Caesar celebrated games in the Forum and covered
it with an awning, and there can be little doubt that the
passages and trap-doors were used to raise wild beasts,
gladiators, etc. After Caesar's time games were no longer
held in the Forum, and the corridors were found to be
choked with earth containing no fragments later than the
time of Augustus.
In 1903 the ground to the E. of the Column of Phocas
was explored, and part of the pyramid enclosing the base
of the column was removed. In the travertine pavement
were found incised some letters (originally filled with
bronze) of an inscription — part of which had long been
exposed but unnoticed — giving the name of the praetor,
L. Naevius Surdinus, who probably lived under Augustus.
This gave the clue to the remains found in this part of the
Forum. The foundations of walls nearest to the Column
of Phocas are those of the praetor's tribunal, upon which
the yearly edict which regulated so much of Roman legal
procedure was exposed. In the unpaved square to the N.
stood the statue of Marsyas and the fig-tree seen in
60 THE FORUM [iv.
the sculptured representations of the Forum shortly to be
described. Finally, the name of Surdinus is also found on
the back of the relief in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (p. 133),
which shows Mettus Curtius plunging into the abyss called
the Lacus Curtius. Now to the E. of the tribunal is a piece
of travertine paving enclosed by a curb within which is a
twelve-sided foundation of tufa ; and this must clearly be the
the traditional site of the Lacus Curtius, originally a marshy
pool, to which various legends were attached. One of these
told how Mettus Curtius, the leader of the Sabine host in
battle with Romulus, plunged with his horse and was rescued
with difficulty. The best-known legend is that which tells
how, in 362 B.C., M. Curtius plunged into a chasm which
suddenly opened in the Forum, and thus saved the city ;
this version is depicted on a relief found in 1553 and pre-
served in the Palazzo dei Conservatori. A more prosaic
story is that of Varro, according to which the consul of
445 B.C., C. Curtius, placed a puteal or well-head on the
spot, in order to mark (according to the usual custom) the
spot where a thunderbolt had fallen. Such a well-head
existed in the time of Augustus, and offerings of coin were
yearly placed therein by the people, with prayers for the
welfare of the Emperor.
Near the Lacus Curtius, in the centre of the Forum, may
be seen a large foundation of concrete, filled with lumps of
travertine, which shows very clearly how such structures
were raised by Roman builders (see p. 16). In the upper
surface are three travertine sockets, and towards the eastern
end is a kind of box or cist lined with slabs of travertine.
This foundation undoubtedly supported the colossal eques=
trian statue of Domitian described by the poet Statius.
In the travertine sockets three of the horse's feet were
made fast ; the fourth was raised. The statue, which must
have been about six times life-size, was destroyed on the
death of Domitian. When the travertine cist was opened
it was found to contain five very archaic vases, resembling
those found in the early necropolis not far distant (p. 76).
The vases contained (besides fragments of pitch and tortoise-
iv.J THE FOR I'M 61
shell) a small gold nugget ; and Comm. Boni reminds us
that nuggets of the precious metals were deposited in the
foundations of the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus when it
was rebuilt by Vespasian. He believes that vases of archaic
type continued to be manufactured for such purposes even
in Imperial times ; but it is not unlikely that the vases were
found in an early grave which came to light when the
foundation was laid, and were retained from superstitious
motives as near as might be to their place of discovery.
In the northern part of the piazza the most conspicuous
objects are the two plutei or balustrades, which have been
mounted on brick bases at the spot where they were found.
It is commonly held, but is incapable of proof, that they
were originally designed for the platform of the Rostra, and
found their way to their present position in the course of
the Middle Ages. On one face of each slab are represented
the three animals — sheep, pig, and ox — which were immo-
lated in the solemn sacrifice of purification {siiovetaitrilia)
offered on various occasions. They are adorned with fillets
and garlands. On the opposite faces are depicted two
scenes with architectural backgrounds, taken from the
Forum itself. That which is best preserved shows an em-
peror (whose head is lost) standing upon a platform adorned
with ships' prows, and addressing a group of citizens. Be-
hind them we see a base, supporting (as it would appear) a
statuary group formed by a seated emperor and a woman
holding a child on her left arm and leading another. This
indicates the subject of the emperor's oration, which relates
to the charitable endowments known as the Alimenta, by
which the revenues derived from loans to landowners, se-
cured by mortgages, were applied to the maintenance of
necessitous children. These endowments seem to have
been planned by Nerva, but the system was hardly in work-
ing order before Trajan's reign ; it seems likely, therefore,
that the seated statue represents Nerva and the standing
figure Trajan. At the end of the relief are seen a fig-tree
and a figure of Marsyas bearing a wine-skin ; the back-
ground is formed by a Basilica and a Corinthian temple
62 THE FORUM [iv.
between which is an open space. On the extreme L. is an
archway. The second relief is less perfectly preserved : at
its right-hand extremity we can just see the ships' prows,
which show that here, too, the emperor was represented
upon a platform. The fig-tree and statue of Marsyas are
also repeated at the other end of the scene, which is filled
by a group of men bearing large tablets, which they are
throwing down in a pile at the emperor's feet : these repre-
sent the registers of taxes due to the Imperial treasury on
inheritances, which Trajan remitted. Here, again, a basilica
is the principal object in the background ; to the R. of it
are seen two temples, between which is an arch. There
can be scarcely any doubt that the Rostra, the temples of
Vespasian and Saturn, and the Basilica Julia are here
represented : and in the foreground we see the fig-tree and
the statue of Marsyas, which (as we have seen) stood near
the Praetor's tribunal. As to the other reliefs two views
are possible. According to one, the N. side of the
Forum is here shown with the Rostra and the Senate-house
and the Basilica /Emilia, but the position of the fig-tree
and Marsyas would then be hard to explain. It seems better
to regard the Rostra here portrayed to be those which de-
corated the Temple of Julius Ca?sar (see below), the
Corinthian building as the Temple of the Castores, and the
Basilica as the remaining half of the Basilica Julia, forming
a continuous scene with the other relief. The monument
has been dated in the reigns of Domitian and Hadrian, but
the scenes are in either case less easily explained, and the
style of the reliefs accords well with the Trajanic dating.
Along the N. side of the Forum runs a road parallel
with the Sacred Way, and on the N. edge of this
may be seen a circular foundation with a marble plinth.
This stands just above the junction of two sewers, one of
which — that which comes from the W. — is the Cloaca
Maxima itself; and a coin-type enables us to identity the
circular base as that of the sanctuary of Venus Cloacina,
the Goddess of Sewers. This divinity was symbolically
regarded as the Purifier, and tradition told how Romans
iv.] THE FORUM 63

and Sabines had "purged themselves'' of their enmity and set

up this sanctuary. No trace has been found of the famous
Temple of Janus, a passage with double doors, closed
only when Rome was at peace with the world, which cannot
have been far from this point.
The chapel of Cloacina stands at the foot of the steps
which lead up to the Basilica /Emilia, the history of which
has been traced on page 44 f. Like the Basilica Julia, it had
a two-storeyed arcade opening on the Forum, but its plan
was very different. Immediately behind the arcade was a
row of tabemce or shops with party-walls of tufa, and be-
hind these again was the great hall of the Basilica, which
was divided by three ranges of columns into a central nave
and three aisles, two on the X. side and one on the
S. Many fragments of the columns, which were of
affricano, as were also those of smaller diameter which
belonged to the upper galleries of the aisles, may be seen
within the building. The main entrance was, no doubt,
from the side of the Argiletum, a street which passed
between the Basilica .Timilia and the Senate-house and led
to the busy quarter of the Subura. Through a hole in the
floor of the hall may be seen a drain previously constructed
with blocks of travertine. The hall is paved with blocks of
giallo atitico, affricano, cipolli?n\ ftavonazzetto, and porta-
san/a, and shows traces of fire ; in one place a heap of molten
bronze coins may be seen, some of which can be identified
and belong to the fourth century a.d., so that the Basilica
may have been damaged in the sack of Alaric (a.d. 410).
In any case, it was restored in the fifth century, when the
facade was completely altered. In place of the lower storey
of the arcade, with its massive travertine piers, was set up
a row of granite columns at much shorter intervals, resting
on rudely worked bases : three of these may be seen to-
wards the eastern end of the Basilica, where the portico
had a projecting wing. In the Dark Ages this end of the
building was converted into a dwelling-house, whose
chambers were paved with opus Alexandrinum of giallo
ant ico and red and green porphyry. In some of these are
64 THE FORUM [iv.
now preserved architectural fragments which belonged to
the Basilica in its earlier form, amongst which are two
beautiful door-jambs worked with acanthus foliage in low
relief.
Facing the easterly projecting wing of the Basilica
/Emilia is the concrete core of the podium upon which
stood the Temple of Julius Csesar, built by Augustus at
the eastern end of the Forum. Xo remains of the temple
itself exist, but in the centre of the podium is a semi-
circular niche containing the remains of a round altar.
This has been deliberately destroyed and the niche roughly
blocked up with a wall of tufa blocks— doubtless in Chris-
tian times, when it was desired to put an end to the worship
of Julius Caesar, whilst retaining the temple as an historical
monument. The facade was adorned in antiquity with
ships' prows, and, under the name of Rostra Julia, formed
a pendant to the original Rostra at the western end of
the Forum. To the S. of the temple are the travertine
foundations of an arch with three bays, identified as the
Arch of Augustus, built in commemoration of the restitu-
tion by the Parthians of the standards taken from Crassus
at Carrhae in B.C. 53. The foundations rest upon a road
neatly paved with blocks of lava. Between these founda-
tions and the Temple of Castor and Pollux were found
" augural pits " lined with travertine, making the Eastern
limit of the Forum according to Caesar's plan.
At the S.E. corner of the piazza rises the Temple of
Castor and Pollux, dated by tradition to B.C. 484, and built
in honour of the Heavenly Twins who, in B.C. 496, conveyed
to Rome the news of the victory gained by Postumius over
the Latins at Lake Regillus, and watered their horses at the
neighbouring spring of Juturna. We know that the temple
was restored in 117 B.C., and again under Augustus, when it
was rebuilt by Tiberius and dedicated in the name of him-
self and his brother Drusus in A.D. 6 ; nor was this, probably,
the latest of its restorations. If we examine the podium
we can trace remains of different periods in its construction.
Originally, as it would seem, it was built of cappellaccio —
iv.] THE FORUM 65
soft grey-green tufa, only used at an early date by the
Romans — of which only a few courses are exposed. Then
this was encased in concrete with a facing of tufa blocks,
and we can distinguish various periods of restoration by
means of the materials used for filling the cement — first
tufa only, then tufa and travertine ; pozzolana, again, was
not used in the making of the earlier concrete. It is inter-
esting, too, to note that immediately under the columns,
where the pressure was greatest, travertine was used instead
of tufa. Between these piers were chambers in which
treasure was deposited. In front of the temple was a plat-
form decorated with ships1 beaks — a third Rostra — and
approached by staircases at either corner. Three columns
of the temple are still standing, and many fragments of the
entablature and cornice have been discovered. They are
very finely worked, and it is doubtful whether they should
be attributed to the restoration of Tiberius or to the time of
Hadrian. If we climb to the top of the podium we can
distinguish a pavement of black and white mosaic, of which
a small fragment is preserved, from a later one at a higher
level, made of coloured marbles (not now visible).
Following the Vicus Tuscus (p. 51) between the Temple
of Castor and the Basilica Julia, we notice that the street
was originally paved, not with lava as it is at the higher level,
but with small cubes of brick. We soon reach a huge and
unsightly ruin, once a large rectangular hall with niches in
its walls, approached by a vestibule six metres deep, having
a large niche at each end. The description of Caligula's
bridge from Palatine to Capitol (see below, p. 93) makes it
practically certain that this was the Temple of Augustus,
built by Tiberius, and restored (after a fire) by Domitian.
It contained statues — doubtless placed in the niches — of the
various deified members of the Julio-Claudian house. We
also hear of a Library attached to this temple, and it is
plausibly conjectured that this is represented by the church
of S. Maria Antiqua, described in Christian Rome (p. 184,
ff., Plan xvi. . The present building seems to date from the
reign of Domitian. In the forecourt mav be seen a rect*
66 THE FORUM [iv.
angular basin to which a flight of steps leads down, and as
this makes an angle of about 30 degrees with the walls of
the court and is partly buried under the foundations of the
nave of the church, it was no doubt the impluvium of a
house attached to the Imperial residence on the Palatine
(with which the later building is connected by a ramp).1
Here, no doubt, Domitian built the "sanctuary of Minerva
behind the temple of Augustus " in which were set up the
bronze tablets containing the names of the time-expired
auxiliary soldiers who obtained Roman citizenship on their
discharge. The nave and sanctuary of the church formed
the Library.
Close to the church is the Chapel of the Forty Martyrs
(see Christian Rome, p. 189), an ancient building whose
destination is unknown ; and adjoining it are a group of
monuments which belong to the next division of our subject.
Beyond the temple of Augustus is a small piazza paved
with travertine, upon which stand the remains of very late
buildings. Tabernae, used as shops or offices, open on to it
on two sides : beneath the slope of the Palatine these are in
two storeys. They have been identified with the "ware-
houses of Germanicus " mentioned in the descriptions of
Rome.

1 On Sundays, when the excavations of the Forum and Palatine

are free to the public, visitors can pass from the one to the other
by a wicket-gate at the top of this incline.
 THE SACRED WAY AND ITS
MONUMENTS
Tr I AHE road which connected the Palatine settlement
with the Forum bore the name of the Sacred Way.
The Romans explained the name by the legend that
after the battle between Romulus and the Sabines under
Titus Tatius a peace was here confirmed by solemn sacri-
fices. But a sufficient explanation is to be found in the fact
that just as the Forum was the centre of Rome's political
life, so the Sacred Way was the focus of the State religion.
This religion was the counterpart of that of the agricultural
household, and its rites were administered not by a priestly
caste, but by members of the Roman aristocracy, who per-
formed in the larger unit of the State the functions of family
worship. At the head of the State Church stood in origin
the king, and when kingship was abolished a "king of
sacrifices" (Rex sacrorum) was appointed in his stead. His
official residence was on the Velia, where, according to
tradition, two of the Roman kings — Ancus Martius and
Tarquinius Superbus — had had their abode. But it was
also told how Xuma Pompilius, to whom the organisation
of the State-worship was in large measure ascribed, had
inhabited a " palace " (Regia) on the Sacred Way, but had
afterwards resigned it to the Chief Priest (Pontifex maximus)
as his residence. In point of fact, the Regia of historical
67
times was not the residence of the Pontifex Maximus, but a
precinct containing various shrines connected with the
worship of the primitive agricultural community, which was
68 THE SACRED WAY [v.
carried on by the College of Priests of which the Pontifex
Maximus was the head, and which counted amongst its
members the chief of the Flamines, who were the priests of
special divinities. The Pontifex Maximus inhabited the
" public house" {domus publico), which was on the opposite
side of the Sacred Way ; and close by was the precinct of
Vesta, the hearth-goddess of the State-household, whose fire
was tended by the Six Virgins who represented the daughters
of Rome. Hard by their dwelling was the Holy Spring of
Juturna, from which they drew water for domestic and
ritual use. It is at this point that our description begins.]
Immediately adjoining the N. wall of the Chapel of the
Forty Martyrs, and set at an angle therewith, is a little shrine
of brickwork, in front of which are the bases of two columns :
on the architrave, which is partly preserved, and has been
set up above the back wall of the shrine, was inscribed
ivtvrnai SACRVM — ' Sacred to Juturna.' Juturna was in
origin simply one of the many spring nymphs worshipped
by the Romans, and belonged to the pre-mythical period.
Not until the habit of story-telling had been borrowed from
Greece did she find a place in the national epic as the sister
of Turnus, prince of the Rutuli, in which guise she appears
in Virgil's AL?ieid. Immediately in front of the chapel
stands a marble well-head, bearing an inscription which tells
us that it was restored by the Curule aedile, M. Barbatius
Pollio, possibly to be identified with a person mentioned in
Cicero's Philippics as a partisan of Mark Antony. The
ropes by which the buckets of water were hauled up have
worn deep grooves in the edge of the well-head. It must
have continued in use until very late times, for a slab of
marble and an altar of the third century A.D. with a relie
showing a woman addressing a soldier (perhaps Juturna and
Turnus) were placed as steps beside it in order that the
buckets might be drawn up with greater ease.1 The well-
head does not in fact stand over a spring, but over a shaft
connected by a lead pipe with the actual spring of Juturna,

1 This altar has now been set upright on the lower step.
7o THE SACRED WAY [v.
which in Imperial times was enclosed in a tank — the
Lacus Juturna? — lined with slabs of marble. In the centre
of this tank is a rectangular pedestal built of opus reticu-
latum, faced with marble, which may have carried statues of
Castor and Pollux, who were said to have watered their
horses at the spring. A travertine foundation which origi-
nally enclosed a somewhat larger space than the present
pool marks the earlier limit of the Lacus, and in late times
it was made still smaller by the erection of a large brick
archway and wall. At the bottom of the pool was found a
marble altar, which has been set up beside it ; it is adorned
with reliefs, which represent, on the narrow ends, Jupiter
and Leda (with the Swan) ; on the broad sides, Castor and
Pollux and a female divinity holding a torch, who must be
identified, if we keep to the Greek myth, with Helen con-
ceived as a moon-goddess. The water of the spring was
believed to possess healing qualities, and the votive offerings
found in the precinct show that women resorted to Juturna
for protection in childbirth (the name Juturna was inter-
preted as " the helper " — so that a goddess of childbirth
may perhaps be represented on the altar). Many fragments
of sculpture have been found in or near the pool ; amongst
them parts of life-size statues of the Dioscuri. These have
been placed in the small rooms at the back of the pool,
which support an inclined way leading up to the N. angle of
the Palatine. In one of the rooms was found a statue of
.-Esculapius, and there is reason to think that resort was
made to the spring by sick persons on account of the medi-
cinal qualities which it was supposed to possess. The rooms
also served as offices for the commissioners of the water-
supply (curatores aquarum), several of whose inscriptions
were found therein. In one of them will be seen a collec-
tion of votive offerings, etc., found in the pool itself, amongst
them a large number of glass cups, showing that the water
was taken in small doses.
Turning to the R. at the N. end of the precinct of Juturna
we see the circular podium which once supported the
Temple of Vesta, which contained the hearth-fire 01
v.] THE SACRED WAY 71
the Roman community, extinguished only on the first ot
March in each year and then rekindled by the Pontifex
Maximus by means of a primitive fire-drill, and also a secret
recess, the fiemes Vesta, in which certain symbolical objects,
such as the Palladium, were kept hidden from the public
gaze. It should not, strictly speaking, be called a temple,
since it was not consecrated as such, and contained no statue
of the divinity to whom it belonged ; neither had it the four-
square form of the templum, but was circular in shape, in
this respect faithfully preserving the form of the primitive
wattled hut in which the hearth-fire of the community was
kindled ; it was, in fact, simply "the House of the Hearth."
Even in historical times it was probably rebuilt in something
like its original shape when, as in 241 B.C. and 210 B.C., it
was destroyed by fire ; under the Empire it assumed the
form of a peripteral temple surrounded by twenty columns,
between which were bronze gratings. The columns stood
on pedestals, and the entrance was by a flight of steps on
the E. The dome was crowned — as the coin-types show
— by a kind of chimney in the form of a flower. If we
ascend the podium by the steps formed of tufa blocks, upon
which marble slabs once rested, we see in the centre of it a
deep pit, whose walls are partly preserved on three sides,
lined below with opus incertum and above with brick. In
the walls of the podium we can distinguish three layers of
concrete, which correspond with the successive restorations
of the temple. The last of these was the work of Julia
Domna, the wife of Septimius Severus, and was undertaken
in consequence of the destruction ot the temple by the great
fire of A.D. 192. To this final rebuilding we must assign
the fragments of the columns, entablature, and coffered roof
of the portico, which are to be seen near the temple. The
frieze was adorned with sacrificial emblems. It will be
noticed that between the topmost layer of concrete (filled
with blocks of yellowish tufa), and that immediately below
it there is a stratum of debris and marble chips ; these
prove that the temple was hastily restored after its destruc-
tion by fire. The central pit is the favissa, into which the
72 THE SACRED WAY [v.
ashes of the sacred fire were allowed to fall ; only once a
year, on the 15th of June, was the pit emptied and the
rubbish removed to the Altar of Plenty {Ops)\x\ the Capitol,
where they served as a fertility-charm. The day is marked
in the Calendars Q St. D.F. {Quando stsrcus de latum fas),
i.e. " a holiday until the rubbish has been removed."
The " House of Vesta " only occupied a small space in the
precinct of that goddess, which was surrounded by a wall
faced with fine marble cement {opus albarium) of which
some traces can be seen. The greater part of the precinct
was, under the later Empire, occupied by the House of the
Vestals {Domus Virginum Vestalium) ; and this grew
gradually from modest dimensions to an elaborate cloistered
building. The precinct also contained a grove {Lucus
Vesta) and the "Public House" {domus publico), inhabited
by the Pontifex Maximus, who, as head of the State family,
was technically the father of the Vestal Virgins. We enter
the house of the Vestals by a doorway on our R. as we
leave the temple, noticing to the R. of the entrance a small
shrine in which a statue of the goddess once stood, and
find ourselves in a large rectangular court — the Atrium
Vestas — originally surrounded by a colonnade of forty-eight
Corinthian columns of cipollino, and an upper story with
columns of breccia corallina. Only the travertine bases of
the lower arcade are preserved, together with some frag-
ments of the columns ; two whole columns of breccia and
several fragments may be seen beside the S. wall. In
the floor of the court are three water-tanks {impluvia) ; that
in the centre is partly buried under the foundations of an
octagonal structure — whether shrine, fountain, or arbour is
quite uncertain. Beside the westernmost tank may be seen
some remains — a pavement in mosaic and another in tufa —
of the earlier Atrium : the present building is probably due
in its general plan to Hadrian, but was much restored by
Septimius Severus after the fire of a.d. 192. At the western
end of the Atrium are various store-rooms and a bakery
containing two ovens ; these may be entered by a doorway
opposite to the southern side of the Aedes Vestaj. In the
v.] THE SACRED WAY 73
S.W. angle 01 the building is a suite of rooms, one of which
ends in an apse. It has been thought that these may have
been the Penetralia, where sacred objects were kept in the
custody of the Vestals.
The rooms opening on the court to X. and S. were
the living-rooms of the Vestals. Those upon the S. side,
being built against the slope of the Palatine and cut off
from the sunlight by the lofty buildings which towered upon
the hill, were damp and unwholesome ; and to remedy this
double walls and floors were built in the third century a.d.
In some of the rooms, where the later floor has been re-
moved, costly pavements of coloured marble belonging to
an earlier period have been brought to light. They are
made of giallo a/itico, pavotiazzetto, and portasanta.
Beyond these chambers we come to a kitchen and a room
containing a mill, in which the corn used by the Vestals was
ground. There are also remains of staircases leading to an
upper storey containing bathrooms. The number of storeys
in the Atrium is not quite certain, but in any case its height
was not the same in all parts, and it was for this reason that
the colonnade was built in two storeys, in order to mask the
irregularities of the building. In one of the inner wall-
spaces was found a hoard of nearly four hundred gold coins,
almost all of the fifth century a.d., hidden about a.d. 470, in
the troublous times which preceded the fall of the Western
Empire. The Vestals had been expelled from their cloister
by Theodosius the Great in a.d. 394, and the Atrium had
become the residence of some Imperial official.
At the eastern end is a hall corresponding with the
Tablinum in the typical Roman house, approached by a
flight of steps : both the eastern end of the corridor, and the
Tablinum itself, were paved with coloured marbles. Three
rooms open out of the Tablinum on either side, and in one
of those to the S. may be seen a number of jars, which
served to form a hypocaust. The rooms on the X. side
of the Court are not well preserved and of little interest.
Statues of the Senior Vestals ( Virgines Vestales Maxima;)
were set up on pedestals all round the Atrium. Several of
74 THE SACRED WAY [v.
these are preserved, as well as fragments of the statues
which they supported. The best preserved have, however,
been removed to the Museo delle Terme (p. 214). Amongst
the inscriptions on the pedestals is one (the third from the
S.W. corner of the Atrium) in which the name of the Vestal
is erased, except for the letter C. The date of the inscription
is June 9, A.D. 364, and it is often said that the name erased
was that of the Vestal Claudia, who, according to Prudentius,
embraced Christianity and entered the Convent of S. Law-
rence (at S. Lorenzo fuori le mura) ; but it seems that the
name must have contained at least nine letters. Perhaps,
however, the poet's "Claudia" is a fancy name.
On leaving the Atrium we turn to the R., where, at the
back of the N. wall we see a row of taberna1, which were
probably let as shops. Beneath the floor of these remains
of an earlier building with a different orientation have been
brought to light. It is supposed that this was the Domus
Publica, in which the Pontifex Maximus had his residence
until Augustus assumed that office in 12 B.C., when he pre-
sented itto the College of Vestals, and in order to satisfy
traditional scruples conveyed a part of his palace on the
Palatine to public uses. The atrium of the house, with a deep
impluvium, and the tablinum with an apse and mosaic
pavement, can be distinguished, as well as a room with a
wall-painting of trees and birds on a background of blue
sky ; the same style of decoration was found in the Villa
of Livia ad Gallinas at Prima Porta.
It is certain that the precinct of Vesta was approached
by the Sacred Way, but not so clear whether that name
properly belongs to the narrow road passing along its north-
western corner and separating it from the Regia, rather
than to the broader street to the N. of this building. If
this latter be the true Sacra Via, its course must have been
altered by the building of the Temple of Julius Caesar.
The remains of the Regia are those of a building ot
irregular pentagonal shape, with sides fronting both
branches of the road. Scarcely anything remains but the
foundations ; but these enable us to distinguish the republi-
v.] THE SACRED WAY 75
can building, with pavements of tufa, from that raised by
Cu. Domitius Calvinus, who rebuilt the Regia in solid
marble in 36 B.C. Upon the marble walls were engraved
in double panels the Fasti Consulares, or lists of consuls
from the beginning of the Republic until the foundation of
the Empire, and on the pilasters which diversified the walls
were inscribed the Fasti Triumphales, or list of triumphs
celebrated in Rome, together with their occasions. Many
of the blocks containing these lists were found in 1546, and
conveyed to the Palazzo dei Conservatori (p. 136) ; others have
been discovered in recent times. In the early Middle Ages
the Regia was transformed into a private house. A doorway
(by which the building is now entered) was rudely hacked
in the narrow eastern wall, and on the N. side the house
was approached by two steps of travertine leading to a
portico of cipollino columns on bases of red granite.
Passing through the doorway above-mentioned, we notice
in the centre of the Republican pavement a circular sub-
structure of grey tufa. It has been conjectured that this
was the foundation of the Shrine of Mars {Sacrarium
Mariis), in which were kept the sacred shields {audita) and
spears {hasta) of the war-god. These were used by the
Salii, or "dancing priests,1' on ritual occasions, and were
suspended in such a manner that they were sensitive to the
slightest tremor of earthquake ; when they " moved them-
selves "the portent was duly recorded.
At the south-western end of this part of the Regia is a
small room with a pavement of black and white mosaic,
shown by an inscription to have been the office of the
KaUitores ("summoners"; of the pontificcs and flamines.
In the northern part of the building was an open court,
approached by an ante-chamber at the eastern side. In this
were two wells and a large subterranean cistern 14A ft.
deep, cylindrical at the bottom and domed at the top. This
was built of tufa lined with cement made of pounded pot-
sherds {opus signinum). It was probably used for the
storage of grain, which was poured in through a narrow
opening in the N. side near to the top ; and it is natural to
76 THE SACRED WAY [v.
connect it with the worship of Ops Consiva, the Goddess
of Plentiful Store (Consiva from Co?idere, "to lay up," or
" bury "). We know, however, that the sanctuary of Ops
Consiva was a secret chamber entered only by the Vestals
(together with the Pontifex Maximus) on August 25, at the
end of corn harvest, so that the shrine itself cannot have
stood in the open court.
The northern side of the Regia faces the church ot
S. Lorenzo in Miranda, or to give it its ancient name, the
Temple of Antoninus and Faustina, built in a.d. 141 in
honour of the deified Empress Faustina the Elder, as the
inscription on the architrave records ; the words engraved
on the frieze — Divo antonino et, "to the Divine
Antoninus and . . . " — were added after the Emperor's
death by order of the Senate. From the roadway a broad
flight of steps, in the centre of which was a pedestal,
doubtless for a statue of the Empress, led up to the portico,
which had six columns of cipollino in the front as well as
two at each side. Several of the columns have figures and
inscriptions rudely scratched on them. The walls (built into
those of the church, which dates from about the eighth
century) were of peperino with marble facings which have
long since disappeared : only parts of the frieze, with
a graceful pattern of griffins and candelabra remain.
The excavations of 1902 and the following years have
brought to light the remains of a cemetery of very early
date at a depth of 15-20 feet below the imperial level,
which was partly buried beneath the foundations of the
Temple of Faustina, but extends for some distance beyond
its S.E. corner. About forty graves have hitherto been
discovered, and these are of two types — (a) long trenches
in which bodies were buried, sometimes in rude coffins made
of hollowed tree-trunks or blocks of tufa, and(^) circular pits
in each of which was placed a large jar containing sacrificial
offerings and vases ; one of these held the ashes of a
cremated body. These cremation-graves are earlier in date
than the inhumation tombs, as is shown (infer alia) by the
fact that one of them was partially destroyed in the digging
v.] THE SACRED WAY 77
of a burial-trench. The pottery, which for the present
is housed in a storehouse on the opposite side of the Sacred
Way, and may only be seen by special permission, is rude
and primitive : it is hand-made, and the clay is that found
in the Forum itself. The most characteristic form is the
hut-urn, which reproduces the primitive Italian dwelling,
oval in plan, with a thatched roof. The cemetery may have
been in use as early as the ninth century B.C., and the latest
graves, in which a few vases of Greek importation have been
found, are scarcely later than 600 B.C. Clearly it belongs
to the period when the several village communities of the
Septimontium had not yet formed a single city.
To the E. of the cemetery may be seen, below the level of the
Sacred Way, a corridor with three rooms built of tufa-blocks
on either side. They are paved with bricks laid in a herring-
bone pattern {opus spicatum). These rooms have been
thought to be a prison, but we know of no such building
except that already described (p. 46) ; they are probably
store-rooms or cellars belonging to houses of Republican
date. They were included in the foundations of the circular
building flanked by rectangular projections on either side of
a curved porch which we next pass : this is the chapel of
the Divine Romulus, not the founder of Rome, but the
infant son of the Emperor Maxentius, who was deified on
his death in a.d. 307. The richly ornamented architrave
which surmounts the door was taken from some earlier
building. The bronze doors, though deprived of their
original decorations, still retain the ancient lock, which
is ingeniously contrived. In the sixth century a.d. Felix IV
made the chapel into the vestibule of the church of SS. .Cos-
mas and Damian, the body of which was formed by an
ancient building, whose East wall, built of tufa, may be seen
by turning the L. on passing the chapel of Romulus. The
N. wall, which is of brick and concrete, belongs to a
restoration by Septimius Severus and the Marble Plan of
Rome (p. 141), originally formed its facing. This too is in
its present form the work of Severus, but is most probably
a renewal of a similar plan set up by Vespasian, for the
78 THE SACRED WAY [v.
building overlooked the Forum of Peace, so called because
it contained the temple of that goddess built by Vespasian
(cf. p. 1 54). This has not yet been excavated except for the
narrow strip adjoining the building just described, which is
often (but without reason) called the Templum Sacrae Urbis
(" Temple of the Sacred City ") ; the name was given to it
in the sixteenth century because of the discovery of the
Marble Plan attached to the wall.
From this point the Sacred Way begins to ascend the
slope of the Velia, and hence bore the name of the " Sacred
Hill" {Sacer clivus). The ancient paving was brought
to light in 1901, two metres below the mediaeval road.1 It is
five metres wide, and curves gradually to the S. This part
of the street was in early times occupied by the private
houses of wealthy Roman families, such as the Valerii and
Domitii, but like the main thoroughfares of all great cities,
it gradually became a place of business, bordered by the
shops of jewellers, spice-merchants, and others. Remains
of these may be seen on both sides of the road. To the
left-hand are foundations which seem to have belonged to
the great spice-warehouse {horrea pifterataria) built by
Domitian and burnt in a.d. 285 ; and above them towers the
imposing ruin of the Basilica of Constantine, begun by
Maxentius between a.d. 306 and 310 under the name of
Basilica Nova, but completed by his conquerer, whose name
it commonly bears. This building is amongst the most
perfect examples of Roman constructive science at the
height of its development. Unlike the flat-roofed basilicas
supported by arcades or ranges of columns, it is constructed
with a few massive piers of concrete sufficient in number to
sustain the concentrated thrust of the concrete vaults. As
originally designed by Maxentius, the basilica had its facade
to the E., where was a narrow vestibule across the whole
width of the building with five entrances into the main
building, three into the central nave terminated by a wide
1 The rise of the ground-level may be measured by observing
the foundations of the mediaeval building with an arcaded front to
the E. of the chapel of Romulus.
 .] THE SACRED WAV 79
apse, and one into each aisle. In the centre of the nave
were four huge piers, dividing the hall into three large bays,
roofed with quadripartite vaulting, the groins of which
sprang from eight monoliths of Hymettus marble. The last
of these was removed by Paul V to the Piazza of S. Maria
Maggiore. The aisles had three bays corresponding with
those of the nave, which were roofed with barrel-vaults and
divided by walls pierced with arches ; the three northern bays
are well preserved, so that some idea can be formed of the
means by which the weight of the roofs was so distributed
amongst the supporting piers and walls that the whole
building was self-contained and needed no external
buttresses. This marks the triumph of Roman architec-
ture, and the result was only made possible by the combined
qualities of lightness and rigidity possessed by pozzolana
concrete. The design of the Basilica — though not its
structural character — was altered by Constantine, who made
the principal entrance in the middle of the S. side. This
was approached from the Sacred Way by a flight of steps
leading to a portico of porphyry columns, and it was faced
by a semicircular apse, as wide as that at the W. end, in the
middle of the N. side, so that the aspect of the building was
that of three parallel halls from whichever side it was
entered. Of its decoration nothing remains save a small
portion of the marble pavement, made of slabs of green
porphyry and coloured marbles, and part of the coffered
ceiling, whose stucco mouldings may be studied in the large
fragments which lie on the floor of the basilica near its W.
end. The roof was reached by spiral staircases in the
walls (which were six metres in thickness), and one of these —
to the N. of the western apse — has recently been cleared
for some distance.
As we ascend the Sacred Hill we see facing us the church
of S. Francesca Romana, which has taken the place of
the Temple of Venus and Rome, built to the design of
Hadrian on an artificial platform : raised on substructures of
1 The Velia had been occupied by the vestibule of the Golden
House of Nero, and a colossal statue of that Emperor in gilded
So THE SACRED WAY [v.
concrete once faced with travertine, which are well seen at the
eastern extremity, opposite the Colosseum. The platform
was approached by marble steps, a few of which was pre-
served on the western front. Some game-boards, like those
of the Basilica Julia, and the figures of a gladiator, racehorse,
and Centaur are scratched upon them. The precinct was
surrounded by a colonnade double at the ends and single at
the sides, formed by columns of red and grey granite, some
fragments of which may still be seen. In the centre of the
precinct was the great double temple, raised on a platform
of seven steps : it had ten columns (of cipollind) in the front
and twenty in each side, and space was left free, sufficient
for an inner peristyle, between the columns and the walls of
the cellcc. Of these there were two, placed back to back ;
that which faced the Forum was (probably) dedicated to
"Eternal Rome," the otherto "Venus the Giver of Prosperity.1'
The latter is better preserved : not only the great apse with
its coffered semi-dome, but part of the S. wall may be
seen. The brickfaced concrete was entirely covered with
costly marbles, and there were rows of porphyry columns
supporting an entablature in front of each wall. Two frag-
ments of relief, one in the Lateran Museum (p. 231) and one
in the MuseodelleTerme (p. 217), are supposed to belong to-
gether and to represent the western pediment. Mars and
Rhea Silvia, the Wolf and Twins and the Shepherds,
appear on the fragment of the Museo delle Terme.
At the S.W. corner of the platform, stands the Arch of
Titus, erected in commemoration of the suppression of the
Jewish revolt and the fall of Jerusalem in a.d. 70, but not
completed until after the death of Titus in a.d. 81, as is
shown by the inscription on the attic, which records its dedi-
cation "to the Divine Titus," and by the figure of the Emperor
carried to heaven on the wings of an eagle, sculptured in the
bronze by a Greek artist, Zenodorus, stood on the site of the
Campanile of S. Francesca Romana. Vespasian removed the
portrait head of Nero and replaced it by an image of the Sun ;
Hadrian caused the Colossus to be removed by twenty-four elephants
to a spot nearer the Colosseum, where its base may be seen.
v.] THE SACRED WAY 81
centre of the ceiling of the archway. The arch stands upon
the pavement of the Sacred Hill, and it has been suggested
that it was originally set up further to the N., and was moved
by Hadrian when he built the Temple of Venus and Rome.
In the Middle Ages it formed a part of the fortress built by
the Frangipani, and suffered serious damage ; a floor was
constructed in the middle of the archway, and the reliefs
were hacked away in order that joists might be inserted. The
level of the passage, too, was lower than in ancient times,
and the traces of damage done by the traffic to the travertine
foundations are plain. In 1821, when the last traces of the
mediaeval fortification were removed, it was found that the
piers were in a dangerous state, and they were accordingly
restored by Valadier in travertine, which the eye readily
distinguishes from the original marble.
The arch is one of the simplest in its scheme, and yet the
most effective of Roman triumphal arches : that of Trajan
at Beneventum is very similar to it in plan and proportion,
but is overloaded with decoration. The capitals of the
engaged columns at the angles of the piers are the earliest
examples of the Composite order, so called because the
acanthus foliage of the Corinthian is combined with the
volutes of the Ionic. On the keystones are sculptured
an armed female figure, and a male divinity holding a
Cornucopia : these are generally interpreted as Rome and
the Genius of the Roman people, but in reality they re-
present a pair of deities worshipped by the army — Virtus
(Manliness) and Honos (Honour). But the main interest of
the monument belongs to the reliefs of the passage-way.
That on the N. side portrays Titus in his triumphal car,
accompanied by horsemen and lictors : he is crowned by
Victory, and the bridles of the horses are held by Rome
herself. On the S. side we see the procession approaching
an arch represented in perspective, probably that which
gave access to the Capitoline piazza : the treasures of the
Temple of Jerusalem — the table of shewbread, the seven-
branched candlestick and the golden trumpets — are being
carried on stretchers. But the reliefs have more than
82 THE SACRED WAY [v.
historical importance. It has been recognised that they
mark a definite stage in the history of art. In Greek reliefs
the background was always treated as though it were a
blank wall, in front of which the figures stand, until in
Hellenistic times some attempt was made to introduce the
natural features of landscape which more properly belong
to the sister art of painting. The problem which Greek
artists had attacked only in late times and with imperfect
success is here solved by the. Roman sculptor, who contrives
to produce the illusion of a scene taking place in the open
air — as though a window had been thrown Open in the solid
marble. Such is the famous criticism passed by Wickhoff on
these reliefs. In some details of his argument he is wrong.
It is not true, for example, that the natural play of light and
shadow was ingeniously provided for in order to heighten the
illusion, for it is inevitable that some cf the shadows thrown
by the figures in the foreground should fall on the wall and
destroy to some extent the open-air impression : but it is
none the less true that spatial illusion is achieved in a
manner hitherto unexampled in ancient sculpture.
From the Arch of Titus the ancient roadway leads up to the
Palatine, which cannot, however, be entered from this side,
as it was in antiquity by the Porta Mugonia. We know
that the Temple of Jupiter Stator, the " Stayer of the
rout," who, according to legend, checked the victorious
advance of the Latins at this point in response to the prayers
of Romulus. To the S.E. of the Arch of Titus are the
foundations of a temple upon which in the Middle Ages the
Torre Cartularia (Tower of Archives) was built. These may
well have belonged to the Temple of Jupiter Stator in its
latest form : it is thought that some early foundations of
tufa which have been exposed immediately to the E. of the
arch are those of the original sanctuary.
On the W. side of the road, which now leads directly up
to the Palatine, are other early foundations of tufa, together
with a few blocks of travertine belonging to the super-
structure ;these may perhaps have been those of the
Temple of the Lares, which we know to have stood " at the
v.] THE SACRED WAV 83

highest point of the Sacred Way,'' and the excavations, which

have been carried to a considerable depth in this region,
have brought to light the remains of a Republican house
with a number of small rooms and passages. The traces of
its wall-paintings which remain are noticeable on account of
their Dionysiac emblems.
The approach to the Palatine by the Sacred Hill is now
blocked ; but we may turn to the R. along the line of the
Nova Via or "New Street," which skirted the slope of the
hill. Here, again, the true level of the ancient pavement,
which had been buried in mediaeval times, has only been
recovered in recent years. Above us on the left are the
substructures of the Imperial Palace, whose arcades extended
across the lower part of the street (which passes behind the
upper floor of the House of the Vestals) and made it into a
tunnel. In the sunless chambers of this huge barrack-like
structure were housed the army of slaves and dependents
attached to the Imperial Court. There is a stairway by
which we can descend to the House of the Vestals ; at a
short distance beyond this the road is blocked by the Chapel
of the Forty Martyrs. From this point the inclined way
mentioned above led in ancient times past the back of the
precinct of Juturna to the Forum : to the left is the zigzag
ramp which leads down to the church of S. Maria Antiqua
and up to the higher levels of the Palatine. The entrance
to the latter is closed on week-days.
 VI

THE PALATINE
r T has been explained above (p. 5) that the Palatine
hill was, according to legend, the site of the earliest
settlement of the Latin stock in Rome. The name which
it bore — Palatium — is connected with that of the shepherdrs
divinity, Pales, and seems to have been properly applied
only to the eastern half of the hill, which was separated by
a depression running from N.E. to S.W. from the western
half, known as the Cermalus. The legends relating to the
foundation of the Palatine city are all connected with the
south=western angle of the hill. Here it was that the
basket which contained the twins, Romulus and Remus,
was washed ashore by the Tiber at the spot where grew the
Sacred fig=tree — ficus ruminalis — afterwards miraculously
transplanted to the Comitium. Here, too, was the Lupercal
— the lair of the she=wolf who suckled the twins ; and above
it was the hut of the shepherd, Faustulus, who became
the foster-father of Romulus and Remus, and the "house
of Romulus" itself. The Auguratorium, or platform
upon which Romulus stood to take the auspices, and the
cherry=tree which sprang from the lance which he hurled
from the Aventine, were also in this region. These hallowed
sites were carefully preserved from desecration — the sanc-
tuary of the Lupercal, for instance, was restored by Augustus,
«4
and although it is not possible to identify the remains dis-
covered inmodern times with any of them, it is scarcely an
accident that the most ancient structures yet found upon
the hill are to be seen near this angle.
vi.] THE PALATINE 85
During the Republican period the Palatine became a
fashionable residential quarter, especially upon the slopes
which everlooked the Forum and Velabrum. Here was the
house of Cicero, which had once belonged to Livius Drusus,
the champion of the Italian allies, and afterwards to the
orator M. Licinius Crassus : here, too, lived Ciceros great
rival at the bar, Hortensius, and his bitterest enemy, Clodius.
The Emperor Augustus was born in the street of " the ox-
heads," near the north-eastern corner : and there is still pre-
served ahouse which may have been inherited by his con-
sort Livia from her first husband, Tiberius Claudius Nero.
Temples, again, such as that of the Great Mother of the
Gods and of Jupiter the Victorious, were built, chiefly on
the southern side of the hill, and some remains of them
may yet be traced.
Under the Empire practically the whole of the hill ex-
cept those parts which were hallowed by tradition or by the
presence of temples was converted into an Imperial resi=
dence. The process was begun by Augustus, who, after the
murder of Julius Caesar, bought the house which had be-
longed to the orator Hortensius, and gradually enlarged it
by the purchase of adjoining property. This residence was,
however, burnt in 23 B.C. and rebuilt on a more magnificent
scale, partly by funds publicly subscribed. There are no
certain remains of the palace of Augustus now in existence :
as will be seen, the Flavian state-rooms rest upon the ruins
of earlier buildings, occupying the central depression of the
hill, but we cannot be sure that these belong to the house of
Augustus, which seems to have been burnt in the great fire ot
A.D. 64. Tiberius built a fresh palace on the western edge
of the hill, which Caligula temporarily connected with the
Capitol by a huge bridge resting on the Temple of Augustus
and the Basilica Julia as its piers : this was of course de-
stroyed after his murder. We do not hear of buildings
erected by Xero on the Palatine itself — his Golden House
extended across the Velia to the slope of the Esquiline — but
the great suite of state-rooms which extends across the cen-
tral part of the hill is the work of the Flavian dynasty, most
86 THE PALATINE [vi.
probably of Domitian, to whom we may also ascribe the
partially excavated building immediately to the E. of these,
as well as the so-called Stadium in its original form. The
Imperial residence was again enlarged by Hadrian, whose
additions to the palace of Tiberius were carried on arches
across the Nova Via till they adjoined the House of the Vestals :
he also built largely to the E. of the " Stadium." Finally,
Septimius Severus raised a mighty structure at the S. E.
corner of the hill, building partly on the palace of Hadrian,
partly on an artificial platform carried on high arches. The
Septizodium, whose remains might still be seen in the
sixteenth century, formed a monumental facade on this side
of the palace.
No further extension of the Imperial residence was now
possible, for the N.E. part of the hill was occupied by the
temple and precinct of Apollo, built by Augustus to the
divinity who presided over the fortunes of the Imperial
house, in which were kept the Sibylline books : and the
Area Palatina, or Palatine piazza, to which the Sacred
Hill led up from the Forum, was always kept free from
buildings.]

The entrance to the Palatine excavations is in the Via di

San Teodoro, close to the church of that name. The street
follows the line of the Vicus Tuscus, or Street of the
Etruscans, already mentioned in the description of the
Forum, which led into the Velabrum, a place of traffic and
merchandise, whose name is perpetuated in that of the
church of S. Giorgio in Velabro.
We find ourselves on a road which slopes gradually upward
from the S.W. to the N.W. angle of the hill. This road corre-
sponds fairly closely with the course of the ancient •' Hill of
Victory" {clivus Victoria), which was so named from the
Temple of Victory, which was built in 294 B.C., but was tradi-
tionally declared to be earlier than the time of Romulus. The
Porta Romana, or " Gate of Rome," which, according to
Varro, was the only entrance to the Palatine city, except the
Porta Mugonia, on the side of the Velia (p. 83), is said to have
 VI.] THE PALATINE 87

been '' at the bottom of the Hill of Victory'' ; and if this

statement be taken literally, we must infer that the defences
of the primitive settlement ran, not along the top of the hill,
but partly at least around its base. It was not an un-
common practice in early times to build a gateway in such

S Mar.a Nova V, a

/ Additions to

/~-\Palse. of T.ber.us
Precincr

5'"o Enrrence //
Palace //
of
Apollo

Jo/
of // A.ea
T• ■benus
, // // Paiatma

femp 1 -1

THE PALATINE

a position that if the enemy effected an entrance, he might

yet be enfiladed on the right side whilst ascending a slope ;
and this principle may well have been applied here. More-
over, the line of the primitive Pomerium of Rome, the
course of which is carefully described for us by the historian
Tacitus, followed that of the valleys which surround the
Palatine ; its southern angles were marked by the altar of
88 THE PALATINE [VL
Hercules, which was near the church of S. Maria in
Cosmedin (p. 266), and the altar of Consus, at the E. end
of the Circus Maximus (p. 257). The memory of this
ancient boundary was kept alive by the curious ceremony
of the Lupercalia, celebrated on the 1 5th of February, when
the college of priests called Luperci, dressed only in goat-
skins and brandishing leathern thongs, with which they
struck the passers-by, ran round the line of the pomerium.
It does not, however, necessarily follow from this fact that
the base of the hill was put into a state of defence ; for the
pomerium was an ideal boundary — a sacred strip of land on
either side of the furrow traced by the founder's plough in
the ritual prescribed for the planting of a new settlement,
whereas the line of defence must have been determined by
practical necessity.
As we pass along the western slope of the hill, which is
faced by huge walls of concrete dating from the Early
Empire, we see on our L. some remains of early tufa
masonry, which may perhaps have belonged to the Temple
of Victory itself, though there is no proof of the fact.
Somewhat nearer to the S.W. angle of the hill we come to
a well-preserved piece of wall, which is very similar in its
construction to the " Servian " wall as it may be seen near
the railway station, the blocks of brown tufa being laid in
alternate courses of headers and stretchers. At the angle
itself we can see not only a piece of the same wall, which
here serves as backing to the later concrete, but a few
courses of an earlier wall, made of smaller blocks, which
are of a grey-green colour. This variety of tufa is called
cappellaccio, and does not seem to have been quarried on
the Palatine itself, from which the brown tufa used in later
times was dug. The earlier wall cannot be dated with any
certainty : in style and material it resembles the earliest
buildings on Roman soil, such as those in the Comitium
(p. 53), but it is misleading to speak of it as the "wall of
Romulus," if the name be taken to imply that it formed
part of the primitive defences of the Palatine settlement.
The outer wall so closely resembles the "Servian' walls
vi.] THE PALATINE 89
of the fourth century that we can hardly be wrong in assign-
ing it to that date. It would seem to follow that the
Palatine (like the Capitol, see p. 354) formed an inner
citadel within the lines of fortification which surrounded
Rome.
Passing round the corner of the hill we notice on the I..
of the road an altar of travertine bearing an inscription
which tells us how it was restored by C. Sextius Calvinus as
praetor (probably about 100 B.C.), and was dedicated "to
God or Goddess, whichever it be." It has been suggested
that this was the altar set up in commemoration of the
mysterious voice which warned the Romans of the approach
of the Gauls, but there is no ground for the conjecture ;
that altar was dedicated to Aius Locutius, " the being who
spake and uttered," and must have stood at some distance
from this spot. We now climb by a winding path to the
top of the hill and find ourselves on the edge of the central
depression. Turning back towards the S.W. angle we pass
the foundations of a large temple approached by flights
of steps. This was probably the Temple of Jupiter
Victor, dedicated after the battle of Sentinum (295 B.C.)
by the dictator Q. Fabius Maximus. A little farther on
we reach the edge of a slope overlooking the excavations
of recent years, which have brought to light a mass of
constructions, some of them of early date, which are ex-
tremely difficult of comprehension. Immediately below us
a narrow road enclosed by walls of tufa leads towards the
edge of the hill, showing traces of a gateway and a flight
of steps cut in the rock. These may be identified with the
Scalae Cad, or "Stairs of Cacus," named after an ancient
Italian fire-god, who became in later mythology a robber,
whose cave was at the base of the cliff and who was slain
by Hercules. Just below the steps a cross street diverges
to the west ; the buildings on either side of this were
largely constructed with the tufa blocks taken from earlier
structures. In the angle formed by this street and the
Stairs of Cacus may be seen the remains of early buildings
and some circular pits and channels cut in the rock, which
go THE PALATINE [vi.

have been explained either as the remains of early dwel-

lings or as primitive tombs. The potsherds found at the
same level are nearly all of the same character as the vases
from the necropolis by the Sacred Way ; but one tomb was
discovered containing a Greek vase of the fourth century
B.C., and this lay beneath a piece of tufa walling bearing
mason's marks similar to those of the " Servian " walls. At
the top of the road leading down to the " Stairs of
Cacus " will be seen a cross-wall constructed in masonry
of various periods — one piece at the eastern end is in the
early type, which we met with at the angle of the hill,
formed of small blocks of cappellaccio. Above this cross-
wall are the foundations (in tufa) of a sanctuary which
cannot be identified ; it may have marked one of the holy
sites such as the house of Romulus. The east wall cuts
through a very early cistern, built with a kind of corbelled
vault formed by overlapping blocks of tufa and lined with
cement. Another cistern constructed with upright slabs of
tufa held in place by a backing of rammed clay may be
seen to the W. of the sanctuary just mentioned. All these
indications point to the fact that a very early settlement —
perhaps the earliest on the Palatine — existed at this corner
of the hill. We also see the concrete foundations of two
temples ; the smaller of these cannot be identified, but the
larger, upon which evergreen oaks and cypresses have been
planted, was that of Cybele, the Great Mother of the
Gods, whose worship was introduced into Rome in 204 B.C,
when her fetish, a conical black stone, was brought from
Pessinus in Galatia in obedience to the injunctions of the
Sibylline books. Beside the podium will be seen part of a
colossal seated figure representing the goddess, and some
fragmentary columns of peperino. If these are examined,
it will be noticed that the stucco with which the unsightly
material was covered adheres to them in places, and also
that more than one coat can be traced, showing that the
mouldings were restored from time to time. We know in
fact that the temple was restored in in B.C. and also by
Augustus. The platform in front of the temple, where the
vi.] THE PALATINE 91

I.udi Megalenses, or "games of the Great Goddess," were

celebrated in April, was approached by a flight of steps with
wings, of which portions remain.
The high platform to the N. of the temples is that upon
which the Palace of Tiberius stood ; but before we ascend it,
we turn down a covered passage leading into the courtyard
of a house upon which three rooms open. This part of the
house is at a lower level than the rooms to the E., which
were connected with it by a narrow staircase and corridor,
now blocked. It is thought that the eastern portion was the
fore-part of the house ; in that case the courtyard could not
rightly he described as an atrium, for this name properly
belongs to the forecourt of a Roman dwelling. But it is
not quite certain that the house really fronted eastward, and
the court with three rooms opening upon it in any case gives
a good impression of what a Roman atrium was like. The
central room to the E. corresponds with the tablinum, or
" office," and the side-rooms may be called the a/ae, or
" wings," though this term should rather be applied to side-
chambers projecting from the court. These rooms preserve
considerable traces of their original decoration in fresco,
which is typical of that generally employed in the houses of
the wealthy at the close of the Republic and beginning
of the Imperial period. The style is that described by
archaeologists as "architectural," in which perspectives of
painted architecture are introduced in order to give an illu-
sion of surrounding space. The most interesting and char-
acteristic are those on the R. wall of the central room.
All the central portion of this wall appears to be covered
with a kind of screen with free columns, an architrave and
pediment, beneath which is a large panel, on which is
painted Io seated at the foot of a column crowned by a
statue of Hera. To the R. is Hermes (whose name is
painted beside him in Greek characters) ; to the left Argus,
the sleepless watchman set to guard Io. Is this scene to be
regarded as a picture framed by the screen, or as a view of
outer space ? We could scarcely answer this question were
it not that the wall paintings of the buried cities 'and villas
92 THE PALATINE [vi.
of Campania, such as Pompeii and Bosco Reale, enable
us to trace the evolution of this style of decoration. Origin-
ally the intention of the artist was solely to give to the be-
holder the illusion of an outlook into surrounding space.
Mythological subjects were not represented, but a rustic
shrine or temple made a fitting centre for the design. Then
the decorator became more ambitious, and subjects taken
from, or inspired by, the higher art of the time were put in
the place of prominence, and the rest of the design was sub-
ordinated to them ; the tricks of illusory perspective-paint-
ing became of small importance. They were not, however,
given up : observe that at the sides of the screen we are
given an outlook upon streets and buildings which it would
be hard to bring into relation with the central group. We
shall see other examples of this style of decoration in the
Museo delle Terme (p. 216).
The other wall-paintings of the house are also worthy of
attention. On the centre of the back wall of the tablimtm
we see Galatea carried across the sea by a hippocamp,
with the disconsolate Polyphemus on the shore ; but this
has been in great part obliterated. The decorations of the
side rooms are simpler, but not less effective, especially that
of the room on the R., which has a painted colonnade
hung with festoons of flowers and fruit, as well as masks
and Dionysiac symbols. On the right=hand of the court
is the entrance to a chamber described — probably rightly —
in the inscription over the entrance as the triclinium or
dining-room. The wall-paintings in this transport us into
an imaginary landscape with rustic shrines, and thus illus-
trate the growth of the " architectural " style explained above
out of a simpler scheme of decoration.
There are several rooms, grouped about a court with a
staircase in the midst, at the back of those described. They
are connected with the atrium by a narrow staircase, now
blocked, and can only be entered from the higher level on
which they stand. It is doubtful whether this was really the
front of the house (see above).
It is clear that this house was carefully preserved when
vi.] THE PALATINE 93
other buildings in its neighbourhood were destroyed to make
room for the imperial palaces ; and this may be explained
if we identify it as the House of Livia, the consort of
Augustus, inherited by her from her first husband, Tiberius
Claudius Nero. In one of the rooms may be seen an
ancient lead pipe bearing the inscription : IVLTAE AVG
[ustae), and the name is probably that of Livia, who was
adopted into the Julian family. The house has also been
identified with the " House of Germanicus," in which some
of the murderers of Caligula took refuge ; but this is mere
guesswork.
We return to the passage which skirts the platform of the
Palace of Tiberius. This was originally a covered cor-
ridor, or cryptoporticus, and those portions of the roof which
are extant still preserve traces of decoration in gilded and
painted stucco. In this corridor Caligula was murdered by
the officers of the praetorian guard who had conspired
against him on January 24, A.D. 41. To the left a flight of
steps leads up to the top of the platform now occupied by
the Farnese gardens, and it is worth while to walk as far as
the N.W. corner of the hill in order to enjoy the view of the
Capitol, Forum, etc. We are told that Caligula connected
this palace with the Capitol by means of a colossal bridge,
using the Temple of Augustus (p. 65) and the Basilica
Julia (p. 49) as piers, and making the Temple of Castor
and Pollux (p. 64) into its vestibule ; and it is easy to
understand his plan from the point which we have reached.
The bridge was destroyed after Caligula's murder, but later
emperors — probably the Flavians and Hadrian — extended
the palace at its northern end, raising an artificial platform
on arches and vaults. This edge of the hill had up till this
time been covered with private houses, amongst others that
of Cicero, which Pliny mentions as still existing in his day.
Below us we can see two streets — the upper is the continua-
tion of the Hill of Victory, the lower the Nova Via — both of
which were arched over by the substructures of the later
palace. Returning towards the centre of the hill we ap-
proach the remains of the great state-rooms which occupy
94 THE PALATINE [vi.
the central depression ; these may also be reached by a
branch of the covered corridor already mentioned. These
state-rooms are generally known as the Domus Flavia, or
"house of the Flavians," but there is no ancient authority
for this name, and though there is reason to think that they
were built by the emperors of that dynasty, they certainly
formed only a part of a great palace which, as inscriptions
show, was called the Domus Augustana, or " house of
Augustus," the name, being used generically for " the
Emperor." On the north the state-rooms were faced by a
portico of cipollino columns, which also extended for some
distance along the sides. The bases of these may be seen,
and at the N.W. angle a column of travertine patched with
cipolli7io has been set up. Behind the portico were three
rooms : the central of these, which was much the largest, is
generally called the throne-room, since at the southern
end there was an apse in which the Emperors throne stood.
There were also niches, which once contained colossal
statues of basalt, in the side-walls, and columns of fiavonaz-
zetto, about twenty-five feet high, stood at intervals all round
the walls, The room was roofed with a barrel-vault, coffered
and gilded. To the west of this is a room known as the
basilica, and believed to have been the hall in which the
Emperor dispensed justice. There are in fact traces of a
tribunal in the apse at the S. end, and of a marble screen
by which it was railed off ; and along each side of the
room was a row of granite columns which carried galleries
and divided the hall into a nave and aisles. There is thus a
striking resemblance to the plan of a Christian basilica, and
the theory that the plan of such buildings was derived from
that of this and similar halls of justice, though it has
provoked much criticism in recent years, has much to
commend it. Like the early Christian basilicas, this hall
was originally roofed with timber, but in late times a concrete
vault was constructed and massive piers added for its
support.
To the east of the throne-room is a chamber somewhat
smaller than the basilica, in which was found an altar (now
VI.] THE PALATINE 95
destroyed) approached by a flight of steps. For this reason
it has been called the Lararium, or chapel of the House-
hold Gods. Behind it are smaller rooms from which a stair-
case led to an upper floor.
We next pass to the Central Court or Peristyle, once sur-
rounded bya colonnade, whose columns were of portasanfa,
with bases and capitals of white marble, surmounted by an
open gallery with columns of porphyry and granite. To the
west of it are a series of small ante-rooms, and there were
probably others symmetrically planned on the opposite side
which is as yet unexcavated. In the peristyle is a flight of
steps leading down to the remains of a house which was
incorporated in the foundations of the Flavian palace.
Remains of its painted ceilings may still be seen, since it
was left intact except for the massive foundation-walls of
concrete which cut through it. The process by which such
concrete was laid, described on p. 16, may easily be under-
stood if we examine these walls ; the traces of the frame-
work of beams and planks into which the fluid mass was run
are evident. In the eighteenth century much finer remains
of earlier rooms were found under the northern part of the
palace, especially the basilica, and it is not unlikely that part
at least of this space was occupied by the house of Augustus.
Beyond the peristyle is a large apartment identified as the
state banqueting-room, triclinium or cenatio Iovis, as it is
called in the Historia Augusta. At the south end was an
apse, which may have contained the Emperor's dining-table.
Some traces of the sumptuous decoration in coloured marble
with which the whole of the palace was enriched may be
seen in this room. The pavement of the apse, which is
formed of slabs of porphyry and coloured marbles, is in part
well preserved. To the west of the triclinium is a
Nymphajum, in the centre of which we see the oval base of
a fountain, whose miniature cascades flowed into the sur-
rounding channel. The room also contains niches for
statues, and was no doubt decorated with flowers and filled
with birds. A similar fountain existed on the east side of
the triclinium and is buried under the Villa Mills. Passing
96 THE PALATINE [vi.
out of the triclinium at the corner we find ourselves on a
platform to the S. of which were two halls with curved ends,
the use of which is uncertain. They have been named the
"Academy" and "Library." The platform rests partly on
tufa foundations and we can descend into a subterranean
corridor running between the Flavian building and the
Temple of Jupiter already mentioned, and leading to tufa-
quarries of early date.
Returning to the Lararium (see above), we may pass
through a gate into the Villa Mills, which until quite
recently was used as a convent, and was therefore in-
accessible to visitors. In this region were the dwelling-
rooms of the Do})ius Augustana, which still for the most
part await excavation. This part of the palace had two
storeys, and some walls belonging to the upper floor are in-
corporated inthe convent. Here, too, were discovered in
1907 faint traces of Christian frescoes which seem to point
to this as the site of the Chapel of S. Cesareo " in Palatio,"
built by the Byzantine exarchs. From the grounds of the
Villa fine views may be seen, especially on the eastern edge
near the monastery of S. Bonaventura 1 (whose solitary palm
is one of the landmarks of Rome), and also to the S. on
the brow of the slope facing the Aventine. Behind the
convent building is a staircase leading down to the only
portion of the Domus Augustana as yet excavated — a court
upon which open three rooms, two of which are octagonal
in shape. The rooms surrounding the court were excavated
in the eighteenth century, but their remains were either
destroyed or reburied. In the E. wall of the court —
roughly stuccoed in imitation of marble pannelling — will be
found a passage which, as the marks on its walls clearly
show, occupies the site of a staircase connecting the two
floors of the palace. Through this we pass in to the build-
ing commonly known as the Stadium. It was natural to
1 Beyond S. Bonaventura is the church of S. Sebastiano, which
stands on the site of the great Temple of Apollo, built by
Augustus in commemoration of the victory of Actium, and as yet
unexcavated.
vi.] THE PALATINE 97
see in this circus-like structure an Imperial race-course ; but
there is little doubt that it is in reality the hippodromus
Palatii of which we hear in ancient authorities, and further
that the name hippodromus signifies, not a race-course, as
might naturally be thought, but a formal garden of that
shape. This garden was originally laid out by Domitian on
the eastern side of his palace, and later emperors— prob-
ably Hadrian and Septimius Severus — altered its aspect by
adding the portico in two stories and the large semicircular
exedra to the E. The lower arcades of the portico were
carried by piers and half-columns of brickwork faced with
fluted slabs of portasanta ; the fragments of cipollino shafts
which lie in the centre of the open space belonged to the
columns of the upper storey. Under the large apse are
three rooms with faint traces of frescoes. In the southern
half of the Stadium may be seen a large oval basin of
brickwork, built on foundations in which chips of coloured
marble, belonging to the original decoration of the building,
are largely used. This fact would suffice to show that the
basin is of late date, and the brick-stamps found therein
show that it was the work of Theodoric the Ostrogoth (493-
526). Its use is quite uncertain. The ruins of the Stadium
were plundered in the sixteenth century, but a few of the
statues which adorned it escaped discovery, and were
brought to light in the latter part of the nineteenth century.
One — a seated female figure commonly called a '"Muse," a
replica of which is in the cloister of the Museo delle Terme
— has been left in a recess at the N. end of the Stadium.
Between the exedra and the N.E. corner is a staircase which
leads to the level of the upper gallery of the Stadium ; from
the top of this staircase we may turn to the right, and pass-
ing behind the exedra, enter the remains of the Palace of
Septimius Severus, built partly upon a suite of chambers
added by Hadrian on the E. side of the Stadium, and partly
upon a huge platform carried by arcades. Little can now
be seen of the building of Severus except some bathrooms,
\\ hose walls contain the flues used for warming their atmo-
sphere but
; it is well worth while to cross the bridge which
H
98 THE PALATINE [vi.
leads to the outer arcades and walk to the S.E. end of the
platform for the sake of the view. Not far off, near the
angle of the Palatine, once stood the Porta Capena, in
the " Servian " wall, by which the Via Appia issued from
the city ; and in order to impress the traveller approaching
Rome from the S. with a sense of his magnificence, Severus
built, as a facade to his palace, the Septizodium (or Septi-
zonium), the last traces of which were destroyed by Sixtus V
in 1589. The form of this strange building was that of
three semicircular niches, flanked by towers and faced with
tiers of columns. It has been supposed that there were
seven of these, forming seven "zones," which symbolised
the spheres of the seven planets ; and as Severus was a
firm believer in astrology, some such symbolism was un-
doubtedly present. But the correct form of the name seems
to have been Septizodium, or the House of the Seven
"Zodia," i.e. the planets, which implies nothing as to its
architectural design. Probably it had only three storeys.
Recrossing the bridge and descending by a staircase to
the lower level, we return to the S. entrance of the Stadium,
and thence take a sloping path along the edge of the hill.
Above us on the right may be traced the outline of a curved
balcony from which the Imperial party could watch the
games in the Circus Maximus. That this does not date
from the time of Augustus himself (as has often been sup-
posed) isproved by the fact that, as Suetonius tells us, he
used to watch the chariot-races from the upper floors of his
friends' houses on the southern slope of the Palatine, as yet
unoccupied by Imperial buildings.
We soon come to a series of rooms on the right hand,
grouped about a semicircular recess, and faced by a portico
of Corinthian columns, all of which save one have been
replaced by brick piers. The walls in these chambers are
covered with sketches and signatures drawn in the plaster
with the stilus. The most famous is the supposed carica-
ture of the Crucifixion, removed hence in 1857 to the Museo
Kircheriano (p. 179). This building is generally known as
the pasdagogium, or training-school for the Imperial pages,
vi. J THE PALATINE 99
on the ground that amongst the graffiti we find such as
Corinthus exit de padagogio. But it is known that the
padagogium was situated on the Caelian, and it is therefore
more likely that these inscriptions were scratched on the
walls by pages recently transferred to the Imperial palace.
It has been suggested (with less likelihood) that the rooms
were in reality used for the incarceration of refractory pages,
and that "padagogium ''' was a slang term.
This completes the circuit of the extant remains of the
Palatine, and we return past the altar of the Unknown God
to the entrance. At the foot of the slope adjoining the
circus were residences assigned to Imperial officials. One
of these, which adjoins the " Pa?dagogium,:: was partly
excavated in 1888, but is not accessible to visitors. It has
been identified with the domus Ge/otiana, acquired by
Caligula on account of his passion for the chariot-races of
the circus ; but there is no ground for this supposition.
There are considerable remains of ancient constructions
beneath the church of S. Anastasia, at the S.W. angle of
the Palatine, which may be seen by permission of the
authorities of the church.
 VII

THE CAPITOL

Vr I ""HE name Capitolium properly belongs only to the

J_ southernmost peak of the hill which, though now
separated from the Quirinal by the valley in which Trajan's
forum stood (p. 155), was originally connected with that
height by a low saddle. The northern summit (now crowned
by the church of S. Maria in Araceli) was known as the
arx or "citadel." In the depression between the two peaks
(now the Piazza del Campidoglio) Romulus, as the story
ran, founded the " Asylum," or place of refuge for outlaws
and "broken men," who formed so large a part of his new
community ; but the hill was not included in the earliest
city, and it was not until the fusion of the Palatine and
Quirinal settlements (p. 7) that it was chosen to be the
citadel of the new Rome and the seat of its chief worship.
This was the Temple of Jupiter, the Best and Greatest,
the God whom the Latin allies of Rome worshipped
on the Alban mount. To the first of the Etruscan kings
of Rome, Tarquinius Priscus, is ascribed the building
not only of the temple of Jupiter Latiaris on the Alban
Mount, but also of that of Jupiter the best and greatest,
together with the two female divinities, Juno and Minerva,
who made up the triad characteristic of Etruscan theology,
on the Capitol. Its dedication was, however, reserved for
the first consul of Republican Rome, and was dated Sep. 13,
509 B.C. It was the sole example in Rome of a temple in
purely "Tuscan" style (p. 25), with its three parallel cel/cr
faced by a deep portico consisting of a triple row of columns.
\ n.| THE CAPITOL 101
The form was preserved at each successive restoration (see
below, p. 133 f.), and copied (more or less faithfully) in the
"Capitolia" set up in the colonies of the Latinised western
provinces. Some remains of the original substructures are
to be seen in the garden of the German Embassy (Palazzo
Caffarelli), and it has been found possible to determine
approximately the dimensions of the temple, which measured
about 204 by 188 feet. The platform upon which the
temple stood was called the Area Capitolina, and was like-
wise supported on early substructures, some traces of which
are visible in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (seep. 146). It
was coextensive with the southern peak, and at the angle
nearest the Tiber was the Tarpeian rock, from which
criminals were hurled. The sheer cliffs may be seen at
various points, especially in the garden of the " Casa
Tarpea" (Via di Monte Tarpeo 25). Traces of fortifications,
both of early date and of the " Servian " style, exist at
various points, e.g. in the Via delle Tre Pile, the winding
road by which carriages ascend to the Piazza del Cam-
pidoglio. Nothing is left of the temple of Juno Moneta
("the Warner") which stood on the Arx. The Capitol was
approached from the Forum by the Clivus Capitolinus, the
line of which is marked by the Porticus Deorum Consentium
(see above, p. 49) and the S. wall of the Tabularium. There
were also flights of steps — the "hundred steps" near the
Tarpeian rock, and the Scake Gemonite, or "stairway of
sighs " which led down to the prison (p. 46) on the line of
the Via dell' Arco di Settimio Severo : here the bodies of
criminals, such as Sejanus and his family, or murdered
emperors, like Vitellius, were exposed. The modern "cor-
donata" by which the Piazza del Campidoglio is approached
dates from the sixteenth century and is part of the design
of Michelangelo.]
We climb this paved slope and find ourselves in the
Piazza, with the Palazzo dei Conservatori upon our right,
the Museo Capitolino on our left, and the Palazzo del
Senatore, which rises above the ancient Tabularium,
presently to be described, in front of us. In the Middle
io- THE CAPITOL [vn.
Ages the only relic of ancient art which stood here was the
mutilated group of a lion devouring a horse, now in the
Palazzo dei Conservatori (p. 141) which marked the place
where death-sentences were promulgated at the head of a
stairway leading to the entrance of the Palazzo del Senatore.
Sixtus IV (1471-84) determined to form a collection of
ancient works of art and to place them in the custody of
the Conservatori, whose palace had been rebuilt by Nicholas
V (1447-55). In the Papal palace of the Lateran were a
number of bronzes, such as the She-wolf (p. 135), the
Camillus (p. 144), and the Boy extracting a thorn (p. 144),
which formed the nucleus of the collection, to which
additions were made as new statues or fragments were
brought to light, e.g. the fragments of a colossal statue,
probably of Constantine the Great, now in the courtyard
of the Palazzo dei Conservatori. Roughly speaking, it may
be said that the Papal Museum of the Belvedere (p. 270)
inaugurated by Julius II (1503-13), acquired the master-
pieces of art, whilst the Capitoline collection was enriched
by monuments of historical significance.
Michelangelo came to Rome in 1534, and was com-
missioned to transform the piazza into an ensemble of
buildings and monuments worthy of so august a site. His
design took more than a century to execute, and suffered
a few modifications in detail : the delay was due to lack of
funds. In 1 538 the equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius
was removed from the Piazza of the Lateran to the site
where it now stands. It owed its preservation to the belief
that it represented the first Christian Emperor. We learn
from a mediaeval pilgrim's guide-book that a small figure
of a barbarian prince, with his hands bound behind his
back, once lay beneath the raised forefoot of the horse.
This is the only example of an Imperial Equestrian statue
which has been preserved to us, and though not of the best
period of art nor free from faults of execution, it admirably
fulfils its monumental purpose. About 1550 the double
staircase in front of the Palazzo del Senatore was completed,
and at its foot were placed two recumbent figures of
vii.] THE CAPITOL 103
river-gods which had stood throughout the Middle Ages
upon the Quirin.il, near the colossal Dioscuri (p. 196). Prob-
ably they represented the Nile — symbolised by the Sphinx —
and the Tigris : but the tiger which was the badge of this
latter river was changed into a wolf by the restorer so as to
typify the Tiber. Between them was afterwards placed
a colossal statue of Athena, now in the Museo Capitolino
(p. 105), for which was substituted at a later date the seated
Athena of red porphyry, which was believed to represent
the goddess Roma, and therefore provided with a pile of
arms and armour and dubbed " Roma Trionfante." The
balustrade which faces the Piazza Araceli was completed
under Pius IV (1559-66), and from time to time adorned
with ancient monuments. The two statues of the Dioscuri
(Castor and Pollux) at the head of the cordonata were
discovered, as it would seem, in the Ghetto, and had doubt-
less stood on either side of some monumental gateway.
Michelangelo intended them to face each other, but when,
after twenty years, they were restored by Yalsoldo, they
were placed in their present attitude. The first milestone
of a Roman road, with an inscription recording' its restora-
tion by Vespasian and Nerva, and believed to be that of
the Appian Way, was placed on the balustrade about 1580,
and (in the nineteenth century) balanced by the seventh
milestone of the same road, with a similar inscription.
In 1590 the so-called " Trophies of Marius" were brought
from the monumental fountain whose remains are still to be
seen in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. The name by which
they are popularly known dates from the Middle Ages ; it
is more difficult to determine their true origin. On the one
hand, the coins of Severus Alexander represent a fountain
on the Esquiline called the " Nymphreum of Alexander,"
which resembles the remains above mentioned ; on the
other, a quarry-mark on one of the blocks of marble ot
which the trophies are made is dated in Domitian's reign,
and it is plausibly conjectured that an inscription seen by
Petrarch and Poggio which records Domitian's victories on
the Rhine aud Danube belonged to the monument. The
104 THE CAPITOL [vn.
female figure who, with her two children, represents the
conquered enemy on the trophy to the S. of the approach,
is of German type, and Domitian's double triumph over the
Chatti (in the Taunus) and Dacians (in Transylvania)
celebrated in A.D. 89 may have been commemorated by
the erection of this monument. Finally, under Innocent X
(1644-55) two statues originally found in the ruins of the
Baths of Constantine on the Quirinal, and representing
that Emperor and his son Constantine II, were placed on
the balustrade. They are interesting as specimens of
Imperial statues executed in the decline of ancient art, stiff
in pose, but not without monumental effect.
The Capitoline collection of antiquities was originally
housed in the Palazzo dei Conservatori, and a considerable
addition was made to it by Pius V, a bigoted reactionary,
who on his election to the Papacy in 1566 presented the
people of Rome with a large number of statues from the
Belvedere and Vatican Gardens. The " New Palace," as
the building to the N. of the Piazza was called, made but
slow progress until the reign of Innocent X, under whom it
was completed and adorned with a number of statues and
busts from the older building. To the nucleus thus formed
additions were made by later Popes, above all by Clement
XII, who in 1733 purchased the collection of Cardinal
Alessandro Albani, then in financial straits, and transferred
it to the Museo Capitolino, as it was now called. Except
for some statues presented by Benedict XIV (1740-58), the
the later acquisitions of the museum have not been con-
siderable. Several of the most important works were
removed to Paris by Napoleon in accordance with the
Treaty of Tolentino (1797), but nearly all were restored in
1 8 16 and placed in a special room.
We pass through a corridor into a courtyard, and see
in front of us a colossal recumbent river=god known
throughout the Middle Ages as Marforio from the place
where it stood ("Martis forum") near the Mamertine Prison,
and famous from the fact that the answers to the satires of
the " Pasquino" (p. 171) were attached to it. It was brought
vn.l THE CAPITOL
to the Capitoline Piazza in the sixteenth century, and turned
io:
to its present use by Clement XII (whose bust may be seen
above it) in 1734, when the two Pans from the Albani
collection were placed on either side of it. These were
discovered in the Piazza dei Satiri (to which they gave its
name) and belonged to the decoration of Pompey's theatre
(p. 168). On the R. of the court is a hall containing Egyptian
sculptures, partly of the imitative kind produced in Rom
under the Empire ; some of these were discovered in the
sanctuary of Isis in the Campus Martius (p. 175). . In the

MarFono
1 Sfaircase

1
COURT
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1 J 1 1

MUSE.0 CAP1T0LIN0 Ground floor

corridor, to the L., (4) is a colossal statue of Athena (cf.

above, p. 103), which, though poor in execution, represents
an original of the period of Phidias ; it was originally armed
with shield and spear. Farther on are two draped female
figures (12 and 22), the effect of which is impaired by the
heads which have been placed on them. They belong to
the art of the period following the Persian wars, and illustrate
the early progress of the Greeks towards the representation
of the natural fall of drapery. A head in Berlin has been
identified as that which belongs to the type. At the end of
the corridor is (21) a fragment of a statue in fiavonazzetto
106 THE CAPITOL [vn.

representing a barbarian, brought from the Arch of Con-

stantine in 1733 (see p. 253). Here we turn to the L. and
enter a room containing a few Christian monuments
(fragments of sarcophagi, statue of the Good Shepherd, etc.)
and (on the L. wall) a marble disc carved in low relief with
scenes from the story of Achilles. In an inner room are a
number of altars and gravestones, a few of which have
Palmyrene inscriptions. The most interesting is the altar
in the centre of the room, set up by members of the
police-force attached to the horrea Qalbiana or ware-
houses by the Tiber, with a beautiful bust (in relief) of the
youthful Sun-god on the principal face. It has a Palmyrene
inscription on the side upon which is figured a solar deity
in a chariot, and on the back is carved a cypress tree from
which the divinity Azizus springs in the form of a child.
The altar is little later than the reign of Nero, and bears
witness to the early introduction of Palmyrene cults into
Rome.
Returning to the corridor and passing the entrance we
see on the L. (35) a figure of Polyphemus with one of the
companions of Odysseus under his feet and a statue of
Hadrian, to the R. (19) a colossal statue of Mars. The
type is that of " Mars the Avenger," to whom Augustus
dedicated the temple in his Forum (p. 152), and it seems to
have been derived from that of a colossal statue of Ares
set up in the Acropolis of Halicarnassus in the fourth century
B.C. Here we turn through a door on the R. into a room
containing a number of busts and heads (note No. 19, an
athlete with straps passing round his head, sometimes
wrongly described as Juba II of Mauretania, and No. 25, a
head of Heracles reproducing a type created by Scopas) ;
in the centre is a square base adorned with reliefs represent-
ing the labours of Heracles in an " archaistic " style. In
the next room, against the R. wall, is a fine sarcophagus
representing a battle of Gauls and Greeks. To the
Roman, no doubt, the scene recalled the wars of his own
country with the Gauls : but the style and types used clearly
point to the school of Pergamon which celebrated the
vii.] THE CAPITOL 107
victories of Attalus I over the Gallic invaders of Asia Minor :
on this see pp. 128 and 214. How popular these types were
with Roman artists is shown by the fact that on the Column
of Trajan the suicide of Decebalus (p. 163) is represented
precisely as that of a Gallic chief on this sarcophagus. In
the same room is the grave-monument of T. Statilius Aper,
an architect and draughtsman, whose instruments are
shown on the sides of the cippus. The boar at the feet of
the figure alludes to his name (^<?r=boar). Passing into
the third room we see a large sarcophagus, upon the lid of
which are the figures of a man and woman reclining upon
a cushion. These clearly belong to the early third century
A.D., and were long believed to represent the Emperor
Severus Alexander and his mother, Julia Mammaea. The
sarcophagus was found in the Monte del Grano, an artificial
tumulus near the Via Latina, and an unfounded tradition
asserts that it contained the famous Portland Vase, now in
the British Museum, the scenes of which were interpreted
as symbolical of the birth of Severus Alexander. The body
of the sarcophagus is decorated with scenes from the life of
Achilles. On the front we have Achilles at the Court of
Lycomedes, king of Scyrus, in the act of throwing off his
woman's disguise on the arrival of Odysseus and Diomedes.
The balance and symmetry' of the composition, at either end
of which is a seated king (Agamemnon and Lycomedes), are
traditional, while the absence of neutral background and
the violent contrast of light and shadow mark the later
period of Roman art. On the sides we see the farewell of
Achilles to Lycomedes and the arming of Achilles.
Returning to the corridor we mount the Staircase. On the
first landing, to the L. is a female portrait-statue of the
"Pudicitia'-' type, on which see p. 324, to the R. a female
divinity with the modern inscription IVNO LANUMVINA
(i.e. Juno of Lanuvium). It is, however, very doubtful
whether the statue was found at Lanuvium (Civita Lavigna),
and the type is rather that of an earth-goddess. The skin
with which she is draped is that of a pig. At the head of
the staircase we enter a Gallery and turn to the R. To our
io8 THE CAPITOL [vn.
L. (38) is a group of Heracles slaying the hydra, wrongly
restored. The pose of Heracles shows that he was repre-
sented with his knee upon the neck of the Kerynxan stag.
The hydra is the work of the sculptor Algardi (1602-54).
Beside this group is placed another fragment, consisting of
a leg and the coils of the hydra. The story runs that it was
found after Algardi's restoration was complete : but it is
probably not antique, and belonged to a restoration after-
wards discarded. To the R. is (5) a statue of Eros (Cupid)
bending his bow, copied from a bronze original, probably
by Lysippus, charming in conception and treatment, though
lacking in spiritual depth. Near this a door (r.) leads to the
Room of the Doves, which takes its name from the mosaic
on the wall opposite the windows found in Hadrian's
Villa, and representing doves perched on the edge of a bowl.
The subject agrees with that of a mosaic by Sosus of Perga-
mon, an artist of the Hellenistic period, described by the
elder Pliny, and was no doubt derived therefrom. It
formed the centrepiece of a mosaic floor, and is remarkable
for the minuteness of execution, which aims at an effect more
proper to painting than to mosaic. Beneath it stands (13) a
sarcophagus, upon which is represented Prometheus form-
ing the first man of clay, together with other scenes
(Hermes and a departed soul, Hephaestus and the Cyclopes,
Eros and Psyche, etc. etc.) The crowding of these loosely
connected subjects resembles that which we find on Christian
sarcophagi, and one group of figures (a man and woman
beneath a tree) has been thought to represent Adam and
Eve in Paradise. Farther on, on the same wall, is a mosaic
with theatrical masks, and beneath it a sarcophagus, upon
which is figured the sleeping Endymion approached by
Selene. In the second window-opening are fragments of
Tabulae Iliacae, or slabs of marble upon which scenes from
the Trojan war are engraved, with quotations or explanatory
inscriptions. The largest is No. 83, in the centre of which
is the destruction of Troy " according to Stesichorus," the
Sicilian lyric poet. No. 83A represents the shield of
Achilles as described in the 18th Iliad ; the Homeric text
v.,.| T//E CAPITOL
is inscribed in minute characters on the edge of the shield,
and on the back are letters which, read in several ways,
give the sense, "The Shield of Achilles according to Homer,
by Theodorus." Upon the tiers of shelves surrounding the
room are a large number of heads and busts belonging to
different periods. Amongst those on the end wall are several
with modern stands of black marble which belong to the
reigns of Augustus and his successors, and are characteristic
of Early Imperial Art. In the centre (61) is a very remark-
able bust of the third century A.D., which portrays a villainous-

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MUSEO CAPITOLINO

Upper Floor

looking personage with unsparing realism. Beneath is the

dfipus of a certain Claudia Syntyche, with a relief repre-
senting a more famous Claudia — the Vestal who drew the
boat containing the image of the Great Mother (Cybele) up
the Tiber in 204 B.C. On the R. wall notice (28) a small
double herm with the heads of two marine divinities,
probably those of the lakes of Nemi and Albano, since a
similar herm was found in the precinct of Diana Nemorensis
beside the former lake.
Returning to the Gallery we see on the R. (8) the statue ot
a drunken old woman (head restored) clasping an amphora
no THE CAPITOL [vn.
wreathed with ivy. Pliny mentions such a statue as existing
at Smyrna, and attributes it to Myron, who (if the text be
correct) must have been a Hellenistic artist, not the famous
Attic sculptor. Near it (10) is an octagonal urn which once
contained the ashes of a certain Lucillus Felix, daintily
decorated with winged loves, masks and vine leaves. No.
12 is a graceful figure of a young Satyr playing the flute,
conceived in the idyllic spirit of Alexandrian pastoral poetry.
On the L. notice (56) a group of a seated Roman matron
and her little boy, wearing the bulla or amulet hanging
round his neck, popularly called "Agrippina and Nero";
(54) an Aphrodite upon which has been set a head of
Flavian date, as is shown by the high toupet (see below) ;
(52) a female figure restored as a Muse, leaning upon a
pillar — the type was created in the fifth century to represent
Aphrodite, and often repeated with variations ; also (50), a
torso belonging to a replica of Myron's discobolus (see p.
219), restored by the French sculptor, Etienne Monnot, as
a fallen warrior. On either side of the doorway leading
into the large saloon is a female head. That on the L. (51)
is an Aphrodite of the period just before Praxiteles, with
something of the severity of fifth century art : the one on.
the R. (47), with hollow eye-sockets, in which eyeballs of
glass and enamel were once inserted, is in all probability an
original work by the artist Damophon of Messene, whose
style and date were not certainly known until the discovery
of remains at Lycosura in Arcadia belonging to a sanctuary
described by Pausanias. He lived in the early part of the
second century B.C. Close to it is (48) a young Niobid,
restored in accordance with a better-preserved replica in
Florence ; it belonged to the group discussed on p. 324.
Under No. 46 is a sarcophagus representing the birth and
upbringing of the child Dionysus, who is surrounded by
satyrs and nymphs. Opposite this (20) is a Psyche, with
large butterfly wings, looking up pathetically toward the
Eros, who we must imagine in the act of torturing her.
The conception is strikingly similar to that of the Niobid
just described. To the L., No. 42, is a grave-statue repre-
vii.] THE CAPITOL m
senting a seated Roman matron, which cannot he later than
the Augustan age. To the R. we pass through a doorway
into the Cabinet of the Venus, named after the principal
statue therein, which faces the door. The exquisite and
naturalistic rendering of the nude, evidently due to study of
a living model, stamps this as an original work ; the lack of
spiritual expression in the face, which reproduces a type
traceable to the fourth century B.C. in a somewhat perfunctory
fashion, forbid us to date the statue earlier than the later
Hellenistic period. It may be the work of a Greek artist
of the last century B.C. The goddess has laid aside her last
garment and is preparing to enter the bath, when an impulse
of modesty causes her to cover herself as far as she can with
her two hands. The subtlety and refinement of the motive
show that the age of Praxiteles has been left far behind. To
the L. is a group of Leda and the Swan. Leda is raising
her cloak to protect the Swan, who has taken refuge with her
from the pursuing eagle. There is nothing to indicate that
it represents Zeus, and the chief interest of the artist seems
to be concentrated on the representation of drapery. A close
analogy has been traced in the sculptures from the temple of
Asclepios at Epidaurus, which were the work of an Athenian
sculptor, Timotheus, of the early fourth century B.C., and the
original of this group has therefore been attributed to him.
To the R. is a group commonly known as Eros and Psyche.
Neither are, however, winged (the presence of wings would,
in fact, destroy the simplicity of the group), and all that we
see is a boy and girl embracing each other in childish
innocence, as is delicately shown by their attitude, but
standing on the threshold of a stronger passion. Such a
problem could not have been attacked by Greek artists
before the Hellenistic period ; on the other hand, its exis-
tence in the second century B.C. is presupposed by terra-
cottas and marbles of that time, which reproduce it on a
small scale. In some of these wings are added, in order to
characterise the figures as Eros and Psyche ; but this does
not prove that the artist of the original intended them as
such. Other modifications, in fact, are found ; the action of
 112 THE CAPITOL [vn.
the boy, who is opening the girl's mouth with his fingers in
order to count her teeth, is altered in some examples.
We return to the gallery and note at the end a large vase
in the shape of a crater or mixing-bowl, finely decorated with
plant-forms. It stands upon a circular well-head adorned
with a procession of twelve gods in relief. The style of
these figures is " archaistic " and affected ; notice such exag-
gerated traits as the " swallow-tail " folds of the drapery and
the tip-toe gait of the divinities. This fashion of imitating
archaic works was prevalent amongst certain of the " Neo-
Attic " sculptors of the first century B.C. On the R., No. 29,
found at Velletri, is a replica (without the aegis) of the
more famous " Giustiniani Athena" which is described on
p. 329. At this end of the gallery are some noticeable
Imperial portraits. No. 24 is Tiberius ; No. 27, a fine female
head of about A.D. 200 may be Julia Domna, the wife of
Septimius Severus ; No. 28, a youthful Marcus Aurelius ;
No. 30, Trajan ; No. 31, Caracalla ; while No. 33 is
generally held to be one of the very few authentic portraits
of Caligula, though it has also been suggested that it may
represent Gaius Caesar, the grandson of Augustus, who died
young, on the ground of its resemblance in profile to the
portraits of his father, Agrippa.
At this point we pass through a door on the L. and enter
the Room of the Emperors, which contains a remarkable
collection of Imperial busts formed by Cardinal Albani, to
which but few additions have since been made. They
deserve study not only for their intrinsic interest, but also as
illustrating the development of a specifically Roman art of
portraiture. The series begins on the upper shelf in the
corner to L. of the window looking on the Piazza and con-
tinues from L. to R. 1 is not, as it is described, a bust of
Julius Caesar, but an unknown portrait of late Republican
date, which illustrates the hard, realistic style in which the
earliest Roman portrait-sculptors worked. 2A, Augustus
wearing the oak-wreath or corona a'vi'ca, and those which
follow, exemplify the classicistic style, dominated by Greek
influences, which prevailed on the foundation of the Empire.
vi i. J THE CAPITOL 113
4 is Tiberius, 5 most probably his nephew and adopted
son Germanicus, 7 may be his son Urusus. 6 is wrongly
placed here, and really belongs to the Flavian period. The
ladies of the court are represented by 8 and 10, the latter
Agrippina the elder, wife of Germanicus. 11 is a modern
bust of Caligula in green basalt, no doubt executed in imita-
tion of coin-types to fill a gap in the series. Nos. 12 — 17
belong to the Julio-Claudian period. Xo. 16 has been
restored as Nero, but only the upper part of the face is
ancient. Xo. 18 resembles the coin-portraits of Galba,
but seems to be a Republican bust worked over in modern
times. 19 may be Otho ; the wavy hair is characteristic of this
emperor. 20 shares with other portraits of Yitellius the sus-
picion of being a modern creation, the prototype of which
dates from the Renaissance ; the question is hard to decide.
21 Vespasian) and 22 (Titus) are only moderate examples
of the finest period of Roman portraiture ; 23 and 25 wear
the unmistakable hairdress of the same age, and the latter
may be Domitia, the wife of Domitian. 26 (Xerva) is
thought to be the work of Algardi ; it is clearly modern.
27 is a good portrait of Trajan ; 28 is his Empress, Plotina,
probably in the days of her widowhood. 29 and 30 re
call by the style in which the hair is dressed the portraits
of Marciana, the sister of Trajan, and Matidia, his niece,
but the identifications are doubtful. 31 and 32 represent
Hadrian, 2 3 most probably his wife Sabina, depicted as
Ceres. (This is indicated by the diadem adorned with
ears of wheat and poppy-heads ; the bust illustrates the
Renaissance of Greek classicism under Hadrian.) Xote
that from the time of Hadrian onwards the practice of
representing the iris or pupil' of the eye by incisions in the
marble comes into vogue. A new style is ushered in by the
portraits of the Antonine period ; the Emperors are repre-
sented by Nos. $} (Antoninus Pius), 37 (Marcus Aurelius as
a youth), 38 (the same in middle life), 41 (Lucius Verus), 34
and 43 (Commodus ; the latter is youthful, the former has
wrongly been described as zElius Caesar, the adopted son of
Hadrian and father of L. Yerus). 36 is Faustina the elder,
ii4 THE CAPITOL [vn.
wife of Antoninus Pius ; 39 may possibly be Crispina, wife
of Commodus. 40 seems to be a child of the Antonine
house. The heads which follow are works of uncertain
identification and belong to the late Antonine age or to that
of the Severi ; 47 is Julia Mammaea, mother of Severus
Alexander. 49 is interesting as possessing an artist's signa-
ture— "Zenas the second," i.e. Zenas the son of Zenas.
The father was most probably the artist whose signature
may be read on a bust in the next room (below, p. 119) ;
and both belonged to a well-known school of sculptors
from Aphrodisias in Asia Minor, whose works can be
dated to the reign of Hadrian. Whether they worked
at Aphrodisias or, as seems more probable, in Rome,
there can be no doubt that they exercised considerable in-
fluence over the art of their time. No. 49 in particular is
an excellent portrait, and must represent a personage of
some importance at Hadrian's Court, seeing that another
example has been found in a villa in France, probably the
official residence of a governor or procurator, together with
other Imperial portraits. Nos. 50 and 51 represent Clodius
Albinus and Septimius Severus : the former was governor
of Gaul, and was unwillingly recognised by Severus as
joint-Emperor until the latter, having crushed his Eastern
rival, Pescennius Niger (supposed without sufficient reason
to be represented by No. 48), was free to attack him.
52 may be Severus' wife, Julia Domna ; 53 is his son and
successor Caracalla, and though not a first-rate portrait,
reproduces the characteristic type of the savage and half-
insane tyrant. 54 may be the same Emperor in earlier
life ; 57 is his younger brother Geta, whom he murdered
in his mothers presence, not, as is commonly supposed, his
cousin Elagabalus. The other heads, especially the female
portraits, assigned to this period are not to be identified
with any probability. As the third century advances the
un-Roman cast of features — which begins with the dynasty
of the Severi, who were of African origin and married
Syrian wives — becomes more marked, and a new style of
portraiture, which employs simple yet effective means, such
vii.) THE CAPITOL 115
as the representation of short hair by incised chisel-strokes,
comes into fashion. 62 is a bust of Maximinus the
Thracian, the first barbarian Emperor ; 63 possibly his
son Maximus. Few of the third-century heads can be
securely identified, since in the progressive decline of art
the coin-portraits lose their iconographic value. 66 seems
to be Pupienus, one of emperors set up by the Senate in
a. 1 1 238, the year of Six Emperors. 70 resembles the coin-
portraits of Decius, the persecutor of the Christians ; 74
and 75 seem to represent father and son, probably private
persons of the middle of the third century. 76 is a moder-
ately good portrait of Gallienus, under whom the Empire
almost suffered premature disruption : he was a conceited
fop and dilettante, and there was a strange renaissance of
portraiture under his rule which was of brief duration.
79 bears the inscription MACARI "[a portrait] of Macarius,"
which has wrongly been interpreted as M. A(ureliusJ
Cari(nus). The portrait is much earlier than Carinus, the
predecessor of Diocletian, whose name has been given,
quite wrongly, to Xo. 80, a fine bust which really belongs
to the beginning of the second century A.D., and if it repre-
sents an Imperial personage at all, is probably the father
of Trajan. 81, a colossal head, has been called Con-
stantius Chlorus, but is far older than his time. The treat-
ment of the hair, etc., shows that the colossal statue to
which it belonged was intended to be seen from a distance,
and the workmanship is so effective that we may perhaps
ascribe it to the Flavian period. 82 has the unintelligible
inscription (seemingly of mediaeval date) IANUS inpeator,
which was taken to mean " Iulianus Imperator'' ; the head
therefore has been identified as "Julian the Apostate."
It is in reality a portrait of a Greek philosopher, of which
there are other replicas in the next room (see below, p. 119).
83 is a typical example of the art of the Later Empire, with
its stiff pose and fixed, staring gaze. Probably it is of
the later fourth century A.D., but some hold that it belongs
to the time of Justinian. In the centre of the room is (84) a
seated female statue traditionally called Agrippina, but
n6 THE CAPITOL [yii.
really of the Antonine period. The workmanship is common-
place, but the pose and motive are derived from Greek
art of the classical period. Amongst the reliefs let in to
the upper part of the walls the most noticeable are two on
the L. wall, representing (89) Perseus and Andromeda,
(92) Endymion. Under the Roman Empire, if not before,
the practice of decorating the walls of houses, etc., with
large bas-reliefs in place of paintings sprang up. We have
here two examples of this class. No. 92 is superior in
workmanship, and the figure of the seated Endymion with
his dog has no parallel in other ancient representations of
the myth. It can scarcely be later than A.D. 100. No. 89
belongs rather to the class of the reliefs in Palazzo Spada,
described on p. 169 ff. It is not, as some have thought, an
Augustan composition derived from a painting of the Alex-
andrian age, but arises from an eclectic combination of
statuary motives, and is to be dated to the time of Hadrian
or a little later.
We pass through the door on the L. into the Room of
the Philosophers, i.e. of the Greek portraits. Most of
these are again derived from the Albani collection, and
their identification is even more uncertain than that of the
emperors. Not a few Roman portraits, too, are included in
the collection. The numbering begins on the upper shelf
to the L. of the entrance. 1 is not a portrait — though it
has received the traditional name of Virgil — but an Eleu-
sinian divinity resembling the beautiful head from Eleusis,
believed to be the Eubouleus of Praxiteles. 2 and 3
represent a Greek philosopher, fancifully identified as Hera-
clitus, " the weeping philosopher," on account of their
pathetic expression. 4 and 5 are portraits of Socrates —
in the latter the uglier features of the original are strongly
emphasised — while 6 has been converted into a Socrates
by the modern restorer. Nos. 7-9 cannot be identified ;
No. 10 is a moderately good example of a type, long be-
lieved to represent Seneca, but now recognised as the portrait
of a famous Hellenistic poet, possibly Callimachus. In
the Museo delle Terme (p. 217) is a replica wearing the
vii ) THE CAPITOL 117
crown of ivy proper to poets, and the amazing realism with
which the physical defects of the subject are portrayed
points to a contemporary portrait rather than, as some have
suggested, an imaginary representation of some early Greek
poet such as the satirist Hipponax. Nos. 13 and 14 arc-
good copies of an Attic portrait of the fourth century B.C.,
perhaps representing an orator; No. 15 bears the inscrip-
tion ayciac, a mistake for Lysias. The genuineness of
this inscription has been disputed, and the person repre-
sented isnot the same as the subject of the fine inscribed
bust at Naples, as to which see on No. 96. j6 is a colossal
male head of the Augustan head, wrongly called Agrippa, on
the ground that it was found near the Pantheon. 21 is
a copy made in the second century a.d. 'as is shown by the
form of the bust) of a fine realistic portrait of a Greek
philosopher of the Hellenistic age. It has been identified
with Diogenes, but the resemblance to the inscribed statu-
ette of that philosopher in the Villa Albani is not close.
22, a fragment mounted in relief on vet'de atitico, is not
Archimedes, as the modern inscription has it. but Sophocles
(see on No. 33). 24 is a bust executed in the third
century a.d. (compare the Imperial portraits of that period
in the previous room) which bears the name Asclepiades,
possibly a famous physician of the first century B.C.
25 is a contemporary portrait of the Platonic philosopher
Theon of Smyrna, who lived under Trajan and Hadrian.
31 is a poor portrait of Demosthenes ; 32, a Roman of
the second century a.d. 33 and 34 are replicas of the
portrait of Sophocles best known from the statue in the
Lateran (p. 235), which belongs to the latter half of the fourth
century B.C. It is instructive to compare this type with No.
22. which belongs to the poet's lifetime, and is identified by
means of an inscribed bust in the Vatican (p. 300). 35 is a
badly preserved example of the portrait sometimes called
Alcibiades discussed on p. 316. 37 and 38 resemble each
other closely, and may represent the same person : a similar
head appears on coins of Soli in Cilicia, and is either that
of Aratus, the astronomer, or of Chrysippus, the Stoic philo-
n8 THE CAPITOL [vn.
sopher and logician, both of whom lived in the third century
B.C. Chrysippus had a famous statue in Athens, and it is
possible that our head, combined with a body in the Louvre,
may represent it. 39 and 40 are of the same period, but do
not represent the same person. 41-43 reproduce the con-
ventional type of Euripides, which, like that of Sophocles
(Xo. 33), is not contemporary, but largely idealised in the
taste of a later time. 44-46 are examples of an ideal
portrait of Homer, the creation of which was the work of
the Rhodian school to which we owe the Laocoon. 47
seems to have been originally a Sophocles of the type repre-
sented by 22, worked over to give an appearance of blind-
ness and possibly intended for Homer. 48 was found
together with an inscription mentioning Domitia, the wife
of Domitian and daughter of Cn. Domitius Corbulo, a
brilliant general who was in command on the Eastern
frontier under Nero and was finally put to death by his
order, and as it is of the Julio-Claudian period it is almost
certainly a portrait of Corbulo, and a fine example of Roman
portraiture. 49 bears the inscription P. COR. SCIPIO,
indicating that it was regarded as a portrait of Scipio
Africanus the elder, the conqueror of Hannibal : but this
dates from the eighteenth century, and few would now be
found to maintain the correctness of the identification. The
bust is one of a numerous class, distinguished by the shaven
head and (in most instances) by the presence of a scar or
scars, sometimes, as here, in the shape of a cross, upon the
forehead. If we assume that the busts represent distin-
guished Romans of the Republic, these traits must be taken
as evidences of the realism which is always found in native
Italian art : the appearance of baldness might perhaps be
traced to the direct imitation of the waxen masks of ances-
tors preserved in the houses of the Roman aristocracy, in
which the hair was painted. But there are strong reasons
for thinking that the busts are those of priests of I sis, who
shaved their heads and were branded as a token of dedi-
cation. The present example was executed in the second
century A.D., as is shown by the plastic treatment of the iris
vii.) T//E CAPITOL U9
and pupil (see above, p. 38). 51 is an Augustan portrait,
but not, as it has been called, Pompey. 53 is a very poor
portrait of Mcnander, better represented in the Vatican
(p. 314). 54, wrongly called Sappho, is a fifth century type
of Athena. 56 is a good and characteristic portrait of a
Hellenistic philosopher ; 58, a poor bust of Plato (see p. 284 I.
59 is a fierce-looking, barbaric youth which has been called
Arminius, but is really of the second century a.d. 61 is the
orator .Eschines (see p. 283) ; 62 and 64 represent Epicurus,
the founder of the Epicurean school, and his friend Metro-
dorus, who are also portrayed on the double herm 63. 66 is
signed by Zenas of Aphrodisias, probably the father of the
artist mentioned on p. 114, and is a very fair portrait dating
from about the end of Trajan's reign. 68, once known as
Massinissa, is a copy of an Attic original of the fifth century
i.e. ; the suggestion that it may represent Miltiades is at
least possible. 69 dates from the same period, but is hard
to interpret ; the fillet or diadem which it wears was perhaps
misunderstood by the Roman copyist. 70 is a portrait of
the cynic Antisthenes (see p. 283). 72 and 73 are replicas
of the so-called Julian the Apostate (p. 115) ; the style of the
former shows that the common original was of bronze. It
was of the fifth century B.C., no doubt representing a philo-
sopher, whom we are not able to identify, and must rank as
one of the earliest true portraits preserved to us. 75 is
proved to be a portrait of Cicero by its resemblance to a
bust in Apsley House (much restored) which is inscribed
with his name. Its refined and intellectual, but somewhat
weak and nervous expression, suits well with the character
of the orator. 76 has been called Terence, but the mask
engraved on the shoulder indicates a writer of tragedy, not
comedy, and it is a work of the third century a.d. 77-79
are replicas of an ideal portrait, indicated by the fillet as
that of a priest or poet. It may represent a comparatively
early conception of Homer, or possibly of Hesiod. 80,
wearing an Oriental turban, has been shown to represent
Pythagoras from its resemblance to a head on an inscribed
■" contorniat^ " or token. 81 is a work of the school which.
120 THE CAPITOL [vn.
produced the Periander of the Vatican (p. 281). 82, a fine
portrait, has been conjectured on account of its baldness to
represent /Eschylus or Phidias. Others believe that the
forehead is that of a mathematician, and suggest Archi-
medes. In any case it can scarcely be earlier than the
fourth century B.C. 83, a bust in dark grey marble of about
the middle of the second century A.D., has two replicas, at
Modena and at Florence, one of which is inscribed with
the name of Euripides and the other with that of Homer.
Both inscriptions are, of course, forgeries, and the busts
probably represent Tiberius Julius Rhoemetalces, King of
Bosphorus (i.e. tb^e Crimea) under Antoninus Pius. The
busts which follow are mostly portraits of nameless Greek
philosophers, except 85, which reproduces an ideal type of
the fifth century. 95 has been thought to be Sophocles, but
with little reason. 96 is a replica, showing by its technique
that the original from which it was copied was of bronze, of
a portrait in Naples inscribed with the name of the orator
Lysias, a very fine work. If that inscription be accepted as
genuine, 15 cannot be a portrait of the orator. 97 is Theo-
phrastus, the successor of Aristotle as head of the Lyceum.
In the centre of the room is a seated statue, the motive
of which may be traced to a Greek original of the fourth
century B.C. by comparing a statue in Naples, inscribed with
the name of Moschion, an Athenian tragic poet. A modern
head was added in the sixteenth century, and the statue has
been called by the name of M. Claudius Marcellus, the
conqueror of Syracuse.
On the walls of this room may be seen a number of reliefs,
several of which belong to a frieze ornamented with sacri-
ficial instruments and parts of ships. On the R. of the
window is one (121) which represents a harbour and land-
scape :this class of relief is often called Hellenistic, but few
of the extant examples can be earlier than the Imperial
period. On the L. wall is one (m) in rosso antico,
representing a sacrifice to Hygieia, the goddess of health,
the subject of which is almost exactly reproduced on a
medallion struck by Marcus Aurelius ; also (no) a relief in
vi i.l THE CAPITOL 121

" archaistic " style, representing" Pan and the Nymphs, with
the signature of Callimachus, possibly added in order to
claim the work for an Attic artist of that name who lived
towards the close of the fifth century B.C. On the opposite
wall (118) is a curious Bacchic relief, other replicas of which
exist ; the original must have been of the Hellenistic period.
The subjects cannot be satisfactorily explained.
We pass through the further door and enter the large
hall or salone. In the centre of the room we notice five
statues made of dark material. In the middle is (3) an
almost repulsive figure in black basalt representing Heracles
as a child of colossal dimensions ; it rests on a marble base
decorated with reliefs showing the birth, upbringing and
triumph of Zeus in the "archaising" style of Neo- Attic art.
On either side of it (2, 4) are two Centaurs in bigio morato.
They were found in Hadrian's Villa near Tivoli, and we
learn from the inscriptions upon their bases that they were
the work of two Greek artists, Aristeas and Papias, of Aphro-
disias in Caria (S. W. Asia Minor) : but these were only
copyists of the second century a.d. belonging to the school
whose portraits we have already noticed (p. 114). They
chose black marble in order to give the effect of bronze, and
certainly showed great technical dexterity in imitating
bronze technique, with all its undercutting and minuteness
of detail. The originals were of the late Hellenistic period,
and more particularly of the Rhodian school, as we see by
comparing the head of the old Centaur with that of the
Laocoon (p. 301). Originally each of the Centaurs was
ridden by a small figure of Eros (Cupid) ; the old one had
his hands tied behind his back and the merciless little god
was tugging at his hair ; the young one listens smilingly
to the Love-god's advice. In the replica in the Vatican
(p. 286) he holds a hare in his uplifted R. arm ; but this is
a restoration —probably a wrong one. In any case the
figures symbolise the contrasted effects of love on old and
young. The two figures at the ends of the row (1, 5) repre-
sent Zeus and Asclepios.
The statues which surround the walls illustrate most of
122 THE CAPITOL [vn.

the principal phases of Greek and Graeco-Roman sculpture,

and several of them are worthy of attention on that account,
although their artistic merit, whether as copies or as
originals, is not of the highest. In the first place, we have
fifth=century art represented by the two Amazons (19
and 33), two statues of Apollo (20, 30) and one of Hera (24).
Let us take the Apollos first. 20 is notable for its powerful
muscular build, which has led some archaeologists to consider
it as in origin an athletic type, adapted by copyists in
Roman times to the representation of Apollo. We hear ot
a certain Pythagoras of Rhegium (Reggio in Calabria) as
the first to represent the hair in a naturalistic way, and to
indicate the veins in his athlete-statues ; and this is certainly
a work to which such a description might apply. Others
think that Calamis, an Athenian artist, who lived just before
Phidias in the early half of the fifth century B.C., and was
renowned for the " delicacy and grace " of his work, may
have been the sculptor of the original — evidently a famous
work, since several copies are known, amongst them a fine
one ia the British Museum, usually called the " Choisent-
Gouffier " Apollo, and another in Athens, found near the
Theatre of Dionysus, and generally called the " Apollo on
the Omphalos" because it was wrongly supposed to have
stood on a representation of the Delphic Omphalos (a
conical stone supposed to mark the " navel of the earth ")
found near to it. The legs are not correctly restored : in
the original the pose was stiffer, and the graceful contrast
between the leg upon which the weight of the statue rested,
and that which was free — the creation of the great fifth
century artists — was not emphasised. The figure should
probably be restored with a bow in the right hand and
a branch of bay in the left. 30 belongs to a somewhat more
advanced stage of art. If not, as some have thought, copied
from a work of Phidias himself, it certainly proceeds from
his school. We can still trace the influence of athletic
sculpture in the powerfully built frame, but there is more
naturalism than in No. 20. It is unfortunately not clear
that the head, which has been reset, belonged to the statue,
vii] THE CAPITOL 123
but at any rate the traces of flowing locks upon the shoulders
and the quiver on the support prove that this is no human
figure, but Apollo. The surface has suffered much from
modern polishing.
We now turn to the Amazons. Pliny tells a story that
four sculptors of the fifth century — Phidias, Polyclitus,
Cresilas, and Phradmon— executed statues of Amazons in
competition for the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, and that
Polyclitus was adjudged the winner by the votes of the
artists themselves. The anecdote is hardly worthy of
credence ; but there were doubtless such statues at Ephesus,
where (according to the local legend) the Amazons had
taken sanctuary when pursued by Heracles and Dionysus.
Three of these Amazons have been identified with some
approach to certainty. That of Phidias is represented by
No. 4 in the room of the Gladiator, which will be described
presently ; that of Polyclitus by a statue in the Braccio
Nuovo (p. 327). This latter has a wound in her R. breast ;
but her attitude — she is resting her weight on the R. foot,
and raising her R. arm very much in the pose of the Apollo
in this room (No. 7) — would tend to increase the pain of her
wound. The type represented by No. 19 and (better still)
by No. 33 (which retains its original head) almost seems
like a criticism in marble on the work of Polyclitus. The
Amazon rests her weight not on the R. but on the L. foot,
and with her L. hand (if rightly restored) draws her tunic
away from the wounds in her R. side, while with her R. hand
— as is shown by the design on an ancient gem copied from
this type — she grasps and leans upon her spear. In the
expression of the face, too, there is a marked advance on
the Polyclitan type, and when we compare the portrait of
Pericles (cf. p. 281) we recognise the work of the Attic
iculptor Cresilas. The name Sosicles, engraved on the
support of the L. leg, is that of the copyist. Let us now turn
to (34) an imposing figure of the matronly goddess Hera,1
which should be compared with the colossal statue in the
Vatican Rotunda (p. 278). The style of the drapery and
1 Or perhaps Demeter (Ceres).
124 THE CAPITOL [vn.
the quiet dignity of the figure enable us to date the original
in the latter half of the fifth century and ascribe it
to the Attic school, perhaps to Alcamenes, a pupil of
Phidias.
We come next to fourth =century art, and notice two
more types of Apollo, which clearly illustrate the difference
in spirit between this period and that of the early fifth
century. Upon No. 7 has been placed a head belonging to
an earlier type, represented by the very similar, but un-
draped, figure in the room of the dying Gaul. The pose of
the R. arm is similar to that of the wounded Amazon of
Polyclitus, but this is the only survival of fifth-century
tradition. Apollo is about to awaken by his touch the music
of the lyre upon which his L. hand rests, but for the moment
he is meditating on the song he is to utter. The forms are
no longer those of the trained athlete, but full and delicately
modelled. The drapery which enwraps the lower limbs is
an addition by the artist, who modified the type above-
mentioned ; the original creation was due to the school of
Praxiteles. Another Apollo (31) illustrates the search for
new poses, in which Praxiteles led the way, and may also
be set down to the credit of his school, if not of the master
himself. And in 21 we have an example of a motive which
— though common in painting, as the vases show — was
introduced into sculpture in the fourth century. It is hard
to say whether the youth who raises his R. hand while his
L. rests upon the leg, which is supported on a rock, is but a
mortal athlete or Hermes the Orator, who seems to have
been represented in this pose. In any case the work seems
to be copied from an original of Lysippus or his school.
Lastly, No. 12 is a fourth-century athlete type, hard to
assign to any school. It may be copied from a work of the
Corinthian Euphranor.
Amongst the types which date from the Hellenistic period
the most interesting is the old woman (22), a figure which
was once thought to represent the nurse of the Niobids
(cf. p. 324). It clearly, however, belongs to a much later
date, and in its repulsive realism recalls the drunken old
vii. J THE CAPITOL 125
woman in the gallery (p. 109). Clearly it once formed part
of a group, the action of which must have accounted for
the terror expressed in the attitude (the head is modern).
28 is interesting as an example of the new ideal of divinity
created by Alexandrian artists to embody the conceptions
of Graeco-Egyptian religion. It represents Harpocrates,
or " the child Horus,'' son of Isis and Osiris, and the
childish gesture which the Greeks noticed in Egyptian
statues of Horus was understood to betoken silence. Thus
Harpocrates became the God of Silence. The statue was
found in the Villa of Hadrian, for whom Egyptian cults
had a powerful attraction. No. 6 is a replica of the Satyr
in the next room, to be described presently.
The Roman period is represented by two colossal busts
— of Trajan (9) and Antoninus Pius (25) — which are prob-
ably modern, and some portrait statues. 14 (sometimes
called "' Marius" , is a very moderate piece of work of the
late Republican period, chiefly interesting as showing the
fashion of wearing the toga ; 10 is a nude figure derived
from a fifth-century athletic type, upon which a head of
Augustus has been set. 13 is Hadrian, with the attributes of
Mars, 15 a Roman lady to whom a portrait-head of the
second century has been assigned by the restorer ; 32 Marcus
Aurelius. The poorest, but most interesting, of these
Roman works is 34, which represents a man and woman
with the attributes of Venus and Mars — the progenitors of
the Julian house. The artist has conbined in this group
two types differing in style and date. The " Mars :: is
modelled on a fifth-century Ares of the Attic school, the
'■ Venus :: is taken from the " Aphrodite holding a shield,"
whose history can be traced through a long succession of
variants, the most famous of which is the " Venus of
Milo': in the Louvre. No better example could be found
of the unintelligent adaptation of Greek types in the work-
shops of the Empire. Notice finally the curious statue of
a hunter 271 with the traits of a Roman of the Antonine
period, holding a hare (mostly restored) in his uplifted R.
hand. The sculptor has used and modified an early
120 THE CAPITOL [vn.
athletic type to represent the patron of the freedman
Polytimus, whose name is inscribed on the plinth.
High up on the walls are a number of busts and heads
placed on brackets, which are difficult to study. Perhaps
the most interesting are 38, which seems to belong to the
time of Gallienus (cf. p. 115), and resembles a portrait in the
Braccio Nuovo (p. 326), 39, recalling Philip the Arabian
(cf. p. 329), and 66, which has been thought to represent
Diocletian, and is in any case a rare and interesting ex-
ample of the portraiture of the late third century A.D.
We now pass into the Room of the Faun, which takes
its name from the statue in red marble {Rosso antico) which
stands in the centre of the room. This was found in
Hadrian's villa, in another part of which the replica, also
in Rosso antico, now in the Vatican (p. 299), came to light.
The use of a costly material and the elaborate and finicking
treatment of detail remind us of the Centaurs in the Salone,
and we are tempted to ascribe the red Satyrs to the same
group of copyists. More than this, the original, which was
certainly of the Hellenistic age, may well have been a work
of the school which produced the Centaurs. The R. hand
has been rightly restored with a bunch of grapes which the
Satyr is holding up in delight, while with his L. he clasps an
armful of grapes and pomegranates. The pose of the statue
is traceable to Lysippus, but the realistic conception and
treatment of the Satyr as a peasant type belongs to a much
later time.
The Satyr stands on a base in which have been inserted
four slabs belonging to an altar dedicated, as the inscrip-
tion within the laurel-wreath on the back tells us, to
"Jupiter the Best and Greatest, the Sun, Serapis," by a
certain Scipio Orfitus. From the titles which he bears it is
certain that he was a personage who lived at the close of
the third century A.D. — the last member known to us of a
family distinguished throughout the history of the Empire ;
but it is equally certain that the altar is much earlier in date
than his time. Probably it was executed to the order of
one of the earlier Scipios in the first century A.D. Notice
 vii. I THE CAPITOL 127
the remarkable relief on the side facing the window— an
armed figure riding upon a bull and holding an olive-branch
and cornucopia, who approaches a reclining earth-goddess ;
in the background is a fortified precinct within which are
cypress trees. The rider must represent one of the Syrian
baalim or sun-gods, and the altar bears testimony to the
early introduction of such worships into Imperial Rome. On
either side of the room are characteristic sarcophagi repre-
senting (3)Selene visiting Endymion,(i8) a battle of Greeks
and Amazons. Upon these are placed heads, amongst
which we may note (6) a female head, probably intended for
Isis ; the back was veiled, and some ornament, such as a
lotus-flower, was inserted in front ; also two heads of
Dionysius (19 and 21), the latter very graceful and feminine,
and hence often miscalled Ariadne. In the far right-hand
corner is a statuette of a boy strangling a goose, which
reproduces a famous work of the early Hellenistic period
by Boethus of Chalcedon— perhaps the earliest masterpiece
of true genre in sculpture. The same spirit breathes in
(8) the child playing with the mask of Silenus. Close to
the entrance-door are three altars— to Neptune, Calm, and
the Winds— found at Antium (Porto d'Anzo) ; on the first of
these is a colossal head of Heracles, belonging to the
gigantic type of the hero created towards the end of
the fourth century B.C. There are some Roman busts in this
room, chiefly of the second century : one (2) is of the third,
and has the name of the subject— Cethegus— inscribed
upon it. It illustrates the late fashion of wearing the toga
with carefully laid folds across the breast (contabulatio).
On the wall opposite the entrance will be seen a bronze

tablet once famous under ' the name of " Lex Regia,:' to
which Cola di Rienzo appealed in vindication of the rights
of the Roman people. Modern criticism has shown that it
s a fragment of the Act formally passed on the accession
of Vespasian in a.d. 69 (as on that of each emperor in turn),
onferring upon him the various rights, offices, and privileges
which made up the Imperial prerogative. It is couched in
the form proper to a decree of the Senate, but was doubtless
 128 THE CAPITOL [vn.
submitted for ratification to the nominally sovereign people ;
and the several clauses are interesting as showing how
additions were made from time to time to the prerogatives
of the emperor. On the opposite wall are reliefs and in-
scriptions, some of which belong to tombstones of the
Equitesy Singulares — a force of Imperial household
cavalry.
We now pass into the Room of the Dying Gaul, which
contains the statues removed to Paris by Napoleon I and
restored after his fall. It takes its name from the figure in
the centre of the room, so famous under the name of the
" Dying Gladiator." This statue once belonged to the
Ludovisi, and was probably discovered when their villa was
built on the site of the Park of Sallust (p. 194), together with
that of the Gaul and his wife, which we shall see in the
Museo delle Terme (p. 209). Both are copies — probably
made in Pergamon itself — from figures set up by Attalus I
(B.C. 241-197) on the citadel of Pergamon to celebrate his
victories over the Gallic tribes who had established them-
selves in Asia Minor and, whether as mercenaries or as
raiders, harried their neighbours on all sides. The Celtic
type, with its coarse, mane-like hair and unshaven upper
lip, is clearly indicated ; and the twisted golden collar
{torques) was, as we know, regularly worn by the Gauls. It
has been thought that the warrior has inflicted the fatal
wound with his own hand in order to escape captivity, but
a self-inflicted wound would not be on the R. side. He has
broken the horn which lies beside him, and is gradually
sinking in his death-agony upon his shield, a lonely and
pathetic figure which, in spite of all the uncouthness of the
barbaric form, cannot fail to arouse our sympathy.
No. 2, a majestic female divinity, probably Persephone,
seems to be a work of the later Pergamene school : a small
but characteristic detail is the indication of creases in the
drapery. This school (which flourished in the second
century B.C.) was eclectic in its method ; and so we find
that the head of the goddess is inspired by earlier Attic
types. Next to this is (3) a colossal head in which we re-
vii.) THE CAPITOL
-e a highly idealised portrait of Alexander the
Great. In the hair are -even holes for the insertion of
golden rays which marked Alexander as the Sun-God.
4 is another member of the group of Amazons mentioned
on p. 123 ; but she is un wounded, and the most probable
explanation of the pose is that she was planting her spear
firmly on the ground in order to use it as a leaping pole to
mount her horse. The spear (or pole) is shown in an ancient
gem. We are told that the Amazon of Phidias was "'lean-
ing on her spear/1 and as those of Polyclitus and Cresilas
are accounted for, it is natural to seek that of the Attic
master in this statue : unfortunately neither this nor any
replica (such as that in the Vatican, p. 291 possesses its
original head. Beside it we see (5) a fine head of Dionysus,
which, like Xo. 21, in the Room of the Faun, has been
wrongly supposed to be female and called Ariadne. The
dreamy, effeminate face embodies an ideal of the god
created by the school of Praxiteles and gradually perfected
in the Hellenistic period, to which this head bel
6 is a curious figure of no great artistic merit found in
Hadrian's Villa, together with the colossal head of Isis now
in the Museo Chiaramonti (p. 314), and seems to represent
a priestess of that goddess carrying water for the purifica-
tion connected with her worship. 7 has been mentioned
in connection with the similar Apollo in the Salone. 8 is
a very fine portrait of a Greek philosopher — possibly
even an original. It has been called by the name of Zeno,
the founder of the Stoic school, for no better reason than the
fact (which is itself doubtful that it was found in a villa be-
lieved tohave been the residence of the Antonine Emperors.
It bears no resemblance, however, to the bust at Naples in-
scribed with the name of Zeno — if that be indeed the Stoic
and not a later Epicurean. The statue is a masterpiece, not
so much because of its realism — although the artist has
spared no detail, however unsightly, which he saw in his
subject — but by reason of its intimate grasp and convincing
revelation of character— of soul expressing itself through
body. 9 is a good example of Hellenistic genre-s mlp-
K
130 THE CAPITOL [vn.

ture — a girl protecting her pet bird from an animal, probably

a cat or dog (the snake is a false restoration). 10 is the
famous Marble Faun, a good copy of the " Resting Satyr "
of Praxiteles, which was one of the most characteristic
creations of his genius. Notice firstly the pose, the charm
of which rests in the rhythm of its curve. This was the
invention of Praxiteles and became almost a mannerism in
his hands. Then observe the modelling; of the bodily forms,
so different from that of the athletes of the fifth century with
their sharply outlined muscles. It is here that the copies
fail us most of all. Some will remember a torso in the
Louvre belonging to a replica of this type, and so immeasur-
ably superior to the other copies in the exquisite modelling
of its surface that it has been thought to be the original.
Lastly, consider the spirit of the work. Praxiteles has
transformed the wild, half-bestial creature haunting the
forests into a dreamy, sensuous embodiment of undying
youth, sunk in the rfa>erie induced by the music of his
flute. Only the pointed ears hint at the animal nature of the
Satyr. No. 12 presents a curious problem. It was found in
Hadrian's Villa, and is often supposed to be a portrait of
Antinous (see p. 279). But though the features seem too
individual for a purely ideal type, they are not those of
Antinous. Unfortunately the object once held in the R. hand
is lost, and we cannot be sure that it was the wand of
Hermes, as some think, or a fishing-rod, which might pos-
sibly be an attribute of Narcissus. Probably the statue —
or its original, for the smooth, lifeless work is that of Had-
rian's time— adorned a grave-monument and represented
the dead person in a semi-divine form. 14 is also from
Hadrian's Villa, and is similar to 12 in its execution. It
is often called " Flora," but is merely a genre figure. The
original, as the undercutting of the drapery shows, was of
bronze. 15 represents a priestess of Isis, as the peculiar
fashion in which the dress is fastened shows, and has been
restored accordingly. 16 is a remarkable bust of the
Early Empire. It has been described as a portrait of
Brutus, the murderer of Caesar, a view now generally
vii. 1 THE CAPITOL 131
abandoned, <>i again as a bust of Virgil, from a supposed
resemblance to a mosaic found in N. Africa upon which
the poet is represented. Strong reasons, however, exist
for believing that it represents Agrippa Postumus, the
youngest of Augustus' grandsons, and the "black sheep"
of his family, who was put to death on the accession of
Tiberius.
Leaving the Museo Capitolino, we cross the Piazza and
enter the Palazzo dei Conservatori, in which are pre-
served the bronzes and historical sculpture forming the
nucleus of the municipal collection, together with the most
important works discovered in recent times which have be-
come the property of the municipality.
We enter a courtyard, and notice in the portico to R.
and L. two colossal statues, supposed to represent Julius
Caesar and Augustus. That on the R. of the entrance
may be a portrait of the Dictator, though it certainly is not
a contemporary one ; the other represented an Admiral, as
we see by the ship's beak carved upon its plinth, but the
head has been reset and may not have belonged to the
statue.
Along the L. wall are ranged a series of interesting reliefs
discovered in the Piazza di Pietra, which once adorned the
stylobate of the temple now converted into the Stock
Exchange (p. 182). Whatever this building was, the reliefs
certainly personify the various provinces of the Roman
Empire, and date from the Antonine period. In style and
conception they mark a compromise between the classicism
which was then in fashion and the realistic Roman spirit.
The figures were placed underneath the columns of the
temple, while the trophies (in flat relief) decorated the inter-
columnar spaces. Unfortunately these reliefs were found at
different times, and have been scattered in different collec-
tions— three at Naples, one in the Palazzo Farnese, one in
the Palazzo Odescalchi, one in the Vatican (p. 332), and two
high up in the facade of the Villa Doria Pamfili. Those
which are here preserved, however, suffice to give a good
impression of a branch of art in which Roman sculptors
 1 32 THE CAPITOL [vn.
found much scope for their invention. Some are simply
conventional female figures, clad in Greek costume, whose
attitude indicates, with restraint and dignity, the regret of the
conquered people for their lost freedom : such is the queenly
figure with folded arms interpreted as Germany or Gaul. In
others there is more attempt at characterisation — the short
crisp hair of the figure on the R. betokens an African
province (Mauretania or Numidia) and the drapery knotted
at the waist of another figure suggests an Egyptian fashion.
Others, again, are distinguished by their national arms —
the short battle-axe of the "Ungaria'' — as the modern in-
scription calls it— points to the North, and the cuirass worn
over tunic and trousers is thought to belong to Spain.
Above the figure of Egypt is a colossal head, which with
other fragments (on the R. side of the court) belonged to a
statue found in the Basilica of Constantine (p. 78) and
almost certainly representing the first Christian Emperor.
The head is a fine example of the portraiture of that age
when sculpture had ceased to be naturalistic and become
almost monumental. Probably the head and extremities
only were of marble, the rest of wood plated with gilt
bronze. Opposite the entrance is a statue restored as Rome,
at whose feet is a keystone decorated with a figure in relief
which represents a mourning province, and on either side
are statues of barbarians in dark marble which remind us
of those of the Dacians on the columns of the Arch of
Constantine.
Notice on the R. wall the urn which once contained the
ashes of Agrippina the elder, wife of Germanicus, and was
used in the Middle Ages as a measure for corn.
Turning to the L. we see at the bottom of the staircase
a modern imitation of the Coluinna rostrata, or " column of
the beaks," which was set up in honour of Gaius Duilius,
the first great Roman admiial, who defeated the Carthagin-
ians at Mylac (N. of Sicily) in 260 B.C. Beneath it is an
inscription recording his exploit- — not, however, that which
was engraved in the third century B.C., but a restoration
executed under the Early Empire, when ancient monuments
vii] THE CAPITOL 133
of this sort were refurbished. Beyond this is a statue of
Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, who held the office of
Senator of Rome in the thirteenth century, worthy of notice
as illustrating the difference between ancient and mediaeval
portrait-sculpture. Ascending the staircase we notice on
the L. wall a relief representing M. Curtius leaping into
the chasm in the Forum which bore his name (p. 60). The
clumsy style of the sculpture shows its late date — about the
end of the third century a.d. Upon the back of the slab is
an inscription set up by L. Naevius Surdinus, the praetor
whose name was inscribed upon the tribunal in the Forum ;
and the stone was used at a much later time (possibly after
the great fire of a.d. 285) in restoring the balustrade which
enclosed the Lacus Curtius. It has been suggested that
the relief was then copied from an archaic monument ; but
it may well have been due to the invention of the third-
century sculptor.
Upon the two landings of the staircase and the R. wall of
the corridor at the top are several panels with historical
reliefs of the second century. Three of these (on the first
landing) belonged to a triumphal arch set up in honour of
Marcus Aurelius' victories over the barbarians on the
Danube (a.d. 17 1-5) ; eight others of the same series were
used to decorate the Arch of Constantine (see p. 251). One
of those which we see here represents the Emperor receiving
the submission of barbarians of German type on the field of
battle. The others depict his triumph, celebrated in A. D. 1 76.
In the first we see him in his triumphal car, beside which is
a youthful ideal figure — the military divinity " Honos :; —
approaching the arch which gives access to the Capitol. The
second shows the sacrifice offered in fulfilment of his vow
to Jupiter Optimus Maximus, whose temple is seen in the
background. We know that this temple was hexastyle — i.e.
had six columns in the front — but it is here shown with four
only. This was the last of the four temples erected on
the foundations originally laid by the kings. The first
was burnt in the civil war of Sulla and Marius (83 B.C.), the
second in that of Yitellius and the adherents of Vespasian
134 THE CAPITOL [vil.
(A.D. 69) ; the third — rebuilt by Vespasian — was destroyed
in the great fire which raged in A.D. 81. Domitian was
the builder of that here represented. Though no trace
of its sculptures remains, this and another relief (now lost)
enable us to reconstruct the crowded group of pediment
statues. The three divinities to whom the temple was
dedicated — Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva — were represented
in the centre, with other gods, and the chariots of sun and
moon to L. and R. Beside the moon's car was the forge of
Vulcan, balanced by a similar group on the opposite side.
Reclining figures filled each angle of the pediment. The
formal symmetry of the composition was borrowed from
Greek practice : but the poverty of invention of the Roman
artist is shown in the lack of a dominating idea giving
organic unity to the group, such as we find e.g. in the
Parthenon pediments. Notice the reliefs in the mingling
of real and ideal elements which characterises Roman
historical art. M. Aurelius in his triumphal car is heralded
by a human trumpeter, but beside him walks an idealised
youth thought by some to typify the Genius of the Roman
people, but more probably representing Honos, a divinity
worshipped by the army, and a winged Victory hovers over
his head. The scene of sacrifice is in the main realistic.
Notice the boy acolyte or Camillas with lortg curls, the
flute-player and the attendant girt about the waist who
holds the sacrificial axe ; but behind the Emperor stands an
elderly figure, obviously ideal in type, who seems to repre-
sent the Senate. Compare with this the fourth relief on
this landing, where the head of the Emperor has been re-
stored— wrongly — as M. Aurelius in order to correspond
with the other panels. It should almost certainly be
Hadrian, whose home-coming to Rome (he was in the East
at the time of his at cession) is here symbolised. The
goddess of Rome hands him the globe as the token of
universal dominion, and the ideal figure-- by whom he is
accompanied (as well as by his standard-bearers and lictors)
seem to typify Senate and People. The reliefs in the
corridor and on the upper landing belong to the same style
vii.] THE CAPITOL 135
n[ historical art, and in all probability to the reign of
Hadrian (the head of the Emperor is largely restored in
both). In the first we see Hadrian delivering an oration,
which he reads from a scroll to the assembled people ; in
the second the deification of an Empress is symbolically
represented. A winged female figure — the goddess of
Eternity — is bearing the Empress to the skies from the
funeral pyre, beside which are on the one side her husband,
on the other a youth who personifies the Campus Martius,
where the funeral ceremony took place. The two reliefs
formed at one time part of the decoration of an arch which
formerly spanned the Corso near to S. Lorenzo in Lucina,
and was called the A no di Portogallo because the Portu-
guese Embassy was close by. It was destroyed in 1662,
and we cannot be sure that it was really (or wholly) an
ancient construction. It seems more likely that it had been
decorated with fragments of ancient sculpture found in the
Campus Martius ; and in this case our reliefs may have
come from the spot where the ceremonial cremation of
the emperors of the second century was carried out — the
Ustrinum Antoriiiwrum, as it was called — which was under
or near the modern Monte Citorio. The Empress, then, will
be Sabina, the wife of Hadrian, who died in A D. 136, and the
speech delivered by the Emperor her funeral oration.
The door which faces us as we enter the corridor leads
into the Halls of the Conservators; chiefly notable for their
modern frescoes, but containing also a few ancient busts
and other works. Note in the first room two large marble
vases with reliefs, of the kind produced under the Early
Empire for the decoration of gardens and parks by the
" Neo-Attic " school, already mentioned. .
In the second hall is the famous Bronze Wolf, which
was preserved throughout the Middle Ages in the Lateran,
but presented to the Conservators by Sixtus IV. At some
time in the sixteenth century the twins were added : the
story that they were the work of Guglielmo della Porta is
improbable. We read of a similar statue set up by the
a_'diles of 295 13. c, beside the Ficus Ruminalis, beneath
136 THE CAPITOL [vii.
which, according to legend, Romulus and Remus were
suckled ; but the Capitoline wolf is far too archaic in style
to have been executed at so late a date. Cicero mentions,
however, another wolf, dedicated on the Capitol and struck
by lightning in 65 n.c. Traces of damage which might
have been so caused may be seen on the hind legs of the
animal, and there can be little doubt that the two are to be
identified. This leaves the date of the original an open
question, and the style of the work seems to point to Early
Ionic art of the sixth century B.C. If we could be sure
that the twins were originally represented, we should have
in it the earliest evidence for the legend of the foundation
of Rome.
In one of the halls at the further end of the building are
the fragments of the Fasti Consulares and Fasti trium-
fthales, giving the lists of the consuls of the Republic and
of all the generals who had celebrated a triumph, which
once adorned the walls of the Regia (p. 74).
Turning to the L. at the first opening in the corridor we
enter the three rooms of the " Fasti Moderni," or lists of
Roman magistrates. In these are a number of partrait-
busts, both Greek and Roman. The most interesting is
that in the middle of the L. wall in the first room, which
has the inscription " Anacreon " in Greek characters.
The pose of the head shows that the original was not a
bust, but a statue ; and we possess a copy of this statue,
now in Copenhagen. The poet of love and wine was
represented singing to the lyre (notice the slightly parted
lips) ; and the style of the statue shows it to be a
creation of fifth-century art — one of the earliest of Greek
portraits. The first portrait on the L. is that of a
Roman of the late Republic, who has been identified
without reason as C. Domitius Ahenobarbus, the grand-
father of Nero. In the third room on the L. is a female
portrait wearing a turban decorated with strings of precious
stones. The pupils of the eyes are rendered by deep drill-
holes, once, no doubt, filled with glass or paste. Though
the face is not without expression, it clearly belongs to a
vii. 1 THE CAPITOL 137

period when the naturalism of ancient art was extinct, prob-

ably to the fifth or sixth century A.D. From a comparison
with similar portraits on ivory plaques of that period, it has
been identified either with the Byzantine Empress Ariadne,
wife of Zeno (a.d. 476-91), and afterwards of his successor
Anastasius I (a.d. 491-518), who owed his advancement to
her favour, or else with the Gothic Queen Amalasuntha,
daughter of Theodoric, who assumed the reins of power on

PALAZZO DEI CONSERVATORl

(FIRST FLOOR.)

his death in A.D. 526 as regent for her son Athalaric, and
was afterwards exiled and put to. death by his successor
Theodahad. Note also the bust of a boy wearing a closely
fitting cap, which marks him as a driver in chariot-races
(cf. p. 218), and another of a youth whose features are
clearly of African type thick nose, prominent lips, and
high cheek-bones).
In the second room, on the R., is an altar which illustrates
Augustus' reorganisation of the city of Rome. There was
an ancient worship of the Lares— gods of the land and
138 THE CAPITOL [vn.

house by origin — in the vici or " wards" of the city, which

had fallen into neglect. When Augustus divided Rome
into fourteen regions, he revived this worship, but with a
significant change. The Lares were now called Lares
August^ and there was coupled with them the "Genius" of
the Emperor. The ceremonies of this cult were placed in
charge of the Vicomagistri or " presidents of the ward," and
this petty dignity attracted the members of the city plebs
and confirmed their devotion to the Government. On the
front of our altar — set up by a body of such vicomagistri in
A.D. 2 — we see the sacrifice of a pig to the Lares (compare
the scene on the triumphal relief of M. Aurelius described
above) ; on either side is a Lar, represented as a statue on
its base, bearing a laurel branch, and on the back are the
remains of an oak wreath — the " civic crown " conferred by
the Roman people on Augustus.
Having passed through the three rooms, we come to a
corridor with rooms to R. and L. On the R. is a group in
the style of Pergamene art which represented a combat
between a snake-footed giant and two Satyrs. The first
opening on the R. leads into the Sala degli orti Lamiani
or "Hall of the Park of Lamia." We know that a certain
/Elius Lamia — perhaps the aristocratic friend of Horace
addressed in three of his Odes — had once possessed a park
on the Esquiline adjoining that of Maecenas, in which the
body of Caligula was secretly burnt and buried ; and it has
been supposed that the Villa Palombara, pulled down in
order to build the new streets to the S. of Piazza Vittorio
Emanuele, occupied its site. Important finds of sculpture —
including the famous Massimi discobolus (see p. 219) — have
been made from time to time in this region ; and the
antiques collected in this room at least give a vivid impres-
sion of the crowd of marbles with which the parks of
Roman nobles and emperors were peopled, and also of the
eclectic taste which put works of all periods of art side by
side. By the R. wall, for example, we see (36) the head of
a Centaur which is worthy of comparison with that of the
Centaur in the Capitoline Museum, but may belong to the

;
vii.] THE CAPITOL 139
Pergamene rather than to the Khodian school, and beside
it (42) a bust of Heracles derived from an original of
Scopas, known to us from a fine statue in Lansdowne
House. At the end of the room on this side are two
statues of girls (one wrongly restored as a Muse with a
lyre) which belong to the Praxitelean school — or rather,
perhaps, to that which drew inspiration from his models
and reproduced them with many variations in the early
Hellenistic age. Facing the door is a half-length figure of
the Emperor Commodus, the unworthy son and successor
of M. Aurelius, with the attributes of Hercules — the form
under which he delighted to receive adoration. It is well
worthy of study as one of the finest examples of the new
style in sculpture which dates from the Antonine period
(cf. p. 38) : note the contrast between the highly polished
surface of the face and the deeply drilled hair and beard
with their chiaroscuro of light and shadow. The pedestal
was hidden by kneeling figures of Amazons supporting a
shield, beneath which is a celestial globe. We are reminded
that Commodus bore the name Amazonius, and gave it to
the month of December in the year whose months were
renamed after his titles. Beside the figure are placed two
Tritons, obviously composed as pendants. It is by no
means certain that they were originally grouped with the
statue. In the middle of the hall is a nude female statue
commonly known as the Venus of the Esquiline. The
meaning of the figure is determined by the vase adorned
with a serpent and the box of flowers at its side ; these
indicate that the girl is a priestess or at least a worshipper
of Isis. But the style of the figure, especially of the head,
point to fifth-century Greek art, and the sculptor clearly
belonged to the archaising school of the Late Republic and
Early Empire which harked back to Greek — especially
Peloponnesian — models. The question must still be asked :
What was the significance of the original ? It has been con-
jectured that the subject was mythological : Atalanta was
portrayed in the moment when, after bathing and anointing
herself, she tied up her hair before starting on her famous
i4o THE CAPITOL [vn.
race. It may be, however, that a mortal athlete— like the
girl-racer of the Galleria dei Candelabri (p. 337) — was re-
presented. Apart from the symbols of Isis worship, the
late date of the work is made clear by the naturalistic
modelling of the lower part of the body, which is out of
keeping with the archaic severity of the head and chest.
Of the statues on the L. wall the most interesting are those
which illustrate Hellenistic ^^;^-sculpture — the shep=
herdess carrying a lamb (head restored), the old fisher=
man, and the boy aiming a nut at a pyramid of four nuts
on the ground. Beside the door is the tombstone of the
infant prodigy, Q. Sulpicius Maximus, who, as the inscrip-
tion records, was successful in a competition for extemporisa-
tion in Greek verse founded by Domitian, and died of over-
work at the age of eleven and a half! His poem — -which
deals with the wrath of Zeus against Apollo for lending his
chariot to 1'haethon — is inscribed on the sides of the niche
in which stands the figure of the child, who probably held
his stilus in the hand which has been broken off. This
interesting monument was not found in the " Gardens of
Lamia,1' but had been built into the wall of Aurelian near
the Porta Salara (p. 358).
By the L. wall of the corridor we see a headless statue of
Apollo holding a lyre and wearing the flowing robes of a
citharcedus. The style of the drapery is that of the school
of Phidias. Beyond are two colossal statues of Roman
magistrates, one elderly and one youthful — they may have
been father and son, as they were discovered together —
belonging to the fourth century a.d. and affording an
admirable illustration of the stiff conventional art of that
period, as well as of the costume of the time. Each of
them holds in his uplifted hand the mappa or handker-
chief which was dropped as a signal for the starting of the
chariot races in the circus, and is clad in the full dress
proper to such an occasion— a close-fitting sleeved tunic, a
"dalmatic" or upper tunic with shorter and looser sleeves,
and an embroidered toga ; he also wears the high boots of
the senator. Notice also a female statue of severe fifth-
VII.] THE CAP/TO/. 141
century style reconstructed from many fragments : two
runners about to start in almost identical attitudes, from
bronze originals of the early fourth century Ji.C. ; a relief in
the so-called "Hellenistic" style with landscape and build-
ings, and at the end of the corridor a large sarcophagus
decorated with a representation of the Hunt of the Caly-
donian Boar— a subject often found on sarcophagi, chosen,
perhaps, on account of the early death of Meleager, the
hero of the scene. Note that the faces of the husband and
wife whose figures adorn the lid of the sarcophagus are
only blocked out. The makers of sarcophagi kept numbers
of them in stock, and only executed portraits to order if they
were required.
By the R. wall observe a small slab with a representation
of stage-buildings in relief, and the tombstone of a shoe=
maker, C. Julius Helius. In a niche is the bust of Helius,
a bald-headed, elderly man, portrayed with ruthless realism
— an admirable character sketch of a shrewd, close-fisted
tradesman. Two lasts are carved on the pediment above
the niche. The date is about A.D. 100.
Here we pass into the Garden, which contains statues of
minor importance : notice, however, the group of a lion
devouring a horse by one of the fountains, which stood
in the Capitol Piazza during the Middle Ages (p. 102), and
was admired by Michelangelo. On the far wall of the
garden are arranged the fragments of the Marble Plan of
Rome once attached to the facade of the building now
converted into the church of SS. Cosma e Damiano. Most
of these fragments were discovered in the sixteenth century,
and several have been lost. The remainder, together
with some found in recent years, have been arranged as
far as possible in their proper positions and the main
outlines of the missing portion filled in. The orientation
customary in modern plans is reversed, and the top repre-
sents the south, the scale being about 7,in. The plan in its
present form was engraved under Septimius Severus, as we
see from the inscription Seven ct A/i/o/n'/n' Augg. ?m. (i.e.
Aiigustoram nostroruni] on the fragment which shows the
i42 THE CAPITOL [vn.
Clivus Victoria; but this was only a restoration, made
necessary by the great fire at the close of Commodus' reign,
of the plan originally traced in the reign of Vespasian, who
caused a fresh survey of the city to be made.
From the garden we return through the corridor to the
rooms opening on to it on the further side. The farthest from
the entrance is the Sala degli orti Mecenaziani, or "hall
of the park of Maecenas," which contains the statues found
in that part of the Esquiline where the gardens of Maecenas
(p. 221) are believed to have been situated. In the L. corner
is a colossal head said to have been found between Narni
and Todi, and identified as Maecenas from its likeness to
two ancient gems, signed by the artists Dioscurides and
Solon. One if not both of these seem to be modern ; but
a genuine example was extant in the seventeenth century.
It is, however, a pure conjecture that they represent
Maecenas ; and it has been suspected that this head is a
modern work based on the gem of Dioscurides. Few ancient
heads are in such a perfect state of preservation.
To the R. of the door is a beautiful relief representing
a dancing Maenad, brandishing a knife in her uplifted. R.
hand and half of a fawn in her L. She belongs to a group
of figures which pictured the rout of Bacchus in a series of
flowing curves of the utmost grace. The consummate skill
with which the limbs of the Mienads are shown beneath
the almost transparent drapery was one of the most remark-
able attainments of Attic sculptors in the latter part of the
fifth century B.C. to which the originals belonged. Those
who have visited Athens will recall the wonderful fragments
of the balustrade which enclosed the precinct of Athena
Nike ("Wingless Victory").
By the R. wall is a youthful figure wrongly restored with
a lyre. It should be compared with the Eros of Centocelle
in the Vatican (see p. 289). Passing by a powerfully built
warrior in violent action — probably to be restored as
Heracles with club in the R. hand — we come to a fine
example of the head of that Amazon which we have attri-
buted to Cresilas (see p. 12 3) ; the restraint and severity of
vi!.] THE CAPITOL 143
fifth-century art enhances the pathos of the expression.
The most interesting statue on the opposite side of the
room is that of Marsyas in favonazttetto. The legend
which it illustrates gave imaginative form to the preference
of the Greeks for their national instrument — the lyre — as
compared with the Phrygian flute. Athena, it was said,
invented the flute, but when she saw the reflection of her
distended cheeks as she played it, flung it away and
solemnly cursed it. The Satyr Marsyas picked it up,
mastered its music, and challenged Apollo, the divine lyre-
player, to a contest. The Muses awarded the prize to the
God, who caused Marsyas to be flayed alive. The first
scene in this drama was represented in a famous group by
Myron, to which belonged the Marsyas of the Lateran
(p. 235) ; the Ji/ia/e, which repelled earlier Greek sculptors,
was triumphantly rendered by Hellenistic artists. There
is a group of statues in white marble which represent
Marsyas bound, but without the refinements in the indica-
tion of torture which we here see. The type exemplified
by this figure and others in pavonazzetto — chosen in order
to suggest by its red streaks the congestion of blood in the
veins of the tortured Satyr — belonged to a group completed
by the figures of a slave sharpening his knife on a whet-
stone, of which there is a copy in Florence, and doubtless
also of Apollo. It was the work of one of the later Hellen-
istic schools which carried the study of anatomy to a point
hitherto unattained ; we can see, in fact, that the rendering
of anatomical detail was the chief interest of the sculptor.
We pass through the door to the L. of the Marsyas into
the Room of the Bronzes, which contains the nucleus
of the collection originally formed under Sixtus IV. The
most important of these works had, it seems, been pre-
served in the Papal palace of the Lateran during the
Middle Ages : they are amongst the few ancient statues
which have never been buried in the earth. On the R.
as we enter is a remarkable bronze head, which commonly
bears the name of L. Junius Brutus, the founder of the
Roman Republic, which has been given to it on account of
144 THE CAPITOL (vn.
the resemblance of its profile to that of the head of Brutus
on the coins struck by his great descendant, the murderer
of Caesar. Whether the identification be accepted or not
we certainly have here the portrait of a Roman of the
Republic— not, however, the work of a Roman artist, but
of a Greek, for with all its hardness of feature it has the
touch of idealism which betrays the Hellenic sculptor. It
is not of course a contemporary portrait of Brutus, but it
may have been an ideal representation of the man who
gave Rome political freedom, and set in the execution of
his sons the crowning example of the cardinal virtue of the
Roman — the sacrifice of individual interests and passions for
the good of the State.
On the opposite side of the room, to the L. of the door,
is a graceful statue of a boy clad in a tunic and sandals,
which we might take at first sight for a Greek work, but
which really represents a camillus or acolyte such as we
have seen in attendance at public sacrifices. There is a
singular charm in the simplicity and refinement of the
youthful figure, which should be restored with a bowl in the
R. hand and a pitcher in the L. ; but the face lacks ex-
pression, and the statue reveals itself on examination as the
handiwork of the "classicizing" school of the Late Republic
which looked to fifth-century Greece for inspiration. In the
details, however, the Roman love of accuracy shows itself.
The camilli wore the pratexta, i.e. a white tunic edged with
narrow stripes of purple, and these are represented by an
inlay of silver. Notice, too, the hems of the sleeve-openings
and the patterns on the sandal-straps.
Very different is the beautiful statue of the Boy extract-
ing a thorn from his foot on the opposite side of the door.
It is impossible to see in this work anything but a Greek
original of the middle of the fifth century B.C. The pose
and proportions of the figure show a wonderful observation
of nature ; only in one detail do we notice the deliberate
departure from actuality which the Greeks never shunned
if it seemed to them to be demanded by artistic necessity.
The long, curling hair would of course naturally fall over
vii.] THE CAPITOL 145
the cheeks and hide the childish face, with its intent gaze,
which the artist desired to represent. It is interesting to
note that in a statuette of the Hellenistic age now in the
British Museum which reproduces the motive of our statue
— evidently one of the famous works of ancient art — in a
form modified according to the realistic practice of that
time, the boy has close, curly hair. There is a difficult
question as to the meaning of the statue. The Hellenistic
figure just mentioned is without doubt just such a bit of
genre sculpture as was dear to later Greek art — we have
seen some examples already in the Hall of the Gardens of
Lamia. But pure genre was unknown in the fifth century
B.C. ; and two explanations of the motive alone seem possible.
Either it was mythological ; there was a le ;end, for
example, that Locrus, the ancestor of the Locrians who
lived to the N. of the Corinthian Gulf, had founded his city
on the spot where, as an oracle foretold, he had wounded
his foot with a thorn : or the statue was votive, and had
reference to an incident in the life of the boy represented—
possibly in an athletic contest in which he came off victorious
in spite of the injury.
In the corner of the room is a colossal bronze head, which
has been variously identified. A common view is that
it represents Nero in his youth ; but the only detail which
lends any colour to this is the wavy hair. The stiff pose
and fixed gaze point rather to the Constantinian period.
Perhaps one of the sons of Constantine may be the subject.
On the opposite side of the door leading into the corridor is
a bronze crater at mixing-bowl, chiefly interesting on account
of its inscription, which tells us that it was presented by
Mithridates Eupator — the great king of Pontus who defied
so long and so successfully the armies of Rome and was at
last conquered by Pompey — to an athletic club. The
"Gymnasium" named in the inscription may perhaps have
been at Athens, which was taken and sacked by Sulla in
86 B.C.
Notice, too, the fragmentary figures of a bull and a horse,
this latter a fine piece of Greek work ; also a couch and
L
146 THE CAPITOL [vn.
litter, restored (in part wrongly) with a modern wooden
framework upon which the ancient fragments of bronze,
inlaid with copper and silver, have been fastened.
The next room contains a collection of vases, terra-cottas,
and bronze objects which illustrate the importation of Greek
fabrics into Italy and their imitation by the Etruscans.
From this we pass back to the corridor. To the R. are door-
ways leading to rooms in one of which is preserved a
tensa^ or ceremonial chariot in which the images of gods
were carried in the solemn possession which took place
before the celebration of the games in the circus. The
ancient bronze plates decorated with scenes from the story
of Achilles, together with others of Dionysiac import. The
plaques were pressed in moulds, and the same scene is
repeated many times. The wooden framework is modern.
Next is a room whose floor is partly made of blocks belonging
to the enclosing wall of the Area Ciipi'to/ina, or platform
upon which the temple of Jupiter stood (p. 101). Besides
architectural fragments, the room contains two Sarcophagi
containing skeletons, found in digging the foundations of
the new Law Courts in the Prati di Castello. They were
those of a certain Gaius Crepereius Euhodus, and of a girl,
Crepereia Tryphama, perhaps his daughter. The skeleton
of this latter is adorned with a golden wreath and other
jewellery, such as a ring inscribed with the name Filetus.
With her was buried a doll, also wearing a ring. The style
in which the hair of this doll is dressed and the lettering of
the inscriptions show that Crepereia lived in the second
century a.d. On the L. wall of the entrance to this room
is a curious fragment of fresco painting found in a tomb on
the Esquiline. The scenes are arranged in narrow bands,
and seen to illustrate episodes in the Samnite wars. We see
a parley held between two generals outside the walls of
a besieged city, another meeting between two commanders
with their armies and a battle scene. It has been thought
that these may be copied from, or at least reproduce the
style of, the wall paintings of Fabius Pictor, one of the earliest
of Roman artists, in the temple of Salus built in 302 B.C.
vii. 1 THE CAPITOL 147
The last room to the R. contains Archaic sculptures
which are interesting to those who would study the develop-
ment of early Greek sculpture. The finest of these works
is the young charioteer copied from a bronze group set up
at Olympia or Delphi to commemorate a victory in the
chariot-race, and dating from the period just after the
Persian wars. Notice the long robe worn by Greek drivers.
Early female statues, with their elaborate yet conventional
drapery, are exemplified in the torsos on the R. near the
window, and the figure of Nike (Victory) to the L. There
are also grave-reliefs of the archaic period (notably one
which represents a girl holding a dove) and a kneeling
figure interpreted as that of an Amazon stringing her bow.
On the R. is an interesting statuette belonging to the middle
of the fifth century : a woman is represented in flight
carrying a child on each arm (one lost). This was Leto
with her children Apollo and Artemis, flying from the
Python. The original was dedicated in the temple of
Artemis at Ephesus. Notice also the colossal foot by the
window, wearing a sandal decorated with Tritons and
Erotes.
We now return to the staircase and ascend to the upper
floor, noticing on the R. a curious relief dedicated to the
Palmyrene divmities Aglibolos and Malachbelos, dated
by its inscription to the year 235-6 A.D. They are repre-
sented as youths clasping hands, the one arrayed in Greek
armour, the other wearing Oriental costume. In the back-
ground is the sacred cypress which we saw on the Altar of
the Sun in the Capitoline Museum.
In a niche to L. on the upper landing is a fine female
figure restored as " Roma." The head was that of an
early Athena ; but it does not belong to the body, which is
shown by a comparison with better preserved copies to
have represented Persephone, holding poppies and ears of
corn in her R. hand and a torch in her L. The relief with
the apotheosis of Sabina has already been described.
There are also two mosaics in coloured marble slabs (called
by the Romans opus sectile) which represent oxen torn by
148 THE CAPITOL [vn.
beasts of prey. These are by far the most important
examples of this kind of work preserved to us from antiquity.
They belonged to the basilica, or public hall, built on the
Esquiline (near S. Maria Maggiore) by Junius Bassus,1
consul in a.d. 317, and afterwards converted into a church
of S. Andrew.
From this landing we enter the Upper Corridor, near
the entrance of which are several mosaics. The most
interesting (though not for aesthetic reasons) is one with the
curious symbol of an eye pierced by a spear and surrounded
by beasts and birds. The inscription shows that it belonged
to the entrance of a building on the Caelian called the
Basilica Hilariana, which was probably a chapel dedicated
to some mystical cult. From such private chapels the
name basilica passed into its Christian use.
In the remainder of the corridor are cases containing terra-
cottas, etc. (on the L.) and bronzes on the R. Amongst
the former are several of the plaques with designs repeated
from moulds which we shall see in other museums used as
architectural decorations — eg. for the cornices of walls —
especially at the close of the Republican period (see p. 179).
In the case beyond the second door on the L. are modelled
and painted terra-cottas of early date used for decorating
the pediments and gutters of temples. The Romans learnt
the use of these from the Etruscans (cf. p. 353), and one of
these — in the form of a female head — which was found in
the cloister of S. Maria in Araceli, must have belonged to
one of the earliest temples on the Capitol. Amongst the
statuettes in the next case will be noticed a small alabaster
bust with a female head of coloured glass (flesh pink,
painted yellow, hair black) with eyes inserted in silver.
Further on are fragments of a pediment group in terra-
cotta, perhaps of the second century B.C. Amongst the
bronzes on the R. notice a statuette of a Lar, like those
represented on the altar described above (p. 137). In the
further case are objects from the early cemeteries on the
heights of the Quirinal and Esquiline ; and at the end of
1 {lis sarcophagus may be seen in the crypt of St. Peter's.
VII.] THE CAPITOL 149
the corridor is a colossal statue of Heracles in gilt
bronze, which was found in the Korum Boarium in the
fifteenth century, when the remains of the Ara Maxima
were destroyed. In his R. hand he holds the apples of the
Hesperides ; the club in the L. rested on a support, pro-
bably a mass of rock. The workmanship is poor and of
relatively late date, but the type is no doubt derived from
the school of Lysippus. [For the picture-gallery in the
rooms to the L. see Christian Rome, p. 345.]
On leaving the museum, we may either ascend by the
steps on the R. which lead through a sixteenth-century
portico to the Via di Monte Tarpeo, in which is the German
Archaeological Institute (R.) and (l) the Casa Tarpea, from
the garden of which there is a view of the sheer cliff which
has been identified with the Tarpean rock whence criminals
were hurled ; or we may take the narrow street leading
downwards to the Forum, in which is the entrance to the
Tabularium or Public Record Office mentioned on p. 47.
We pass through a flat arch, the space under which may
have been used as a sentry-box by the guard of the Capitol.
Turning to the R. we find ourselves in the long gallery
which overlooked the Forum. All the arches save one of
the Doric arcade are now blocked, and the gallery is used
as a museum for architectural fragments from the temples
below it. The most remarkable of these are (at the further
end) the cornice of the temple of Concord, with its charac-
teristic wealth of ornament, almost every member being
enriched with foliage, egg-and-dart mouldings, and other
decorative motives, and the cornice and frieze of the
temple of Vespasian, which is even more ornate. Notice
the ox-skulls, sacrificial emblems (jug, bowl, axe, knife, and
sprinkler), and priest's cap with apex (p. 217) and cheek-
straps carved in relief on this frieze. The eleven bays of
the gallery were roofed with concrete vaulting, and some
of them opened on to small square chambers at the back.
Originally, no doubt, the gallery was open at both ends and
formed a covered way for foot-passengers ; but the north-
eastern end was blocked when the mediaeval tower was
150 THE CAPITOL [vii.
built at that corner. At the back of the gallery was a mas-
sive substructure in which were vaulted chambers. The
modern staircase at the N.E. end of the gallery leads
(through an aperture in the wall) into one of these chambers,
from which a staircase led down to a lower passage running
beneath the gallery, with deep embrasures and windows
overlooking the Forum, except at the north-eastern end,
where they would have been blocked by the older Temple
of Concord. The modern staircase leads up to the tower
of the Palazzo del Senatore which commands the view of
Rome mentioned on p. 5. It is not clear how the upper
part of the ancient Tabularium was planned. Above the
gallery was an upper story with an order of Corinthian
columns. Some fragments of these may be seen in front
of the Portico of the Twelve Gods (p. 49). At the back
there was no doubt a court which opened on to the space
which is now the Piazza del Campidoglio. This was ap-
proached directly from the Forum by a staircase of which
sixty-six steps are still in existence. The doorway was
blocked by the erection of the Temple of Vespasian.
There was also a series of rooms — probably two stories —
which opened on the road leading up to the Arx on the
N.E. (now the Via dell' Arco di Settimio Severo). In one
of these chambers, engraved on the flat arch of a doorway,
are the remains of the inscription which gives the name
of the builder of the Tabularium — Q. Lutatius Catulus,
consul in 78 B.C. and leader of the Senatorial party after
the death of Sulla. The building is the finest extant monu-
ment of Republican architecture. The facade, which must
be studied from the Forum, is notable for its regular masonry
in "headers" and "stretchers"; the interior is an early
example of concrete vaulting, and also illustrates the care
with which Roman builders selected their materials accord-
ing to their destined position and function — e.g. tufa for the
inner walls, travertine for arches, staircases, etc.
 VIII

THE IMPERIAL FORA

Vr I ^HE increase of population and business in ancient

\_ Rome made the Forum Romanum too small for the
needs which it served. New law-courts, exchanges, and
public halls became a necessity, and Julius Caesar, when he
rebuilt the Senate-house and changed the aspect of the
northern end of the Forum, planned a new place of public
resort which adjoined it on the N.W. and henceforth
bore the name of Forum Julium. The design was that of
a piazza surrounded by colonnades and offices, and contain-
ing a temple — that of Venus Genetrix ("the mother ") from
whom he traced descent through .Tineas. Other emperors
— Augustus, Vespasian, Domitian. Nerva, and finally Trajan,
followed his example, and thus the whole of the region to
the N. and N.W. of the Forum was turned to public uses
and covered with monumental buildings and temples,
the extant remains of which can give us but a poor idea
of their departed magnificence.]
From the church of SS. Martina e Luca an unsavoury
thoroughfare (partly in course of destruction; leads to Piazza
del Foro Trajano, and in an alley to the R. (the Via delle
Marmorelle) are to be seen (in the court of No. 29) the
remains of massive double arches mainly of tufa (with
springers and keystones of travertine) which gave access to
the chambers and offices enclosing the Forum of Julius
Caesar. Of the magnificent temple of Venus Genetrix in
the centre of the Forum not a trace now remains, but
fragments of the Corinthian columns and frieze were dis-
152 THE IMPERIAL FORA [vm.
covered in the sixteenth century. It was vowed by the
Dictator on the battlefield of Pharsalus and dedicated after
his triumph in 46 B.C. In front of the temple stood an
equestrian statue of Caesar and a fountain with statues of
nymphs.
Augustus built a third Forum to the N. of that of Julius,
and with its longer axis perpendicular thereto. If we
follow the Via Bonella, which, as explained above, passes
between the Senate-house and the offices appertaining to
it, and cross the Via Alessandrina, we shall come to the
only portion of this Forum which is preserved. On the
L. are the three columns and architrave which alone remain
of the peristyle of the splendid temple of Mars Ultor,
vowed by Augustus on the battlefield of Philippi and
dedicated in 2 B.C. The walls of the temple were of
peperino with marble lining.
This temple of Mars gave to the Forum of Augustus its
distinctive note. In it were deposited the eagles and
standards recovered from the Parthians in 20 B c, and
ceremonies such as the leave-taking of generals and the
granting of Imperial triumphs took place there. Its vaults
contained the acrarium militate or military treasury. The
Forum itself was to be the "national Valhalla" in which
the heroes of Rome's victorious struggles were to find a
place. On either side of the temple the enclosing wall of
the Forum expanded into a great apse with niches in which
were placed bronze statues of all the Generals of the
Republic who had celebrated a triumph, with inscriptions
(called elogia) giving the details of their career. The
statues are irretrievably lost, but many of the inscriptions
have been recovered in whole or part. The northern half
of the easternmost apse, with its empty niches, towers on
the R. of the Via Bonella, and twenty feet below the street
level is the ancient pavement of the Forum, which became
a swamp in the course of the Middle Ages, so that the new
streets built in the sixteenth century had to be raised on
high foundations. Tiberius erected triumphal arches on
either side of the temple of Mars in honour of Drusus and
154 THE IMPERIAL FOR A [vm.
Germanicus, but no trace of them remains. At the end of
the Via Bonella we pass through the Arco dei Pantani or
"Arch of the Swamps," greatly reduced in height by the
rise in the street level, and find ourselves in the Via di Tor
dei Conti. The first thing that we notice is the irregular
outline of the wall enclosing the Forum which we have
just left : the arch itself is placed obliquely to the axis of
the Forum. The reason of this is that Augustus, with his
unfailing tact and conciliatory disposition, refused to resort
to compulsory expropriation in order to acquire the site for
his Forum, which was densely populated, and preferred to
submit to a want of symmetry in its outline. The wall
itself is a magnificent specimen of early Imperial masonry.
It is built with two varieties of volcanic stone— the lower
part of the hard sperone from Gabii, the upper of the
cheaper and less durable peperino from the Alban hills. At
intervals of fifteen courses there is a projecting course of
travertine, which is also used for the voussoirs of the Arco
dei Pantani. The original height of the wall was no feet,
of which 86 are now above ground.
[In a.d. 71 Vespasian built a Temple of Peace to cele-
brate the conclusion of the Jewish war, and the enclosed
piazza in which the temple stood came to be known as the
Forum of Peace. It lay to the N.E. of the Forum Roma-
num, and all that can be seen of it is the small space which has
been cleared at the back of SS. Cosma e Damiano (cf. p. 78).
The Temple and Forum of Peace became a veritable
museum of works of art, both statuary and painting, ruth-
lessly plundered by Nero to adorn his Golden House, and
thence transferred by Vespasian to a spot where they could
be enjoyed by the people of Rome.]
Between the Forum of Augustus and that of Vespasian
ran the main thoroughfare connecting the Forum Romanum
with the eastern heights. This passed between the Senate-
house and the Basilica .Emilia, and was known at first as the
Argiletum ; it led into the crowded and busy quarter of the
Subura. Here Domitian planned — though he did not live
to> complete — a Forum, which, like those of his predecessors,
viii.] THE IMPERIAL FOR A 155
contained a sumptuous temple. This was dedicated to
Minerva, a goddess whose worship was especially dear to
Domitian, a man of literary tastes. It stood at the northern
end of his Forum, which was long and narrow, and has
almost completely disappeared. If, however, we turn to
the R. from the Via di Tor dei Conti into the Via di Croce
bianca, we shall see at the intersection of this street with the
Via Alessandrina a fragment of the eastern enclosing
wall of the Forum with two columns {Le Colonnacce)
belonging to the colonade, half buried in the ground. The
cornice and attic of the wall project and are returned
round these columns. On the attic is a figure of Minerva in
relief, and the frieze is decorated with scenes representing
the arts of peace — spinning, weaving, etc. — over which the
goddess presided. This Forum — often called the Forum
Transitorium — was completed and dedicated after the
death of Domitian by Nerva, whose name it commonly
bears.
[The depression to the N. of the Forum Romanum was
now filled with public buildings : but Trajan was deter-
mined to leave an enduring memorial of his reign and of his
victories, and commissioned the architect Apollodorus
of Damascus to design a Forum far surpassing in extent
and magnificence those already in existence. In order to
obtain a site for it the saddle which connected the S.W.
spur of the Quirinal with the Capitoline hill was cut away
and an artificial valley formed and levelled. The design
of the Forum differed from the type erected by Julius
Caesar in that there was no temple in the principal enclosure.
This was a great square enclosed by colonnades, with
hemicycles projecting to X. and S. It was entered on the
side towards the Forum of Augustus by a magnificent
triumphal arch, represented on the coins of Trajan, and an
equestrian statue of the Emperor stood in the centre. The
opposite side was flanked by the Basilica Ulpia, a long
rectangular hall with apses at either end and two aisles
(with a gallery above) on either side. Beyond the basilica
was a rectangular court, in the centre of which stood the
156 THE IMPERIAL FOR A [vm.
spiral column supporting a statue of Trajan ; to the N. and
S. were libraries of Greek and Latin literature.]
From the remains of the Forum of Nerva we turn to the
L. along the Via Alessandrina. The first turning to the
R. is the Via di Campo Carleo. Here, in the court of No. 6,
are to be seen remains of the northern hemicycle of the
Forum — a row of chambers or shops opening on to a road
paved in the usual manner with blocks of lava. An upper
story and traces of a third are preserved. The facade is
of concrete faced with neat brickwork, which was of course
stuccoed. Some parts (door-frames, capitals of pilasters,
etc.) were of travertine.
This is all that can be seen of the Forum proper. We go
on to the Piazza del Foro Trajano, across which run four
rows of broken shafts of grey granite, marking the position
of the columns which divided the Basilica Ulpia into a nave
and four aisles. Only the central portion is excavated. The
longeraxiswas perpendiculartothatof the modern piazza. The
shafts do not belong to the bases upon which they have been
placed, but (possibly) to the colonnade of the Forum. Beyond
the remains of the Basilica rises the Column of Trajan,
now crowned by a statue of St. Peter set up by Sixtus V in
1587. The shaft, base, and capital measure 100 Roman feet
in height, and the column was therefore called columna
ccntenaria ; it also bore the name columna cochlis from the
resemblance of its spiral to the shell of a snail. In the
pedestal was a chamber wherein the ashes of Trajan —
who died in Cilicia in a.d. 117 — were deposited by Hadrian
in a golden urn. The entrance by a door in the E. side
of the pedestal was reopened by Comm. Boni in 1906, and
the chamber made accessible. It had, of course, been
thoroughly rifled in the Dark Ages. The pedestal is deco-
rated with trophies and supports the base of the column,
carved with leaves of laurel in the form of a wreath. The
shaft is composed of twenty-three blocks of Parian marble ;
it is hollow and contains a spiral staircase of 185 steps, lit
by forty-three narrow windows ; by this we may ascend to
the platform formed by the Doric capital of the column.
viii.] THE IMPERIAL FOR A 157
The significance of this monument has lately been the
subject of controversy. The inscription over the doorway
in the pedestal records the erection of the column by the
Senate and people of Rome in the year a.i>. 1 13, and adds
the words "ad declarandum quantae altitudinis nions et
locus tantis operibus sit egestus." The prima facie meaning
would seem to be that the column indicated by its height
that of the mountain of earth which had been removed in
order to clear the site for Trajan's buildings, and the words
were undoubtedly taken in this sense by the historian Cassius
Dio, who wrote but one hundred years later than the erection
of the column. There is, however, great difficulty in suppos-
ing that the saddle connecting the Quirinal with the Capitol
approached 100 feet in height. Moreover, Comm. Boni's
excavations in the near neighbourhood of the column
brought to light an ancient road and other remains which
had been in existence before the column was set up. He
therefore proposed a new version of the inscription, taking
the word " egestus " in the sense not of " cleared," but of
"raised," supposing that the 100 feet measured, not the
height of the hill which was removed, but that of the build-
ings afterwards erected on the site. Other less satisfactory
explanations of the crucial words have been offered, in order
to evade the difficulty as to the levels.
We have next to consider the spiral band of reliefs, on an
average rather more than 3 feet in width, by which the
column is adorned. It is of course impossible to appreciate
them fully in their present position, and even in antiquit) ,
when the column was surrounded by a gallery in two stories,
the details must have been difficult to study ; yet even the
most minute are often full of meaning. So far as we know
this was the first example of a column so decorated ; and
we cannot set a high aesthetic value upon the conception,
which not only sets decoration above function, but reduces
what should be pregnant with meaning to the level of orna-
ment :for the number of those who will read the story told
by the reliefs must always be few. They are, of course,
most conveniently studied in a set of casts, such as those
158 THE IMPERIAL FORA [vm.
preserved in the South Kensington Museum (or, in Rome
itself, in the Museum of the Lateran). However, with the
aid of a pair of field-glasses, the most striking episodes may
be seen from the piazza.
The Dacians were a people who lived in the modern
Transsylvania and also to the S. of the Carpathians in
Wallachia and part of Roumania. We hear of them as a
powerful and warlike nation in the reign of Augustus ; but
it was not until the time of the Flavian emperors that
that they became a serious menace to the security of the
Danube frontier. Domitian waged war with them unsuccess-
fully, and it was imperatively necessary for Trajan to retrieve
the prestige of Rome and settle accounts with Decebalus,
the king of Dacia, who had succeeded in establishing a
great military power. He had, for example, enticed Roman
engineers into his service and formed a park of artillery on
the Roman model ; he had also sought allies amongst the
neighbouring peoples, such as the Sarmatians of S. Russia
(ancestors of the modern Slavs) who furnished him with a
force of heavy cavalry clad in chain -mail. Even before he
visited Rome for the first time as Emperor, Trajan had begun
the construction of a military highway from the Rhine to
the Danube, and in a.d. ioi he invaded Dacia, and after two
campaigns reduced its capital Sarmizegetusa (in S. Trans-
sylvania) and imposed terms of peace on Decebalus. Soon
afterwards, however, the Dacians rose in a last struggle for
independence, and a second war broke out, which also
lasted for two years (a.d. 105-6), and ended with the conquest
of Dacia and its reduction to the status of a Roman province.
Decebalus committed suicide. No contemporary historian
has left an account of these wars, and it has been said with
truth as regards them that " material evidence constitutes
the text, literary documents only the commentary."
The narrative begins on the lowest band of the spiral, and
is divided into two parts by the figure of a Victory between
trophies half way up the column, which separates the story
of the first war from that of the second. In the narrow
space at the beginning we have a picture of the Danube with
vin.] THE IMPERIAL FOR A 159
forts guarded by Roman sentinels and boats from which
stores are being unloaded. The river is personified by a
colossal bearded figure in a cave, who stretches out his R.
hand to encourage the Roman columns, which are leaving a
fortified town and crossing a double bridge of boats. The
town is Viminacium, now Kostolatz in Servia, and it seems
probable that only one army, commanded by Trajan in
person, is represented : others, however, hold that two
columns crossing the river with a considerable interval
between them in order to execute a converging movement
are conventionally indicated. In any case, the troops which
are crossing by the first bridge are Legionaries, the details
of whose marching kit are rendered with an exactitude
which makes them invaluable to the students of Roman
military antiquities ; while the column in front of them is
composed of Praetorian Guards who always accompanied
the Emperor. It is always possible to distinguish the legions
from the guards by the difference in their standards. The
legionary ensigns are composed mainly of a series of metal
plates or shallow bowls, known as phalerae, which were
granted to the legion as a mark of honour : above these we
see a hand or other symbol peculiar to the corps. The ensigns
of the guard, on the other hand, are adorned with medallions
bearing portraits of the Emperor or other members of his
house, as well as wreaths or crowns which take the place of
the p/ialercr.
After the passage of the Danube we have some isolated
scenes — a council of war, a sacrifice outside a camp, and a
strange scene in which a barbarian, holding an enormous
mushroom, falls backwards off his mule in awe at the un-
expected sight of the Emperor. (There is a reference to
this episode in Cassius Dio.) After a harangue delivered to
the troops by Trajan, the march begins, and we see the
legions hewing their way through forests, bridging streams,
and building camps. We know that Trajan's route lay along
the spurs of the Western Carpathians, and that he then
turned eastwards and attempted to gain access to the Trans-
sylvanian plateau by the valley of the Temes. At the close
160 THE IMPERIAL FORA [vm.
of a march through forest we have a fine battle scene, with a
figure of Jupiter the Storm-god hurling his bolts against the
enemies of Rome. The Dacian king is seen in the forest to
the R. The result of the battle is, however, indecisive. We
see Trajan standing before an impregnable barrier, in front
of which are a grisly row of skulls on poles. The inference
is clear : Trajan was unable to force the defences of the Iron
Gate Pass, which leads into Transsylvania, in his first cam-
paign. Desultory operations followed ; we see a Dacian
princess with her child about to embark on the Danube —
doubtless a captive or hostage. Then the Dacians together
with their allies, the mailed horsemen of the Sarmatian
Steppe, are seen crossing the Danube and raiding Roman
territory on the S. bank (in the modern Bulgaria). Trajan
is forced to embark at a city with temples and amphitheatre,
and after landing lower down the river, to come to the assis-
tance of his hard-pressed troops. The Dacians are routed
— we know that Trajan founded a city called Nicopolis, now
Tirnovo in Bulgaria, to commemorate the victory — and the
campaign ends with the distribution of rewards to the soldiers
and the return of Trajan to his base of operations. (Between
these scenes we see a group of Dacian women torturing
Roman captives.)
In the second campaign (that of A.D. 102) the army again
crosses the Danube by a bridge of boats, and pursues a route
different from that of the previous year, no doubt in order to
turn the defences of the Iron Gate Pass. After forcing their
way through mountainous country, in which the Moorish
cavalry — recognisable by their long twisted curls of hair —
form the advance-guard, under the command (as the his-
torians tell us) of their chief Lusius Quietus, they engage
and defeat the Dacians ; engines of war drawn by mules are
here shown. The enemy's entrenchments are now stormed
by irregular troops — amongst whom we notice Palmyrene
archers in long skirts and conical helmets. Another for-
tress is taken by legionaries with shields locked in a solid
roof — the " tortoise " or testudo. Finally, after a pause in the
action, marked by a harangue of the Emperor to his assem-
viii. I THE IMPERIAL FOR A 161
bled troops and a quiet scene where their weary horses are
watered at a stream, comes the crowning episode — the sub-
mission of Decebalus, tendered in his capital Sarmize-
getusa. This fine composition, extending over several slabs,
is marked off" by conventional trees at either extremity, and
is symmetrically disposed. On the L. sits Trajan surrounded
by his officers and his guards, with a forest of ensigns rising
in the background. Before him kneel Dacians of high rank
(the wearing of the peaked cap betokens this) imploring his
clemency. Others stand behind them, and then comes a
crowd of kneeling suppliants. In the background is Sarmize-
getusa, partly defended by massive walls of masonry, partly
by outworks built with sawn logs. The war closes with the
return of the conquered people, with their flocks and herds,
to their mountain homes and the closing address of the
Emperor to his troops. Their exploits are recorded by
Victory on her shield — a motive borrowed from Hellenic art.
The opening of the Second War is represented in a very
different way. We see a harbour, which can be identified
with certainty as that of Ancona on the Adriatic, both by
the temple containing a statue of Venus and also by the
arch which stands to this day on its quay. Hence a fleet of
galleys put out to sea, bearing the Emperor and his guards.
They are welcomed on the opposite coast of the Adriatic at
lader (the modern Zara) by the assembled population. Trajan
next visits a town with a large theatre and other buildings
which may be identified with Salons, and hence goes
inland to inspect a camp occupied by legionaries — that of
Burnum, in Dalmatia. He now takes ship again, and
finally lands at a port from which by rapid marching through
hilly country he reaches a spot where he is greeted both by
Romans and by a friendly Dacian population, and offers
sacrifice at six altars. Probably the harbour is Lissus, and
the Dacians are settlers planted by Trajan, according to the
practice of the emperors, on Roman soil.
So far the narrative is clear, and the progress of the story
rapid. What, however, was the motive which induced the
artist to represent Trajan's journey at length ? It is ex-
1 62 THE IMPERIAL FOR A [vin.
plained by the scenes which follow. On a panoramic back-
ground of mountains we see first the Dacians and their
leader, who is receiving the reports of a reconnoitring party,
then a Roman fort attacked by the enemy and gallantly de-
fendedlastly,
; a Roman garrison whose defences are almost
carried when Trajan appears at the head of his cavalry and
relieves it. We must read this part of the story as a whole,
and see in it the explanation of Trajan's hurried departure
from Ancona and his march by the shortest route to the
Lower Danube. The Dacians have again raided the Roman
province as they did in the first war. This is confirmed by
the scene which follows, and forms the centre and pivot of
the second series of reliefs. In the background is the great
bridge with stone piers and wooden superstructure, thrown
over the Danube by Trajan's orders not far from the Iron
Gates, and designed by Apollodorus, the architect of his
Forum.1 Here he receives embassies from a number of bar-
barian tribes, minutely characterised by their dress and
physical type ; and then — in the spring of A.D. 106 — the
final campaign opens with the usual scenes of sacrifice,
council of war, and Imperial harangue. This time the
converging march of two armies on different lines of
advance separated by a mountain range is clearly, if
conventionally, indicated by the simple device of repre-
senting one of the columns above the heads of the other,
and divided from it by a shelf of rock. When the armies
unite the end is near. The Dacian capital is represented
no less than three times in the desire of the artist to tell
the whole of his story — first in a compendious form, with
the figures of Dacians running hither and thither in alarm
at the approach of the Roman columns— then in the
course of the siege, with incidents of attack and defence
hardly to be conceived as contemporaneous ; lastly, in a
magnificent panorama which, when examined, falls into
three sections. In the first the Dacians are firing the
doomed city ; in the second, those who prefer death to

1 The piers of this bridge are still in situ, though the upper
part is lost.
viii.] THE IMPERIAL FOR A 163
flight are grouped about a huge bowl of poison which has
already claimed its victims ; lastly, we see a remnant of the
conquered people leaving the city, which, we must suppose,
was not closely invested. It has been suggested with much
probability that this panorama of the Fall of Sarmizegetusa
was inspired (as regards its composition) by the famous
fresco of the Fall of Troy painted by Polygnotus at Delphi.
After this climax the struggle becomes a war of episodes,
recalling the closing scenes of the war between Briton and
Boer in South Africa. One scene deserves special notice —
the Suicide of Decebalus, who, when " rounded up " by the
Roman cavalry, plunges a knife into his breast, just as the
Gaul on a sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum described
above (p. 107). The last band of the spiral shows us a long
train of cattle driven by the irreconcilable Dacians into the
wild country beyond their borders.
The great " epic in stone !: has been justly admired as the
most important example of an attempt to create a purely
Roman art filled with the Roman spirit, and celebrating the
triumph of Roman discipline and determination over bar-
baric courage. The style has its conventions, but a little
study will make them intelligible. The perspective is of
course faulty, but the eye is soon accustomed to this defect,
and is led to make allowance for it.
The reliefs of the column were not the only ones inspired
by Trajan's victories on the Danube. It has long been recog-
nised that several slabs from a frieze in which episodes from
the same wars are represented on a much larger scale exi?t
in various places. Some were used to adorn the Arch of
Constantine ; others are in the portico of the Villa Bor-
ghese ; one is walled up in the garden front of the Villa
Medici ; and a fine fragment has found its way to the
Louvre. It is most likely that this frieze had its original
place in the Forum of Trajan.
At the western end of Trajan's buildings — where the
twin churches of the Piazza del Foro Trajano now stand —
a temple was built for the worship of the great Emperor by
his successor Hadrian. It has, however, long been levelled
to the ground.
 IX

THE CAMPUS MARTIUS

f'TT^HE "field of Mars" — which took its name from an

[_ JL altar of the War-god set up, according to legend,
by Romulus — was the name originally given to the whole of
the low-lying land enclosed between the great bend of the
Tiber and the slopes of the Capitol, Quirinal and Pincian ;
and though the term was afterwards restricted in its
application by Augustus, who made the Via Lata (" Broad
Street "), which corresponds to the modern Corso, its
eastern boundary, it is convenient to apply it to the whole
region. This is now the most densely populated quarter of
Rome, but it was quite otherwise in ancient times. Originally
it was swampy in places, until the watercourses coming
down from the Quirinal were regulated ; and the meadow-
land which took the place of its marshes remained until
late historical times in the ownership of the Roman people.
Here it was that the Comitia centuriata, or " assembly of the
people by centuries," alway met, since it lay entirely without
the pomerium (until it was extended by successive emperors)
and martial law could be administered there. Under the
later Republic, however, public buildings began to spring
up in its southern portion. Augustus and Agrippa (cf. p.
10) did much to transform its aspect, and later emperors —
notably the Flavians, Hadrian, and the Antonines — occupied
most of the available space in the central region with their
buildings.]
164
In order to obtain a conspectus of the historical develop-
ment of the Campus Martius it is best to begin at its
ix.] THE CAMPUS MARTIUS 165
southern extremity, in the narrow strip of land between the
Capitoline hill and the river. Here the "Servian" wall
had two gates, one of which — the Porta Carmentalis — was
approximately on the line of the Via della Bocca della
Verita. Without it was the Forum holitorium or "vegetable
market" in the neighbourhood of Piazza Montanara,
which forms a convenient starting-point. Close by to the
S.W. is the church of S. Nicola in Carcere. Within, around,
and beneath this church are the remains of three temples,
all of which date from the time of the Republic, and over-
looked the Forum holitorium on the W. Built into the
facade of the church and also in the interior are several
columns belonging to these temples : and in the narrow
lane to the L. of the church maybe seen on the R. one which
appears at first sight to belong to a strangely simplified
form of the Tuscan order. The truth is that the mouldings
of the capital were added in stucco and renewed from time
to time with modifications in accordance with the prevailing
taste of the day. The most southerly of the three temples,
to which this column belonged, was that of Juno Sospita
("the Deliverer"), dedicated in 194 B.C., and such of its
remains as exist beneath the church of S. Nicola are of traver-
tine. The largest of the three temples was the central one,
which must be that of Hope, built during the First Punic
War and burnt once and again, but finally restored by Ger-
manicus in a.d. 17. The most northerly was the temple of
Janus, built in 260 B.C. by Gaius Duilius, the admiral in
whose honour the Columna Rostrata(p. 132) was set up ; its
history was much the same as that of its neighbour. The
remains of the podia and cello? of these temples, which exist
beneath the church, are shown by the sacristan. Curiously
enough, the legend which has woven itself about the church
is connected with none of them, but with that of a fourth,
the temple of Pietas, dedicated in 181 B.C., but destroyed
by Augustus to make room for the Theatre of Marcellus.
The story ran that it was built on the site of the prison set
up by Appius Claudius the decemvir, in honour of a daughter
whose filial affection (" Pietas ") had saved her fathers life
166 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS [ix.
by bestowing on him the nourishment which should have
been her child's : but the prison from which the church of
S. Nicola takes its name was of the Byzantine age.
In the Via del Teatro di Marcello, which branches to the
N.W. from the Piazza Montanara, are the remains of the
Theatre of Marcellus planned by Julius Caesar, but
carried out by Augustus, who dedicated it in 13 B.C. to the
memory of his nephew Marcellus, the son of his sister
Octavia, whose untimely death in 23 B.C. was lamented by
Vergil in a famous passage of the sixth /Eneid. It saw
partly saved from destruction by its conversion into a
mediaeval stronghold, which ultimately became the posses-
sion of the Orsini. The ruins of the stage-buildings and
seats form the great mound of debris on which the Palazzo
Orsini is built. What we see are the arcades of the ex-
terior, with superposed orders as in the Colosseum. The
lowest story, half buried in the earth and occupied by work-
shops, is of the Doric, the second of the Ionic order : the
third no longer exists. We are told that the theatre seated
14,000 spectators, but this is very doubtful.
Not far from the Forum holitorium was the earliest
Temple of Apollo, built in 429 B.C., and restored in 32 B.C.
by Gaius Sosius, a general of Augustus, who filled it with
works of art, notably the group of the Niobids (p. 324).
Some remains of its substructure have been discovered to
the S. of S. Maria in Campitelli (between Piazza Campi-
telli and Via dei Sugherari).
The region to the N. of the buildings which have been
described was crowded with places of public resort and
amusement. Nothing is now left of the Circus Flaminius,
built in 221 B.C., which gave its name to the ninth of
Augustus1 fourteen regions ; but its remains were still extant
in the sixteenth century, and the Via delle Botteghe Oscure
takes its name from the external arcades, which must, like
those of the Theatre of Marcellus, have been used as shops.
If, however, we leave the Piazza Montanara by the Via del
Teatro di Marcello, we shall come to the remains of the
Porticus of Octavia; the entrance, with its Corinthian
ix.J THE CAMPUS MARTIUS 167
columns and pediment, and some columns on either side,
belong — as the inscription thereon shows — to a restoration
carried out by Septimius Sevcrus and Caracalla in A.D. 203.
The porticus dates from 146 B.C., when Q. Caecilius
Metellus, the conqueror of Macedonia, built temples to
Jupiter and Juno and enclosed them with a colonnade, at
the same time filling them with works of art, both old and
new. Augustus restored the whole group of buildings and
called them by the name of his sister Octavia. In the
Middle Ages the fish market was established here, and the
church of S. Angelo in Pescheria, to which the Jews were
compelled to resort from the neighbouring Ghetto, arose on
the site of the ancient temples.
These sadly mutilated remains are all that now enables us
to picture the lost magnificence of the buildings with which
the whole of this quarter was covered. Not a trace is left
of the Porticus Octavia (built by a Roman admiral,
Cr. Octavius, in the second century B.C.), the Porticus
Philippi, named after the stepfather of Augustus (which
may have been in the neighbourhood of Piazza Mattei), or
of the Porticus Mitiucia, built in 109 B.c. and afterwards
restored and enlarged to serve as the centre of the corn
distributions which pauperised the mob of Imperial Rome —
unless, indeed, the remains of travertine piers with engaged
half-columns which are to be seen in Via dei Calderari
(which we may reach from the Porticus Octavia by crossing
the site of the Ghetto and passing to the R. of the Palazzo
Cenci) are to be assigned to the last-named of these. The
Monte dei Cenci, upon which the palace stands, however,
is formed by the ruins of the Theatre of Baibus, built by
L. Cornelius Baibus, the son of a Spaniard raised to high
honour by Julius Cassar, and dedicated in 13 B.C. It was
smaller than the theatre of Marcellus, and had a covered
foyer called the Crypta Balbi. Crossing the Via Arenula
and the Piazza Benedetto Cairoli, we proceed along the
Via dei Giubbonari towards the Campo di Fiore. To the
R. were the buildings by the erection of which Pompey
sought to win popularity in Rome as consul in 55 B.C.
1 68 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS [ix.
Colonnades and halls — the Portions Pompciancr, afterwards
restored by Diocletian — including the Curia Pomfiei in
which Caesar was murdered, together with gardens and
fountains, formed an enclosed park, to the N.W. of
which was a theatre, the first perma7ietit building of the
kind in Rome, richly adorned with statues and paintings,
and containing a temple of Venus the Victorious which
Pompey was forced to build in deference to the clamour of
the Conservative moralists. Nothing remains of its splen-
dour but the two Pans in the Capitoline Museum (p. 105)
which have given their name to the Piazza dei Satiri, where
the stage buildings stood, the colossal Hercules of gilt
bronze in the Vatican Rotunda (p. 278), and some other
sculptures : the curve of the auditorium is preserved in that
of the modern Via di Grottapinta.
It is hard, indeed, with such scanty materials to conjure
up a picture of this S.W. quarter, which had been thus
covered with theatres and porticoes by the dawn of the
Christian era. Before leaving it the traveller should pay
a visit to the Palazzo Spada (turn to L. at the corner of
the Campo di Fiore), which contains a few sculptures of
exceptional interest. In the throne room is a colossal
statue popularly believed to represent Pompey. The head
bears no resemblance to the true portrait of Pompey — a
head at Copenhagen which agrees with the type on the
coins struck by his sons — and, moreover, does not belong
to the statue, as may be seen by the fact that on the
shoulders are traces of the loose ends of a fillet with which
the hair of the original head was bound. Nevertheless, the
story runs that head and body were found together (in the
sixteenth century), but on either side of the boundary
between two properties, and that the ownership of the
statue was accordingly disputed. If the anecdote be true,
we have an example of a practice common in antiquity —
that of replacing the original head of a portrait- statue by
that of some popular personage of later date. The name of
Pompey was bestowed upon this statue because it was found
not far from the Cancelleria, and therefore near to Pompey's
ix. 1 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS 169
theatre. The statue of Pompcy in the Curia Pompei at
the feet of which Caesar was murdered was afterwards
set up by Augustus outside the theatre ; and the statue
before us, from its colossal size and the fact that it carried
in the R. hand a globe surmounted by a Victory, whilst
the R. hand was (probably) uplifted in the gesture of
an orator commanding silence, was evidently that of a
personage of the highest distinction. More than this we
cannot say.
In the gallery overlooking the courtyard of the palace
are eight reliefs which help to give us some idea of the
magnificence with which the walls of Roman palaces were
decorated. These reliefs are evidently intended as panels
to take the place of pictures. Their style and composi-
tion is in many respects akin to painting rather than
to sculpture. There has been much controversy as to the
date of these reliefs and others of their class : see what was
said on page 116 as to those in the Room of the Emperors.
It is not disputed that elements of landscape — such as the
rustic shrine and sacred tree, so familiar to us from wall-
paintings like those of the Palatine (p. 92) or Pompeii —
were introduced into relief sculpture in the Hellenistic
period ; but it is not proved that wall decoration of this
elaborate kind was known before the days of the Empire.
Moreover, while the influence of painting is not to be
denied, it is none the less true that some of the figures
in these compositions are adaptations of statuary types, and
display the poverty of invention characteristic of Roman
mythological art. Those who believe this series to date
from the age of Caesar or Augustus admit that some — e.g.
that of Pans and CEnone — are much later, and it is perhaps
most probable that the whole set really belongs to the time
of Hadrian. Some compositions of this kind seem to have
been specially famous. Portions of two were found on the
Palatine, representing Daedalus with Icarus, and a child-
Satyr attended by a nymph : and replicas of both of these
are in existence.
170 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS [ix.
On the L. wall of the gallery we have the following
subjects :—
i. Paris and Eros. The figure of Paris is taken from a
larger composition, in which the three goddesses were
shown. He is listening to the persuasive utterance of
Eros, who is singing the charms of Aphrodite. The cattle
which fill the lower part of the panel are a clumsy addition
of the artist for the purpose of filling the space.
2. The death of Archemoros. Hypsipyle, banished from
Lemnos, became the slave of Lycurgus, king of Nemea,
and the nurse of his child Opheltes, who was killed by a
snake whilst she was showing the " Seven against Thebes "
the way to a spring. The heroes buried the child with state,
founding the Nemean games in its honour, and changing
its name to Archemoros, the " harbinger of death." The
legend was the subject of a famous tragedy of Euripides,
based on the deliverance of Hypsipyle by her long-lost
sons, who were in the train of the Seven ; some remains of
the lost play have recently been recovered in an Egyptian
papyrus.
3. Paris and (Enone. Paris is about to leave his first
love, (Enone, and sail to Greece on his fatal quest, inspired
by Aphrodite's promises. Another version of this subject
only differing in minor points from our relief has been pre-
served, and shows that the river-god Scamander is an
addition of the Roman artist.
4. The theft of the Palladium. Odysseus and Diomed
have stolen the image of Athena upon which hung the fate
of Troy, and are now quarrelling over their booty before
the temple. The image was held by Diomed in the L.
hand, which is wrongly restored. Notice the contrast be-
tween the two heroes : Diomed embodies physical force,
Odysseus cunning.
5. Adonis. The composition, with its rustic background
(largely restored on the L.), breathes the sentimental spirit
of a Hellenistic idyll. Adonis has been wounded in the
R. leg and is leaning on his spear to ease the pain.
On the opposite side of the gallery
IX.] THE CAMPUS MARTI IS i7i
6. Bellcrophon and Pegasus. Bellerophon, an ideal
statuary type, is in strong contrast with the horse, which
is inferior in conception and execution, and the background,
which is perfunctory.
Passing by a cast of the Endymion relief in the Capitoline
Museum, we come to
7. Amphion and Zethus. The myth of the sons of Antiope,
like that of Hypsipyle and Archemoros, was made popular
by a tragedy of Euripides, who contrasted the musician
Amphion, to the strains of whose lyre the walls of Thebes
arose, with the hunter Zethus. Our relief might serve as an
illustration of his play. The contrast between two types of
character is as clearly marked here as in the figures of
Odysseus and Diomed in No. 4.
8. Daedalus and Pasiphae. Daedalus has made the wooden
cow for Pasiphae, the queen of Minos, and is seated beside
his handiwork. The subject is one familiar from Pompeian
paintings. The want of dramatic action, and the choice of a
subject so repugnant to modern taste, are characteristic of
the mythological art of the Early Empire.
In the picture-gallery of the palace is a seated statue
which was long believed to be that of Aristotle. Not only,
however, does the head — a Roman portrait — not belong to
the statue, but the inscription, of which the first five letters
can be read, should be completed — Arist[ippo]s. Thus the
statue — in itself a fine piece of work — represented the pupil
of Socrates and founder of the Cyrenaic school of philosophy.
Leaving the Palazzo Spada, we make our way past the
Palazzo Farnese, the Campo di Fiore and the Cancelleria to
the Corso Vittorio Emanuele, beyond which lies the region
occupied by the buildings of Augustus, Agrippa, and the
Flavian emperors. Crossing the small Piazza of S. Pantaleo
and turning to the L. we see, at the angle of the Palazzo
Braschi, the sadly mutilated remains of a sculptured group
famous under the name of Pasquino, borrowed from a shoe-
maker near whose house it was brought to light. The
satirical epigrams which were posted on it when it was set
up in its present position generally found their replies on the
172 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS [ix.
Marforio (see p. 104). The group was evidently a famous
one, since two replicas — both discovered in Rome— exist in
Florence, and fragments of two more are in the Vatican
(p. 294). Both of these last replicas were found in
Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli. The group represented Menelaus
in the act of letting slip the body of Patroclus, which he
was endeavouring to rescue from the advancing Trojans, in
order to defend himself against the enemy. The pyramidal
outline of the group, the contorted pose of the limbs of
Patroclus, and the realistic treatment of the nude — to appre-
ciate which the Vatican fragments must be studied — point
to the Hellenistic age as the date of the original.
Turning to the R. we find ourselves almost at once in the
Piazza Navona, or, as it is now officially called, Circo
Agonale, which preserves the form (though nothing more)
of the Stadium of Domitian, once numbered amongst the
finest buildings of Rome, which served as a temporary amphi-
theatre when the Colosseum was damaged by fire (p. 243).
Crossingits southern end and following the Via dei Canestrari,
we pass the University, turn to L. by Piazza S. Eustachio,
and through Via della Palombella reach the back of the
Pantheon. We may first glance at the remains of the
Baths of Agrippa, which are to be seen at the rear of the
building. They were excavated in 188 1-2, and the architec-
tural fragments have been as far as possible replaced in
position, so that we can form some idea (though an imperfect
one) of the great hall, with a large apse or exedra (added by
Hadrian) immediately behind the Pantheon, and its columns
of ftavonazzetto and red granite bearing an entablature of
Pentelic marble (notice the frieze of dolphins and tridents).1
We observe in passing that this hall has no connection
with the Pantheon : the cross-walls between the two merely
served the purpose of buttresses. The exterior of the
rotunda, now denuded of its decoration, is bare and un-

1 Some remains of a domed hall belonging to the Baths of

Agrippa, called the Arco della Ciambella, may be seen in the
neighbouring street of that name.
ix.] THE CAMPUS MARTIUS 173
attractive ; it is divided into four zones by plain cornices.
Only the lowest of these was faced with marble, the others
were decorated in stucco. It was roofed with tiles of gilt
bronze, removed to Constantinople by the Byzantine Em-
peror, Constans II, in A.D. 662. Notice in passing that the
walls of the vestibule are not bonded with those of the
rotunda. This has given rise to the notion that the two are
not contemporary ; but they have been shown to rest on the
same foundations. The portico, again, with its sixteen
columns of red and grey granite, is quite separate from the
vestibule, and is built on distinct foundations. We first of all
notice the inscription on the frieze, " M. agrippa L. f. COS.
TERTIVM fecit" (" Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, consul
for the third time, built it") which with its bold lettering
dwarfs the longer inscription on the architrave, recording the
restoration of the building by Septimius Severus and Cara-
calla in A.D. 202. It was only natural that the first of these
inscriptions should be taken in its obvious sense, and that
the whole building as it now stands should be identified with
the Pantheon, or " all-holy " temple of Mars, Venus, and the
other divine protectors of the Julian house, built by Agrippa,
the general and adviser of Augustus, at the same time as his
Baths, in the year 27 B.C. True, we were told by ancient
writers that this building was burned in the great fire of
A.D. 80 and restored by Domitian, and that the restored
Pantheon was struck by lightning and again burned under
Trajan in A.D. 1 10, to be once more restored by Hadrian. But
it was thought that the design of the great rotunda had been
the same throughout, and that successive restorations had
only affected the details of its decoration. In 1892, however,
a thorough investigation of the structure showed that
throughout the building — particularly in the relieving arches
upon which its stability depended — stamps of Hadrian's
reign (and no others) are found on the bricks. It is
therefore certain that Hadrian was the builder of the
rotunda ; and it is, moreover, almost certain that the first
building on the site — that of Agrippa — was not circular in
form. Six or seven feet beneath the floor of the rotunda are
174 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS [ix.
the remains of a pavement of coloured marble, which once
covered a larger area, for it was removed when the circular
foundation was laid, and can be traced beneath the portico.
It would seem that this was an open space, for there are no
traces of walls or foundations : on the other hand, foundation-
walls have been discovered beneath the front row of columns
and in the piazza which belonged (as it would seem) to a
rectangular building facing southward with a projecting
portico like that of the Temple of Concord (p. 48) ; and
this may have been the form of Agrippa's budding, which
would then have covered the space now occupied by the
piazza. There are also reasons for thinking that the raking
cornices of the pediment are set at a steeper angle than that
for which they were originally made ; in other words, that
the portico of Agrippa's building had ten, not eight, columns
in the front, and that when re-erected by Hadrian to face N.
instead of S., it was reduced in breadth. In front of this
new Pantheon was a large piazza, paved with travertine and
surrounded with porticoes. Between this piazza and the
Stadium of Domitian were the Baths of Nero, afterwards
restored by Severus Alexander and known by his name : no
remains of these are now visible.
We now enter the rotunda, noticing on either side of the
vestibule the niches in which colossal statues of Augusta and
Agrippa once stood. As a Christian church, dedicated to
the memory of all the martyrs of Rome by Boniface IV in
A.D. 609, as containing the tomb of Raphael and many other
painters, and as the last resting place of the kings of United
Italy, the Pantheon has its several interests for diverse types
of travellers. But it is, above all, the most perfect monument
of the architecture of Imperial Rome. To understand its
place in the history of art some knowledge of that history is
needed ; as to this see what is said on p. 23. Moreover,
the system of arches and piers by which, when it was raised
by Hadrian's architects and probably to the Emperor's own
designs, its stability was assured, is entirely concealed by the
internal decoration, and even this has been modernised from
top to bottom. Nevertheless, the grandeur and simplicity
ix.] THE CAM PL'S MARTIUS 175
of the perfectly proportioned, self-contained interior, with its
single opening admitting a stream of light sufficient to reveal
the whole without giving a disturbing emphasis to any of the
parts, cannot fail of their effect. The dome was probably
painted blue in imitation of the vault of heaven and studded
with golden stars. Beneath the bronze cornice there was a
zone of decoration formed by pilasters and slabs of porphyry,
serpentine and coloured marbles, ruthlessly destroyed in
174^ when the Pantheon was " restored" by Benedict XIV :
but this was the work of Severus and Caracalla, and it is
generally held that in Hadrian's building there were open
lunettes above the niches. This scheme drew attention to
the fact (which is concealed by the present decoration) that
the drum is not solid throughout, but is in reality resolved
into a system of piers, between which the weight of the
dome is distributed.
Leaving the Pantheon and turning to the R., we come to
the Piazza della Minerva, which takes its name from a temple
of Minerva built by Domitian, who left his mark on this part
of the Campus Martius. Besides magnificent temples dedi-
cated to the Egyptian divinities, Isis and Serapis, on the site
of which several of the Egyptian statues now in the Museo
Capitolino were found in 1882, he built a colonnaded en-
closure with shrines of the deified members of his family
(Vespasian and Titus) known as the Portions Divorum, the
position of which is given by a recently discovered fragment
of the Marble Plan. Following the Via Pie di Marmo we
come to the Piazza of the Collegio Romano ; and in this
building (entrance in the side street, Via del Collegio
Romano) is the Museo Kircheriano, which should be
visited especially by those interested in the early history of
Italy. The prehistoric collections are contained in a series
of small rooms which are reached after traversing the
ethnographic museum.
Room 27. On the R. are flint weapons and implements,
which show that Italy was the abode of man from the very
earliest period. To the R. of the entrance are implements of
the Old Stone Age (" Palaeolithic " period) found in the gravel
176 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS [ix.
of the Tiber valley near the Ponte Alolle ; Italy has so far
yielded no such remains of the artistic handiwork of Palaeo-
lithic man as the designs scratched on bone which have been
found in France. In the far corner to R. are implements of
the New Stone Age (" Neolithic :) period), in which Italy
appears to have received settlers of the race called " Mediter-
ranean "or (in S. Europe) " Ibero-Ligurian."
Room 28. Contains remains of this period from the Valle
delle Vibrata on the Adriatic coast, where hut-foundations
have been discovered belonging to every stage of prehistoric
development.
Room 30. On the R. of the entrance note the implements
of copper and obsidian from graves in Latium. Copper
was the first of the metals to be worked, and was for some
time only used in its pure form.
Room 31. Here we meet with the earliest products of the
Age of Bronze (an alloy of copper and tin), with which
began the dawn of a new civilisation in Italy. A new type
of dwelling takes the place of the half buried huts. This is
the pile=village, found in its earliest form in and about the
lakes of Lombardy. The remains discovered in these lake
dwellings (which resemble those found in Switzerland) may
be seen in this room, and on the walls of the passage leading
to the next room are hung plans of a type of village found in
great numbers in the valley of the Po. They were built on
dry land, but on a platform supported by piles and sur-
rounded bya moat, and are called te>-remare, since they have
been converted by gradual decay into masses of rich loam
full of organic remains. They were all mapped out on a
regular plan, and there can be no reasonable doubt that in
the race which introduced this methodical system into Italy
we are to seek the ancestry of the Romans. It is also clear
that the immigrants came from Central Europe.
In Room 32 the most interesting object is the skeleton in
the centre case, found in a tomb at Sgurgola in the Sabine
hills with a copper dagger and stone implements, with traces
of bright red pigment on the skull. It is very generally held
that the primitive people of Italy removed the flesh from the
ix. I THE CAMPUS MARTIUS 177
bones of their dead and then painted the skeleton : but it is
possible that the pigment may have soaked into the skull
from a cloth in process of decay. Note that the Italians of
the Bronze Age who built the terremare cremated their
dead. On the wall of the next passage is a photograph of a
terramara with several piles still in position. The bronzes
and pottery found in these villages are exhibited in Rooms
55 "35-
Room 36. Here we come to the products of the Early
Iron Age — the period which brings us to the borderland of
history proper. The remains here shown were found in N.
Italy, and seem to give proof of a new wave of immigration
from the Danube basin. It is not, however, likely that the
new-comers were of a different race from the inhabitants of
the terremare, whom they gradually displaced. The use of
the new metal and the improved handicrafts which came in
its train soon spread through the peninsula ; no doubt there
was much shifting of population, and the Latins seem to
have established themselves in the Lower Tiber valley, the
Campagna and the Alban hills at this time. In Room
37 are several examples of two distinct types of urn, made
of the blackened clay which was in general use in this period,
and used to contain the ashes of the dead. One is called
the " Villanova " urn from the site of an early cemetery near
Bologna where hundreds of these objects were found. It
has a long neck in the shape of a truncated cone and a squat
belly, and was often closed with a kind of saucer used as a
lid. This is the type in regular use to the north of the
Apennines. The other is the hut=urn, which in various
forms, sometimes nearly circular, sometimes oval and some-
times rectangular, reproduces the dwelling-house of the
living, often with much detail which helps us to understand
its construction. This is found in Tuscany and especially in
Latium. All its varieties may be studied here and in Room
39. Notice in Room 38, on the L. (beyond the window), the
products of this period found in the Alban hills, which
illustrate the relative poverty of the early Latins as seen in
the furniture of their tombs.
178 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS [ix.
In Room 40 we find ourselves in presence of a new and
much richer civilisation. The centre case contains objects
found in a tomb at Palestrina (the ancient Praeneste).
"What strikes us at once is the beauty and minuteness of the
gold-work, as seen in the plaque adorned with 131
figures of lions and other animals, which seems to have
been worn on the breast or attached to a girdle, and the
cylinders with delicate filigree ornament. Notice too the
silver-gilt bowl with six snakes as handles, decorated with
rows of beasts and birds and scenes of war and the chase
which betray their Eastern origin by the use of the palm and
the papyrus. Evidently the riches of the owner of the
grave were derived from commerce with the East, in which
Phoenician traders were the middlemen. Other bowls of
Phoenician workmanship (one signed by the artist) like those
found in Cyprus, will be found in the window case, together
with the most interesting object of all — a gold fibula or safety-
pin bearing the inscription manios MED FHEFHAKED
NUMASIOI, " Manius made me for Numasius." This shows
us that native artists were beginning to vie with the crafts-
men of the East ; it is, moreover, the earliest monument of the
Latin tongue — with the possible exception of the inscription
found beneath the Black Stone. Notice also the bronzes
in the centre case — a tripod with three human figures on the
edge, a stand in the form of a truncated cone with reliefs,
and a cauldron with griffins' heads for handles — and objects
of ivory and glass. We shall meet with a similar treasure
from Caere in S. Etruria in the Vatican (p. 344) ; and the
great expansion of Italian commerce and industry in the
seventh century (to which these tombs belong) was un-
doubtedly due to Etruscan enterprise.
Turning to the R. we find in Room 41 a miscellaneous
collection of Iron Age products, and in the centre models
of megalithic monuments from S. Italy which resemble the
dolmens, menhirs, etc., of northern Europe, and seem to
have been the work of a people who crossed from Africa in the
neolithic age ; also a model of a fturaghe or conical tower
(used as a fortified dwelling) of the type common in Sardini .
ix. I THE CAMPUS MARTIUS 179
The following rooms contain prehistoric objects from
other parts of Europe and from the New World. From the
corridor (45) we pass into the Museo Kircheriano proper,
founded by the learned Jesuit, Athanasius Kircher, who was
professor of mathematics at the Collegio Romano in the
seventeenth century. For the Christian monuments in
Rooms 51 and 52 see Christian Rome, p. 70 ff.
Room 52 contains a number of the terra-cotta slabs with
reliefs made from moulds of which we have already seen
examples in the Palazzo dei Conservatori. The designs arc
of great variety. Some are taken from well-known motives
of classical Greek art, such as the Victories sacrificing bulls,
which are the commonest of all. Others may have been
inspired by classical painting, such as the mourning Penel-
ope or the washing of Odysseus' feet. The Egyptian
landscape with the overflowing Nile, in which the hippo-
potamus and crocodile are wallowing, points to Alexandria as
the home of this manufacture. On the other hand, the
plaque in which a combat between lions and gladiators in
the circus is represented gives proof that Roman craftsmen
contributed their share. Notice a curious oval gravestone
of early date from Novilara near Pesaro, with an inscription
in the local dialect.
In Room 53 is a large collection of ancient Italian .and
•Roman coins. The earliest medium of exchange consisted
in shapeless lumps of bronze {as rude), which was weighed
in the scales at each transaction ; this symbolical sale per
aes et libram was retained as a formality in conveyances by
later Roman law. The next stage we find stamped ingots
on bars (its signatum) ; the unit (as) was the pound of
copper, and this was gradually reduced when true coinage
was brought into circulation. In the window case are gems
of no great importance. By the entrance-wall, leaden
tablets inscribed with curses which were buried in graves ;
also a collar with an inscription which reads : " I have run
away, catch me ; when you have restored me to my master
Zoninus you will get a solidus " ; and it is probably that of a
doy rather than a slave.
180 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS [ix.
In the passage are a few ancient sculptures : notice the
head of a girl in green basalt, of the severe fifth-century
type often called " Sappho." Turning to the L. into the
corridor (54) we come to a miscellaneous collection of
bronzes, etc., the most important of which is the round
casket found at Prseneste and usually called the Ficoroni
cista. On the handle-plate is an inscription of the third
century B.C., which read as follows : " Novios Plautios made
me at Rome, Dindia Magolnia gave me to her daughter.'
The casket is therefore the work of a Roman artist ; and
so, no doubt, are the feet in the shape of lions trampling
upon frogs, the relief-plates upon which Eros is represented
between Heracles and Iolaus by means of which the feet
are attached to the body, and the handle in the form of a
group of Dionysus with two Satyrs. But the engravings
on the body of the chest seem to be by another hand,
probably that of a Greek workman. The legend which they
portray is taken from the story of the Argonauts, who, on
their voyage to Colchis in quest of the Golden Fleece,
landed in Bithynia to draw water and were met by Amycus,
king of the Bebryces, who had hitherto challenged all
strangers to box with him and killed them, but now met his
match in Polydeuces (Pollux), whose victory was foretold
by the local demon Sosthenes. The central group is that
of Polydeuces binding Amycus to a tree, at the foot di
which is his boy-squire, wrapped in his master's cloak and
carrying his shoes and scraper ; an oil-flask and a pick for
loosening the earth before the fight lie beside him. To the
R. is Athena, the protectress of the Argonauts, and above
her head a flying Victory bearing a wreath. On either side
of the group are two spectators : to R. Jason seated, and
Heracles standing with his back to us ; to L. one of the
Bebrycians seated on an amphora and the winged demon
Sosthenes. Further to R. we see the good ship Argo and
her crew, and beyond them the spring, beside which is
seated an old Satyr drumming on his paunch whilst an
Argonaut plays at punch-ball. The circle is completed
by four figures — a youth holding an amphora, the reclining
ix.) THE CAMPUS MARTIUS 181
figure of a local divinity (wearing, as wc must note, the
Italian bulla or amulet round his neck), and two Argonauts,
one whose cap marks him as Castor and another who places
his arm about his neck. The whole is well worthy of
study, because in all probability it preserves the outlines of
of a composition belonging to the classical period of
Greek painting. The subject reminds us of the fresco
of the " Return of the Argonauts," painted by Micon, an
Athenian painter of the time of Phidias, in the temple of
the Dioscuri (Castor and Polydeuces) at Athens ; and we
may perhaps catch some faint echoes of his style in this
work, with its severe linear design and study of the nude in
various poses — both features which mark fifth-century
painting.
Amongst the minor objects in this room note four silver
goblets found at Yicarello, an ancient watering-place with
natural hot springs. They are in the form of milestones,
and give the names of the principal posting-stations, with
distances, on the route from Gades (Cadiz) to Rome.
Leaving the Museum, we find ourselves within a few
paces of the Corso, which follows the line of the Via Lata
or " Broad Street," continued by the Via Flaminia, the main
route from Rome to the N. Close to the church of S.
Maria in Via Lata (on our R.) a triumphal arch of Diocletian
spanned the Via Lata ; it was destroyed at the close of the
fifteenth century by Innocent VII I. Beneath this church
and the neighbouring Palazzo Doria have been found
remains of the piers which supported the Siepta Julia, or
polling-booths planned by Caesar and completed by Agrippa
in 26 RC. Since the assembly of the people gradually
ceased to perform any but formal functions, the building
was turned to other uses and became a kind of bazaar. It
extended from the modern Piazza di Venezia almost as far
as the Piazza Sciarra. In this latter spot stood a second
triumphal arch, built by Claudius to commemorate his
conquest of Britain. Some remains of this arch and frag-
ments of the inscription (the largest of which is in the
garden of the Palazzo Barberini) were found in the sixteenth
182 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS [nL
and seventeenth centuries. The Aqua Virgo, an aqueduct
built by Agrippa to feed his baths, was carried over the arch.
(Another arch of this aqueduct, bearing an inscription of
Claudius, is still to be seen in Via del Nazzareno, some
distance to the N.)
The next turning to the L. is the Via di Pietra, which
takes us into the Piazza di Pietra, where we see on the L.
the remains of an ancient building, viz. a row of eleven
Corinthian columns bearing a rich entablature, built into
what is now the Stock Exchange of modern Rome (it was
until lately a Custom House). The columns stood on a
high substructure ox podium which is now buried, and this
was decorated with the reliefs of provinces and trophies
which we saw in the courtyard of the Palazzo dei Con-
servatori (p. 131). It has generally been held that this was
the Basilica of Neptune, built by Agrippa in 25 B.C. in
honour of the naval victories of Augustus, and (as is
supposed) restored by Hadrian after it had been burned in
the great fire of A.D. 80. It seems, however, more likely
that it was the Temple of Hadrian built by Antoninus Pius
and dedicated in A.D. 145.
From the Piazza di Pietra the Via dei Bergamaschi takes
us to the Piazza Colonna, in the centre of which rises the
Column of Marcus Aurelius. The wars which it com-
memorates were closed by the triumph celebrated by the
Emperor in September, A.D. 176; but there is reason to
think that many years elapsed before the column was com-
pleted. Like the column of Trajan, of which it was an
imitation, it was 100 feet in height, not including the
pedestal, which was once adorned with reliefs, all trace of
which was removed when the column was restored in 1589
by the order of Sixtus V. The statues of M. Aurelius and
his Empress, Faustina the younger, which had long since
disappeared, were then replaced by a figure of St. Paul.
The reliefs of the spiral band which encircles the column
in twenty-three windings are much inferior in execution to
those of Trajan's column, and are also more difficult of
interpretation. In the first place, they have suffered severely
ix.] THE CAMPUS MART/US 183
from fire and earthquake, and have been replaced in many
parts by modern figures (generally easy to distinguish).
Moreover, if we know but little of Trajan's campaigns in
Dacia, we know far less of the wars waged by M. Aurelius
on the Danube--at least as regards their strategy : some
incidents are recorded by ancient writers, and the most
famous (to be mentioned presently) is represented on the
column.
In a.d. 166 the barbarians living to the X. of the Upper
Danube crossed the river, and made an inroad into Roman
territory, crossing the eastern Alps and penetrating as far
as the Adriatic. Both M. Aurelius and his colleague Yerus
took the field, and the invasion was checked ; but after the
death of Yerus, Marcus was obliged to take command on
the Danube, making his base at Carnuntum (not very far
from Vienna), and to carry the war into the enemy's country
in the valleys of the March and the Gran. This " Germanic
war " lasted for three years (a.d. 17 1-3), and was followed by
a " Sarmatic war," waged against the tribes who occupied
the district between the Danube and the Theiss (now
Hungary). Here he was again victorious (a.d. 174-5).
These are the wars of which the story is told on this
column. Just as on Trajan's column, a figure of Yictory
separated the narrative of the First Dacian War from that
of the Second, so here the "Germanic" and "Sarmatic"
campaigns are divided in the same way. But we cannot
extract a coherent narrative of either series of operations
from the reliefs, which seem rather to present typical
episodes of the struggle. We can also trace direct imita-
tion of the reliefs of Trajan's column, especially in the
opening scene, which shows the bridge of boats at Car-
nuntum. The most interesting scene (in the third winding)
is the Miracle of the Rain, which is associated in Christian
tradition with the story of the Thundering Legion, whose
prayers unlocked the windows of heaven. On the pagan
monument we see a colossal winged figure of Jupiter
Pluvius dripping torrential rains from his arms and hair,
which bring refreshment to the thirsty Romans, but sweep
184 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS [ix.
their enemies away in destruction. Nor was this the only
legend depicted on the column. On a lower winding we
see the collapse of a huge wooden scaffolding, by means of
which the Germans have attempted to scale the walls of a
Roman fort. It has been set ablaze by a thunderbolt, and
we are reminded of the story told by the biographer of
Marcus Aurelius that " by his prayers he wrung from
heaven a bolt launched against the enemy's engine." The
principles of relief are not so well understood as they were
by the sculptors of Trajan's column, and the figures often
seem like marionettes. Notice also the bird's-eye perspec-
tive in which rivers are shown.
In the neighbourhood of the column — we do not exactly
know where — stood the Temple of Marcus Aurelius. Not
far off, on the edge of the mound of ruins called Monte
Citorio, upon which the Chamber of Deputies stands, stood
a second column, set up in honour of Antoninus Pius. This
was a monolith of red granite : its sculptured base was
removed to the Vatican in 1703 and is the Giardino della
Pigna (p. 331). Close to it was the Ustrinum, or crematory,
where the bodies of the Antonines were buried.
A little beyond the Piazza Colonna the Via in Lucina, to
the L. of the Corso, marks the spot where the Ara Pacts
Augusta: was set up in 13-9 B.C. to commemorate Augustus'
safe return from the West in the former year and the
pacification of the Empire. Its remains- will be described
later (see p. 204). Some of the sculptures found in the
excavations of 1903-4, which revealed the plan of the
monument, still remain underground and beneath the water
level, which has risen several feet since the beginning of
the Christian era.
Somewhat to the W. of the Ara Pacis Augustus laid a
great pavement of white marble, which served as a sun-
dial, with gilt lines or figures of the Zodiac. The needle
was formed by an obelisk brought from Heliopolis, which
is that now set up in the Piazza di Monte Citorio.
On the E. side of the Via Lata, opposite to the Ara
Pacis, Aurelian (a.d. 270-5) built a great temple to the Sun,
ix.] THE CAMPUS MARTI US 185
whose worship he made the chief State religion. Trai •
its architecture have been found in the neighbourhood of
S. Silvestro.
[The northern and western parts of the Campus Martius
were left comparatively free of buildings even in Imperial
times. Some remains of the Mausoleum of Augustus, a
circular building of the same type as that of Hadrian, with
a grove of cypresses on the top, from the base on which
the Anfiteatro Chorea is raised. On either side of the
entrance were fastened the bronze tablets upon which was
inscribed Augustus1 record of his achievements, known to
us from the Monumentum Ancyranum, a copy engraved on
the walls of the temple of Augustus at Ancyra (Angora).
The Via S. Agostino and Via dei Coronari preserve the
line of an ancient street running across the Campus from
E. to W., which passed to the N. of the Odeum, a covered
theatre built by Domitian. The ruins of this building pro-
bably helped to form the mound called Monte Giordano.
In the Corso Vittorio Emanuele, between the Chiesa
Xuova and the Piazza Sforza-Cesarini, was a spot called
Tarentum (the name is obscure), where volcanic phenomena
were observed and an altar of Dis (the god of the lower
world) was built. Remains of this were discovered in 1888,
and not far off were found the marble tablets now in the
Museo delle Terme (p. 210) upon which were inscribed the
records of the Secular Games celebrated by Augustus and
Septimius Severus : some of the ceremonies connected with
these games took place by night at the altar of Dis.]
In the Corso Vittorio Emanuele, a little beyond the
Piazza Sforza-Cesarini, is the Museo Barracco, containing
a small but choice collection of ancient sculptures, etc.,
formed by Senatore Barracco and presented to the Roman
municipality. This collection should be visited by all who
are interested in ancient sculpture, since almost every piece
possesses a definite interest or importance.1
In the first room we have on the R. fragments of Egyptian,
Babylonian, and Assyrian sculpture ; amongst these is one
} Labels are provided with brief indications of subject and date.
1 86 THE CAMPUS MART I US [ix.

belonging to Grteco-Egyptian art which deserves special

notice. This is the basalt head to R. of the doorway leading
into the second room — representing, apparently, a Roman
with bald skull but a short beard. The fillet with which the
head is encircled has a star in relief, and it is mainly on
this ground that it has been identified as a portrait of
Julius Caesar, since it cannot be said that the features
wear any close resemblance to those of the Dictator.
Whether this surmise be right or not the head is amongst
the most remarkable examples of Alexandrian sculpture.
To the L. of the same doorway are a few characteristic
examples of the art of peoples subject to Greek influences.
Close to the door note a female head from Palmyra, which
no doubt dates from the zenith of that city's fortunes in
the third century a.d. We see in it all the marks of that
Oriental spirit which stifled the development of Graeco-
Roman art under the Roman Empire — the fixity of pose
and absence of expression, the love of ornament for its own
sake, the literal rendering of details. To the L. are painted
terra-cotta figures from Cyprus, where the streams of cul-
ture flowing from East and West met and mingled, and in
contrast with these some Etruscan sculptures, both early
and late. We see a gravestone from Clusium (Chiusi), the
home of Lars Porsenna, with archaic reliefs in the style
of Greek sixth-century work, beside two heads in volcanic
stone which show how strongly the pathetic element in
later Greek sculpture appealed to the Etruscans. The head
with snakes coiled about the hair is not that of a Greek
Fury, but of one of the demons with which the imagination
of the Etruscans peopled the lower world.
In the centre is a seated statue of Apollo and a torso
from a copy of the Amazon of Polyclitus (see p. 327) ; and
on the table are two heads which, though not of great merit,
represent two famous works of this master — the Doryphorus
(on which see p. 321) and its companion-statue, the Diadu-
menus, or youth binding a fillet about his head. Beside
them is a double herm in which the same boy's head is
twice repeated. It belongs to the Attic school of the earlier
ix.] THE CAMPUS MART1US 187
part of the fifth century B.C. Polyclitus is also represented
by the statue of a young athlete by the L. entrance-wall,
though this replica may be derived rather from an adapta-
tion of his work by an Attic artist than from the original.
The lost R. arm probably held a strigil or scraper. Imme-
diately to L. of the door is a fragment of an Attic grave-
relief representing a knight who is standing beside the
horse ridden by his squire. Above it is an Attic athlete-
head, and to the R. a copy of the portrait of Pericles by
Cresilas (p. 281). On the long shelf are several heads which
illustrate different phases of fifth-century sculpture. Three
of them represent Athena : the middle of these is in the
style of the pediments from /Egina now at Munich, which
date from the time of the Persian wars, and the male head
on a bracket to the R. belongs to the same school of art.
The large female head (third from L.) represents the early
Peloponnesian school ; while Attic art may be studied in
the bearded and helmeted head of a general and the so-
called Hephaestus (second to R.). In the L. corner notice
a fine seated grave-statue of severe simplicity.
In the second room, to L. of the entrance (on either side
of which is an Attic sepulchral vase) we see a hand holding
the discus which belonged to a copy of Myron's discobolus
(p. 219), and the head of his Marsyas (p. 235) is on the
second bracket to R. of the door. Farther to the L. again
is a charming bust of a Roman boy, dating from the
Augustan period ; compare it (as an example of Roman
portraiture) with the beautiful Attic female head above, and
also with the rugged, realistic head of an old man which
belongs to the intervening period. On the shelf are two
heads of Athena, which should be compared — one archaic
(to R.), the other with Corinthian helmet (to L.) an Attic
type of the Phidian period. A head cut in half and mounted
as a relief against the wall is very like the so-called Brutus
of the Room of the Dying Gaul (p. 130). By the end wall
on the L. are some Greek portraits — one with closed eyes,
which may represent an early ideal of Homer, then Sophocles
and Euripides (a poor copy). By the end wall we have to
1 88 THE CAMPUS MARTIUS [ix.

the L. a fine fourth-century athlete head, a dancing Satyr,

and two statuettes of water-carriers executed in rosso antico
in Imperial times to adorn a park, but derived from types
of the age of Phidias. We then come to two heads, one of
which is that of the old Centaur in the group described on
p. 121 ; the other (female), if antique, is of the Pergamene
school. To the R. of the glass case (which contains a few
vases and minor objects) is a head of Apollo belonging to
the type which we have seen in the Capitoline Museum,
and several Attic reliefs, which fall into two classes — Tomb=
reliefs, of which the commonest type is that of the funeral
banquet, and Votive reliefs, in which we see human figures,
usually on a small scale, in the presence of divinity. These
are notable as showing how the idealising spirit of higher
art made itself felt at Athens even in the work of humbler
craftsmen. By the end wall on the R. we have a youthful
head belonging to an athlete-statue of Polyclitus, an archaic
figure of Hermes, the god of herds and flocks, carrying a
ram on his shoulder, a relief of a Maenad, and a portrait
of Demosthenes (cf. p. 326). Finally, by the wall on the R.
of the entrance (from L. to R.) we see one of those heads,
like that in the Room of the Dying Gladiator (p. 129) which,
if not actually portraits of Alexander the Great, represent
the Sun-god with the traits of the Macedonian conqueror.
Above it is a portrait of Epicurus ; and on the shelf are
two heads in which Greek and Roman ideals are contrasted.
The one is an Apollo of the close of the archaic period —
one of the purest types of divinity which we owe to the
Greek genius — the other a Mars, dating from the reign of
Trajan, with figures of the wolf and twins on the fastening
of the helmet. In the centre of the room are better copies
of the two heads by Polyclitus which we saw in the first
room, and a fine figure of a wounded dog which is ascribed
(perhaps rightly) to the school of Lysippus.
 X

THE EASTERN HEIGHTS

[T T has already been explained that the hills which formed
JL the higher quarters of ancient Rome were not detached
heights, but spurs projecting from the volcanic tableland to
the E., and also that in the course of the Imperial period
they became covered with parks and gardens, most of which
were the property of the emperors. Consequently, although
they have at all times yielded a rich harvest of works of
art — especially in the years following 1880, when many of
the villas of the Roman aristocracy, which gave to the hills
something of their ancient aspect, were replaced by the
unsightly creations of the speculative builder — they have
comparatively little to show in the way of ancient monu-
ments.]
The Pincian is a spur about half-a-mile in length, pro-
jecting from the tableland first in a westerly and then in a
north-westerly direction until it comes within a short distance
of the Tiber : it thus forms an important link in the chain
of defence on the N., and was strongly fortified by Aurelian
(P- 357)- It was never, however, thickly inhabited, and lay
altogether outside the " Servian " enceinte. Originally known
as the "Hill of Gardens", collis hortiiloruvi), it took the
name which it now bears from the family of the Pincii, who
became the owners of the greater part of its surface in the
fourth century A.D. The most famous of its parks in earlier
times were those of Lucullus, the general who defeated
Mithridates, and whose luxury 189 passed into a proverb, which
were on the slope where the Via Gregoriana ascends to the
igo THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
Trinity dei Monti, and those of the Acilii Qlabriones, a
family distinguished both under the Republic and Empire
(when they played a part in the history of the Early
Christian Church), which occupied the site of the Passeggiata
del Pincio and the Villa Medici. The traveller who visits
this villa should observe the numerous fragments of ancient
reliefs which were used in the sixteenth century to decorate
the garden front of the building. Notice especially (to the
l.) a Dacian horseman swimming the Danube, with the
parapet of Trajan's bridge in the background. This be-
longed to the Great Frieze of Trajan's Forum (p. 163). Some
of the others — much restored in plaster— have been sup-
posed to come from the Ara Pacis (p. 204) ; but the recent
discoveries on that site have shown that this is wrong. Two
of these represent temples which can be identified by their
pediment-sculptures (difficult to see except with field-glasses)
as those of the Great Mother (Cybele) on the Palatine
(p. 90) and of Mars Ultor in the Forum of Augustus (p. 1 52).
Another represents an emperor (possibly Claudius) taking
part in a solemn procession, and wearing the apex or close-
fitting spiked cap of \\\z. flamen. In the garden is a statue,
the head of which is a replica of the Meleager of the
Vatican, and a far better copy than that in the Belve-
dere.
From the Trinita dei Monti runs to the S. the modern
street (at first the Via Sistina) which under various names
crosses the Quirinal, Viminal, and Esquiline together with the
intervening valleys. Turning to the L. by the Via di Porta
Pinciana and issuing from the gate of that name, we come
to the Villa Borghese. Besides the picture-gallery on the
upper floor of the Casino Borghese {Christian Rome, p. 340)
there is a collection of ancient and modern sculpture on the
ground floor which is well worthy of a visit : although many
of the statues are only decorative, some are mere imitations
of the antique, and all have been ruthlessly restored.
In the portico are some fragments of large reliefs which
represent Roman legionaries and standard-bearers in serried
ranks, the back rows being shown above those in front of
x] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 191
them, according to the methods of perspective which we
observe on Trajan's column. These were formerly sup-
posed to come from the Arch of Claudius in Piazza Sciarra
(p. 181), but there is no ground for this, and they clearly
belong to the same group as the fragments of the Great
Frieze from Trajan's Forum, one of which we have just seen
in the Villa Medici. The ensigns of the praetorian guards,
with their medallion portraits of Imperial personages, are
accurately represented. Notice to the L. a torso belonging
to a free copy of the Athena Parthenos — the maiden goddess
of Athens who gave her name to the Parthenon — of Phidias.
On entering the great hall, we see that it is partly paved
with the fragments of a large mosaic, discovered in a villa
near Tusculum (Frascati), representing the gladiatorial
combats and wild=beast hunts of the amphitheatre.
Notice the inscriptions giving the barbaric names of the
fighters, the beasts represented — lion, panther, ostrich, elk
— and the fight between retiarii, light-armed gladiators
with trident and net, against the vizarded swordsmen called
secutores. Beside the prostrate form of one retiarius named
Cupido we see the Greek letter theta, which signifies thanatos
(" death ").
The colossal heads and statues in this room have been so
much restored and their surface so thoroughly polished that
they can hardly be considered as unadulterated specimens
of the antique. Nevertheless, they give a good impression
of the style of work with which the halls of Imperial palaces
were filled. 49 is a statue of Augustus in the act of
sacrificing ; 48 an idealised portrait of Hadrian ; 50 a head
of Antoninus Pius, possibly modern ; 39 is a nameless Im-
perial statue with the eagle of Jupiter (modern head). The
colossal satyrs (36, conceived as threatening a panther with
his uplifted crook) and 45, made up from an ancient torso
with traces of the tail, have considerable decorative effect.
The Meleager (40) is much inferior to the Vatican copy
(p. 307). Do not forget to notice the fragments of a Bacchic
frieze (one over the door, others inserted in the bases of
36 and 49) : it is an elegant piece of Hellenistic design.
192 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
In the first room to the R. (in the centre of which is
Canova's statue of Pauline Borghese) notice on the entrance
wall (71) a relief of Artemis, the Nurse of Children (dis-
tinguished byher quiver-band and the deer at her side) to
whom a mortal woman is handing her child. It is an
adaptation, dating from the classical Renaissance under
Hadrian, of an Attic relief of about 400 B.C. Opposite we
see (64) another copy of an Attic relief, representing Ajax
dragging the priestess Cassandra from the altar of Athena
in the sack of Troy. 65 and 69 are genre statuettes of
street-boys, such as were used for the decoration of gardens ;
58 an example of a type of Aphrodite which has been at-
tributed toAlcamenes, the pupil of Phidias.
In the second room (which contains in the centre
Bernini's David, one of the least melodramatic and, therefore,
the most tolerable of his works) we notice a large sarco=
phagus (79) upon which the labours of Hercules are
shown in compartments divided by pillars carrying arcades.
No. 5 c, opposite, is the back of the same sarcophagus. On
No. 79 is a cover (80) with a gracefully conceived relief
representing the arrival of Penthesilea, queen of the
Amazons, with her train at Troy. She is greeted by Priam,
and beside this central group we have to L. Andromache
and her child Astyanax, with attendants, and to R. Hecuba,
holding the urn which contains Hector's ashes, and Amazon's
arming. The beautiful female head (85) belongs to the
school of Phidias, and has even been supposed to represent
an Aphrodite by the master himself. By the entrance-wall
is (78) a herm of Pan, as to the type of which see what is
said on p. 337 ; 4 c is a relief from the cover of a sarco-
phagus, much restored, which gives the story of Leto,
mother of Apollo and Artemis, who are seen in the central
composition taking their places amongst the Olympian gods
(represented by the three divinities of the Capitoline temple).
On the L. we see the wanderings of Leto, who is at length
welcomed by the divinities of Delos ; on the R. probably
Iris conveying to Olympus her appeal for the aid of Ilithyia
in her travail.
 \.| THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 193

In the next room notice in the centre Bernini's "Apollo

and Daphne," a work of the sculptor's eighteenth year, and
compare its restless, unrhythmical lines and theatrical spirit
with the restraint and seriousness of ancient sculpture.
The chief statue in this room 'is an Apollo (117) of "arch-
aistic" style. The other works are mostly decorative genre
sculptures, the best of which is the (115) boy with a bird.
The marble fountain (107) carved in imitation of a sea-
shore with boatmen, angler, etc., no doubt stood in the peri-
style of a Roman house.
To the L. we pass into a large gallery with modern
porphyry busts of emperors, and a large porphyry basin
said to have been found in the mausoleum of Hadrian.
The antique statues in niches are unimportant.
The sleeping Hermaphrodite 172) in the next room
will be better discussed in connection with the replica in the
Museo delle Terme. Notice the archaic female head (181)
which may be an early Greek original, with its almond-
shaped eyes and the grimace which does duty for a smile
in early art. 176 is a modern copy of the bronze in the
Palazzo dei Conservatori (p. 144),
In the centre of the next room is Bernini's "/Eneas carry-
ing Anchises," his first important work, executed when he
was only fifteen years old. 199 is a group of Asclepius, the
god of healing, with his attendant spirit Telesphorus, who
presided over convalescence ; 191 a poor replica of a pretty
garden-statue which served as a fountain, of which we shall
see a better example in the Vatican. 183 seems to be a
modification by a later artist of a type of Athena created in
the fifth century, of which we have an example in the Museo
Chiaramonti (p. 320).
The group in the middle of the next room (a Satyr riding
on a dolphin) is mainly notable because it served as the
model for the Jonah designed by Raphael now in S. Maria
del Popolo. Notice 216, an archaic female figure (the
head is somewhat like that in the room of the Hermaphro-
dite) which seems to be an original of the earlier part of
the fifth century B.C., and a work of the school which aimed
i94 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
at severe simplicity of drapery, to which we owe the statues
in the Atrio of the Capitoline Museum (p. 105). 201 forms
a striking contrast. It is a Maenad, the work of a late
Hellenistic school noted for refinement and ingenuity in the
handling of drapery.
In the last room stands (in the centre) the statue called
the " Borghese Satyr." The arms were wrongly restored
by Thorwaldsen with cymbals ; he should be playing on the
double pipe. The statue is a fine example of the work
produced by the school founded by Lysippus : the original
was of bronze, lightly poised (without the aid of the sup-
ports which are necessary in marble) upon its dancing feet.
We are reminded of the Marsyas type (cf. p. 143), but can
hardly give that name to this statue. Notice 237, a seated
figure bearing a head which does not belong to it (perhaps
a portrait of the historian Thucydides). It reminds us,
especially in the drapery, which instead of covering the
knees only, as in statues of Zeus, enwraps the lower
part of the body of the so-called Menander of the Vatican
(p. 292). The L. hand held a sceptre, and the form of the
throne shows that a ruler or statesman, not a philosopher or
poet, was represented ; but it is very possible that the
original head was in this copy that of a Roman, though the
Greek artist created the type for a Hellenistic king. Com-
pare this statue with No. 233, which represents Pluto, the
god of the lower world — another derivative of the seated
Zeus, distinguished by the figure of the dog Cerberus seated
beside him, and the wearing of tunic as well as mantle.
232 is a good replica (head restored) of the " Marble Faun ''
(p. 130).

[The Pincian is separated from the Quirinal by a valley

occupied in ancient times by the Horti Sallustiani, or
Gardens of Sallust, which also extended over the higher
ground of the modern " Ludovisi " quarter. Julius Caesar
bought and laid out this park, which lay just outside the
line of the old city wall along the crest of the Quirinal, and
 x.j THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 195
after his death the property was purchased by the historian
Sallust ; it soon passed into the hands of the emperors. It
was perhaps the finest of the Roman parks, and its devasta-
tion by the Goths of Alaric in a.d. 410 was as grievous a
calamity as that of the Villa Ludovisi, which took its place
in modern times, by the builders of the new residential
quarter. The obelisk now standing in the Piazza of the
Trinita dei Monti was found near the Casino dell1 Aurora,
and other finds show that this part of the grounds was laid
out in the Egyptian style. In the valley was a long liippo-
drotnus or walled garden in the shape of a race-course, like
that of the Palatine (p. 195), with fountains, etc. Almost
all the remains of these structures have now been destroyed,
except those at the upper end, in the Piazza Sallustiana.
They belong to a nymphceum or large fountain, and a build-
ing in several storeys. A temple of Venus, built in 181 B.C.
in honour of the goddess of Mt Eryx in Sicily, is spoken
of as outside the Colline Gate and in the Gardens of Sallust
—i.e. in or near the Via di Porta Salara, above the remains
just mentioned. Under the Empire it was much beautified,
and became a fashionable place of resort for the demi-
monde. Itis mentioned here because the Throne of Aphro-
dite in the Ludovisi collection (p. 206) has been supposed to
come from the temple : but this conjecture is improbable
since the throne was found in the Via Abruzzi.]
We may commence our ascent of the Quirinal from the
Piazza di Venezia by the Via Nazionale. Notice the remains
of the Servian wall in the Piazza Magnanapoli, and see
what is said as to them (and the archway in the Palazzo
Antonelli) on page 355. The wall skirted the Quirinal
throughout the length of its western slope. Turn to the
L. by the Via del Quirinale leading up to the royal palace.
On this part of the hill were famous buildings of the later
Empire — the temple of Serapis, built by Caracalla, and
the Baths of Constantine, which were connected by porti-
coes with Caracalla's building. The temple of Serapis was
to the W., and its remains were to be seen in the Colonna
gardens until the seventeenth century, and were supposed
196 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
by the scholars of the Renaissance to be part of the Tower
of Maecenas from which Nero watched the fire of Rome.
Some fine architectural fragments of the frieze and pedi-
ment are preserved in the gardens. The Palazzo Rospigliosi
marks the site of the Baths of Constantine, whose longer
axis reached from the Consulta to the Via Nazionale. All
remains of the buildings have been destroyed, but the works
of art which can be traced to this source give some idea of
the magnificence of its adornments. They include the
torso of the Belvedere (p. 308), the bronzes of the Museo
delle Terme found in the Via Nazionale (p. 211), the statues
of Constantine and his sons on the Capitol and in the
Lateran (p. 104), the river-gods of the Capitoline piazza
(p. 103), and the Colossal Dioscuri, never buried, though
probably removed from their original position, which form
so conspicuous a landmark in the Piazza of Monte Cavallo.
Although they are works of the Imperial period, they are
earlier than the time of Constantine, and were possibly
plundered from some other public building, just as Trajan's
Forum and an arch of M. Aurelius were laid under contri-
bution for the adornment of Constantine's arch. We must
conceive of them as originally not free-standing groups, but
as placed relief-wise on either side of a monumental gate-
way. Compare the Dioscuri which stand at the head of the
ascent to the Capitol piazza (p. 103) : the Heavenly Twins
were well fitted to stand thus as warders of the gate. On
their bases are the inscriptions OPUS fidiae and OPUS
PRAXlTELis, which can at the earliest belong to the middle
of the fifth century, when the Baths of Constantine were
restored after the sack of the Goths ; and there is no ground
whatever for the supposition that they were copied from
statues by Phidias and an elder Praxiteles, grandfather of
the fourth-century artist. Such inscriptions are thought to
have been engraved on ancient works by the adherents of
decaying Paganism in order to save them from destruction
at the hands of Christians by imparting to them an artistic
value.
The Via Yenti Settembre follows the line of the Alta
x.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 197

Semite, or "High Street" of ancient Rome, where were

several important houses, such as that of the Flavians,
converted by Domitian into a temple and mausoleum of the
Flavian house. This seems to have been near the church
of S. Andrea, to the S.W. of which were found the remains
of a colossal altar set up in memory of the great fire of
Nero, at which sacrifices were offered yearly to Vulcan.
Opposite, in the Quirinal Gardens, was the temple of the
Quirinus, the deity worshipped by the Sabine settlers on this
hill (p. 6), afterwards identified with Romulus ; the facade
of the temple is shown on a relief in the Museo delle Terme
(p. 217). At the northern angle of the Ministry of Finance
was the Coiline Gate in the old wall, which here turned
sharply to the S. Here was fought the desperate battle
which in B.C. 82 made Sulla secure in Rome and crushed
the power of the rebellious Samnites, headed by Sulla's
great rival Marius. From this gate diverged two roads — to
the L. the Via Salaria, or " salt road," by which the produce
of the salt marshes at the mouth of the Tiber was carried
up to the hills of Central Italy, and the Via Nomentana,
which pursued a somewhat more irregular course than the
straight road of that name constructed in modern times.
The Servian embankment and walls running south from
the angle by the Coiline Gate are described on p. 355. Out-
side was the parade ground of the Praetorian Guards, whose
barracks, built under Tiberius, were used by Aurelian as
part of his line of defence. \ See below, p. 359.)
Within the embankment the plateau from which the
Quirinal and Yiminal hills project (in the dip between
them runs the Via Nazionale, whose course approximates to
that of the Vicus Longits of antiquity) was covered by the
Baths of Diocletian, the largest and most magnificent
building of the later Empire. In its general plan it was
very like the Baths of Caracalla (p. 257), the remains of
which may serve to give us some idea of its proportions,
which are nearly the same, though the area of the earlier
building is rather smaller. The outline of the surrounding
enclosure is easily traceable. In the centre of one of the
198 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
longer sides was the great apse or Exedra, the outline of
which has been restored in the modern Piazza dell' Esedra ;
and the angles are marked by two circular buildings— one,
converted into the church of S. Bernardo, with its ancient
cupola, once lighted by an aperture in the summit like the
Pantheon, the other built into a house in the Via Viminale.
Remains of the S.E. angle have been found in the Piazza
dei Cinquecento at the corner of Via Gaeta.
The remains of the central building were converted into a
Carthusian convent by order of Pius IV, who commissioned
Michelangelo to carry out the design. The plan of the
ancient structure was made the same as that of the Baths
of Caracalla — a series of halls flanked on either side by
smaller rooms and colonnaded courts. The cold bath was
to the N.E., and is entirely destroyed. The hot bath,
according to rule, faced the S.W., and occupied the space
between the modern fountain and the entrance to the
church of S. Maria degli Angeli, built by Michelangelo.
The church itself has two parts — the transept, which is
simply the great central hall of the Baths, and the rotunda
which is now a vestibule, and served in ancient times as a
passage leading to the hot bath. (Note that in Michel-
angelo's design the great hall was the nave, not the tran-
sept of the church ; in its present form it dates from 1742.)
In spite of its modernisation, the great hall, with its vault
in three bays springing from eight monoliths of grey granite,
is to be studied as one of the triumphs of Roman architec-
ture. The other remains of the Baths, now in private
occupation as studios, etc., are to be cleared and made
accessible.
At the back of this central building is the cloister of the
Carthusian convent, which has been turned into a national
museum (Museo delle Terme). The collections here pre-
served are constantly growing in importance with fresh
discoveries. The entrance is to the S. of the church,
opposite the railway station.
Passing through the entrance hall we find ourselves in the
cloister, round the walls of which are ranged statues, etc.
x.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 199
By the west wall are two statues of a Roman named
Sulpicius Platorinus and his wife, found in the burial-place
of their family in the Trastevere, which illustrate the con-
ventional repetition of Greek types by Roman artists of the
Early Empire. Other objects from the same spot will be seen
upstairs. Two statues by the same wall, discovered in the
so-called Stadium of the Palatine (p. 97), show us the kind
of decoration found in the Imperial palaces. One is a

ran ra re fa fci

Museo

Buoncompagiu

MUSEO DELLETERME GROUND FLOOR

seated nymph ; a similar figure composed as a pendant to

this was also found in the Stadium. The workmanship is
smooth, but lacking in life and distinction. The other is a
headless female statue which reminds us of the Hera
Barberini in the Vatican Rotunda (p. 278). The two figures,
however, differ in many details which reveal themselves on
a closer inspection ; and while both are modifications of a
fifth-century ideal type of Hera, this is somewhat nearer
to the original. The copy is of the time of Hadrian, and
the treatment of the drapery is remarkably skilful. 30 is a
2oo THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
graceful statuette of Victory, which originally had wings
of bronze inserted in the shoulders. The headless Heracles
and Apollo with tripod were found in an ancient villa in the
Campagna below Marino.
In the far corner notice a fine specimen of the Roman
Corinthian capital, restored and mounted on a shaft of
favonazzetto. Here we turn to the R. On the N.wall open
several of the small dwellings assigned to the Carthusian
monks ; see letters on plan.
In B are sculptures found at Ostia, the port of Rome.
In the centre of the first room is an altar with reliefs. It
has two inscriptions, one simply recording its dedication to
Silvanus, the other giving the names of the dedicants and
the date A.D. 124 ; but the reliefs have nothing to do with
Silvanus, and the altar may be older than its inscription.
On three of its faces we have subjects taken from the
conventional Hellenistic repertoire — Mars and Venus;
Cupids playing with the war-god's armour and seizing the
reins of his chariot— on the fourth a purely Roman subject
treated after the methods of landscape relief, which gives
us the measure of the native artist's power of invention.
The relief is in two zones ; below are the Wolf and Twins and
Father Tiber with his urn ; above, the shepherds and the
youthful god of the Palatine on the hill-top. The fancy of
the artist runs riot in the rocky strip which separates these
zones, which is instinct with animal life — snake, rabbit,
lizard, mouse, and snail, as well as the eagle of Imperial
Rome.
Three portrait heads in this room should be noticed as
exemplifying the art of different periods. By the window
is a hard-featured Roman of the latest Republican period ;
to the left an excellent portrait of Vespasian, the shrewd,
close-fisted money-lender's son, quite as unprepossessing as
the first-named subject, but rendered with just the happy
touch of genius which makes ugly features attractive ; lastly,
in the corner, a head labelled Gordian, and certainly belong-
ing to the third century a.d., marking the decline of art.
The inscriptions let into the walls of C and D are of great
x.J THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 201
historical interest. They were found in the grove of the
Uea Dia, an ancient divinity of Mother Earth whose rites —
scarcely understood in historical times — were celebrated by
the Arval Brotherhood. This priestly college was revived
by Augustus, and its chief duty became the offering of
prayers and thanksgivings in connection with important
occasions in the life of the emperors, who were always
members of the college. We are thus often enabled by
their records to fix the dates of historical events. The text
of the Hymn of the Arval Brothers, one of the earliest
remains of the Latin language, the very meaning of which
was probably quite unknown to the Romans of the Empire,
is preserved on a fragment in the Vatican. The inscrip-
tions range from 21 B.C. to a.d. 241.
In the centre of Room D is a beautiful altar found in the
bed of the Tiber and decorated with naturalistic plane-leaves.
It is of the Augustan period, and proves that beside the
classical school of conventional ornament there was another
founded on direct observation of nature.
In the inner room is an interesting inscription called the
Alimentary Table of the Ligures Bccbiani. Under the en-
lightened rule of Nerva and his successors loans were made
by the Government to Italian agriculturists at low rates of
interest on the security of their land ; their payments were
devoted to the maintenance of poor children. In the present
case the endowment was due to Trajan and dates from a.d.
10 1. About .£4000 was lent on ample security (the sum repre-
sented about one-tenth of the capital value of the land), and
the interest was fixed at 2j% (or perhaps 5% if the payments
mentioned were half-yearly . The " Ligurians of Baebius ::
were settlers transplanted by the consul of 1S0 B.C. from
X. Italy (where he had waged war successfully) to the
neighbourhood of Benevcntum in the S., in the district
once known as Taurasia and mentioned on the sarcophagus
of Scipio Barbatus in the Vatican (p. 309), who conquered
it in the third century B.C.
In E we have fragments of reliefs, amongst which notice
(by the L. wall) two heroes in ambush, perhaps Odysseus
202 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
and Diomed : also Cupids driving chariots in the circus. By
the window is a charming female head, which once belonged
to a seated figure holding the distaff in a famous relief of
the Three Fates dating from the time of Praxiteles. On
the R. wall is a relief which at first sight appears archaic
in style, representing Zeus seated on a throne adorned with
the figure of an eagle and stretching out his R. hand to a
worshipper (mostly destroyed). The inscription tells us that
it was dedicated to Zeus Xenios, the god of hospitality, and
the lettering cannot be dated earlier than the first century
B.C. It is a work of the school which imitated models ot
the " severe " style.
In the inner room to R. notice a fragmentary relief of three
female figures in the classical style of the fifth century B.C., re-
mindingus of the treatment of draper}' of the chaste simplicity
of the Parthenon frieze. See what is said about the class to
which this relief belonged on p. 233. Very different is the
fragment which shows Prometheus chained to a rock :
this is a significant example of the reliefs of the later
Hellenistic period when the element of landscape was
introduced. Notice, too, by the window a fragment which
represents a philosopher seated in the attitude of meditation.
The inscription names him — Anaximander, a Milesian of the
sixth century B.C., whose daring speculations on the origin
of life were amongst the boldest flights of the new-born
Greek genius; he held that "living creatures arose from the
moist element as it was evaporated by the sun, and that
man was like another animal, viz. a fish, in the beginning."
The portrait is, of course, not contemporary, but Hellenistic
in conception ; such reliefs as this were used for the adorn-
ment of libraries. In the centre of the room is a statue of
a boy-Satyr who has just become aware that he possesses a
tail (now lost) and is trying to catch a glimpse of it —a
charming creation of the Hellenistic age.
In the small room to L. is a beautiful female head which
has been sawn in half with a mantle wrapped closely round
hair and chin. This too belongs to the third century B.C. at
earliest.
x.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 203

In the passage at the back of the suite is an architect's

model of the stage-buildings of a theatre.
In F. notice a relief of two camilli (cf. p. 144) on the L.
wall. To L. are fragments of two replicas of a boy-Satyr
playing the flute (cf. p. no); the child Dionysus resting
on a hand belonged to a statue of Hermes of which a
copy {without the L. hand and child !) exists at Madrid.
The composition is not as good as that of the famous
Hermes of Praxiteles at Olympia, and this group was
probably the work of Praxiteles' father, Cephisodotus.
Notice, too, the female head, a replica of that of the so-
called Penelope (p. 291), the torso of a Satyr pouring wine
from a jug held in the uplifted R. arm, a Praxitelean
creation (to be compared with a similar, but earlier, figure in
the L. inner room) and the figure of the Minotaur between
the inner doors. In the room to R. is a Hermes of fourth-
century style and some " archaistic " sculptures.
In the corner of the cloister notice the large mosaic with
a scene from the banks of the Nile. It was found on the
Aventine, and shows the influence of Alexandria on this
branch of decorative art.
In the N. angle of the cloister has been placed1 (tempor-
arily) a statue of a maiden carrying a dish, found at Porto
d' Anzo (the ancient Antium), where it had stood in a niche
overlooking the sea. It is copied from a work of the early
Hellenistic period. The drapery is disposed with the art
which conceals art, and the slim, girlish figure, intent upon
her burden, is triumphantly rendered. On the dish we see
a roll, a bay-wreath and a lion's claw which may have been
the foot of a casket or tripod. It has therefore been thought
that the maiden is a poetess; but it is more likely that she
has taken part in a chorus of " laurel-bearers " in honour of
Apollo. The roll would contain the text of the ode which
they sang. Others think that the statue is that of a boy.
In the E. corridor are sarcophagi — one adorned with the
figures of a mother and child, another with that of a man
holding the bust of his wife in his hand, a third (preserving
1 This is now upstairs.
204 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.

traces of colour) with a marriage-group in the centre between

female figures personifying cities and provinces important
for the corn-supply of Rome (e.g. Alexandria with the
Pharos or lighthouse to L., Africa crowned with the elephant's
proboscis to R.). The baskets of corn leave no doubt that the
dead man was a high official charged with the supervision
of the annona, or provision of corn for the Roman people.
In the corner of this corridor are fragments of the Ara
Pacis Augusta?, which was mentioned on p. 184. This
monument deserves attention as the most perfect specimen
of the new Imperial art called into being by Augustus. The
altar stood in an almost square walled enclosure of marble,
the sides of which were a little over 30 feet in length, and
this was decorated in relief within and without. Portions
of these reliefs have been found at various times, beginning
from the sixteenth century, and the plan of the monument
was recovered in 1903-4 : unfortunately the excavations were
suspended from lack of funds. On the inside the boundary
wall was adorned with festoons of fruit and flowers, in the
" naturalistic :: style of which we have just seen an example ;
on the outside the decoration was in two bands. Below was
a system of conventional, but beautifully designed, scrolls
of vegetable ornament, springing from acanthus-plants, but
terminating in a variety of forms (peonies, ivy-clusters, etc.),
and enlivened by minute figures of birds and insects (frogs,
lizards, etc.) — the whole a splendid example of " classical "
ornament with a touch of naturalism in its details. Above
this was a band of reliefs of great historical interest. The
enclosure had two entrances — to E., facing the Via Lata
((Torso), and W. — so that there were unbroken friezes on the
N. and S. sides and four panel-scenes, one on either side
of each entrance. The long friezes represented processions
— that on the S. the most interesting, since it contained
portraits of all the great ecclesiastical dignitaries of the
Empire (flamens, pontifices, etc.) and perhaps also of the
family of Augustus. Unfortunately the slabs of this frieze,
discovered in the sixteenth century, are now in the Uffizi at
Florence, and one (with figures of flamens) which came to
 x.| THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 205
light in 1903 has never been removed from the spot where it
lies, embedded in the foundations of the Palazzo Fiano ! We
shall see a slab of the somewhat less interesting N. frieze in
the Cortile del Belvedere (p. 302).
The finest of the square panels is likewise in Florence : it
is a beautiful landscape-relief with a figure of the Earth-
goddess and her children together with personifications
of the life-giving Breezes that blow over land and sea. This
seems to have been adapted by the Augustan artist from
a Hellenistic composition, and to have been balanced by a
figure of Rome, grouped with the Wolf and Twins, Mars, etc.
—both on the side facing the Corso. One only of the
corresponding panels on the W. has been preserved. It is
that which we see here — composed of two slabs found at
different times (1859 and 1903), but fitting accurately together.
The subject is the Sacrifice of a Sow. To the L.. on an
eminence, is a small temple containing statues of a pair
of divinities : these are perhaps the Penates of Rome, and
the hill is in that case the Velia. Below are two graceful
figures of laurel-wreathed attendants, one of whom stoops to
lead the sow, the other — a camillus — holds a dish of fruit
and pinecones in his L. hand and a jug in his R. The rustic
altar of stone with a wreath- thrown across it is partly
destroyed, together with thee' oak tree above. To the ,R.
is the sacrificing priest, a bearded ideal figure with the toga
wrapped about his waist and drawn over the back of his
head according to the prescribed ritual, and behind him are
the remains of a figure leaning upon a staff. It is difficult
to identify these figures ; but on the whole it seems best to
see in them personifications of the Senate and people of
Rome, by whose decree the altar was set up. We cannot-
deny that the ideal scenes of the entrance-walls are in-
. congruous with the realistic processional friezes, which have
no organic connection with them : this mixture of real and
ideal elements is a feature of Imperial art.
A door in the S. corridor leads into the Museo Buon-
compagni, a suite of rooms in which are preserved the
sculptures of the Ludovisi collection, acquired by the
206 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
State and transferred hither from the Palazzo Margherita.
Many of its finest marbles were found in the region of
the Horti Sallustiani (p. 194).
In Room 1 the most interesting work is (1) the marble
throne with reliefs placed on the L. with its face to the wall.
It is an original Greek work of the late archaic period,
exquisitely conceived and delicately rendered, though of
course lacking the perfect naturalism of fully developed art.
On the back we see Aphrodite rising from the waves, which
the artist has ingeniously hidden by means of a veil, and
uplifted by two maidens — Nymphs or Hours — clothed in
semi-transparent tunics : the seashore is indicated by the
pebbly beach on which they stand. The unnatural position
of the breasts of the goddess is an archaic convention. On
the sides of the throne are two figures which have not
unnaturally suggested a comparison with the " Sacred and
Profane love " of Titian's painting. The contrast between
the veiled bride, dropping grains of incense into a brazier,
and the naked flute-girl, sounding the praises of Love on the
double pipe, is perfect in every detail ; but we must always
remember that the meaning which we cannot help reading
into the figures was not that of the artist ; to him both alike
were worshippers of Aphrodite, and no more. We should like
to think that this throne had been brought from Greece to
adorn the Temple of Venus Erycina in the Gardens of
Sallust ; but, as was shown on p. 195, this is not likely ; nor can
we accept the view that the colossal female head (33), also
of the archaic period, belonged to the goddess seated thereon.
Notice the holes for metal curls and ornaments on the head
and shoulders : probably only the nude parts of the statue
were in marble. We cannot identify the goddess with
certainty, since the head belongs to a time when the ideals
of divinity were not as yet differentiated. 12 is an archaic
draped statue of the kind described above, p. 105 (head
restored in plaster). The two herms on the R. represent (46)
Heracles and (62) Theseus. There are other herms of the
same kind in the side-rooms, which represent Athena,
Hermes, and Dionysus. They very probably adorned a
x.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 207
gymnasium ; the types were borrowed from Greek works of
the late fifth and fourth centuries.
We pass into the next room (7/0/ that on the R.) and see on
the L. (32) a Satyr pouring wine— wrongly restored with
a bunch of grapes instead of a jug in the R. hand — as the
cupbearer of Dionysus, after a bronze original of Praxiteles.
In the following room, by the L. wall, is a group (39)
commonly called Orestes and Electra, who, it is supposed,
are waiting at the tomb of their father Agamemnon. It
is signed by the artist Menelaus, pupil of Stephanus, whose
master Pasiteles was the contemporary of Cicero and Ca?sar.
Menelaus, therefore, probably worked towards the close of
Augustus' reign or even later. The school to which he
belonged was inspired by classical models (Stephanus, for
example, has left his signature on a figure derived from
a fifth-century athlete type), and in this group we have an
unskilful adaptation of types taken from Attic grave-
monuments. If, indeed, the group is mythological, then it
is possible that Orestes and his sister are represented ; but
the sculptor has even left us in doubt whether the scene is
one of parting or of meeting. The short hair of the girl
betokens mourning, and we know that Electra appeared thus
on the stage ; this is a point in favour of the popular inter-
pretation ofthe scene. Opposite is a seated portrait-statue
signed by Zeno of Aphrodisias, one of the school whose
works we have seen in the Capitoline Museum (p. 119). The
type is simply borrowed from earlier Greek art ; compare
the so-called Marcellus of the Capitol (p. 120).
In the end room, by the back wall, is (10) a large
sarcophagus of the third century a.d. with a battle scene
of Romans and barbarians, apparently Orientals. Vigorous
and dramatic as it is, the composition is confusing to the eye,
and the lack of a neutral background gives it the effect of a
complicated ornamental pattern rather than of a picture.
The Roman commander has a mark in the shape of a cross
on his forehead ; and what seems like a portrait of the same
person with an identical mark is in the Room of the Doves
in the Capitoline Museum. He may be Timesithcus, the
 2o8 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
father-in-law of Gordian III (a.D. 238 -44), who accompanied
him as prefect of the praetorian guard in his wars with the
newly-founded Persian monarchy.
On the R. wall are the fragments of a very large relief,
apparently composed for the purpose of wall-decoration,
representing the judgment of Paris. The figures of Paris
and Eros remind us of the relief in Palazzo Spada : the group
of Hermes and the three goddesses is put together from
well-known types.
Some of the portraits in this room are worthy of note.
A bronze head next to the sarcophagus is one of the rare
examples in that material from the late Republican period :
it has been quite wrongly described as a portrait of Julius
Cnesar. There is a fine head of the Julio-Claudian period to
the R. of the doorway, and over the door a good portrait of
Gallienus, the dilettante Emperor of the third century whose
folly almost led to the dismemberment of the Empire.
Returning to the first room, we turn to the L. On the L. is
a head (10) recently recognised as a portrait of Aristotle,
the head of a thinker, with a short beard, trimmed in the
style of the portraits of Euripides, which are thus shown
to be derived from an original fully one century later than
the poet's lifetime.
On the L. is (37) a statue of Ares (Mars), seated on a
rock, and clasping his L. knee in both hands. The god of
battles has laid aside his arms, and his thoughts are turning
from war to love, as is shown by the figure of Eros playing
at his feet : moreover, there are traces on the L. shoulder
which show that the Goddess of Love herself was repre-
sented at his side. Nevertheless, these figures were simply
added by the Roman copyist in order to make explicit what
the Greek sculptor had left to the imagination of the be-
holder. The original was most probably a work of
Lysippus — it should be compared with the Apoxyomenos
(p. 326), which it resembles closely in its proportions and
treatment of the nude. On the other hand, the head is like
that of the Meleager (p. 307) and others attributed to Scopas,
and this has led to the conjecture that the statue is reduced
x.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 209
and adapted from a colossal Ares by that master which we
know to have been brought to Rome.
In the second room, on the L., is (59) a statue of Hermes
the Orator. He should have the caduceus or wand in his
L. hand instead of the purse, and his R. arm should be
raised towards the head: the so-called "Germanicus" of the
Louvre illustrates this motive. The original was of the
fifth century, possibly of the school of Myron.
Opposite, on the R., is a Pergamene group belonging to
the same series as the Dying Gaul of the Capitol (p. 128).
It was once called by the names of "Arria and Paetus,"
after the Stoic and his wife who perished under Claudius,
Arria killing herself first and handing the dagger to her
husband with the words, "Paetus, it does not hurt": but
the finely characterised heads of wild, barbaric aspect
should have made such a mistake impossible. The pathos
of the group, in which we see the proud barbarian slaying
his wife in order to save her from slavery and shame, is
more dramatically intense, but hardly deeper than that of
the Gaul of the Capitol in his slow agony.
On the L. of the further door is the beautiful head of a
Sleeping Fury, once known as the " Medusa Ludovisi,"
but now recognised as not dead but sleeping. The snaky
locks of the traditional Erinnys have been softened by later
Greek art into the less fantastic form of disordered tresses.
Perhaps the Fury was represented as sleeping on the thres-
hold of Apollo's shrine at Delphi, ready to wake at the
coming of Orestes in his search for purification.
In the last room, facing the door, is the famous Juno
Ludovisi, upon which unbounded admiration has been
lavished. Beautiful as it is, it is not an original work of
Greek sculpture ; the fashion in which the hair is twisted at
the back is that of the Julio-Claudian period, and the
woollen fillet encircling the diadem likewise points to the
fact that the head really belongs to a colossal statue of a
Roman Empress idealised as Juno (Hera). It is beyond
doubt the finest example we possess of the " classicising "
style which came into fashion under Augustus, and there is
p
210 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
something cold and academic in its aspect in spite of the
purity of its forms, in which we recognise the influence of
fourth-century models of the Praxitelean school.
On the L. is (57) a copy — one of the largest in existence
— of the masterpiece of Phidias, the virgin Athena of the
Parthenon. Unfortunately it has been worked over and
badly restored in modern times, and so fails to give us a
good impression of the original of gold and ivory. The
name of the copyist, partly preserved on a fold of drapery
close to the R. foot, was apparently Antiochus. The
helmet should have a towering crest with griffins on either
side : the R. hand held a figure of Victory, the L. rested
on the shield.
We now return to the entrance = hall of the Museum (the
Roman statues in the S. corridor are not important) and
ascend the staircase to the upper floor. On the wall at
the top of the stairs are two large tablets with inscriptions re-
cording the celebration of the Secular Games by Augustus
and again by Septimius Severus. They were supposed to
herald the advent of a new age, and to take place at inter-
vals of 100 or no years, so that no one might see them
twice ; but as ambitious emperors were always anxious to
celebrate them, the official calculations were made to square
with their wishes. Horace composed his Carmen Scrculare
for the Gaines of Augustus (17 B.C.), and this is mentioned in
the earlier inscription.
In the centre of the room is a fragment of a group which
represents a maiden carried off, perhaps by a Centaur (the
hand only remains). It was a fine Hellenistic work.
Notice the mosaic of a skeleton with the legend (in
Greek), " Know thyself," destined to remind its owner of
the vanity of life.
, Turning to the L.,1 we find ourselves in a room on the side
walls of which are stucco reliefs from a vaulted chamber
in a house discovered in the grounds of the Villa Farnesina,
on the R. bank of the Tiber, with Bacchic subjects or
1 These rooms have been rearranged. In one is the Maiden of
Antium (p. 203).
X.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 211
landscapes with scenes of sacrifice, and are remarkable for
the delicacy of touch with which the artist has contrived to
give life to his sketches. We shall soon see more of the
decorations of this house ; it belonged to the Augustan
period.
The cinerary urns in this room, and the excellent portrait-
bust of a girl, whose name seems to have been Minatia
Polla — she lived in the early Imperial period — were found
in the tomb of Sulpicius Platorinus and his wife, whose

19 |~ 20 | 2J ]

MUSEO DELLE TERME UPPER FLOOR

statues we saw in the cloister. A plan of it hangs on the

wall by the farther door.
In the next room are some fine bronzes, two of which
have been mentioned as coming from the Baths of Con-
stantine. One is the seated boxer, a work of amazing
power and brutal realism. Not only are the repulsive
features of the pugilist rendered with the utmost fidelity,
but the traces of the combat in which he has been engaged
are all too plain. The ears — naturally swollen and un-
shapely— are torn and bleeding ; the moustache is plastered
in lumps with congealed blood ; there is a huge bruise under
the right eye, and the man is breathing heavily through the
212 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
open mouth. The boxing-straps on the hands (leaving the
finger-joints free) are accurately represented. We must
suppose that the boxer is resting after a fight and talking
to a comrade. The original was of the late Hellenistic
period, and bears traces of having been restored in ancient
times.
Beside it stands a work which differs widely from it in
spirit, although perhaps not in date. This is the idealised
portrait of a Hellenistic king whom we are unable to identify,
represented in heroic nudity ; in his L. hand he held a lance.
This pose — or one very like it— was used by Lysippus for
a famous statue of Alexander the Great, and after him (with
modifications) by many later artists. Roman letters and
numerals, the significance of which is not clear, are engraved
with dotted lines on the body and R. leg ; but the statue is
clearly an original, not a Roman copy.
The bronze statue of Dionysus, with eyes of silver and
lips of copper, stands on a much lower artistic level than
the two just described. It has been conjectured to be a
Campanian work of the second or third century B.C. The
fragments of bronze statues by the walls of the room
belonged to the figures which stood on a triumphal arch at
the entrance of the so-called Bridge of Valentinian, found
just below the Ponte Sisto, and apparently rebuilt by
Valentinian I in A.D. 365 on the site of an earlier bridge
called the Pons Aurelius.
The next room contains examples of most of the great
schools of classical Greek sculpture. On the R. as we enter
we see the torso of an athlete by Polyclitus, a charming
female statue (headless, with drapery slipping from the R.
arm) belonging to the Attic school of the later fifth-century,
too young for Aphrodite, and an Athena (headless, but
wearing the aegis) of severe style. By the wall facing the
doorway is a statue of Apollo, a careful but somewhat hard
copy of a bronze original, possibly a work of the young
Phidias. It should be restored with bow in R. and laurel-
branch in L. Even in the copy we can trace something of
that mastery in the modelling of the nude which was the
x.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 213
secret of Attic sculpture. To the L. of the Apollo are two
female heads, one an Aphrodite of the age of Praxiteles, the
other (with broad fillet round the hair) from a somewhat
earlier statue of Hygeia, the goddess of health. On the R. of
the Apollo is a fourth-century boy's head, and on either side
of the door a head of Asclepius, the god of healing. That
in the L. corner is conventional, and looks almost like an
archaic work : it has been conjectured to be derived from a
statue by the artist Phyromachus at Pergamon, where (as
we have already seen, p. 128) sculptors drew their inspiration
from earlier models when called upon for types of divinity.
By the wall to R. of exit notice the torso of an archaic female
statue, and a "severe" female head belonging to the
Peloponnesian school of the fifth century.
Passing into the next room we see more of the stucco
reliefs already described. Some of the panel-subjects may
have been inspired by paintings ; and there is much in the
landscapes which reminds us of the wall-paintings of Rome
and Pompeii.
In the centre is a statue of the young Dionysus, found in
Hadrian's Villa. It has been held that this is an original
work of Hadrian's time, inspired by the "classicising''
eclectic spirit of the short-lived Renaissance of Hellenism
fostered by the Emperor : but it seems rather to be copied
from a bronze of the fourth century B.C. (notice the treat-
ment of the panther's skin), and the supposed eclecticism is
due to a real mixture of styles. Perhaps the sculptor
Euphranor of Corinth may have been the creator of the
type.
In the centre of the next room is a statue which is still the
despair of critics. It represents a boy kneeling. His L.
knee almost touches the ground (which has a wavy surface
like that of wet sand, but may be a conventional represen-
tation of rocks), and his R. arm is uplifted, while his head
was thrown far back and looked up to the R. The rendering
of the flesh is so full of life that the statue has often been con-
sidered as a Greek original : but the tree-trunk can hardly
be explained except as a support added by the copyist in
214 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
marble of a bronze work. The subject has not been
identified ; if mythological it may be a Niobid, or possibly
Hylas surprised by the Nymphs while drawing water — his
pitcher might have been supported on the L. knee, which is
broken at the cap. But it is more likely that the statue is
a bit of getire work of the early Hellenistic age ; it has
been suggested that the boy was in the act of catching
a ball in the uplifted R. hand. It was found on the supposed
site of Nero's villa at Subiaco, together with the head of
a sleeping girl by the R. window, a charming work of about
the same date.
The head beside the other window is that of a Persian,
mortally stricken, whose features are convulsed by the
agony of death. The marble is that characteristic of the
copies of Pergamene works in Rome. We know that
Attalus I set up a series of bronze groups on the Acropolis
of Athens in commemoration of his victories over the Gauls
(see p. 128). Not only were these events themselves por-
trayed, but also other triumphs, historical and mythical, of
order over barbarism — the victory of Athens over Persia, of
Theseus over the Amazons, of the Olympian gods over the
Giants. Copies of these — all under life-size, and all belong-
ing to the losing side — exist in the museums of Europe ; they
seem all to have been found in the remains of the Baths of
Nero (p. 174). We shall meet with one of the Persians in
the Galleria dei Candelabri (p. 338). Our head may per-
haps be taken as evidence that similar groups on a larger
scale (corresponding with that of the Dying Gaul) were set
up at Pergamon itself.
At the end of the room are the entrances to two
cabinets. That on the L. contains statues of Vestals
found in the Atrium Vestce (p. 72). The most per-
fectly preserved of these (with a good portrait head of
the later second century A.D.) shows us the Vestal's dress
in all its details. The hair having been wound round
the heads in six plaits (which we do not see) was confined
with white and red woollen fillets (infula), the ends of
which hung down on the shoulders. A white head-dress
X.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 215
( suffibnlum) with a purple border, fastened on the breast by
a brooch ox fibula, was worn over the fillets ; a sleeved tunic,
girt high up, and a mantle, both white, completed the cos-
tume, which resembled that of a Roman bride.
In the right-hand cabinet is a fine replica of the Sleeping
Hermaphrodite, which we have already seen in the Villa
Borghese. We hear of a famous statue of this type by the
Hellenistic sculptor Polycles, but this was of bronze, whereas
the statue before us is calculated for the effect of marble.
Repugnant as the conception is to modern taste, we cannot
deny that the handling of the nude is masterly.
Returning to the main room, we notice on the back wall
a series of frescoes belonging to the house in which the
stucco reliefs already described were found. The larger
part of the wall was decorated with black panels (divided
by graceful columns like candelabra) on which landscapes
were lightly sketched with touches of white and yellow (they
can now only be discerned by close inspection). We are
reminded of the account given by Pliny of a certain Ludius
or Studius, who lived under Augustus and introduced a new
style of wall-decoration with representations of " villas,
harbours, gardens, groves, woods, hills, ponds, canals, rivers,
shores — anything that took the fancy." Above these panels
is a frieze whose prevailing tone is yellow, on which are
painted scenes from the law courts — notably one which
seems to illustrate the story of the Judgment of Solomon, or
perhaps a like story told in Egypt of the Wise King Buc-
choris. We see here the influence of Alexandrian art.
In the following room are wall-paintings from the same
house with a red ground. Notice particularly the style of
the smaUer framed pictures which are evidently meant to sug-
gest paintings of the classical period of art with a white ground
like that of some Attic vases of the fifth century* : the most
characteristic of these represents Aphrodite attended by Eros
and Persuasion (there are two others with seated female
figures playing harp and lyre). There is a marked contrast
between these paintings and the central scene, where we see
the child Dionysus attended by the Monads. Here it is
216 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [X.
hard to say whether a picture or a glimpse of outer space
was intended by the painter : see what was said on p. 92
about the wall-paintings of the House of Livia on the Pala-
tine, which are of the same style. Notice the smaller scenes,
clearly conceived as pictures, some with half-open shutters,
in the upper part of the walls.
In the corner to the R. of the entrance is a youthful male
head of fourth-century type, and in the centre of the room a
statue of a boy athlete in green basalt. The original was
of the fifth century B.C., probably of the Peloponnesian
school ; the material was chosen in order to imitate the
patina of bronze, and also to display the skill of the artist in
handling a difficult material.
In the rooms to the L. are more paintings from the house
bv the Tiber. In the first the ground is white. Notice the
graceful figure of a seated lady of " classical :! style, and also
the shuttered pictures of the frieze, which belong to a very
different style of art, illustrating no doubt the later Greek
comedy.
The case in the centre of the room contains iridescent
glass vessels and objects of amber and lead, dedicated by
women in the temple of Venus at Terracina.
In the next room we again find paintings on a red ground ;
notice the signature of the Greek artist Seleucus on one of
these.
The hoard of gold coins in the centre case was found
buried in the House of the Vestals : the coins are of the
fourth and fifth centuries.
In the last room the background of the frescoes is white,
and suggests a portico with green columns. Here we
see another imitation of bronze, this time in black marble
[bigio\ in the seated female figure in the middle of the
room.
Returning to the first room with red walls we enter
another suite to the L. 13 on plan). Here are more frescoes
with white ground, and some Greek portrait-heads. Notice
two of the type which we have already seen in the Room
of the Philosophers, representing a Hellenistic poet with
x.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 217
unsparing realism. One of them, it will be noticed, wears
the poet's ivy-wreath. There are also two portraits of
Socrates, and one (near the farther doorway) of a Hellenistic
king wearing a band round the hair.
In the next room are some portraits of Roman emperors
(those of Nero and Antoninus Pius should be noted) and two
interesting historical reliefs. On the entrance-wall is one
representing the upper part of the facade of a temple with
its pediment-sculptures. As these form scenes connected
with the founding of Rome (Mars visiting Rhea Sylvia, the
Wolf and Twins) it has been thought that the temple is that
of Venus and Roma built by Hadrian (p.. 79) : but the
lower half of the relief (which we shall presently see in the
Lateran, p. 23 0 seems to be earlier than Hadrian's reign.
Possibly the temple may be that of Venus Genetrix, built
by Julius Caesar. Opposite to this is a relief on the back-
ground of which is a temple of "Tuscan" style with
pediment-sculptures representing the auspices of Romulus,
whose settlement on the Palatine was determined by the
flight of birds. The temple must be that of Quirinus
(p. 197), with whom Romulus was identified. In front of the
doorway is a figure wearing the priestly cap with a spike
of olive-wood {apex). At the sides of this relief are other
fragments — two of them with curious columns like palm-
trees — belonging to the same monument ; they were dis-
covered inlaying the foundations of the Piazza delP Esedra.
The date is very hard to fix, but is not earlier than the
time of Hadrian.
On the R. wall are several mosaics from an ancient villa
near Baccano (an ancient lake-basin near the Lago di
Bracciano), which seem to date from the beginning of the
third century a.d. Some represent the Muses (with inscrip-
tions), others mythological subjects, such as the story of
Polyphemus and Odysseus or the punishment of Marsyas.
In the corner to the R. notice a portrait of Gallienus.
The mosaics with masks and with the rout of Bacchus
came from a villa at Tusculum.
In the next room are seven portrait-herms of charioteers,
218 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
all found near the Trastevere railway station. Four of them
wear the straps encircling the chest which are generally
thought to be reins, but are more probably leather body-
protectors. They date from the Julio-Claudian period.
Notice the carefully curled locks of one of the youths. On
the walls of the room are four mosaics representing
charioteers of the several " factions," distinguished by their
colours— red, white, green, and blue — whose struggles
aroused tenfold more excitement in Ancient Rome than
horse-racing does in modern England. The "factions"
were companies formed for profit, which contracted with the
magistrates responsible for the celebration of the games.
Originally there were only two — the Whites and the Reds ;
the Greens and Blues, which were the most successful,
are first heard of under the Empire. Caligula, followed by
most of the succeeding emperors who patronised the sport,
bestowed his favour on the Greens ; Caracalla was the
patron of the Blues. On the R. wall is an inscription in
honour of one of the most famous charioteers — Avilius
Teres, the first to achieve the distinction of winning one
thousand races for the Reds ; his name shows him to
have been a freedman of a family which supported that
" faction."
In the next room are some interesting wall-paintings from
a Columbarium (cf. p. 222) on the Esquiline, used by the
dependents of the family of the Statilii. They formed
a frieze above the uppermost row of niches containing
urns, and date from about the beginning of the Augustan
period. The subjects are taken from the legend of yEneas
and the founding of Lavinium, Alba Longa, and Rome,
and are of special interest because they were in all proba-
bility painted before Virgil's sEneid was written. More-
over, they illustrate the beginnings of a Roman narrative
style which was to find its fullest development in the reliefs
of the Imperial Columns. Unfortunately the paintings are
much faded and the inscriptions generally illegible (the
names of Numicus, a river-god, and of the city Alba can
be read). The battles between the Trojan settlers and the
x.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 219
native Latins are depicted at length ; also the building of
two cities, Lavinium and Alba.
By the entrance-wall is a sarcophagus recently discovered
which seems from its style to date from the middle of the
second century A.D. at earliest, and represents a youthful
Roman in heroic nudity receiving the submission of bar-
barians, who seem to be either Dacians or Orientals.
Possibly the man for whom the sarcophagus was made had
served with Trajan in his youth. Opposite is an unfinished
sarcophagus with Bacchic figures roughly blocked out, and
in the centre of the room a marble vase with reliefs repre-
senting the ceremonies of initiation into the Eleusinian
mysteries. In the centre sits the neophyte veiled, whilst
a woman holds the symbolic winnowing-fan over his head.
To the L. a pig is sacrificed and placed in a well-head ;
to the R. we see the goddesses of Eleusis, Demeter and
Persephone, holding torches, and in front of them a youth-
ful figure clad in a fawn-skin and holding a club, who can
hardly be other than Heracles. Some details in these
reliefs — especially the ears of corn on the head of Demeter
— point to Alexandria, where mysteries imitated from those
of Eleusis were celebrated.
In the last room is a good copy of the famous discobolus
of Myron, found in a villa belonging to the King of Italy,
not far from Ostia. Beside it has been placed a cast in
which the head is taken from the only extant copy in which
it is preserved — that in the Palazzo Lancelotti, which is
never shown to visitors. This statue was the masterpiece
of early athletic sculpture, and one of the most daring
flights of the Greek genius. Myron worked between the
Persian wars and the middle of the fifth century, and was
not content to repeat the conventional poses of athletic
portrait statues. He chose the critical moment of rest
which precedes the throw of the discus, when every muscle
of the frame is at full tension, ready for the rhythmical
swing which will accompany the downward sweep of the
R. arm. The copy before us is an excellent specimen of
painstaking Roman work, which, if it cannot give us the
220 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
freshness and life of the original, is rich in anatomical
detail. Think away the marble supports and puntelli which
were absent in the bronze original.
We must now return to the top of the staircase and pass
on, leaving it on our R. In the suite of rooms in front
of us are cases containing a treasure of gold ornaments,
weapons, and other objects from a Lombard cemetery near
Ascoli on the E. of Italy, as well as material of the same
period from Nocera in Umbria. They illustrate the barbaric
art of the Dark Ages, drawing inspiration from antique
models. In the last room note a hoard of English coins
of Alfred the Great and other Saxon kings, sent to
Rome as " Peter's-pence " and buried in the House of the
Vestals.
In the suite of rooms on the R. is a collection of mis-
cellaneous antiquities intended to illustrate the life of the
ancient Romans. By the walls on the R. are a series of
female portrait-heads illustrating the successive styles of
hairdressing which were in fashion under the Empire. In
the wall cases of the first and third rooms are a number
of terra-cotta models of human limbs and animals dedi-
cated as votive offerings in a temple of the gods of healing.
In the centre cases are small bronzes, terra-cottas, glass
vessels, etc. ; notice in the third room (16 on plan) the lid
of a casket from Palestrina like the Ficoroni cista (p. 180).
There are also many fragments of terra-cotta reliefs similar
to those in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (p. 148) and Museo
Kircheriano (p. 179) ; notice the Egyptian scene, of which we
have already seen examples. Other terra-cottas, such as
the group of a Satyr and Msenad, and the frieze in the
last room but one from Palestrina, are archaic in style and
were used in the decoration of temples. In the last room
are exhibited remains of the Floating Villas in the form
of ships found in the Lake of Nemi and built to the order of
Caligula. The timbers of these ships were encased in
bronze and adorned at the extremities with heads of lions,
Medusa, etc.
x.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 221
After leaving the Museo delle Terme, we may visit the
remains of the Servian wall in the goods station : as to
these see p. 355. The wall ran hence almost due S., and the
region outside it was a vast cemetery in Republican times.
The bodies of the poor and the slaves were cast into
trenches (pi/tiatli), some traces of which have been dis-
covered, and the nuisance and danger to health became so
intolerable that Maecenas reclaimed the whole district and
laid out his park — the Gardens of Maecenas already men-
tioned ip. 142) — on the site. In these was the tower from
which Xero witnessed the burning of Rome.
If we proceed past S. Maria Maggiore, take the Via Carlo
Alberto, and turn to the R. just before reaching the Piazza
Yittorio Emanuele, we shall see another landmark in the
course of the Servian wall — the Arch of Gallienus, which
bears an inscription showing that it was set up in a.d. 262
in honour of that unworthy Emperor by one Aurelius Victor,
prefect of the city. It took the place of the Esquiline Gate
in the old line of wall, and originally had three bays, of
which the central one and traces of that on the E. now
remain.
The region lying outside the Servian enceinte on the E.
was almost entirely covered with parks and palaces under
the Empire. The remains of antiquity are here few and
scattered. Xear the northern angle of the Piazza Yittorio
Emanuele are the ruins of a lofty structure of brick, which
is popularly known as the Trofei di Mario, because the so-
called Trophies of Marius, now on the balustrade of the
Piazza del Campidoglio (p. 103) were found there. The
building was a monumental fountain, and was probably set
up by Domitian : the absence of dated stamps on its bricks
is in favour of an early date, and we could in any case
hardly identify it with a famous fountain erected in this
quarter by Severus Alexander, since it stands too high to be
fed by the aqueduct which he built.
Taking the Via Principe Eugenio, which starts from the
western angle of the Piazza Yittorio Emanuele, and then
the Via di Porta Maggiore which continues it, we may turn
222 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
to the L. by the Via Pietro Micca and reach the building
cnmmonly called the Temple of Minerva Medica. The
name was given to it in the seventeenth century because it
was wrongly believed that the Athena Giustiniani (p. 329)
was found there. It really formed part of a suite of baths
belonging to one of the parks in this region — most prob-
ably the horti Liciniani, which were the property of the
Emperor Gallienus. The style of the building, especially
the ingenious construction of the cupola over a chamber of
decagonal plan, with its system of ribs in the shape of
brick arches, by which its stability is assured and its weight
distributed, points to the time of Gallienus (a.d 250-68).
Notice, however, that the semicircular side chambers, of
which a few courses are still standing, are about half a
century later in date. They are built in so-called opus
mixtum, with alternate courses of brick and tufa, and seem
to have been added in order to buttress the central hall.
The marble pavement, and traces of the pipes by which
water was laid on, have recently been laid bare in places.
From here it is but a few steps to the Porta Maggiore.
This region was occupied in the Augustan period by tombs
and columbaria, amongst others that of the Statilii, from
which were taken the historical wall paintings which we saw
in the Museo delle Terme (p. 218). Most of these were
buried under fifteen or twenty feet of earth when the parks
of the Later Empire were laid out.
The Porta Maggiore, which was the Porta Prcenestina
of the walls of Aurelian (p. 359), is formed by two broad
arches of the great double aqueduct built by Claudius in
A.D. 52. It has three small gateways (closed) in the piers,
which are decorated with engaged Corinthian columns
(notice the " rusticated " masonry) carrying an entablature
and pediments.
[This spot, which was called by the Romans ad Spem
veterem from an ancient Temple of Hope, was the meeting-
place of the greater part of the aqueducts which supplied
Rome with water. The earliest of these was the Aqua
Appia, the work of the blind censor of 312 B.C., Appius
\.\ THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 223
Claudius, who is more famous as the builder of the Appian
Way. Its channel was almost entirely subterranean, except
where it crossed the valley between the Caslian and the Lesser
Aventine ; it has been brought fo light by excavation at
various points. The supply came from the Anio valley,
about seven miles from Rome. Forty years afterwards, a
second aqueduct, the Anio Vetus, was built, tapping the
Anio about ten rmles above Tibur (Tivoli), and therefore
between forty and fifty miles long. As the Aqua Appia
supplied the Crelian and Aventine, so the Anio Vetus
supplied the Esquiline ; but the water was not of good
quality, and came in time to be used only for gardens and
drains. The channel of the Anio Vetus was carried on an
embankment for some distance outside the Porta Maggiore,
but for the rest of its course ran underground.
In 144 B.C. the prretor, Q. Marcius Rex, built a third
aqueduct, the Aqua Marcia, starting from the Sabine hills
on the R. bank of the Anio. The latter part of its course
was practically the same as that of the Anio Vetus, but as
it was at a much higher level it could supply even the
Capitol with water, and after being doubled in volume by
Augustus, who tapped fresh sources, it was extended by
later emperors, such as Caracalla, who conveyed its waters
by a special branch to his Baths, and Diocletian, who did
likewise.
Soon afterwards, in 125 B.C., a fresh source of supply
was found in the Alban hills, and an aqueduct called from
the relatively high temperature of its water the Aqua
Tepula, was built. Agrippa, who restored the Republican
aqueducts and built a new one, the Aqua Virgo, for the
use of his own Baths (we have already seen its remains,
p. 182), tapped fresh springs nearer to Rocca di Papa, and
carried the water to Rome, together with that of the Aqua
Tepu/a, under the name of Aqua Julia.
Lastly, Claudius gave to Rome two aqueducts whose
arches are among the unforgettable features of the Cam-
pagna. The Aqua Claudia was drawn from springs near
those of the Marcia, the Anio Novus from the river Anio a
224 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
little below Subiaco; the two were carried on the same
arches as they approached Rome, but the channel or specus
of the Anio Novas was above that of the Aqua Claudia-
The water of the first named was muddy and undrinkable
after rains, and Trajan improved its quality by placing
the intake higher up the valley in order to use the
three artificial lakes of Nero's villa at Subiaco as filtering
tanks.]
All the aqueducts named in the above paragraphs (except
the Aqua Virgo, which crossed the Pincian) entered Rome
by or near the Porta Maggiore, and if we go outside the
gate we shall see the remains of several at the angle
of the wall of Aurehan. The Anio Nov us and Aqua
Claudia are incorporated in the wall itself; they are crossed
at right angles by three channels, that of the Marcia being
the lowest, the Tepula next, and the Julia highest. The
channel of the Anio Veins is at the ground level, while the
Appia is buried. (The modern Aqua Felice, called after
Felice Peretti, who became Pope as Sixtus V, also enters
Rome here. It is drawn from springs near Culonna and
dates from 1587.) The triple aqueduct of the Ma. aa, Tepula,
and Julia runs to the N.W. along the wall of Aurelian and
was incorporated in the defences by his architects. At the
Porta San Lorenzo the Julia branches off; it fed the foun-
tain described above under the name of Trofci di Mario.
The Claudia and Anio Novus were carried to a distributing
station on the Esquiline, but a branch running S.W. was
built by Nero on brick arches. We can see its remains
between the Porta Maggiore and the Lateran (especially in
the Villa Wolkonsky) and shall meet with them ayain
on the Caelian and in the valley between that hill and
the Palatine, to which the aqueduct was continued by
Domitian.
On the Porta Maggiore we can read, above the original
inscription of Claudius, those of Vespasian and Titus, which
record the restorations already made necessary, probably by
defects in the original structure, from the building of which
handsome profits were doubtless made by the freedmen of
X.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 225
Claudius in the shape of blackmail levied on the con-
tractors.
Just outside the gate, where two roads diverge— the Via
Praenestina, leading to Palestrina, and the Via Labicana, by
which Tusculum could be reached— is an interesting tomb,
that of the baker M. Vergilius Eurysaces, built in the first
century B.C. It was concealed for many years by a tower flank-
ing the Porta Maggiore, which was pulled down in 1838. It
is built of concrete faced with travertine, and is not
quite square in shape. Its decoration consists in rows
of stone cylinders, representing measures of grain, and
above them a frieze with reliefs showing the processes of
bread-making.
It is but a short distance from the Porta Maggiore to
the church of S. Croce in Gerusalemme. Close by this
church, on the N.E., are the ruins of a fine hall with an
apse or exedra, and many other remains have been found
both within and without the wall of Aurelian, which
show that a palace existed on this spot before that wall was
built. It has been identified as the Sessorium, one of
whose halls was converted by Constantine the Great into
the church of S. Croce (ruthlessly modernised in 1742) in
order to house the True Cross discovered by his mother
Helena. (Considerable remains of the " Baths of Helena"
once existed in the Vigna Conti to the E. of the Via di S.
Croce, and a large reservoir by which they were supplied
may still be seen.)
On the other side of S. Croce are the ruins of an Amphi =
theatre which has been utilised as part of the fortifications
of Aurelian. It was once three storeys high, but little is
now left of it except the outer wall of the lower story, a fine
specimen of Imperial brickwork, which it is difficult to date.
The arcades, separated by Corinthian columns carrying a
cornice, were of course originally open. There can be no
doubt that this is the Amphitheatrum castreiise or "Court
Amphitheatre" — the Imperial residence was technically
called the "camp" — mentioned in ancient anthorities.
The Via di Santa Croce takes us back to the Piazza
226 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.
Vittorio Emanuele, and the Via Leopardi leads thence to
the Via Merulana, a broad street connecting S. Maria
Maggiore with the Lateran, but not quite coinciding with
the ancient road of the same name. Here we find a build-
ing which bears the name of the Auditorium of Mjecenas,
given to it when it was discovered in 1874 because it was
thought to be a lecture-hall in the Gardens of Maecenas
(which in point of fact were somewhat farther to the north).
It is a room with an apse or exedra at one end, in which are
seven stages like the tiers of seats in a theatre. It has been
suggested that these were meant for flower-pots, and that
the building was a greenhouse. Certainly the wall-paintings
(now much faded) are intended to create the illusion of
a garden or park, just as in the Villa of Li via at Prima
Porta and the remains of the Domus Publica (p. 74). The
building is a very good example of opus reticulatam (p. 16)
as used under the Early Empire with brick-shaped blocks
of tufa at the angles of walls.
Fragments of the Servian wall are to be seen to the S. of
the "Auditorium."
[The Palazzo Brancaccio-Field, on the opposite side of the
Via Merulana, stands on the neck of land connecting the
spur called the Oppius with the plateau of the Esquiline.
From this point the Via Giovanni Lanza runs down the dip be-
tween the Oppius and a more northerly spur, the Cispius,
and joins the Via Cavour in the valley of the Subura. The
Via Urbana (parallel with the upper part of the Via Cavour)
corresponds nearly to the ancient Vicus Patricius, which ran
up the narrow valley between the Cispius and the Viminal.
A very early cemetery (of about the same date as that
adjoining the Sacred Way, p. 76) existed within the line of
the Servian wall, near S. Martino di Monti, and tombs of
later date, with imported Greek vases, etc., have been
found outside the Porta Esquilina.
The Oppius was almost entirely included in the Golden
House of Nero. Even before the fire of a.d. 64 he had
built the Domus transitoria, which connected the Imperial
residence on the Palatine with the Gardens of Maecenas, and
x.] THE EASTERN HEIGHTS 227
when this was destroyed he set about rebuilding on a scale
of unsurpassed magnificence. He did not live to see his
plan fully carried out, and Otho spent large sums on the
work ; but the Flavian emperors destroyed most of the
buildings in order to gain popularity. Titus built his Baths
on the edge of the Oppius, and Trajan, after a fire in a.d. 104
which worked havoc in this region, built his own Thermi-
on the parts of the Golden House which the flames had
spared.]
The remains of the Imperial buildings are chiefly to be
seen in two places. Behind the Palazzo Brancaccio-Field is
a large reservoir consisting of nine parallel vaulted chambers
(beneath which is said to be a lower story) called the Sette
Sale, which is not as a rule accessible ; and if, on leaving the
Auditorium of Maecenas, we take the Via di Mecenate
(which passes close by the reservoir), we reach the Via
Labicana at the foot of the hill. Here, on the R., is the
entrance to the remains popularly known as the Terme di
Tito. What we see here are the foundations of a great
semicircular exedra like that of the Baths of Diocletian
(p. 198 which projected from the SAY. front of the Baths
of Trajan. These foundations consist partly of a series of
parallel walls running from S.W. to X.E. in the direction of
the shorter axis of Trajan's enclosure, and partly of a num-
ber of rooms which belonged to the Golden House of Nero ;
This later was set at quite a different angle, facing nearly
due S. The most interesting feature of these remains is
a suite of seven rooms divided by partitions into two halves
facing N. and S. (to the X. was an open court or garden
intersected by the foundation-walls of Trajan's Baths;. The
frescoes on the walls and vaults, though sadly faded, still
give some idea of the elegance of the ancient decorations.
Unfortunately the rooms beyond this suite, which were much
more richly decorated — one in particular had a roof adorned
with paintings framed in mouldings of gilded stucco, called
the •" Golden Vault " — have long been reburied. When first
discovered in the fifteenth century, these wall-paintings in-
spired Raphael and his fellow artists, and the Loggie of the
228 THE EASTERN HEIGHTS [x.

Vatican show manifest traces of their influence. The Lao-

here, but
coon (p. 300) was not, as is often said, found
farther to the N., near the Sette Sale. Pliny tells us that it
stood " in the house of the Emperor Titus," which may have
been a part of Nero's palace.
 XI

THE C/ELIAN AND AVENTINE

tr I AHE two southernmost hills of Rome, which with
their adjoining valleys) are described in this chapter,
differ widely in character and history. The Caelian is a
long, narrow spur which juts out from the eastern plateau
and ends in the height facing the Palatine on the S.E.
It seems to have been partly included in the Septimontiiui:,
and its western part lay within the Servian line of defence.
It was thickly inhabited under the Later Republic, but was
devastated by a fire in a.d. 27, and afterwards became a
fashionable quarter, covered with the palaces of the new
aristocracy, who were now excluded from the Palatine by
the extension of the Imperial palaces.
The Aventine proper is a hill of much the same shape
and character as the Palatine, separated from it by a
narrow valley, and overlooking the Tiber with its sheer
cliffs on the northern side. Separated from it by a narrow
depression is a more southerly height (crowned by the
church of S. Saba) which is popularly called the Lesser
Aventine. Part of it, which faces the W. extremity of the
Caelian, was included in the Servian defences, but it con-
tained no buildings of great importance, and played no part
in the history of the city. The Aventine itself was not
included within the sacred boundary of the pomerium until
the reign of Claudius. Tradition has it that it remained un-
occupied (except by temples') and for the most part wooded
until in 456 B.C. it was parcelled out in lots among the

1 The most important of these 229 was the Temple of Diana, a

federal sanctuary of the early Latin League.
230 THE C /ELIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
plebeians ; and it retained throughout the history of the
Republic the character thus given to it. Under the Empire
it gradually changed its aspect, and, like the Caelian,
became the resort of the aristocracy to whom the Palatine
was no longer open as a place of residence.
In the valley between the Aventine and Caelian the two
main roads from Rome to the S. — the Via Latina and Via
Appia — had their starting point. The old "city gate — Porta
Capena — was near the S. angle of the Palatine, and a
suburb grew up about the two roads (which diverged at
some distance from the gate). They were flanked with
tombs, temples, and columbaria. On the right the great
Baths of Caracalla were built against the slope of the Lesser
Aventine. All this region is to be thoroughly explored and
converted into a zona mominientale for the preservation of
ancient remains. Between the Aventine and the Palatine
was the Circus Maximus, which dates from very early times
and became one of the most magnificent buildings in Rome ;
and between this and the river was the Forum Boarzum, or
cattle market, surrounded by sanctuaries which have not
wholly perished.
To the W. of the Aventine the low-lying ground by the
river was covered with docks and warehouses ; a visible
memorial of the trade which passed through this quarter
under the Empire may be seen in the " Monte Testaccio "
(p. 263).]
We take as our starting-point the Piazza of the Lateran,
which is easily reached by tram from any part of Rome.
Here the Caelian may be said to begin, although the line
which divides it from the Esquiline is hard to trace. (It has
been supposed, without definite reason, that there was a
depression between the Caelian and Esquiline which was
artificially filled.) The Lateran takes it name from the
family of the Laterani, to one of whom (consul in A.D. 197)
Septimius Severus presented a palace on this site. By the
time of Constantine it had reverted to the Emperors,
and he bestowed it on the Church ; remains of its walls
have been discovered under the Basilica of S. Giovanni.
XL] THE C.ELIAN AND AVENTINE 231
It was the residence of the Popes throughout the Middle
Ages.
In the modern palace is the Museum of the Lateran,
formed in 1844 by Gregory XVI to house the overflow of the
Vatican collections. The Christian Museum, on the upper
floor, is described in Christian Rome, page 53 ft The
Museo Profano is on the ground floor, and the rooms are
numbered continuously, beginning at the S.YV. corner (the
farthest to the L. from the entrance).
In Room I notice on the floor part of a mosaic pave-
ment, the remainder of which may be seen on the upper
floor. It was found in the Baths of Caracalla, but dates
from the fourth century, and represents athletes, trainers,
and implements used in the gymnasium. The figures on
the fragment in this room are boxers.
On the entrance wall to L. are some interesting reliefs.
8 represents Helen about to step into the ship of Paris ; it
may be Greek work, but is badly weathered. 10 is a late
Greek grave-relief. The dead man is portrayed as a hero,
with his horse by his side and his shield and sword hanging
to the L. He is taking leave of his young wife. The
serpent coiled about the bay tree is a constant adjunct of
the tomb in Greek art, and was believed to embody the
spirit of the deceased. 1 1 is a curious relief, partly severe,
almost archaic in style, yet with late elements such as the
landscape background. It may represent the child Asclepios
(the god of healing) found by the hero Antolaos in the
mountains of Arcadia. Notice the holes in the horn and
drinking-cup which show that it was used as a fountain.
On the L. wall is (13) a fine fragment of relief with two
boxers, which was drawn (with restorations) by Raphael ;
it would seem to be of the time of Trajan, but there is no
ground for thinking that it came from his Forum.
20 is the lower half of the relief of which we saw the
upper portion in the Museo delle Terme (p. 217). It was
supposed to have come from Trajan's Forum, and Thor-
waldsen therefore restored the figure of the Emperor with a
head of Trajan ; but if the temple in the background be that
232 THE CAZLIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
of Venus and Rome, the relief must be at least as late as
Hadrian's reign. The Emperor, whoever he is, is attended
by his lictors (notice the fasces, or bundles of rods) and is
taking part in some public ceremony in front of the temple.
It is far from certain that the relief came from Trajan's Forum.
In 26 we have a good example of the "landscape reliefs"
which were used, apparently in Hellenistic times, and cer-
tainly from the Augustan period onwards, for the decoration
of walls or fountains — in this case there is an opening for a
jet of water in the horn out of which the satyr-child is
drinking. The child's figure — turned in the opposite direc-
tion— is exactly repeated in a fragment in the Galleria dei
Candelabri (p. 337), which is of far better workmanship
and was found on the Palatine. This shows that the com-
position was a well-known one. Notice the interest shown
by the artist in animal life (bird's nest threatened by snake,
eagle devouring hare, goats browsing).
On the wall facing the entrance is (34) a grave-relief
representing the chariot races of the circus with much in-
teresting detail.
By the exit-wall are some interesting torsos ; notice 46, a
replica of the fifth-century figure copied by Stephanus, who
has already been mentioned. (The statue by Stephanus is in
the Villa Albani.)
In Room II are a large number of architectural frag-
ments, from which we can get a good impression of the
characteristic features of Roman ornament. Notice especi-
ally 86 and 168, two fragments of a frieze which complete
each other : it represented Erotes pouring out wine for
Griffins. These came from the Forum of Trajan, as did
also (160) the frieze with acanthus ornament. This latter
affords an excellent illustration of what was said on p. 26
as to the over-elaboration by the Romans of the simpler
vegetable motives used by the Greeks. Where the Greek
artist would have shown a plain stem and allowed the
graceful curve to speak for itself, the Roman enwrapped it
with rich acanthus foliage, practically annihilating the back-
ground and giving the eye no place of repose.
xi.] THE C.ELIAN AND AVE N TINE 233
In Room III, by the R. wall, is (256) a statue of Antinous,
the favourite of Hadrian (p. 279), represented as Vertumnus,
a god of the seasons, holding the fruits of the earth in his
lap. The head is restored, but rightly so, since Antinous
can be recognised by the very individual conformation of
the chest. 258 is a small (child's) sarcophagus with scenes
from the gymnasium.
In room IV, to the R., is (278) a very fine Greek relief,
which represents Medea and the daughters of Pelias.
Medea persuaded them that they could restore their father's
youth by cutting him in pieces and boiling his limbs with
magical herbs. The preparations for this horrible deed are
here represented with the subtle self-restraint of fifth-century
Greek art. To the L. is the sorceress, with an Oriental head-
dress and sleeved tunic, holding a box of herbs, and on the
R. is the finely conceived figure of a daughter of Pelias,
whose uneasy conscience is betrayed by her gestures. We
saw a fragmentary relief of this class in the Museo delle
Terme ; and there is a famous one in the Villa Albani which
represents Orpheus, Hermes, and Eurydice. These monu-
ments all belong to the middle of the fifth century B.C. : they
all represent three figures only, and they breathe the spirit
of Attic tragedy. Probably they were votive offerings set
up by tragic poets in commemoration of their victories in
dramatic contests.
291 is a good specimen of the Imperial statues of the
Julio-Claudian period. It was found at Veii, and is a portrait
either of Drusus the Elder (brother of Tiberius) or of his
son Germanicus — most probably the former.
By the exit-wall is a statue (319) restored with a head ot
Mars, a portrait-bust (352) of some prince of the Claudian
house, a poor replica (348) of the " Marble Faun," and (356,
on a bracket) a good copy of the head of the athlete of
Stephanus (p. 232).
Room V contains some animal subjects — a cow (406) and
a stag (399) in basalt, upon which a figure of Artemis was
once seated. 396 and 405 (by the back wall) are herms with
slender shafts representing Pan and his female counter-
234 THE CAZLIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
part, Panisca, or perhaps rather two Italian divinities,
Faunus and Fauna, embodied in forms derived from
Greek art.
Notice in the centre (391) the group of Mithras slaying
the bull. The religion of Mithras was of Persian origin :
Mithras was the God of Celestial Light who led his wor-
ship ers to victory in the secular struggle with the powers of
darkness. His worship became immensely popular, espe-
cially amongst the soldiers and the lower classes of society,
who were admitted to its mysteries, in the second century
A.D., and was in fact at one time a serious rival to Christian-
ity. In each of the chapels in which its rites were celebrated
the place of the altar in a Christian church was taken by
such a group as that before us, representing the act from
which the order of creation sprang — for the slaying of the
bull fertilised the earth and caused it to bring forth its
abundant harvests, in spite of the machinations of the Evil
One (Ahriman), here represented under the form of a
scorpion. The group of Mithras and the bull is borrowed
from that of Victory sacrificing an ox so common in
Greek art.
Notice also the ash-chest (407) with the figures of boys
with fighting-cocks. The fight is over, and one of the boys
is carrying away the body of the slain cock in tears.
Notice that the name of the person whose ashes were con-
tained in the chest has not been filled in.
In Room VI area number of sculptures found at Cervetri,
the ancient Ca?re, on the site of the theatre. They are good
examples of the conventional style of Imperial portraiture
under the first dynasty. 428 is a head of Augustus, 435 and
437 seated statues of Tiberius and Claudius wearing the oak-
wreath or corona a'vi'ca, 433 and 439 figures of Imperial
personages in full armour, conceived as haranguing their
troops. 433 has a restored plaster head, 439 may be Drusus
the Elder or Germanicus (see p. 233). 436 is a princess of
the Claudian house — perhaps Octavia, the daughter of
Claudius ; while 445 may have represented Drusilla, the
sister of Caligula, as an inscription bearing her name was
xi.] THE C&LIAN AND AVENTINE 235
found with it, but the head (an ideal type) does not belong
to the statue. The statue in the toga (438) and bust (444)
cannot be identified.
442 is an interesting relief adorned with personifications
of the chief cities of Etruria : it was a common practice of
Roman artists to translate statues in the round into relief,
as is here done. The names of the cities are inscribed on
the pedestals — to L. Vetulonia, a young man standing beside
a pine-tree and holding a rudder, then Volci, a seated female
figure holding a bird in her R. hand, finally Tarquinii, a man
in the garb of a sacrificing priest. Perhaps the fragment
belonged to the base of the statue of Claudius, who wrote
a history of the Etruscan league in Greek.
The altar (448) was dedicated to a local magnate of
Caere, Gaius Manlius, by his clients. It resembles the altar
of the Vicomagistri in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (p. 138)
in having a scene of sacrifice (carefully rendered in detail)
on the front and figures of Lares at the sides. On the back
we see enthroned the goddess to whom the sacrifice was
offered — the Fortune of Caere amidst her worshippers.
Room VII contains the two most important statues in the
museum. 462 is a copy of the famous Marsyas of Myron,
whose discobolus we saw in the Museo delle Terme (p. 219).
As already explained (p. 143), the legend told how the Satyr
picked up the flute which Athena had thrown away ; and
an Attic vase-painting shows Marsyas starting back in
astonishment at Athena's actions in much the same attitude
as that in which he is here represented. The castanets are
due to the modern restorer, and we must remember that for
the bronze original, which was lightly poised upon the toes,
supports were not needed. We see how in this case, as in
that of the discobolus, Myron chose his subject in order to
display the consummate skill with which he could depict
the human body at full tension in an attitude which could
only be maintained for a brief moment : we can also under-
stand the remark of the ancient critics that his heads were
lacking in expression.
The statue of Sophocles (476) has been supposed to be a
236 THE CAZLIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
Greek original, but is rather a copy in marble trom the
bronze set up about 340 B.C. in the theatre at Athens. In the
Room of the Philosophers (p. 117) we saw examples of
the type of Sophocles belonging to the poet's lifetime ; here
we have a free rendering in the style of a later age. It has
well been said that the statue " bears the character of a
public monument " ; and we must think of it as grouped
with figures of yEschylus and Euripides ; one of these may
be represented by a statue in the Braccio Nuovo (p. 326).
It would be waste of words to praise or analyse the simple
yet perfectly adequate conception of the poet who " saw life
steadily and saw it whole."
Passing into Room VIII we see immediately to the L. of
the entrance a highly finished relief (487) of a comic poet
in his study examining a mask : two other masks and a
scroll — doubtless containing the text of the play to which
they belong — lie on the table in front of him. The masks
are those of the typical characters of the New Comedy —
the young man, the girl, and the elderly father ; and the
seated figure is in all probability Menander. The female
figure seems to be ideal in type, and therefore to represent
a Muse. The workmanship is good, and may date from
Hellenistic times.
In the centre of the room is (534) a statue of Poseidon
(Neptune) found at Porto, near Ostia, where Claudius built
a fresh harbour for Rome. It is a Roman adaptation of a
Greek type belonging to the school of Lysippus.
Notice at the back of the room two fragments (502 and
515) of high relief with heads — one bearded, probably a
lictor, the other beardless, of aristocratic features. These
must have belonged to some important monument, perhaps
a triumphal arch of Domitian ; for the excellence of the
work points to the Flavian period.
In Room IN we find more architectural fragments :
notice especially a pilaster (near the exit) decorated with
vine leaves, deeply undercut : figures of Erotes (now cut
away) were clambering among them and plucking the
grapes. It is a good example of later Roman ornament —
xi.] THE C^ELIAN AND AVENTINE 237
the logical development of the principle explained on
page 232. 582 is a fine altar of Flavian date, showing the
same enrichment of architectural members which we noticed
in the cornice of the Temple of Vespasian (p. 149). By
the entrance wall are some heads of lictors belonging to a
processional frieze which, in spite of their small scale, are
skilfully executed, and may have belonged to the same
monument as the larger fragments in the previous room.
In the centre of this room is a triangular pedestal, upon
which are carved Nymphs and Satyrs. The design is
eminently graceful, and may have been directly copied from
a pedestal supporting one of the tripods dedicated at Athens
by victorious dramatic poets in the " Street of Tripods."
It was found in the Forum.
Most of the sculptures in Room IX come from the family
tomb of the Haterii on the Via Labicana (about three miles
from Porta Maggiore). They vary greatly in artistic merit,
and are doubtless not all of one period. Three of them are
interesting on account of their subjects, and the detail with
which these are rendered. 690 (opposite the window) shows
the corpse lying in state (the collocatio) on the lectus funebris.
At the foot are the tablets containing the will of the dead
person. Behind the bed are hired mourners {prcefica\ and
in front of it is a flute-player. The mourners wearing caps
are thereby shown to be slaves set free by the will.
719, by the exit-wall, is of great topographical importance
since it represents part of the Sacred Way, by which the
funeral procession left the Forum after the delivery of the
oration {laudatio). Unfortunately it is not quite easy to
identify the spot from which the view is taken. We see
(L. to R.) a temple of Jupiter (i.e. Jupiter Stator, p. 82), an
arch with an inscription which calls it the " arch at the top
of the Sacred Way" (i.e. that of Titus), with Roma seated in
the archway ; a second arch, with a figure of the Great
Mother, the Colosseum (much abbreviated), and a third
arch described by an inscription as standing "beside the
temple of Isis" (which was between the Colosseum and the
Lateran). A third relief, 676, represents the family tomb, a
23S THE C&LIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
building in the form of a temple, like so many of those
which we see beside the Appian Way. To the L. is a huge
crane with a tread-wheel, the significance of which it is
hard to understand.
By the entrance are two busts (675 and 677) enclosed in
small shrines, which reproduce the forms of those in which
the waxen busts of ancestors were kept in Roman houses.
These are shown by their shape to date from the close
of the first century, and are good examples of the art of
that time — the best period of Roman portraiture ; the snake
coiled about the male bust has been thought to indicate
that the man was a physician, but it may merely possess the
significance which belonged to it in Greek religion as a
symbol of the departed soul.
A slab in high relief with busts of divinities of the lower
world (721, by the exit-wall) — they represent Mercury,
Proserpine, Pluto, and Ceres, to give them their Roman
names — is of later date. The best work is seen in the beauti-
ful slabs (686) beside the farther doorway, decorated in relief
with candelabra entwined with roses in an exquisitely grace-
ful pattern — not strictly naturalistic, for the flowers have
only four petals, but producing the illusion of reality
which an " impressionistic " treatment gives. These we can
scarcely put later than the Flavian period. Compare them
with the panel (722) decorated with branches of quince
and lemon laden with fruit, and notice the skilful " impres-
sionisticrendering
" of the rough skin of the lemons.
Crossing a passage we enter Room XI, where are some
interesting sarcophagi from tombs on the Via Latina. Three
were found in a chamber decorated with fine paintings and
stuccoes, which are still to be seen. The subjects are, to
R. (751) Dionysus and Ariadne in chariots driven by
Centaurs with Erotes as postilions ; by the back wall (769)
three scenes from the story of Adonis — his farewell to
Aphrodite on the L., the tending of his wound in the centre,
and the hunting of the boar on the R. — and on the lid of
the sarcophagus, which does not belong to it, scenes from
the story of (Edipus ; lastly, by the exit wall (777), Phaedra
XI.] THE C.ELIAN AND AVENTINE 239
and Hippolytus. (Notice the group of Eros and Psyche,
which symbolises the passion of Plnedra.)
In the centre of the room is (792) a large sarcophagus
representing the triumphal home-coming of Dionysus, whose
car is drawn by elephants, after his conquest of India.
Notice by the exit-wall (783) a Greek votive relief; the
figure of the youth in the centre is that of the dedicator,
who is of smaller dimensions than the heroes, who are the
objects of his worship.
In Room Nil are three sarcophagi found in a tomb dated
in the reign of Hadrian. By the entrance-wall is (799) one
with scenes from the legend of Orestes : they are partly the
same as those represented on a sarcophagus in the Galleria
dei Candelabri — a good illustration of the conventional
repertoire used by the sculptors of sarcophagi. 806 (by
the back wall) has only decorative subjects : notice the boys
riding races on various animals on the lid. 813 (by the
exit-wall) shows the destruction of the children of Niobe
by Apollo and Artemis : the composition is pictorial in
character and motives, and may have been derived from
a Hellenistic painting. Notice 808, a head of Augustus
found at Veii (compare that from Cervetri in Room VI), and
the circular base (also from Veii) in the centre of the room,
decorated with festoons, lyres, and the four attributes of
Vulcan — anvil, hammer, tongs, and cap. It was copied
from a monument in the Forum called the Puteal Libonis,
which stood near the Temple of Castor and is represente
on the coins of Scribonius Libo, from whom it took its name.
In Room XIII, by the entrance-wall, we see a grave-relief
which represents a lady reclining on a couch : her hair is
dressed in the peculiar " toupet ;' style characteristic of the
Flavian period (cf. p. 113); her name, however, is Ulpia
Erigone, which points to a later date, since Ulpius was the
family name of Trajan, and was taken by persons on whom
he had bestowed citizenship. The explanation is that an
earlier inscription was erased, and the relief used a second
time. 842 is a fragment of a frieze representing the battle
between the Olympic gods and the Titans, of which other
240 THE C^ELIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
pieces exist in the Antiquarium (p. 254) and the Vatican (see
p. 305, where they are discussed).
The portrait-statue 846 is interesting as a perfect example
of the honorary statues of the later Empire. Notice, how-
ever, that the head and body are of different marbles (Parian
and Luna) ; and that the workmanship of the body is too
good for the date of the statue, which has had its original
head replaced by that of C. Caelius Saturninus, an Imperial
functionary of the time of Constantine. The word DOG-
matii on the plinth of the statue is not a personal name, but
a " signum " borne by a group of persons forming a kind of
club.
Beside the back wall are some fragments of porphyry
statues, all of which save one (discovered under the apse of
the Lateran basilica) are stated on doubtful authority to
have been found by the Arch of Constantine. This costly
material (most unsuitable for statuary) was used in late times,
as we see from the sarcophagi in the Vatican.
By the exit-wall is a finely-conceived relief (868) which
represents Pylades supporting his friend Orestes, who is
sinking in exhaustion after a paroxysm of madness. The
motive was originally invented for a group of the Niobids,
in which one as yet unwounded caught his stricken brother
in his arms.
In Room XIV notice an unfinished statue (902) of a bar-
barian similar in type to the Trajanic figures on the Arch of
Constantine (p. 253). It shows the " points" left to guide
the workman in reproducing his model. There is also an
unfinished torso (909) in porphyry. Observe four circular
slabs of pavonazzetto with inscriptions which show that the
columns to which they belonged (now employed in the
decoration of an altar in S. Andrea della Valle) were im-
ported in a.d. 137 for the use of the Imperial building com-
missioners. They were found at the " Marmorata" (p. 264).
On the sarcophagus (895) with unfinished reliefs repre-
senting the operations of corn-growing and milling are two
herms, one (898) of the young Dionysus (or Iacchos) in the
style of Praxiteles, the other (896) resembling in feature
xi. J THE C /ELI AN AND AVENT1NE 241
the Doryphoros of Polyclitus (p. 321), possibly an ideal
type of Heracles by that sculptor.
On the floor are the remains of a mosaic pavement signed
by a Greek artist, Heraclitus, but undoubtedly copied (or
else adapted) from a well-known original at Pergamon by a
certain Sosus. This was called the "unswept room," and
we see the remains of a meal — oysters, shell-fish, vegetables,
grapes, nuts, etc. — littered on the floor ; notice the mouse
gnawing at a nut. In the centre of the room was a mosaic
(now destroyed) with a narrow edging of landscape in the
Egyptian style. Such a mosaic-picture (of which the Doves
of the Capitol (p. 108) furnish a good example) let into the
centre of a pavement such as we see here was called an
emblema.
The last two rooms contain sculptures, etc., found in
excavations at Ostia carried on in 1 861-9. ^n Room XV
notice (972) a head of Attis, distinguished by the Phrygian
cap from the type of the Sun-god which the artist has
copied. It was found in the sanctuary of the Great Mother
Cybele, in whose worship he played a conspicuous part.
There is a reclining figure of Attis in the last room (1061),
crowned with pine-cones, pomegranates, etc., and bearing
other symbols which show him to be a " vegetation-god."
In Room XV is a mosaic niche with a figure of Sil-
vanus ; notice the blue ni»ibus, which passed into Chris-
tian art.
In the last room are three wall-paintings from tombs
found between Ostia and Laurentum. 1064 represents the
parting of Orpheus and Eurydice, with the door of Hades to
the L. guarded by a youthful watchman and the three-
headed Cerberus, and on the R. Oknos weaving a rope,
which an ass is constantly gnawing behind his back — a type
of the fruitlessness of human effort, which Polygnotus had
represented in his fresco of the Lower World at Delphi.
1065 shows Proserpine pursued by Pluto, 1063 a scene from
the drama. 1043 is a bronze statuette of Aphrodite, who
originally held a mirror in her L. hand and an instrument
for laying on face-paint in her R.
K
242 THE CAZLIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
Leaving the museum, we may notice in the piazza the
obelisk of Thothmes III, brought to Rome by Constan-
tius II in the fourth century to adorn the Circus Maximus,
and transferred hither in the sixteenth ; it is the largest in
the world.
We now take the Via di S. Stefano rotondo, which runs
along the crest of the Caslian beside the arches of Nero's ex-
tension of the Claudian aqueduct. We soon reach the
church of S. Stefano rotondo {Christian Rome, p. 222) which
stands on the foundations of the central building (tholus) of
the Market built by Nero in A.D. 59. The present structure
is almost entirely a work of the fourth century A. D., converted
to Christian uses in the fifth, but it was rebuilt on the old
foundations : the coins of Nero show that it had two orders
of columns and a cupola. The market was a square en-
closure with stalls, in the centre of which this building
stood ; that of Pompeii is similar in plan.
From this point three streets diverge, all on ancient lines
of road. The Via della Navicella leads to the entrance of
the Villa Mattei, which should be visited for the sake of its
magnificent view of the Campagna ; the antiques which it
contains are not of great importance. The obelisk which
stands in its grounds was a conspicuous object on the
Capitol — where the Museo Capitolino now stands — during
the Middle Ages.
The Via di S. Giovanni e Paolo and the Via Claudia,
which represent the ancient Clivics Scauri and Vicus Capitis
Africa, skirts the northernmost spur of the Caelian, upon
which stood the Temple of Claudius, built by his widow
Agrippina, almost entirely destroyed by Nero, who en-
closed the site in the Park of his Golden House, but re-
stored by Vespasian. The Garden of the Passionists is
almost exactly coextensive with the platform, partly carried
on substructures, upon which the temple with its surround-
ing gardens1 stood ; and in both the streets mentioned
1 One would have expected to find the enclosure surrounded by
a porticus or colonnade ; but the fragment of the Marble Plan
which marks the temple does not show any trace of such a thing.
XI.] THE C.ELIAN AND AVENTINE 243
above we may see traces of the retaining walls. If we
descend the Via di S. Giovanni e Paolo, passing the Arch
of Dolabella and Silanus, consuls in a.d. 10, which was
used first for the Marcian and afterwards for the Claudian
aqueduct, we come to the church of those saints, under which
are the remains of an ancient house, described in Christian
Rouie, p. 225 f. ; and beneath the campanile of the church
is a two-storeyed arcade of travertine with " rusticated "
pilasters exactly like those of the Porta Maggiore — a fashion
of the time of Claudius and Nero. If, on the other hand,
we descend the Via Claudia, we see on our L. a series of
square and semicircular niches in brickwork, due either to
Nero or to Vespasian, which served as fountains.
The Via Claudia leads us to the valley between the
Esquiline, Cajlian, and Palatine, where Nero caused an
artificial lake — the "Pool of Nero" — to be formed in the
Park of the Golden House. Vespasian drained the lake,
and began the construction of an amphitheatre on the site.
It was not completed in his lifetime, but inaugurated by
his son and successor, Titus, with games and shows lasting
one hundred days, in A.D. 80 : the decoration of the upper
portion was finished by Domitian. The amphitheatre was
the largest ever built, and owed to its enormous size the
name — Colosseum — which it has borne at least since the
eighth century : the proverbial saying,
While stands the Colosseum, Rome shall stand ;
When falls the Colosseum, Rome shall fall ;
And when Rome falls, with it shall fall the world,

is found in its Latin form in the writings of the Venerable

Bede.
The Colosseum was struck by lightning and the upper
galleries consumed by fire in a.d. 217, and it has suffered
damage from earthquake at various times, especially in the
fifth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries ; probably the
collapse of the western arcades was due to this cause.
From the fifteenth to the seventeenth centuries, moreover
it served as a quarry for building materials, when a New
244 THE C/ELIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
Rome arose after the return of the Popes from Avignon.
At length (after the building had been used as a manufactory
for saltpetre) Benedict XIV consecrated it to the memory
of the martyrs who had perished in the arena under the
Empire, and the stations of the Cross which he had set up
were only removed in 1874.
The amphitheatre was a type of building unknown to
the Greeks, whose refined instinct shrank from the in-
humanity of gladiatorial combats. These shows were
popular among the Etruscans, and especially amongst the
Oscans of Campania, from whom they were borrowed by
the Romans ; and the first permanent buildings erected for
their celebration were found in Campania. That of Pompeii
is the earliest in date with which we are acquainted, and
the lower parts of it are excavated in the ground, so that
the seats rest on a mound of earth and the external eleva-
tion is low. The Colosseum, on the other hand, represents
the triumph of Roman architecture in basing an elliptical
structure on an ingeniously contrived system of vaults.
Externally, we have a fagade in four stories. In the three
lowest of these we have the finest extant example of the
characteristically Roman scheme of the Three Orders
adorning the piers of a system of arcades : the fourth storey
consists of a wall adorned with flat Corinthian pilasters and
an entablature, and containing a row of windows, above
which are brackets. In these were fixed masts carrying
awnings for the protection of the spectators. The openings
in the lowest arcade, eighty in number, served as entrances :
the four at the extremities of the two axes are unnumbered,
the rest bear the numbers I to LXXYI. Of the main
entrances, those to the N. and S. were reserved for the
State processions of the Emperor and high officials. They
were richly decorated in stucco (once gilded and painted)
and some traces of this are still to be seen on the N. side ;
at the E. and \V. extremities were the doors by which the
gladiators marched into the arena in solemn procession.
Observe on the N. side a series of travertine posts corre-
sponding with the piers of the arcades and the centres of the
XI.] THE CsEUAN AND AVENTINE 245
archways. They have holes for bronze rings on the side
nearest the Colosseum, and thus (by means of chains; the
crowd was shepherded into a number of narrow lanes to
which admission was given by tickets corresponding with
the number of each archway.
We enter the building by the second arch to the L. of
the main W. entrance, and ascend to the first story, from
which we overlook the arena, measuring 94 yards by 59.
Every trace of the marble seats has long since disappeared
and it is no longer easy to determine their number or
arrangement, especially in the upper part of the building.
Next to the arena was the podium, a platform about
12 feet high, upon which were set three rows of marble
thrones reserved for the Imperial family, high officials of
state and corporations. Many inscriptions have been found
relating to the distribution of seats, both on the podium
and in the upper tiers (they may be seen in three rooms on
the first story at the N. end of the shorter axis) ; we gather
that for the first three centuries places were assigned to
classes of persons (such as ex-consuls) or to priestly colleges
(such as the Arval brotherhood) ; in the fourth century seats
were permanently allotted to families or individuals. The
measurements are given in feet, and this may explain the
statement of ancient authorities that the amphitheatre con-
tained 87,000 "places," which would be a gross exaggera-
tion if it applied to the number of spectators. This can
never have exceeded 50,000. Some of the marble chairs —
imitated from those used in Greek theatres, such as that
of Dionysus at Athens — are now used as thrones in Roman
churches, e.g. S. Gregorio. The line of the podium was
broken by the two balconies or boxes reserved for the
Emperor and the magistrate presiding at the games ; and it
was approached by eight staircases from a passage lined with
marble. This passage and the beginning of one of the stair-
cases may be seen on the S. side. In order to prevent the
wild beasts exhibited in the arena from scaling the podium
a passage was left all round the arena, separated from it
by a low wall carrying a bronze screen with a revolving
246 THE C.ELIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
toprail. A number of recesses in the front wall of the
podium, opening on to the passage, were doubtless occupied
by guards.
Above the podium were the sloping tiers of seats which
formed the cavea. The horizontal divisions — separated by
gangways — were called mcrniana, a word derived from the
old galleries in the Forum, as to which see p. 44 ; and these
were again divided into wedge-shaped sections (cunei)
divided by staircases into which the vomitoria, or entrances
from the outer corridors, opened. Thus each seat could be de-
signated bythe number of its cuneus, tier and place in the row.
It will be seen that at about two- thirds of the height of
the building there is a high wall with doors and windows.
This divided the second mcenianum. from the third, which,
we are told, rested on a wooden scaffolding (in ligneis).
This has of course entirely disappeared, and thus we are
reduced to conjecture as to the arrangement of the upper-
most tiers ; but it seems fairly certain that a portico of
Corinthian columns — several of whose capitals have been
found — ran round the whole building just above this wall,
and supported a roof which protected the third mcenianum,
reserved for women. On this roof there was standing room
for some thousands of humbler spectators, called pullati,
because they were not clad in the full-dress white toga, but
in garments of darker material. Even above this there was
a narrow ledge or gallery carried on arches projecting from
travertine brackets ; upon this were stationed the sailors of
the fleet who manipulated the awnings (velaria). It seems
incredible that these awnings could have spanned so
enormous an area as that covered by the Colosseum, which
is nearly one-third of a mile in circumference ; moreover, the
whole of the seats would never require shade at once, and
it can therefore hardly be doubted that the cunei had
separate awnings which were drawn as required.
Every traveller should ascend to the vaulted gallery in
the fourth story, built in 1852, close to the N. wall, from
which there is a magnificent view to the S. We can also
examine the construction of the uppermost part of the outer
xi. I THE C.KUAN AND AVENTINE 247
wall, which shows evident marks of haste (drums of
columns, architectural fragments, etc., are built into it).
It was no doubt largely restored after the fire of A.D. 217 ;
it has indeed been thought that up to this time the super-
structure was entirely of wood.
The staircases by which the ascent is made are almost
entirely modern, and do not help us to picture the extremely
ingenious arrangement by which, with the least possible
expenditure of space, access was given to each tier of seats.
We can, however, observe the economy of the Roman
architects in their use of materials. The fabric of the
Colosseum is built up on a skeleton consisting in the
main of (a) three concentric elliptical walls pierced with
arcades and enclosing vaulted corridors which run round
the building, and (b) a system of radiating walls corres-
ponding with the piers of the outer arcades, which carry the
lower tiers of seats, and are pierced with openings forming
inner corridors. In the interspaces between these radiating
walls, roofed with sloping vaults, are disposed staircases
leading to the corridors on the upper levels. If we examine
the radiating walls we shall see that in the outer part, where
the height and therefore the pressure is greatest, they are
built of tufa, reinforced by piers or strips of travertine at
intervals, but in the inner portion, where they are quite low
and have no great weight to carry, as also in the uppermost
parts, they are of concrete faced with brick. Moreover, the
concrete varies in its composition according to the weight
which it has to carry. In the foundations the filling consists
of lumps of lava ; in the inner and lower parts of the
radiating walls it is of broken tufa and brick ; in the vaults
it is generally of pumice. The outer arcades are entirely
built of travertine in large blocks, laid without mortar, but
joined together with iron clamps : the unsightly holes with
which the exterior of the building is disfigured were made
in the Middle Ages in order to extract the clamps.
The arena rests on substructures of which a great part
have now been excavated, so that we can form a good idea
of their plan and the purpose which they served., It is
248 THE CAZLIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
difficult, however, to distinguish those parts which belong
to the original building from the restorations of the Later
Empire. These, however, did not alter the original plan,
which consisted in a series of elliptical walls forming
corridors and enclosing an oval space divided into narrow
passages by walls parallel with the major axis of the arena.
The passage* were roofed alternately with vaults and
wooden floors ; in these there were trap-doors through
which, by means of lifts worked by windlasses, cages con-
taining wild beasts, or platforms upon which scenery, actors,
etc. stood, could be raised. The grooved frames of
travertine in which the lifts ran are easily distinguished
All round the outermost oval corridor are recesses which
seem to have served as dens for wild beasts : they have
small windows opening into a passage (unexcavated) at the
back by which the beasts were fed. Between each pair are
the corbels in which the lower masts of the awnings were
fixed.
The floor of the substructures is higher in the centre of
the building than at the sides, where it is as much as twenty
feet lower than the arena ; this was in order to drain the
surface water from the central corridors.1 A wooden floor
was discovered in 1874 in the central passage; but the
original pavement seems to have been of opus spicatum
(bricks laid in a herring-bone pattern).
There were four subterranean passages leading out of
the building at the ends of the four axes. That to
the E. is the one by which access is given to the sub-
structures it
; probably led to the Ludus magnus, or
gladiators' training school, which was on the slope of the
Esquiline. On the side towards the Caslian is another,
which has been supposed to be that constructed by

1 An elaborate system of drains exists beneath the substructures.

The Colosseum was not used for sea-fights, for which a special
building {naumcuhia) was reserved, so that it is a mistake to
suppose that the subterranean corridors were used for flooding
the arena. We hear, it is true, of a sea-fight at the inauguration
of the Colosseum : but the building was not at that time complete.
XL] THE CJELIAN AND AVENTINE 249
Commodus for his private use when he exchanged the
Palatine for a residence on the Cxlian called the Domus
Vectiliana.
We hear of a number of buildings connected with the
shows of the Amphitheatre. Beside the training schools (ludi)
for gladiators there were the Armamentarium, or armoury,
the Samiarium, or workshop where arms were repaired,
the Summum Choragium, a storehouse for stage properties,
and the Spoliarium, to which the bodies of dead gladiators
were removed. These must all have been near the Colos-
seum, but we cannot identify their position.
A little to the YV. of the Colosseum is a conical brick struc-
ture which was once crowned by a fountain — the Meta Sudans
set up by Domitian at the point where five of the " Regions "
of Augustus met.
From this point the Sacred Way rises to the Arch of Titus :
but the Forum excavations cannot be entered from this side.
To the R. rises the platform (with vaulted substructures)
upon which the Temple of Venus and Rome (p. 79) is built ;
to the L. are remains of private houses (partly converted
into what seems to be a Christian church) under the slope
of the Palatine.
Between the Caslian and the Palatine ran the Via
Triumphalis, along which the Triumphal processions
passed, and at the angle where it joined the Sacred Way
was erected the Arch of Constantine in celebration of
his victory over Maxentius at Saxa Rubra, near the Milvian
Bridge, in a.d. 312. This battle sealed the fate of Paganism ;
for Constantine, inspired by the Vision of the Cross, fought
as the champion of his newly-embraced faith, and staked
his all upon the issue. Nevertheless, the Senate clung to
the old religion, and could not bring itself to do more than
record (in the lengthy inscription upon the Attic) that the
vengeance exacted by Constantine from the " tyrant " (i.e.
Maxentius) was " inspired by heaven ;' {iristinctu divinitatis).
The main interest of this arch lies in its sculptured
decoration. The age of Constantine could produce nothing
worthy to be compared with the reliefs of the Arch of Titus,
250 THE CJELIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
only a few yards distant ; and earlier buildings were there-
fore plundered in order to make good the deficiency. First
and foremost we notice the splendid reliefs on either side of
the main passage, belonging to the Great Frieze which
adorned Trajan's Forum. We have already met with other
fragments of this work in the Villa Borghese (p. 191) and
Villa Medici (p. 190) ; but those which we here see are much
the finest. The melee in which the Emperor and his
cavalry are charging with resistless force into the surging
mass of Dacians is unsurpassed in its tumultuous vigour ; on
the opposite slab we find a striking contrast between the
cavalry charge and the scene in which the Emperor,
crowned by Victory and escorted by Valour {Virtus),
marches in front of his assembled troops. The same con-
trast is again to be observed on one of the slabs which
adorn the narrow ends of the Attic— that on the W. side,
where a group of Roman soldiers and Dacian captives
interrupts the advance of the cavalry. Notice that the
horror vacui of the Roman artist leads him to suppress
the background, and to fill up the space, where necessary,
with tiers of heads (as on the column of Trajan). In this
faulty perspective we see the beginnings of a process which
we have traced throughout the monumental sculpture of the
second century.
Next we may observe the beautiful circular medallions,
of which there are two above each of the side-bays. Let
us take the N. facade first. Here we see, first, an Emperor
hunting the wild boar, accompanied by two riders, then a
sacrifice offered before a statue of Apollo standing on a high
pedestal between bay-trees ; next, the Emperor with a
companion, an attendant (bearded) and two grooms leading
horses, standing over the body of a slaughtered lion ;
finally a sacrifice offered to Heracles, whose statue (seated)
is seen in the upper part of the medallion. In no case does
the head of the Emperor belong to the original relief: but
while in the first and third scenes Constantine is repre-
sented by a new head, in the second and fourth quite a
different portrait has been produced by working over the
XL] THE CJELIAN AND AVENTINE 251
original head. This is probably Claudius Gothicus (Em-
peror A.D. 268-70), from whom Constantinc claimed descent.
The medallions on the S. side represent, firstly, the
Emperor and his friends going out to hunt ; next, a sacri-
fice to Silvanus ; then, a bear-hunt ; lastly, a sacrifice to
Artemis. Here the heads of the Emperor are unfortunately
lost, except in the last instance, where the face has been
so much damaged that we can only see that the Emperor
was beardless. Thus we are forced to date the reliefs by
their style and workmanship : and this is so excellent that
we are constrained to put them in the Flavian period.
Constantine, it will be remembered, bore the name Flavius ;
and he may have taken these reliefs from the Temple of the
Flavian house built by Domitian on the Quirinal (p. 197).
It has been thought that the medallions of the S. side are
finer in execution and earlier in date than those on the N.
But we cannot separate the two series : for just as the bear's
head is fixed on the tree beside the altar of Artemis, so the
spoils of the boar hang above the figure of Silvanus : and
the companions of the Emperor on the medallions of the
N. facade have the true Flavian physiognomy.
Now look at the eight oblong panels on the Attic. In
every case the Emperor has the features of Constantine ;
but the heads are modern, probably not older than 1733,
when the arch was restored by order of Clement XII.
Originally Marcus Aurelius was represented, as can be seen
when we compare these reliefs with three others belonging
to the same set on the staircase of the Palazzo dei Con-
servatori (p. 133). Unfortunately their original arrangement
has been disturbed and is difficult to restore : but there
seems little doubt that they fell into two groups, correspond-
ing with the "German" and "Sarmatian" wars which, as
we saw, were distinguished in the reliefs of the column of
Marcus Aurelius (p. 183). The two panels which we see to
the R. if we look at the S. face of the arch, representing
a harangue delivered by the Emperor and the sacrifice of
the Snoietaurilia (notice the crowding of the figures, and
the small scale of the animals) are conventional in subject
252 THE CMLIAN AND A VENT1NE [xi.
and treatment — we have met with such scenes repeatedly on
the columns of Trajan and M. Aurelius) ; they might
belong to either series. To the L. of the inscription, however,
we recognise captive Sarmatians brought before the Emperor ;
and next to it is a scene identified as the harangue delivered
by Marcus to the praetorian guards in their camp in Rome
during a brief visit which he paid to the capital in January,
A.D. 174, at the close of the " Germanic " war. Passing
through the arch and looking at the panels on the N. face,
we notice to L. two reliefs which depict the arrival of the
Emperor in Rome. In the first he is crowned by Victory
and accompanied by Mars and Virtus (or Roma) ; in the
second his guards are beside him, an ideal figure of the
Senate behind him, and a reclining figure with its R. arm
resting on a wheel in front of him ; this last personifies the
Flaminian Way. These scenes refer to the arrival of
Marcus in Rome at the beginning of A.D 174, and balance
the final triumph depicted on two of the reliefs in the Palazzo
dei Conservatori (p. 133). The two panels to the R. represent
the submission of a German chief and his son, and the
congiariwn, or largess, distributed to the people of Rome
after the triumph of A.D. 176. Notice the figure of an
elderly man who stands behind the Emperor in several
scenes. It is a portrait of his praetorian prefect, Bassaeus
Rufus, a man of low origin and rough manners.
Lastly, we come to the reliefs which may be ascribed to
the artists of Constantine's own time. On the pedestals of
the free-standing columns are figures of standard-bearers,
prisoners, Victories, etc. ; on the E. and W. ends of the arch
are medallions representing the chariots of Sun and Moon ;
and there is a narrow band of relief over the side bays,
which is continued round the sides of the arch. These friezes
are usually supposed to depict scenes from the history of
Constantine himself ; but it is probable that some of them
were borrowed from a monument of Diocletian, who cele-
brated atriumph in honour of the victories of his colleague
Galerius over the Persians in A.D. 303. There exists at
Salonica a triumphal arch set up by Diocletian in com-
\i.| THE C/E LI AN AND AVENTINE 253
memoration of the successes, and we saw that an arch of
the same Emperor once stood in the Corso(p. 181). Moreover,
a close examination of the reliefs has shown that in three
cases the original head of the Emperor has been removed,
and a fresh one (so insecurely fixed that it has been lost) substi-
tuted. We shall therefore probably be right in attributing
to Constantine only the two strips of relief on the S. side,
which represent the battle of the Milvian bridge and
the siege of a city, most likely Verona ; while the triumph
depicted on the narrow ends of the arch will be that of Dio-
cletian. The Oriental head-dress of the captives and the
presence of a camel (on the W. side) show that the victory
had been won on the E. frontier ; and this is fatal to the
view that Constantine himself was the victorious Emperor.
The two reliefs on the N. face represent (R.) the congiariu»i
distributed after the triumph, and (l.) the Emperor making
a proclamation from the Rostra. The ship's beaks are
omitted for the sake of brevity, but we see the honorary
columns bearing statues which stood on the platform and
made it necessary to support the added weight by fresh piers
and arches, as we saw (p. 57). To the R. of the Rostra is
seen the Arch of Septimius Severus, to the L. the Arch of
Tiberius and the Basilica Julia. These two friezes, with their
strict symmetry and clearly-marked lines, accord better with
the monumental character of this late art than the confused
compositions of the other side.
Finally, notice the figures of Dacian captives in pavon-
azzetto which crown the eight columns flanking the bays.
The columns are monoliths of giallo ati/ico, save one, which
is of white marble, and was set up when the original column
was removed to the Lateran. The Dacians (heads restored)
were no doubt brought from Trajan's Forum : one of the
figures is modern, but we have seen the ancient torso in the
Capitoline Museum (p. 106).
Following the Via di S. Gregorio we soon come (on the L.)i
to the entrance of the Antiquarium, a museum formed by
the municipality of Rome for the housing of sculptures, etc.,
recently discovered. The garden contains a number of
254 THE C7ELI AN AND AVENTINE [xi.
fragments of minor importance : notice the slabs decorated
with racing chariots from the tomb of an auriga.
Entering the museum, we see in the first room a collec-
tion of objects illustrating the technical processes used by
the ancients on the shelves to the R. (notice the pigments,
together with the implements for grinding them). By the
wall opposite the entrance are placed, to R., slabs of coloured
marble and other precious materials used for wall-decora-
tions, which are furnished with labels ; to L. a collection of
brick-stamps, the inscriptions of which are often dated, and
therefore of great value in determining the period to which
buildings belong. By the L. wall are lead pipes, stamped
with the names of those whose houses they supplied with
water ; these, again, are of great topographical interest.
The distribution of the water supply was carefully regulated
under the Empire, grants to private persons being strictly
limited in quantity and checked.
In the second room on the R. is a bull belonging to a
Mithraic group, like that described on p. 234, a fine torso
in black marble, and some fragments of the frieze of gods
and giants of which other portions are in the Lateran
(p. 240) and Vatican (p. 305). The cases on the L. contain
fragmentary sculptures, amongst them (top shelf) part of a
well-executed landscape-relief with a temple precinct, tree,
etc.
From this room a door in the L. wall leads into a side-
hall. Here we see, to the L., a statue in green basalt
(chosen because of its resemblance to bronze) which repre-
sents a woman praying with uplifted arms. The type is
very like that of a statue in the Vatican (p. 295), but our
statue seems to be a more faithful reproduction of the
original creation, which dates from the end of the fifth cen-
tury B.C. Such types were constantly used for portraits in
Roman types.
" By the wall opposite the entrance notice a female head
with a curious covering made of birds' feathers ; it is that
of an Egyptian princess of the Ptolemaic dynasty, and the
delicate rendering of the flesh is characteristic of Alex-
XI.] THE CIELIAN AND AVENTINE 255
andrian art. Further to the R. is a portrait-head of an
Athenian general in the style of Cresilas (cf. p. 281). Three
statues by this wall should also be noted : an athlete torso
which belonged to a copy of the Diadumenos of Polyclitus
(cf. p. 186) ; a draped female figure of " severe" fifth-century
style, which should be restored with a sceptre in the left
hand, and reproduces the type of a famous statue known as
the "■ Hestia Giustiniani," now in the Torlonia collection,
which is not accessible to travellers ; lastly, the torso of a
warrior in violent motion, also of the later archaic period,
and recalling by its strained pose and tense muscles the
Marsyas of Myron (p. 235).
By the end wall to R. are two interesting heads — one of
Perseus, with the winged helmet of Hades which made its
wearer invisible, which has been attributed to the school of
Myron, the other of Diomed — identified by means of a
complete statue in Munich, which shows the hero in the act
of carrying off the Palladium — which has been thought to
be a work of Cresilas.
On the shelf by the wall to R. of entrance (between two
fountain figures) notice the figure of a boy clad in an ungirt
tunic, who was evidently carrying some heavy object in his
arms. What this was is shown by a complete replica (but
a much poorer copy) in the Palazzo dei Conservatori. It
was a pig ; and both this detail and the presence of a myrtle
branch and torch-like staff bound with myrtle on the tree-
stump show that the statue represents the so-called " Bey
from the Hearth," who played a part in the celebration of
the Eleusinian mysteries. The original was a work of the
same period and school as the type of Apollo discussed on
p. 122, and attributed by some authorities to the Attic artist
Calamis. Very different from it is the curious draped figure
next to R., which represents Priapus, the god of gardens and
fertility. Finally, we have a figure of Hermes carrying a ram.
The colossal statue of Athena in the centre of the room
is a replica of the Pallas of Velletri in the Louvre, derived
from a fine Attic original of the fifth century, perhaps by
Cresilas.
256 THE CMLIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
Returning to the second room, we pass thence into the
third, which contains objects found in the cemeteries of the
Esquiline. To the R. are some interesting sculptures in
fieftcrino, which belonged to a monument set up (as an in-
scription shows) by the corporation of flute-players (tibicines)
who performed at public sacrifices. The inscription dates
from about the beginning of the first century B.C., and the
monument, with the rudely executed statues of flute-players
(fragments by the R. wall) may belong to that time. The
group of Orpheus charming the beasts, also in fteperino,
almost certainly belonged to this monument — the subject
was a natural one for musicians to choose.
In the fourth room (which contains a number of terra-
cottas in cases) notice two female heads in fiefierino, copied
from Hellenistic originals, standing on altars of the shape
of that erected to the "Unknown God" on the Palatine.
One of them was dedicated to Verminus, the god of worms
in cattle, on the occasion of a murrain.
In the fifth room are a number of heads of different
periods on the shelves to the R. The Imperial portraits
will easily be recognised. On the lowest shelf is a head of
Apollo belonging to the fourth century type represented in
the room of the Dying Gaul (p. 124). On the L. notice a
statue of a Muse in the attitude of the Vatican Melpomene ;
a spirited group of Satyr and nymph ; a fine architectural
frieze, less overladen with ornament than those from Trajan's
Forum in the Lateran ; and a relief representing gladiators
with names inscribed thereon.
In the last room are a number of fragments belonging to
a large mosaic of late date with hunting scenes, and a
charming group of two girls, one of whom has mounted on
the back of the other, found in one of the parks on the
Esquiline.

The Via di S. Gregorio leads us to the S. angle of the

Palatine, where the Septizodium of Septimius Severus
(p. 98) once stood : notice in passing the arches of the
aqueduct (an extension of the branch of the Ai/ua Claudia
XI.] THE C/E LI AN AND AVENTINR 257
built by Nero) which supplied the Palatine with water : it
seems to have been built by Domitian.
From the point which we have now reached the Via dei
Cerchi diverges to the R.,and traverses the valley between
the Palatine and Aventine in which the Circus Maximus
stood : some remains of the brick arches on which its tiers
of seats rested, showing the curved outline of the S.E. end,
are visible at the beginning of the street. Races took place
in this valley (called the Vallis Mura'a), from very early
times ; but it was only gradually that permanent structures
were set up, and the magnificent building of Imperial times
was, if planned by Julius Caesar, at least completed by
Augustus. All trace of its splendours has disappeared save
the obelisks which now stand in the Piazza del Popolo,
and that of the Lateran — the former brought to Rome by
Augustus, the latter by Constantius II, to adorn the spina,
or long wall in the centre of the race-course.
We turn to the L. by the Via di Porta S. Sebastiano, which
coincides with the ancient Via Appia. The Porta Cafiena,
by which it issued from the Servian wall, was close to our
starting-point. We soon reach (on the R.) the vast ruins
of the Baths of Caracalla, the most perfect example of
the palaces of luxury and comfort which the emperors
erected for the pleasure-loving Roman populace. Though
not so large as the Baths of Diocletian (which is said to
have accommodated 3200 bathers, whereas those of Cara-
calla furnished baths for only half that number) they were
probably more magnificent in their decoration. Amongst
the works of art which have been found in their ruins are
the group known as the " Farnese bull," the so-called Flora
and the colossal Heracles of Glycon (this last stood in the
central hall), all of which passed with the Farnese collection
to Naples and are amongst the treasures of its museum.
The Baths of Caracalla, begun in A.D. 211 and opened
five years later, are built on a high artificial platform about
360 yards long and 340 broad, partly raised on the walls of
earlier buildings. For example, in the garden of Via di
Porta S. Sebastiano 29, were found the remains of a second
s
258 THE C /ELI AN AND AVENTINE [xi.
century house, with rooms painted in fresco and paved with
mosaics opening upon a peristyle, of which the upper story
was destroyed by Caracalla. The facade of the Thermae
faced the Via Appia, but was at some distance from the
road, and Caracalla built a " New Street " ( Via Nova) lead-
ing directly from the Circus Maximus to the main entrance.
The vast enclosure has only been partially excavated, and
is not as yet in its entirety the property of the Government.
It was laid out as a park, in the centre of which stood the
main building, 240 yards long and 124 yards broad. The
arrangement of this is typical, and was closely copied in
the Therma? of Diocletian. In the centre was a suite of
halls in which the baths (cold, warm, and hot) were taken ;
at either side were ftahcstrcr, or large courts for gymnastic
exercises, and at the four corners of the building were
smaller rooms for various purposes of the toilet.
Ancient writers speak of three rooms as essential to a
suite of baths — the frigidarium, tepidarium, and caldarium
— and it has usually been supposed that these names can
be applied to the three large halls in the central part of this
and similar buildings. There can, at least, be no doubt
that the farthest from the entrance, facing to the S.W., was
the hot bath. The case is not so clear with regard to the
other rooms. On entering the building we turn sharply to
the L. and find ourselves in a large rectangular hall, which
contained a great swimming bath in the centre. At either
end was a vestibule (the entrance is in one of these). It
has been much debated whether the swimming bath was
roofed over or not. There is some reason to identify this
hall with the cella soliaris described in the ancient life of
Caracalla as having a flat ceiling of enormous span, sup-
ported by concealed girders ; for in excavating it long iron
hooks were found, which may have been used for the sus-
pension of a concrete ceiling from metal girders. Behind
the swimming-bath is the great central hall, which was
vaulted in three bays like that of the Thermae of Diocletian,
now the Church of S. Maria degli Angeli (p. 198), or the
Basilica of Constantine (p. 78). Notice the remains of
XL] THE C.T.LI AX AND AVENTINE
sculptural decoration in this hall, especially the tiyurcd
capitals adorned with statues (Heracles, Roma, etc.).1 Hence
we pass on through a much smaller oval room into the last
of the main suite — the circular catdarium, which projected
to the S.W. beyond the line of the rectangle. The dome
rested on eight enormous piers in which were spiral stair-
cases ;only two of these still preserve anything like their
original proportions. The double floor or hypocaust, and
the flue-tiles lining the walls, by means of which the room
was heated, are easily traceable.
It is usual to call the swimming-bath the frigidarium^ or
"cold bath,' and the great hall the /epiiiarium, or " warm
bath " ; but there seems to have been no artificial heating in
the latter, and we ought probably to give the name tepi-
darium to the smaller room intervening between it and the
cahiarium. In that case the cold baths must have been
placed in the four large recesses which we see in the side
bays of the central hall ; while the great swimming-bath,
or piscina, was an adjunct not found in the smaller suites
described by ancient authors.
On either side of this central suite were the great open
courts which served for gymnastic exercises. In the more
southerly of these are some fragments of architectural
decoration ; a piece of the frieze (with animals and Cupids)
which ran round the peristyle is in its place. There are
also remains of a mosaic with sea-monsters, which belonged
to a room on the upper floor. The large mosaic with athletic
scenes in the Lateran (p. 231) was found in the X. peristyle.
Each of these courts had a large apse in the outermost
wall.
It is not possible to determine the uses to which each of
the smaller rooms in the angles of the main building were
put. In some of them are the remains of baths ; in others
we can see that there was an upper storey.

1 Of the eight monoliths of grey granite which carried the vault-

ing one only is now in existence : it was removed to Florence in
the sixteenth century and stands in the Piazza S. Trinita.
260 THE CM LI AN AND AVENTINE |.\i.
Through tlie caldarium described above we pass into
the park. The buildings which surrounded this (libraries,
lecture-rooms, etc.) are only partly accessible : the most
noteworthy is a domed octagonal hall on the S.E. side (turn
to the L. on leaving the main building). The architect had
almost, but not quite, mastered the secret of supporting a
cupola on "pendentives," i.e. spherical triangles at the
corners of a rectangular building, a principle which had a
great future before it, and found its most perfect expression
in S. Sophia at Constantinople.
Immediately opposite to the caldarium was a racecourse
or stadium, with tiers of seats along the enclosure-wall ;
and behind this again have been found the remains of a
large reservoir in two storeys, from which water (brought by
a special aqueduct, see p. 223) was supplied to the baths.
To make room for the buildings on this side the Lesser
Aventine was excavated to a depth of more than 100 yards.
The baths of Caracalla afford the most perfect example
of Roman construction in brick-faced concrete, with bonding
courses of large tiles (two feet square) at regular intervals,
running through the whole thickness of the walls ; and many
details, such as the use of iron and marble plugs to hold
the backing of cement for stucco decorations, and the bed-
ding" of the mosaics which have fallen from the upper floors
in successive layers of cement, are more easily studied here
than in any other building.
Returning to the Via di Porta S. Sebastiano, we soon
reach the point where the Via Latina diverges to the L.
This was one of the most important, and perhaps the most
ancient, of the great military highways upon which
Roman supremacy in Italy depended. Built during the
wars which made Rome mistress of the Latin League, in
order to give direct communication with the important pass
of Algidus in the Alban hills, it was already continued- as far
as Campania — following the valley of the Liris, like the
modern railway to Naples — a score of years ere the Via
Appia was built (in 312 B.C.) by the blind censor, Appius
Claudius, who chose the more difficult route through the
xi.] THE CJELIAN AND AVENTINE 261
Pomptine marshes tu die coast at Terracina. Probably one
of the three triumphal arches which, as we know, spanned
the Via Appia in this region— those of Drusus >ee below),
Trajan, and L. Verus- was placed at this fork, like the Porta
Ma-yiore at the divergence of the Via Praenestina and Via
Labicana.
From this point onwards the Via Appia became the
street of tombs whose ruins extend for three or four
miles outside the Gate of Rome. The temples of Mars and
other divinities which once existed in this region are
destroyed ; but there are abundant remains of burial-places,
of which only those within the later city can be mentioned
here.
To the L. of the Via di Porta S. Sebastiano (No. 12) is the
Tomb of the Scipios, mentioned by Cicero amongst the
famous monuments of the Appian Way and discovered in
1780. The Scipios maintained the custom of interring their
dead when cremation was almost universal, and their burial-
place consisted in a series of irregular tunnels quarried in the
solid tufa. The main entrance was not from the Via Appia,
but from a cross-road to the L. of it leading to the Via
Latina, where there are remains of the facade with an arched
doorway. The modern entrance is from the \Y., and there is
little to be seen in the dimly-lighted passages except copies
of the inscriptions, which are now in the Belvedere, together
with the flefierino sarcophagus of Scipio Barbatus, the oldest
member of the family buried in this vault. A suite of
regularly built brick chambers was added in the first century
B.C. for the use of freedmen of the Gens Cornelia. The
excavations belong to the Municipality of Rome, and include
a much later burial-place close to the Via Latina, which may
be visited at the same time.
This is the so-called Columbarium of Pomponius Hylas,
which is a typical example of the burial-places built under
the Early Empire when the great cemetery on the Esquiline
largely ceased to be used (being converted into parks) and
land increased enormously in value. These are chambers
with rows of small arches, in the floor of which were sunk
262 THE C7ELIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
the urns (ollcc) containing the ashes of the dead : the name
columbarium ("dove-cot") really applies to the single
niches, but is popularly used of the whole monument. Some
of these were built by the subscriptions of a group of in-
dividuals (such as the burial-clubs or collegia funeraticia
common in Ancient Rome), or by speculators who drove a
brisk trade in columbaria ; and the monument which we are
discussing was of this class. It takes its name from that
of a person whose niche occupied a prominent position, and
is worthy of a visit on account of its charming decorations
in painting and stucco : notice, for example, the relief (in
stucco) of Achilles taught to play the lyre by the Centaur
Chiron (a subject familiar to ancient painters) in the pedi-
ment of a shrine at the foot of the entrance-stairs.
In the vineyard adjoining these remains (Via di Porta
S. Sebastiano 13) are three other Columbaria, larger but
more plainly decorated than that which we have seen. One
of them is shown by the inscription found therein to have
been built by a company of shareholders in the year a.d. 10,
and to have been used mainly by the slaves and freedmen
of Marcella, the niece of Augustus ; another consists of three
passages forming a horseshoe, with room for 800 inter-
ments. This was somewhat more richly decorated, and was
used by well-to-do people. There are marble brackets pro-
jecting from the upper part of the walls which carried a
wooden balcony for the use of those who owned niches in
the higher rows. The whole of the triangular space in-
cluded between the Latin and Appian Ways and the walls
of Aurelian was once occupied by burial-places of this
kind.
Just before we reach the Porta S. Sebastiano (the Porta
Appia of the Aurelian wall) we see an archway of travertine
with free columns of giallo antico on either side of the single
bay which is now preserved ; traces of the vaulting of the
side-bays are visible. This is popularly identified with
the Arch of Drusus, set up in honour of the stepson
of Augustus (youngest brother of Tiberius), who died while
campaigning on the Rhine in B.C. 9. But that (as we have
XL] THE CJELIAN AND AVENTINE 263
seen is more likely to have stood at the junction of the
Appian and Latin ways, and though the Composite capitals
of the columns of this arch seem early in date, its archi-
tecture suggests that it belongs to the time of Trajan
rather than to that of Augustus. It was used by Caracalla
to carry the channel of the aqueduct by which his baths
were supplied.
Returning to the cross-roads at the S. angle of the Pala-
tine hill, we may now turn to the I., and cross the depression
which separates tin- Aventine from the hill to the S. by the
Viale Aventino, which follows the course of an ancient street,
tin- Vicus piscina publicce. At its highest point (where the
Servian wall crossed the dip and was pierced by the gate-
way from which issued the road to Ostia) the Via di S.
Saba leads up to the church of that name on the L.; on this
see Christian Rome, p. 269, and notice the remains of
ancient architecture found in the recent excavations. The
private residence of Hadrian (occupied by M. Aurelius as
crown prince) and the barracks of a police regiment (cf. p. 269)
were near this spot. The Via di S. Prisca (to the R.) leads
up to the summit of the Aventine ; it is on the line of the
ancient Clivus Publicius. The Aventine deserves a visit for
its views and for its churches ; but it possesses no visible
remains of antiquity.
The Via di Porta S. Paolo here diverges to the L.,1 and on
the R. are some of the best preserved remains of the Servian
wall, as to which see p. 356. Following the Viale Aventino
and crossing the Via della Marmorata, we may take the
Via Galvani and so reach the Monte Testaccio, which is
115 feet high and is entirely composed of broken pottery —
the fragments of such of the jars in which wine, oil, grain,
salt fish, etc. were imported, as, being damaged or broken,
were of no further use. Most of them came from Spain (as
their inscriptions show), some from Africa. The formation
of the mound took two and a half centuries — from the reign
of Augustus to that of Galhenus.
There was once a fine view from the top of Monte Tes-
1 For the Porta S. Paolo and Pyramid of Cestius, see p. 360.
264 THE CMLIAN AND AVENTINE [xi.
taccio, but it has been sadly spoilt by the erection of the
new quarter, which bears an evil reputation. It is built on
the site of the quays and warehouses (Emporium and horred)
of Ancient Rome, of which many remains (especially in the
Yigna Cesarini, N. of the slaughter-houses) have come to
light. The Marmorata, or quay where marble was landed,
was near to the W. angle of the Aventine. More than 600
blocks of unused marble, many of them with inscriptions
which illustrate the management of this Imperial monopoly,
have been found there. There are also remains of the
ancient wall and quays, partly in opus quadratum of Repub-
lican times, but for the most part of Imperial brickwork.
Returning towards the city by the Via della Marmorata,
which traverses the narrow strip of level ground between
the Aventine and the Tiber, we come to the Forum
Boarium, or cattle market, one of the earliest centres of the
busy life of Rome, now the Piazza di Bocca della Verita and
its neighbourhood. No trace remains of its most famous
sanctuary, the Ara Maxima or '; great altar " set up, accord-
ing to tradition, by Hercules, which marked the S.W. angle
of the pomerium of the Palatine settlement. There are,
however, two temples still standing in or near the Piazza,
which it is extremely hard to identify with certainty.
The most picturesque of these is the round temple which
has been converted into the church of S. Maria del Sole. It
is popularly called the " Temple of Yesta " because of its
circular form (cf. p. 71) ; but this it cannot be. There was
a circular temple of Hercules Invictus, said to have been
founded by the hero himself at the same time as the Ara
Maxima : but this we know to have been to the S. of the
piazza, near S. Maria in Cosmedin. The existing building
is therefore to be identified either with that of Mater
Matuta, the goddess of the dawn (and hence, by a natural
transition, of childbirth) or with that of Portunus, the god of
the harbour (portus). The podium on which the temple
rests is of tufa and belongs to the Republican period, but the
superstructure is of solid marble (a most unusual form of
building in Rome) : it has a peristyle of twenty Corinthian
xi.] THE CJEUAN AND AVENTINE 265
columns (one lost), but the entablature has been destroyed
and the roof is modern.
To the N. of it is the small Ionic temple which is now
the church of S. Maria Egiziaca, If the round temple is not
that of Mater Matuta, we may assign that name to this
building : if it is we may see in this the temple of Fortuna,1
which we know to have been near the other. Both these
temples were destroyed by fire in 213 B.C. and immediately
restored : and it was formerly thought that S. Maria
Egiziaca (whichever of the two it represents) belongs to
that period : it has recently, however, been argued that it is
not earlier than the first century B.C. In any case, it is
noteworthy as an excellent example of the parsimony of the
Republican architects in the use of travertine, which is
reserved for the angle columns, the entablature, and some
other parts. Notice also the simplicity of the Ionic order,
as compared with the ornate forms of the Corinthian which
we have seen in Imperial temples. There was originally a
pronaos or vestibule, but this was walled up when the
temple was turned into a church.
From this point it is but a few steps to the modern Ponte
Palatino, from which we can see, looking up-stream, the
ruined Ponte Rotto, which represents the first stone bridge
built over the Tiber in 179 B.C. and named Pons .Emilius
after the censor, M. .-Emilius Lepidus. The single ancient
pier, whose remains can be seen, belongs to a restoration
carried out by Augustus. The bridge was partly destroyed
by a flood in 1598 and never restored. Until it was built
there was no communication between Rome and the R. bank
of the Tiber (where the outwork of the Janiculum was the
only defence) except by the wooden pons sublicius or bridge
of piles (that which was held by Horatius and his comrades
in the well-known legend;. An inviolable tradition pre-
scribed that this bridge should be always restored — as it
had been built — without metal of any sort ; and from this
fact we can infer its high antiquity. It must have stood
near the modern bridge.
1 Not Fortuna Virilis. as it is commonly called.
266 THE CM LI AN AND AVENTINE [xi.
Further up-stream we see the island in the Tiber, conse-
crated to /Esculapius in 292 B.C. when his sacred serpent
was brought from Epidaurus and swam to shore there. The
temple of /Esculapius is represented by the church of
S. Bartolommeo. The island was surrounded with a tra-
vertine quay in the form of a ship, and we can see some
traces of this at the S. end.
Looking downstream, we can see — unless the river is too
high — the mouth of the Cloaca Maxima, with its neatly
constructed arch in three rings of peperino (see p. 42).
Returning to the piazza, we may visit S. Maria in C os
medin {Christian Rome, p. 257) and examine the antique
columns engaged in its walls, which show that the nave and
sacristy are built on the site of an ancient rectangular hall,
whose major axis was perpendicular to that of the church.
It had a plain back wall and a colonnade on three sides,
forming an open loggia, and has been identified as the
Statio Attfio/hT, or headquarters of the Imperial administra-
tion of the corn supply. The loggia can hardly be dated
earlier than the fourth century a.d. Until the eighth century
the church extended only as far as its back wall, but it
was enlarged by Hadrian I (a.D. 772-95) who added the
choir and apse, and for this purpose destroyed the remains
of an ancient temple — either that of Ceres, Liber and
Libera, built in 494 B.C., or of Hercules Pompeianus, which
is said to have been " near the Circus Maximus." Traces
of its foundations were discovered when the church was
restored. Before leaving the church, notice at the end of
the portico the Bocca del la Verita, an ancient marble
disc with a Triton's mask through the eyes, nose, and
mouth of which jets of water or steam were allowed to pass.
It takes its name from the superstition that the monster
would bite off the hand of a perjurer.
Crossing the Piazza dei Cerchi, we come to the Janus
Quadrifrons, an arched passage with four entrances — as
its name implies — which marked the limit of the Forum
Boarium. It is to be identified with the "Arch of Con-
stantine," mentioned in ancient descriptions of Rome ; the
\i.| THE CmLJ AN AND AVENTINR 267

rudeness of its workmanship, as well as the fact that frag-

ments of earlier buildings were used in its construction,
points to a late date. It has two rows of niches for statues
--forty-eiyht in all — but several of these are unfinished.
The arch stands directly over the Cloaca Maxima, and
in a mill in the Via del Velabro we can see the vaulted
channel of the sewer. This great work of drainage, which
first made the marshy ground of the Forum and Yelabrum
habitable, is ascribed to the Etruscan kings of Rome : and
there can be no doubt that the regulation of the watercourse
was of very early date. The vaulting of the tunnel, which
is built of tufa and peperino (with sparing use of travertine)
is of the Republican period, but cannot be precisely dated :
the floor was paved, like a road, with polygonal blocks of
lava. It has been restored in several places with the brick-
faced concrete of Imperial times.
As we leave the Forum Boarium and enter the Yelabrum
(see p. 86), we see on our L., close to the church of
S. Giorgio in Velabro, the Arcus Argentariorum, an arch-
way set up in A.D. 204 in honour of Septimius Severus, his
wife Julia Domna, and his sons, Caracalla and Geta, by
the " silversmiths and cattle merchants."' Notice that the
inscription on the architrave has been partly recut over
erasures. Not only was the name of Geta removed (as on
the arch in the Forum), but also that of Fulvia Plautilla, the
wife of Caracalla, whom he divorced and banished in A.D.
205. The monument is not a true arch, but a flat lintel
resting on piers. It is a conspicuous example of the horror
vacui which led Roman sculptors in the decline of art to
cover every available space with ornament : the portraits of
Septimius Severus and his consort on the inside of the piers
are the most interesting feature.
The Via del Velabro leads into the Via di S. Teodoro and
so to the Palatine and Forum.
 XII

THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER

THE R. bank of the Tiber is poor in ancient remains.

The ager Vaticanus, from which the palace of the
Popes derives its name, embraced the whole strip of land
between the Lower Tiber and the territory of Veii, and the
monies Valicani included both the Janiculum and Monte
Mario. Augustus made that part of the city which lay on
the R. bank, together with the island, into his Fourteenth
region ; but its limits cannot be traced with certainty. It
must, however, have been much larger than the space en-
closed by the wall of Aurelian, which was built for a purely
defensive purpose and ran almost straight from the Porta
Aurelia (modern Porta S. Pancrazio) to the nearest points
on the river (close to Porta Settimiana and Porta Portese).
The district opposite to the island and the Forum Boarium,
which was easily approached by the Pons sublicius, the
Pons +-E mi Hits (p. 265) and the bridges connecting the
island with both banks of the river {Pons Fabricius and
Pons Ccstius, both dating from the last century of the
Republic), was a crowded and somewhat unsavoury quarter,
like the modern Trastevere : it was largely inhabited by
foreigners, especially Jews, who continued to have their
settlement there until they were removed to the modern
Ghetto by Paul III. But the rest of the district, including
the heights of the Janiculum, was laid out in parks
and villas. Near the modern Trastevere station were the
"Gardens of Caesar," where the Dictator entertained
Cleopatra : these he bequeathed to the Roman people. In
268
xii.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 269
the grounds of the Villa Farnesina was found the luxurious
private house whose paintings and stuccoes we saw in the
Museo delle Terme. North of this (in the Villa Corsini and
the site occupied by the prison of Regina Cceli) was the
" Grove of the Caesars," where Augustus constructed a nau-
machia (fed by a new aqueduct) in which sea-fights were
exhibited. Next to this were the "Gardens of Agrippina,"
which covered the whole of the Vatican district and the

Borgo, and were adjoined by the " Gardens of Domitia,"' in

the Prati di Castello. The first-named of these parks
became the property of Caligula on his mother's death, the
second was seized by Nero, who caused his aunt Domitia
to be murdered. In this great Imperial park was the
Vatican Circus, the scene of the first Christian martyrdoms
and therefore also of the central church of Christendom ;
and hard by was the great Mausoleum of Hadrian. We
know less of the ancient aspect of the Janiculum ; but
recent excavations have brought to light (in the Villa
Sciarra and its neighbourhood) two sites hallowed by
ancient worships of very diverse character — the Lucus
Furrimv. a grove sacred to the goddess Furrina, the very
meaning of whose name was lost in historical times, and
a sanctuary in which a strange medley of syncretistic
Oriental cults was carried on under the Later Empire.]
We may cross the river, either by the island and its two
bridges, noticing the ancient herms from which the Pons
Fabricius — an ancient structure of tufa and ftepcrino faced
with travertine, built in 62 B.C. and restored in 21 B.C., as
the inscription on its arches tells us — takes its name of Ponte
dei Quattro Capi ; or else by the Ponte Garibaldi, which
leads to the Piazza of San Crisogono. To the L., in the Via
Monte di Fiore, is the Excubitorium of the Seventh
Cohort of Vigiles. Amongst the blessings which the
enlightened despotism of Augustus conferred upon Rome
was the establishment of an organised night-watch and fire-
brigade, dating from a.d. 6 and consisting of 7000 freedmen
in seven regiments {cohortes). Each regiment thus did
duty for two of the "regions" ; and to the seventh was
2 7o THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
entrusted the Ninth (Circus Flaminius, including the
Campus Martius) and Fourteenth. The barracks which we
see were sumptuously decorated, and seem to have been in
origin a private house, leased or appropriated by the
Government at the beginning of the third century a.d. On
descending the stairs we enter the atrium of the house,
paved in mosaic, with a hexagonal fountain and a shrine
decorated with faded paintings ; and other rooms are
accessible, especially a suite of baths (to the R.) where the
slabs and panels of coloured marbles with which the walls
are veneered should be observed. In the atrium are
a number of inscriptions scratched by the firemen, ranging
in date from A.D. 215 to a.d. 245.
An ancient bathroom with flue-tiles may be seen in the
church of S. Cecilia (Christian Rome, p. 273), and in the
lower church are the remains of a large tannery with
circular pits ; there is a relief of Minerva, the patroness of
arts and crafts, in a small niche.
The view from the summit of the Janiculum has already
been described (p. 4).

THE VATICAN COLLECTIONS

[In order to visit the Vatican Museum of sculpture we

proceed to the Piazza di S. Pietro — notice the obelisk
brought by Caligula from Heliopolis to adorn his Circus,
and removed to its present position in 1586 — and thence
round the church of S. Pietro by the Via delle Fondamenta
to the entrance of the museum.
The Papal collection of antiquities dates from the
Pontificate of Julius II (1503-13), the greatest of the
Renaissance Popes, and the most completely representative
of the spirit of that age. As was said above (p. 102), Sixtus
IV had founded the first public museum of ancient sculp-
ture on the Capitol, and placed it under the guardianship
of the Conservatori ; but Julius II, while leaving to the city
of Rome the monuments which recalled its august history,
reserved for himself the masterpieces of classical art of
XII.] THE RIGHT RANK OF THE TIBER 271
which the soil <>f Rome was beginning to yield a rich
harvest In the garden-house or Belvedere built by
Innocent VIII were placed the Apollo (transferred from
the gardens of (iiuliano della Rovere:s palace by S. Pietro
in Yincoli when he became Pope), the Laocoon (discovered
in 1506 near the " Sette Sale" — see p. 227), the so-called
Cleopatra, now in the Galleria delle Statue (which may have
come from the Baths of Agrippa), and other statues. It
would be tedious to enumerate even the most famous of the
works added to this collection by the immediate successors
of Julius II — suffice it to mention the Nile, found on the
site of the temple of Isis in the Campus Martius in 15 13,
and the Torso of the Belvedere, acquired from the Colonna
by Clement VII. The growth of the collection was, how-
ever, abruptly checked by the Popes of tbe Reaction soon
after the middle of the sixteenth century. Pius IV, anxious
to obtain from the Medici the recognition of his shadowy
claims to relationship, sent some of the statues to Florence :
and more than this, he imprisoned the " heathen" figures of
the Cortile del Belvedere within locked gateways ! His
successor, Pius V, as we have already seen (p. 104), handed
over all but a small number of statues to the Conservatori —
others were presented to the Medici and the Holy Roman
Emperor. The seventeenth century Popes were engrossed
in the accumulation of wealth and the adornment of their
family palaces — it is enough to mention the Aldobrandini,
the Borghese, the Barberini, and the Doria-Pamfili collec-
tions, which sprang from this source. And it was not until
the second half of the eighteenth century — when Clement
XII and Benedict XIV had already given to the Museo
Capitolino its present aspect — that the great expansion of
the Papal collections began. Clement XIV (1769-751 and
Pius VI 1 1775-1800) gathered together the treasures of art
which formed the Museo Pio-Clemefitino. In order to house
these collections, the former Pope built the portico which
surrounds the octagonal Cortile of the Belvedere and turned
the remaining portions of Bramante's building into the
Galleria delle Statue ; this Pius VI extended, at the same
272 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xil.
time building the Sala degli Animali, the Sala delle Muse
and Rotonda, and connecting them with the existing W.
wing of the Giardino della Pigna by the Sala a croce
Greca and the staircase. He also built the smaller rotunda
of the Sala della Biga and transformed Bramante's open
loggia into the Galleria dei Candelabri. Pius VII (1800-23)
saw the treasures collected by his predecessors plundered
by the French invader, and determined to replace them,
amassing in three years the sculptures of the Museo Chiara-
monti which bears his name ! The fall of Napoleon re-
stored to the Popes most of the spoils yielded by the
Vatican to the Louvre, and it became necessary to build the
Braccio Nuovo, completed in 182 1. The overflow of the
earlier collections found a place in the Galleria Lapidaria.
The great period of excavation in Etruria was now
beginning, and the next addition of importance was made
to the Papal collections by Gregory X\T (1831-46), who
formed the Museo Gregoriano ; he was also the founder of
the Egyptian Museum, to which the Capitoline collection
and the excavations of Hadrian's Villa contributed. The
remainder of the nineteenth century added but little to the
treasures of the Vatican save a few sculptures of which the
Apoxyomenos and the statue of Augustus from Prima Porta
are the most famous.
The Vatican also possesses (in the Library) a small but
priceless collection of ancient paintings, acquired by Pius
VII and his successors.]
Ascending the entrance stairs, we come to the Sala a
croce greca, or Hall in the shape of a Greek cross (with
four equal arms). On either side of the entrance are
Sphinxes, and beside the exit are two figures in Egyptian
style from Hadrian's Villa which served as "Telamones"
(the masculine counterpart of Caryatides). They had been
erroneously supposed to represent Antinous. The most
conspicuous objects in the room are the two porphyry
sarcophagi. That on the L. (566) was brought by Pius VI
from the church of S. Costanza {Christian Rome, p. 329),
and once contained the body of Constantia, daughter of
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Constantine the Gieat. It is in perfect preservation ; the
body and lid are each formed of a single block of porphyry.
The vintage-scenes with which it is decorated may be
compared with the mosaics of the church from which it
came. Like them, they are pagan both in conception and
in such details as the winged putti. The other sarcophagus
(589) was once in the Mausoleum of St. Helena, mother of
Constantine the Great, on the Via Labicana (now Tor
Pignattara), but may have been originally made not for her,
but for her husband, Constantius Chlorus. It was brought
by Anastasius IV (1 153-4) to the Lateran for his own use,
and suffered much damage in transport ; when brought by
Pius VI to the Vatican it was subjected to restorations
which occupied nine years. The style of the reliefs, which
represent the victory of Roman cavalry over barbarians,
somewhat resembles that of the side-scenes of the base of
the Antonine column (p. 332), and it has even been sug-
gested that this sarcophagus is of that period. But the
resemblance is purely external.
On the floor are three mosaics — by the entrance one which
represents a basket of flowers, remarkable for its colouring,
in the centre a shield with a head of Athena, by the exit a
figure, possibly Dionysus, pouring forth the contents of a
Cantharos on a flower.
To the L. (near the entrance) we see (600) a reclining
river-god, which once adorned the fountain in the Cortile
del Belvedere (the restorations are easily distinguished,
and include the tiger's mask from which the statue
came to be called the Tigris) : a bust of Hadrian (from
Ostia) ; and (in the niche) a copy of the Cnidian Aphro=
dite of Praxiteles. The head, which belongs to another
and a poorer copy, should be turned more to the L. and look
slightly upwards : and the drapery of metal which hides the
lower part of the statue is of course modern. The goddess
has just laid aside her last garment and is about to step into
the bath. The gesture of her R. hand is due to the instinc-
tive modesty of womanhood, and we are not for one instant
to imagine that she is conscious of human spectators— that
'
XII.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 275
is a refinement which we owe to later sculptors (such as the
one who carved the Venus of the Capitol), who failed to
enter into the spirit of Praxiteles' creation. His ideal of
Aphrodite is that of the perfect woman — perfect, that is, in
physical health and beauty : and it is still a religious ideal,
though a different one from that of the fifth century, and
indeed one which even to some of his contemporaries
seemed to fall short of divinity : for we are told that the
Coans, to whom Praxiteles offered the choice between this
statue and a draped one, chose the second. It is well worth
while to study the type in a good museum of casts, where
the body of this figure (cast in 1887 — the statue has never
been photographed without its tin drapery ! ) is combined
with a magnificent copy of the head, now in Berlin.
571 is a statue of the Muse of Tragedy, Melpomene,
which has been wrongly restored with the double flute, and
should hold a tragic mask and perhaps also a sword. The
treatment of the drapery shows that the artist was inspired
by fifth-century models, but the height at which the tunic is
girt points to a later date, and the conception seems eclectic
and may be of the Roman period.
Several of the statues in this room were found in the
ruins of an ancient theatre and basilica at Otricoli (Ocricu-
lum) and are fair examples of the work produced for the
adornment of the country towns of Italy under the Empire.
Such are the seated Muses, to L. (569) Clio with roll, to
R. (587) Euterpe with flute, the two statues of Augustus
(565 and 597), and that of an orator addressing the people
(592). Contrast the academic style of these works with the
quite different and somewhat theatrical mannerisms of (564)
the statue of the youthful Lucius Verus (the unworthy co-
regent of Marcus Aurelius) found in the Forum of Pra?neste
(Palestrina).
To the R. notice (on the wall behind the sarcophagus of
S. Helena) the inscription referred to on p. 201, which con-
tains the song of the Arval brotherhood. We next pass into
the Rotunda, in the centre of which is a large porphyry
basin said to have been found in the Baths of Titus. The
276 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
outer sections of the mosaic pavement, which represents
sea-monsters, Tritons, etc. were found at Scrofano ; the re-
mainder (except the head of Medusa in the centre, which is
modern) came from the Baths at Otricoli, and belonged to
an octagonal domed hall. The central space was left open,
perhaps for the passage of hot air from below (which may
then have been allowed to escape by an aperture in the
cupola like that of the Pantheon).
Proceeding from L. to R. we notice first (553) a colossal
head of Plotina, the wife of Trajan. The plastic rendering
of the iris and pupil and the high polish indicate that it
was executed under Hadrian, who caused his adoptive
mother to be defied on her death in 129 B.C.
Next is (552) a colossal statue of Juno Sospita (the De-
liverer). The chief seat of her worship was at Lanuvium
(Civita Lavigna), where it was carried on as a state cult of
the Roman people ; but she also had a temple in Rome.
She is characterised by the goat-skin and serpent, and is
always armed with the lance. The statue is interesting as a
creation of Roman art, which had here no Greek model at
hand ; notice its somewhat archaic and conventional forms
Antoninus Pius, who was born at Lanuvium, was a devout
worshipper of the goddess, and the workmanship of the
statue points to his reign.
We now come to (551) a head, and (550) a statue of
Claudius; contrast the idealised features of the first (found
at Otricoli) with the faithful portrayal of the weak, yet
benevolent, features in the second, which is so strangely
discordant with the type of Jupiter in whose guise the
Emperor is represented. Claudius has never, until our own
time, received his meed of justice ; and such a statue as this
is a real help to our understanding of his character — a
strange blend of pedantry, self-indulgence, and yet genuine
desire for the good of his subjects.
Let us now look at three heads (549, 547, and 539) which
represent different nuances of the same ideal. Greek
religion recognised a trinity of ruler — Zeus, Poseidon, and
Hades — the seats of whose power were in heaven, the sea,
xii. 1 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 277
and the earth. Zeus was of course the supreme ruler of
gods and men ; and in Xo. 539 (found at Otricoli) we have
a magnificent embodiment of the Homeric divinity who
"nodded his dark brows, and the ambrosial locks waved
from the King's immortal head : and he caused great Olym-
pus to quake "— a description which undoubtedly inspired
the artist. The lofty forehead betokens supreme intellectual
power ; the deep furrow tells of the care from which the
ruler of the universe is never free ; the gracious expression
of the eyes is that of one whose wrath can be as fearful
as his mercy is sublime. Doubtless this type could never
have been created had not Phidias fixed the ideal of Zeus in
his statue of gold and ivory at Olympia ; but our head be-
longs to a later stage in the history of art. Fortunately
No. 549 throws a flood of light on its origin. This is a
head of Sarapis, the divinity in whose worship Greeks
and Egyptians joined in the newly-founded city of Alexan-
dria. The name is compounded of Osiris and Apis, and the
former was identified by the Greeks with Hades, the god of
the under-world. Ptolemy I commissioned Bryaxis, an
Attic sculptor who had worked on the Mausoleum, to give
a concrete embodiment to the new divinity ; and (as we see
from a comparison of other replicas, some found at Alexan-
dria) he found what he sought in a delicate but significant
modification of the ideal of Zeus. The god of night and
death, whose clemency is tinged with sadness, lacks some-
thing of the majesty and forcefulness of Zeus. We shall see
another example of the type in the Sala dei Busti (p. 295) ;
this latter is made of green basalt, and this helps us to
form an idea of the original, which was built up on a wooden
core with plates of blue-black metal. The copy before us is
a work of the Antonine age, and the excessive use of the
drill in the working of the hair has a disturbing effect. The
modius or corn-measure on the head symbolises the bounti-
ful harvests which mankind owes to the god of the earth :
and the holes in the fillet were once filled by rays symbolical
of the solar aspect of Osiris, who gave light to the living by
day and to the dead by night. Finally, we have in 547
278 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
another and a much later derivative from the ideal of Zeus.
Found near Pozzuoli, it has been thought to personify the
bay of Baite under a form already used in like manner by
Hellenistic art. The vine-leaves and clusters with which the
dripping head is wreathed will then be symbolical of the
vineyards which cover the slopes of that bay. The
bull's horns are appropriate to the stormy element ; the
dolphins playing in the flowing beard, the breast covered
with sea-plants, and the waves carved on the bust are
scarcely more expressive of the nature of the sea-god
than the almost wistful expression which differentiates
him from the mighty ruler of Olympus.
Let us now turn to the two female divinities, 542 and 546.
We have seen, in the Saloneof the Museo Capitolino, a figure
very like the first, and in the cloister of the Museo delle
Terme, a variant of the second. 542 may represent either
Hera or Demeter : in the latter case tke R. hand should
hold ears of corn and not a bowl (both arms are, of course,
restored). It belongs, as the simplicity of the drapery
shows, to the school of Phidias — perhaps to one of his
pupils, Alcamenes or Agoracritus.1 The second is likewise
derived from Attic sculpture of the fifth century, but of
a somewhat later time, when artists were beginning to take
more interest in the representation of drapery for its own
sake, and especially in the contrast between the thin mate-
rial of the tunic and the heavier stuff of the woollen upper
garment. It may be that what we see here is an adaptation
of the Attic type of Hera to express the ideal of Juno for a
Roman temple, such as that built by Metellus Macedomcus
in the Porticus Octavias (p. 166). We shall see an almost
exactly similar figure in the Braccio Nuovo.
Between these figures stands (544) a colossal figure of
Heracles in gilt bronze. This was found near the Campo
dei Fiori, and almost certainly stood in the Theatre of Pom-

1 The statue was found near the Cancelleria, and has on that
ground been supposed to have adorned the Theatre of Pompey
(p. 167).
xii.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 279
pey (or in one of the adjoining colonnades) in ancient times.
It had been damaged (particularly by the flattening of the
head) and then walled up with blocks of peperino. It is a
work of the Roman period— perhaps executed in Pompey's
own time — and somewhat coarse in execution ; but it repro-
duces a type created by Scopas. The hero is holding the
apples of the Hesperides (rightly restored) in his R. hand.
We saw a statue of the same class in the upper corridor of
the Palazzo dei Conservatori.
545, to the L. of the Heracles, is a bust of Antinous
(found in Hadrian's Villa), and the statue 540 (from
a villa near Palestrina) represents him with the attributes of
Dionysus (the thyrsus in the L. hand in a restoration, but a
correct one). When Hadrian caused divine honours to be
paid to his favourite, he was identified with many deities,1
but with none so frequently as Dionysus. The late and
short-lived Renaissance of Hellenism which Hadrian fos-
tered produced its one masterpiece in this semi-ideal type,
with its sensuous, yet sombre features and melancholy gaze.
Hadrian himself is represented in the fine bust (543), found,
together with a colossal head of Antoninus Pius, in his
Mausoleum. Here, too, we have a touch of idealism in the
portrait of the man of genius, whose insatiable thirst for the
knowledge of all secrets led him into ways little understood
by his contemporaries.
Contrast him with Nerva — if it be indeed Xerva who
is represented by (548) the splendid seated statue of an
enthroned Emperor ; and though the profile is in part the
work of the restorer, it is hard to see who else can be
the subject, seeing that the figure clearly belongs to the best
period of Roman art. Notice the slope of the body, which
is of course not accurate if the figure is seated on a flat
surface, but is a conventional pose which adds immensely to
its impressiveness. The restorer has placed a laurel-wreath
on the head, but it should perhaps rather be the coj-o/ia
civica or oak-wreath, such as that which Claudius wears in
No. 550.
1 We have seen him as Yertumnus in the Lateran (p. 233).
280 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xil.
Later phases of Imperial portraiture are illustrated by
541, a head of Faustina the elder, wife of Antoninus Pius,
found in Hadrian's Villa; 554 (next to the entrance), which
represents Julia Domna, the wife of Septimius Severus and
mother of Caracalla — a fine example of the breadth of treat-
ment necessary to colossal portraiture, which (like the busts
of Caracalla) shows us that Roman craftsmen were slow
to lose their cunning ; and (556) a head which has been —
very doubtfully — identified as that of Pertinax, the successor
of Commodus chosen by the praetorian guards, but mur-
dered by them in the following year. At any rate, the head
belongs to the close of the second century.
Lastly, 555 represents not Augustus himself (though
it bears his features), but his genius — i.e. his spiritual
" double," which was worshipped together with his Lares or
house-gods (cf. what was said as to the altar in the Palazzo
dei Conservatori, p. 137 £). This we infer from the type and
attributes, which are those of the statue representing the
genius of the paterfamilias which stood in every Roman
house between those of the Lares.
We now pass through the entrance on the R. into the
Sala delle Muse, noticing on either side of the opening
colossal female heads (found in Hadrian's Villa) which
represents the Muses of Tragedy and (as we are almost
obliged to assume) of Comedy. The former (537) is clearly
distinguished by the wreath of vine-foliage and the similarity
of type to that of Melpomene. But the other (538) also
wears the high headdress (Onkos)1 proper to the tragic
actor ; and this is hard to explain. The high surface-
polish and smooth but lifeless execution of the heads is
characteristic of the period of Hadrian.
In the passage are unimportant statues of (533) Athena
and (535) Mnemosyne, the mother of the Muses.
The hall itself is an octagon with ante-rooms at either
end, containing the famous group of Apollo and the Muses
to which it owes its name, and a number of Greek portrait-

1 This was a frame on which the hair was built up.

xii.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 281
herms ; the group (save two statues) and some of the
portraits were found in the grounds of an ancient villa on
the slopes outside Tivoli, and are typical of the decoration
in vogue amongst the owners of such parks under the
Empire.
In the ante-room, on the L., is (525) a very moderate copy
of the famous portrait of Pericles by Cresilas ; there is
a better example in the British Museum, and we have seen
a replica in the Museo Barracco. The treatment is ideal
rather than individual : Attic art in the middle of the fifth
century could express character in general terms, but it had
not yet arrived at true portraiture. Compare the Anacreon
of the Palazzo dei Conservatory The so-called "Julian"
(as was said above, p. 119) is perhaps the earliest work in
which the features of an individual are rendered with any
exactitude. Beside Pericles has been placed (523) a female
portrait-herm with the name of Aspasia rudely engraved on
the bottom of the shaft : if this is indeed a portrait of the
mistress of Pericles, it is due to the fancy of a later time,
and the type is quite conventional. 524 is a female statue
restored as a Muse.
Opposite to these are two herms belonging to a group of
the Seven Sages. Under the portrait of each was inscribed
his motto. Thus we have 1,531) Periander, the tyrant of
Corinth, with the adage "Practice is everything," and (528)
Bias of Priene, whose motto was " Most men are bad."
These are not contemporary portraits, but ideal creations
belonging to the early Hellenistic age, and though they are
but poor copies, and have, moreover, been over-cleaned by
an injudicious restorer, they are fine examples of the
character-study in which Greek art excelled no less than
Greek literature. The Seven Sages presented to the artist
precisely the type of problem which fascinated him, for
they were representative of the age which saw the emer-
gence of personality in Greek affairs — an age whose traditions
clustered about a few striking individuals. Between these
herms is (530) a portrait-statue of poor workmanship,
representing, not (as has been supposed) Lycurgus, but a
282 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
literary personage of the Alexandrian age to whom we
cannot give a name.
In the centre of the R. wall of the octagon is Apollo, clad
in the flowing robe of the citharcedus, playing and singing
to the lyre, his head wreathed with bay and thrown back.
Unfortunately the copy is a poor one — the folds of the
drapery are especially lifeless.
Of the nine Muses by whom he is surrounded seven only
were found in the same place. To complete the number
there were added (504, in the middle to the L.) a statue now
restored with globe and stilus as Urania, but originally a
figure of Persephone with torch in R. and flowers in L., or,
it may be, a spinning-girl with distaff in L. — in any case,
a charming creation of Praxiteles or his school1— and (520,
next but one to Apollo) a seated maiden (recalling the
figures found in the Palatine Stadium, p. 97) who has been
restored with the flute as Euterpe — really a genre type of
Hellenistic date.
Let us now look at the Muses originally grouped with
Apollo, some seated and some standing. To the L. we
have (508) Polyhymnia, here represented as the Muse of
the ballet, crowned with roses, just grasping in her R. hand
her graceful drapery in order to accompany the motions of
her body with those of the cloak. Then comes (505) Clio,
the Muse of history, with a roll of parchment in her lap :
the head is antique, but does not belong to the statue.
After 504 (see above) comes (503) Thalia, the Muse of
comedy, crowned with ivy and further characterised as
the handmaid of Dionysus by the mask, crook, and tam-
bourine. Very different is (499) Melpomene, the Tragic
Muse, with her piled-up hair — see what was said as to
No. 537 — vine-wreath, mask (representing the greatest of
tragic heroes, Heracles) and sword, in the masculine pose
of a resting athlete.
Passing to the other side of the octagon, we see (besides

1 The head was found in Hadrian's Villa : it does not belong

to the statue.
xii.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 283
520, already mentioned) Terpsichore (517), the Muse of
individual lyric poetry such as that of Sappho and Alca_'us,
playing on the instrument used by that school of poets —
the " lyre " properly so-called, with the shell of a tortoise
for its sounding-board, as distinguished from the cithara
which we see in the hand of Apollo and also in that of
(511) Erato, the Muse of choral lyrics such as those of
Pindar, which needed a choir of singers and dancers for
their performance. It is unfortunate that neither of these
statues has the original head. Lastly, between Apollo and
Erato is (515) Calliope, the Muse of epic poetry, with stilus
and tablets (the head again does not belong).
It is not easy to determine the period to which the group
belongs. It has been ascribed to the school of Praxiteles —
possibly to the sons of that master : but this seems unlikely.
The differe7itiation of the several Muses — who in classical
times were conceived simply as a group of nine sisters
practising the " musical " arts of song, dance, and poetical
composition — can hardly have taken place until well within
the Hellenistic period. Moreover, the statues are not
uniform in style, but are derived from originals created by
diverse schools ; and the heads are of the graceful but
somewhat expressionless type employed by Neo-Attic
sculptors. The originals were evidently of bronze, and the
group may perhaps be attributed to a certain Polycles, who
worked in Rome in the latter part of the second century B.C.
Let us now turn to the portrait-herms. To the L. we
see (509) a portrait of Metrodorus, with which compare
498, his master Epicurus : we have seen the two on a double
herm in the Capitoline Museum (p. 119). 507 is an inscribed
bust of Antisthenes, the pupil of Socrates and founder of
the Cynic school — one of the earliest triumphs of realistic
portraiture, and at the same time a fine characterisation of
the philosopher who preached contempt of all luxuries and
conventions. 506 is a good portrait of Demosthenes ;
see p. 326, and compare with it 502, which, as its inscrip-
tion tells us, represents his great rival /Eschines. 500 is
commonly known as Zeno, but wears no resemblance to the
284. THE RIGHT RANK OF THE TIRER [xn.
bust inscribed with his name at Naples : it has been sug-
gested that the upward gaze betokens an astronomer.
Opposite we have (510) a herm with the inscription Alci
[biades] — so it is usually restored — on which has been set
in modern times a head of the second century A.D. ; and 512
has, on account of the closed eyes, been called by the name
of Epimenides, the Cretan priest and prophet who was
said to have slept for forty years. Others believe that it is
an early embodiment of the ideal conception of Homer.
The original was of the fifth century B.C. 514 is Socrates,
518 an Athenian general of the time of the Peloponnesian
war (it may possibly be Alcibiades), 519 (which bears the
modern inscription " Zeno ") is Plato — most probably
derived from a bronze original by the Attic sculptor
Silanion, and very different from the conception which we
should naturally form of the great mystic who was also so
charming a dramatist and story-teller. 521 is Euripides
much restored.
In the further ante-room notice two portraits of Sophocles
—on the R. (496) in his old age, identified by comparison
with an inscribed bust which we shall presently see, on the
L. (492) as we know him from the statue in the Lateran
p. 235), which was recognised as Sophocles by means of the
(fragmentary) inscription on this bust. 494 (R.) is an un-
known portrait ; 490 (l.) is commonly called Diogenes.
Note the reliefs let into the wall — 489 (L.) a pyrrhiche, or
dance in armour, imitated for decorative purposes from an
Attic original, and 493 (R.), which represents the birth of
Dionysus from the thigh of Zeus : the child is stretching
out his hand to Hermes, who is about to wrap him in a
panther skin. The three female figures may be Fates,
Graces, or merely Nymphs.
We now enter the Sala degli Animali, which contains
a collection of animal sculptures made by order of Pius
VII : some are frankly modern, such as (135) the lobster
in green granite, and nearly ali are much restored.
The hall is divided into two parts by the passage flanked
by columns of grey granite which leads to the Cortile del
xii.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 285
Belvedere. The passage is paved with a mosaic from the
Forum of Pntneste (Palestrina), and in the middle of the
wings are mosaics with still-life subjects from the ancient
villa at Roma Vecchia.
In the right-hand section (proceeding from R. to L.) notice
(182) the head of a braying ass, (194) a sow with a litter of
twelve pigs, perhaps representing the omen which greeted
/Eneas on his landing in Italy, although the litter in that
case numbered thirty ; then (202) a camel's head, used as
the spout of a fountain. 208 represents the combat of
Heracles with the three-headed monster Geryon, whose
cattle the hero carried off : it belongs to a series of groups
representing the labours of Heracles of which three
others are here preserved, 213 (Cerberus), 141 (the
Erymanthian boar), and 137 (the horses of Diomedes the
Thracian). They are quite late in date (probably of the
late Antonine period), but the figure of Heracles is derived
from fifth-century models. 214 is a fragment of a land-
scape-relief very similar to that with the Satyr-child in
the Lateran (p. 232). 219 and 223 (from Hadrian's Villa) are
restored as peacock and peahen ; probably both were males.
228, a Sea-Centaur carrying off a Nereid, stands almost
alone amongst ancient works — so much so, that its genuine-
ness has been doubted. It resembles modern groups of
the so-called "rococo" style: yet it is certainly antique
and once decorated a fountain, so that the Centaur appeared
to be riding on real waves. We hear of a Greek artist
named Arcesilaus who worked for Julius Caesar, and made
just such groups as this ; it may actually be his work.
232 is the upper part of a Minotaur, represented in combat
with Theseus. We saw a somewhat better replica in the
Museo delle Terme. The original group was of bronze,
and early in date. 233 is quite wrongly restored ; the slave
should be milking a cow.
On the left-hand of the entrance (proceeding from L. to
R.) notice (172) the head of an ass which — as the ivy-wreath
shows — was taking part in a Bacchic procession with evi-
dent delight. Further on are two reliefs in the sides of the
286 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
window which deserve notice. 1 58 shows Cupid driving a
pair of boars : similar reliefs are known with gazelles and
dromedaries filling the place of the boars. This was found
in Hadrian's Villa. Next to it is 157, one of the so-called
" Hellenistic" reliefs with rural landscapes, found at Otricoli
— a piece of genre more suited to painting than to sculpture.
154, a leopard, is interesting on account of its curious
technique : the body is of Oriental alabaster, with inlays of
nero antico and giallo antico. 153, a young shepherd
taking his siesta — conceived in the spirit of the Theocritean
idyll — is a graceful example of garden-decoration such as
was found in the peristyles of Roman houses. 139, an
equestrian statuette, has been erroneously thought to
represent Commodus : it is, however, a work of the Anto-
nine period. 138 is a replica of the Young Centaur in the
Capitoline Museum (p. 121) ; the Love-God perched on
his back is largely, but rightly, restored, and makes the
motive of the statue clear. If the hare is also a correct
restoration (which is more doubtful), we may suppose
that Eros is suggesting to the Centaur that he shall present
it to his lady-love.
Turning the corner, we see to R. (124) a smoothly executed
example of the group of Mithras the Bull-slayer, discussed
on p. 234 ; in the wall behind this are inserted two landscapes
in mosaic (113A, 125A) from Hadrian's Villa, which are
among the best of their kind. Finally notice 116, a small,
finely-carved group of two greyhounds, found with 117 and
other animal figures (including a similar group in the
British Museum) in the remains of the so-called " Villa of
Antoninus Pius " at Civita Lavigna.
We now pass through the doorway by the statue of the
Young Centaur into the Galleria delle Statue. Turning
to the L. we see by the end wall a reclining figure of the
sleeping Ariadne, long famous under the name of Cleo-
patra, which was given to it when it was brought to the
Vatican in 1512 l on account of the bracelet in the form of a
1 It is not known where it was found, but as its first owner had a
house near the Arco della Ciambella (p. 172) it may have stood in
the Baths of Agrippa. Raphael copied the motive for one of the
Muses of his Parnassus in 151 1.
xii.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 287

serpent. That the figure was well-known in antiquity is

proved not only by the existence of replicas, but also by the
fact that it was copied (with the direction reversed) by the
artist of the relief on the adjoining wall,1 No. 416, who repre-
sented the legend in a more complete form. Theseus,
returning from Crete with Ariadne, to whom he owed his
victory over the Minotaur, landed at Naxos, and on his
departure left her sleeping on the shore. She awoke to find
herself surrounded by the train of Dionysus, whose consort
she became. There is, however, no ground for the supposi-
tion that either Dionysus or Theseus were represented in a
group by the artist of this statue. It is probably an original
work of the Hellenistic period, perhaps of the later Per-
gamene school — the relative simplicity of the head in con-
trast with the marvellous richness and refinement of the
drapery points in this direction.
The statue rests on a sarcophagus representing the battle
of the gods and giants — or rather the giants without the
gods, who were perhaps shown on the lid. The artist was
inspired by a Pergamene composition in which the giants
were represented with traits borrowed from the Gauls.
Let us now turn to the relief (416) mentioned above. It
is reported to have been found in Hadrian's Villa, but evi-
dently belongs to the same frieze as the similar slabs with
the Labours of Heracles in the Gabinetto delle Maschere,
which should at once be compared (Nos. 431, 434, 442, 444).
The frieze (which took the place, in a later and more
luxurious age, of such decorative terra-cottas as we have seen
already, pp. 148, 220) represents a wall decorated with reliefs
between which are niches containing statues. It may have
decorated a gymnasium, for the walls of which the adven-
tures of Theseus and Heracles would be appropriate sub-
jects ;in 442, moreover, we see the youthful Heracles
instructed in the use of the lyre.
Above 416 is a relief (415) representing a Roman sacrifice,

1 On the other hand, the statuette of a nymph below this relief

(also inspired by the Ariadne) is modern.
288 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
poor in itself, but interesting as showing the influence of the
Ara Pacis (note the festoons) and kindred works. (The
bearded head is due to the restorer.)
On either side of the gallery we see a marble candelabrum
412 , 413) on a three-sided base adorned with figures of
divinities (to R. Ares Aphrodite and Athena, to L. Zeus,
Hermes, and Hera). They were found in Hadrian's Villa ;
doubtless there were originally four, representing the twelve
greater gods of the Olympian Pantheon. The types of the
divinities all belong to the latter half of the fifth century
B.C., and the candelabra are fine examples of the " classicis-
tic " decorative art of the Empire.
By the R. wall is (417) a statute of Hermes, signed on the
plinth by the copyist Ingenuus, the head of which is clearly
derived from an original of Myron or his school. If this is
true (as some think) of the statue as a whole, we must
at least regard the chlamys as a copyist's addition.
The statue stands on a cippus of pepcrino, bearing the
name of Tiberius Caesar, an infant son of Germanicus, which
was found in the Campus Martius, together with those of
two of his brothers, as well as Tiberius Gemellus (under
420), the grandson of Tiberius executed by Caligula, and
Livilla, the daughter of Germanicus, whose death was com-
passed by Messalina (under 410), and one bearing only
the word " Vespasiani," perhaps that of Vespasian's wife
(under 407) ; the urn of Oriental alabaster (420A) in the
centre of the gallery may have contained the ashes of
Livilla.
The torso 419, in spite of its soft modelling, probably
represents Apollo rather than Dionysus : next to it is (420)
an Imperial statue wearing a corselet adorned with
chasings which represent Victory between trophies symboli-
cal of East and West, and the Earth-goddess looking up in
gratitude to the harbinger of peace. It is a fine Augustan
work, and deserves to be compared with that of the Augustus
of Prima Porta (p. 322). The head is a portrait of Lucius
Verus : notice the characteristic rendering of the hair as a
mass of curls, calculated for the play of light and shade
xil.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TWER 289
(also the fact that the top of the head is made of a separate
piece of marble).
Passing the entrance of the Sala degli Animali, we come
to (248) a somewhat similar statue, found together with the
last near Civita Yecchia, but with a less interesting corselet,
representing the archaic " Palladium " or image of Athena
between dancing Victories ; the head (which is of course
much later) seems to represent Clodius Albinus, for a time
co-regent with Septimius Severus (whom he resembles in
feature). _
250 is known as the " Genius of the Vatican," or as the
"Eros of Centocelle" (from the place of its discovery) : we
have seen a replica in the Palazzo dei Conservatori. It is
obviously a work of the Hadrianic period, but not — as some
have thought — an original created by the Neo-Hellenic
school of that time, being clearly copied from a bronze
of the fourth century B.C., though not (as has been conjec-
tured) the famous " Eros of Thespian," by Praxiteles. In
some copies (which are wingless) the L. hand holds an
inverted torch, and the figure is thus characterised as
Thanatos, the God of Death ; but there is no doubt that in
its origin it represented Eros, himself the victim of the
passion which he causes in others.
Notice, on the wall above, a modern relief of the school
of Michelangelo, which represents Cosimo I, Grand Duke of
Tuscany, driving the Vices away from Pisa, and contrast
its style with that of ancient works.)
251 is a young athlete in the manner of Polyclitus (see
below, p. 296), and the head (though of different marble
from the body) is in the same style.
253, the figure of a Triton or Sea-Centaur, of which we
see only the human portion, is a fine example of the
" pathetic " school of Hellenistic sculpture. The head has
been compared with that of the Gaul in the Ludovisi Col-
lection (p.209), and on this ground the Triton has been
assigned to Pergamon. The torso of a companion-statue is
in the Galleria Lapidaria.
Passing by 254. a Mamad or Nymph, draped in a style of
u
290 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
which we shall presently see another example, we come to
255, a seated statue of Paris; the restorer was probably
right in placing the "apple of discord" in the R. hand. It
is often held that the original was a famous work by Eu-
phranor, a Corinthian artist of the fourth century B.C. ; but the
pose seems too subtly calculated for so early a date. The
L. hand (restored) must have been resting on the rocky
seat. Whether the figure formed part of a group (with
Hermes and the Goddesses) or no, it is very hard to say : the
apple (and " Phrygian " cap) make it sufficiently intelligible
as it stands.
256 is a Heracles, much after the manner of the Hermes,
No. 407, which we have just seen ; 257 (on the wall above to
L.) a relief showing the car of Selene (the Moon) on her
way to visit Endymion ; notice the crab with the figure of
Aphrodite rising above it, which points to the connection of
the planet Venus with the Sign of Cancer. The relief is
a good specimen of Early Imperial work (after a Hellenistic
model).
25S is a fine, but fragmentary, statue of Dionysus, claimed
by some authorities as Praxitelean, but others assigned to
the school of Timotheus (p. 1 1 1).
259 has been restored as Athena ; not only, however, is the
head that of an Apollo of the Phidian school, but the body (to
which it does not belong) is that of the divine lyre-player ;
for it is clearly male, and the clumsy restoration of the L.
breast and arm cannot hide the fact, which is patent when
pointed out, that the drapery on that side was held up by the
heavy cithara pressed against the L. side. The body is
usually assigned to the later fourth century, but might well
be as early as 400 B.C.
260 is a Votive relief dedicated to Asklepios (/Esculapius),
such as those which we saw in the Museo Barracco : the
heads are of course modern, but the relief is interesting
as a good specimen of original Greek work, originally, no
doubt, dedicated in the precinct of Asklepios at Athens.
261 is an interesting figure : in order to reconstruct it we
must call in the aid of an unrestored fragment of relief in
xii.] THE RIGHT HANK OF THE TIBER 291
the Museo Chiaramonti (p. 315), and a head in the Musco
delle Terme (p. 203). Note, in the first place, that the
original was not a statue in the round but a relief; next,
that the restorer of this copy (who has also given to it the
head of a Diadumenos, or young athlete binding a fillet
round his head) has made the seat a rock, instead of an
arm-chair with a wicker basket full of wool beside it. This
gives the key-note of the composition : it was designed for
the tomb of a virtuous housewife, and dates from the middle
of the fifth century B.C. Very soon, however, it came to be
used to represent Penelope longing for the return of
Odysseus ; and so it was clearly interpreted by the Roman
copyists. The fragment of relief on the base represents
Dionysus and Ariadne on a car, attended by Silenus.
In the base of 262, an unimportant female portrait of the
second century a.d. is inserted a relief which shows a gold-
smith at work.
264 is a copy in marble of one of the most famous bronzes
of Praxiteles — Apollo Sauroctonos or the "Lizard-
slayer." Notice first the pose, and compare it with that
of the " Resting Satyr " (406), by the opposite wall. The
leaning figure — beautiful as its curve is — became a manner-
ism with Praxiteles. Still more remarkable is the spirit
of the work. We are very far from the ideal Apollo, em-
bodying the purest conceptions to which Greek religion
attained, which the artists of the fifth century sought to
represent. This is just a human boy, seeking to spear the
lizard as it darts up the trunk by a deft throw of the dart.
The difference illustrates the weakening of the religious
sense in fourth century Greece.
265 is a replica of the Amazon ascribed to Phidias ; we
have seen another in the Room of the Dying Gaul (p. 129).
The head, however, belongs not to this type, but to that
assigned to Cresilas. In the base is inserted a relief of
a seated philosopher : compare what was said as to the
Anaximander of the Museo delle Terme p. 202 .
267, a drunken Satyr, is a fountain figure — the wineskin
served as a spout.
292 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xii.
268, found in the Baths of Otricoli, may have represented
a Roman Empress as Hera ; its present head is a poor
copy of Praxiteles' Cnidian Aphrodite.
270 was found together with the Muses of Tivoli, and re-
stored as Urania with stilus and globe : and if we replace
the globe by tablets we shall probably be right, for the
figure resembles a type attributed to a Hellenistic artist
Philiskos, whose Muses stood in the Portions Oct/wnr,
though its "rococo" drapery forbids us to assign it to that
artist.
The seated portrait-statues on either side of the entrance
to the Sala dei Busti must be considered together; they
were found in the ruins of a circular hall on the Viminal.
271 is inscribed with the name of Posidippus, an Attic dra-
matist of the Comedy of Manners, who lived in the earlier
part of the third century B.C., and succeeded to something
of the popularity of Menander. The companion figure (390)
was not unnaturally supposed to be that of Menander him-
self, but his features, which are now familiar to us (cf.
p. 236), are quite different. The two statues do not appear
to be by the same copyist : but both are of Roman date —
notice the Roman boots which have taken the place of
Greek sandals. That of Posidippus is, however, a faithful
reproduction of an excellent third-century original : the keen
observer and critic of human frailties, weak in physical con-
stitution and saddened by experience, is admirably depicted.
The so-called Menander is cast in a very different mould —
robust and intelligent, but lacking the refinement of the
Greek poet. He must surely be a Roman writer, to repre-
sent whom the artist has borrowed a well-known Greek
type used for portrait-figures. We have seen it put to a
somewhat different use in the statue in the Villa Borg-
hese (p. 194).
We now enter the Sala dei Busti, which was once a
chapel dedicated to St. John the Baptist and decorated
with frescoes by Montegna, of which a few figures (painted
over) remain on the upper part of the walls.
Turn to the R. and examine the busts on shelves. In the
XII.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 293
lower row we have (283) Hadrian, (282) Trajan, (281) Nerva
— a modern forgery ; (280) Titus : then (279) a forbidding
personage of the late Republic. 278 has been called Otho,
but the resemblance to his coins is vague. 277 is thought
to be an idealisation of Nero under the form of Apollo, 276
is a nameless head of Julio-Claudian date. 275 is clearly a
< ireek, not a Roman portrait ; the diadem with a medallion
indicates the priest of a divinity, and the vine-leaves point
to Dionysus. The most probable supposition is that it
represents a priest attached to the worship of some Hellenis-
tic king who assumed the style of "the New Dionysus."
274 is Augustus, with the crown of wheat-ears proper to
the Arval Brotherhood (p. 201), and 273 (one of the most
famous of ancient busts) represents him in early life. It is
extremely similar to a well-known head in the British
Museum, and doubtless derived from the same original.
This example was found at Ostia, and from its smoothness
of execution has been conjectured to be of Hadrianic date :
but it may well be a product of the chill classicism of the
Augustan age. The "cool head and unfeeling heart" of
Augustus are perfectly characterised. 272, if it represents
Julius Caesar, is at least a copy of Trajanic date, as is shown
by the form of the bust (cf. pp. 37, 313).
In the upper row the first four heads (l. to R.) represent
Antoninus Pius, M. Aurelius, L. Yerus, and Commodus.
The next head (288) is (on very dubious authority) said to
have represented Didius Julianus, the elderly senator who
bought the Empire when it was put up to auction by the
praetorian guards. Next comes a nameless Greek philoso-
pher, then (290) a replica of the portrait of a personage of
Hadrian's court which we saw in the Capitol with the
signature of Zenas the Younger i p. 114). 291 is Septimius
Severus, 292 a good portrait of the savage Caracalla, 293 a
military commander of the Antonine age.
Crossing to the R. of the entrance, notice 388, two half-
length figures from a Roman grave-monument, popularly
known as " Cato and Porcia," and chosen by the his-
torian Niebuhr as the model for his own monument at
294 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
Bonn. The style of the woman's hairdress, and the fashion
in which the man's toga is worn, point to the age of Augus-
tus ;but the spirit is that of Republican art, which con-
tinued to manifest itself beside the higher classicism of the
time. On the shelf above are three portraits, one of
a Greek philosopher, the others dating from the Early
Empire.
Between the windows notice on the lower shelf a porphyry
bust of a Roman prince of the early third century between
two anatomical studies, one of the thorax itself, the other of
its contents : these were votive offerings made for sick
persons. The heads above are unimportant, as are those on
the shelves next the R. window (377 is are pretty girl's head,
wrongly named Isis).
In the centre of this room is (389) a column with three
figures of the Hours worked on it in high relief — an elegant
piece of work of Augustan date ; the types are borrowed
from Attic art of about 400 B.C. Notice, too, on a spiral
column of black marble, a colossal Satyr's head in rosso
antico, which resembles the work of Damophon, mentioned
on p. 1 10.
Amongst the fragments, torsi, etc. on the floor of this
room some are important as belonging to replicas of the
famous group of Menelaus with the dead Patroclus dis-
cussed in connection with the Pasquino (p. 172). At least
two, possibly three, copies are represented by fragments in
this and the next room, and two were once in Hadrian's
Villa. The head of Menelaus (311) in the next room is
interesting on account of its fairly good preservation (it is
restored in many details) — notice the decoration of the
helmet : but it is not nearly as fine a piece of work as two
of the fragments — 384B and 384D — in this room. The for-
mer (on a pedestal) gives us the legs of Patroclus, the latter
(on the ground) his shoulder, with a bleeding wound : they
belonged to a first-rate copy. Notice (for comparison ) 384A,
the remains of a similar group representing Gauls, copied no
doubt from the work of a Pergamene artist who borrowed
the motive of the more famous work.
xii.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 295
Passing into the next bay, we see several Roman por-
traits on shelves to the L. — in the corner, below (371) is
Julia Mammaea, mother of Alexander Severus, above (366) a
good Republican portrait-head. Notice a fine Greek head
of a bearded man (probably from a tomb-relief) mounted on
a medallion (364).
363 (lower bracket) is a good copy from a type of Hera
(probably) belonging to the school of Phidias — it resembles
heads on the Parthenon frieze : 362 (above) a poor head of
Heracles after Lysippus. Amongst the heads on the
shelves notice 358, an orator of the age of Cicero, next to
(357) Antinous. 360 is a Flavian portrait, 359 Sabina, wife
of Hadrian.
352 is a statue of a woman in an attitude of prayer — we
hear of such " adorantes " by Euphranor, and other famous
sculptors — with features which, though much restored, may
be those of Livia, the wife of Augustus (it was found with a
statue of that Emperor, now in the Sala a Croce Greca, in
the Basilica at Otricoli).
Below is a curious relief (354) of very poor workmanship,
showing the creation of mankind, represented by puppets,
and a female '; soul :' with butterfly wings. Prometheus is
seated on the R., and is approached by Mercury and the
three Fates.
351 (the bust on the upper bracket), with its tangled locks,
bears a family likeness to the " Mark Antony" of the Braccio
Nuovo (p. 328).
Amongst the heads on the shelves which follow, notice
the young Caracalla (347 — not a son of M. Aurelius) and
a'third-century prince (345).
On the opposite side notice in the lower row (311) the
head of Menelaus already mentioned, (310) head of a
Greek warrior of Pergamene style (309), portrait of a
Greek orator, somewhat resembling Lysias, (308) Isis,
(307) Kronos (identified by the Romans with Saturn), and
306, a female portrait of Flavian date.
In the upper row (r. to L.) are some unimportant heads, then
a bust of Sarapis in black basalt (cf. p. 277), next to it the
296 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
head of an African youth. 301 is Julia Mammzea (from
Otricoli), 302 a good portrait of Augustan date.
In the centre of the room is a richly decorated marble
base with reliefs on its four faces. On the broad sides we
have, firstly, a copy of a well-known composition (best pre-
served in a replica at Naples — there is a fragment of another
in the Museo Chiaramonti) which represents the bearded
Dionysus and his train paying a visit to a victorious poet,
and secondly, a group of two winged Loves (Eros and Ante-
ros) burning a butterfly, which symbolises the soul, and on
either side of them Centaurs— one male, with a Satyr on his
back, the other female, with a Maenad about to alight. On
the shorter sides are rustic scenes. It is hard to say what
was its original destination.
Passing into the last bay, notice on the shelves to L. in
the lower row (338) a fine original portrait of the period of
the Diadochi (Alexander the Great's immediate successors :
possibly Demetrius Poliorcetes). The horns indicate that he
was worshipped as a " New Dionysus." 335 (of the time of
Trajan) is the best of the female heads.
In the upper row (l. to R.) 331 is mediaeval, 330 Augustus,
329 a colossal head of a barbarian, perhaps from the
Arch of Constantine, 327 a Flamen wearing the apex.
Opposite, notice in the upper row (313) the head of an
actor wearing a female mask ; in the lower row (319) a head
of I sis, with a diadem of serpents and a crescent, (321) an
aged Satyr with porcine features.
The seated statue of Zeus (copied from a bronze original)
is a careful, but conventional, piece of work ; in front of it
stands a celestial globe.
We now return to the Galleria delle Statue and examine
the statues, etc. by R. wall.
391, a seated Apollo, would scarcely be worthy of notice
had it not been wrongly described as a portrait of
Nero ; 392 (the head of which is a poor portrait of
Septimius Severus) is a replica of the Polyclitan athlete-
No. 251.
393, a maiden, seated (as it would seem) upon an altar, is
XII.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 297
a copy of an interesting figure much better represented by
the so-called "Barberini Suppliant" in the Palazzo Bar-
berini (which should be carefully studied). This latter
statue has indeed been thought to be the Greek original
(which dated from the fifth century B.C.). Its R. hand holds
a branch, which indicates a suppliant ; but this is the work
of a restorer, and the meaning of the figure is hard to deter-
mine. The fact that only one sandal is worn must be signifi-
cant ;it was probably a piece of religious ritual.
Neither 394 (Poseidon) nor 395 (Apollo— from an early
fifth-century original) need detain us ; but 396 is a puzzling
figure, commonly interpreted as Narcissus. It was certainly
executed in the Antonine period, and is so tasteless that it
may conceivably be an original work of that time. Passing
the reclining youth (397 with a head of Dionysus, we come
to (398) an Imperial statue of the early third century a.d.
conjectured to represent Macrinus, the praetorian prefect
who seized the reins of the Empire on the death of Caracalla
LD. 217).
399 represents Asklepios and Hygieia ; it is a poor copy
of a graceful group. 400 (wrongly restored as Euterpe) re-
produces abeautiful fourth-century type of Persephone ; the
R. hand should hold a torch, the L. ears of corn and poppy-
heads. 401 is a fragment of the group of the Niobids, on
which see p. 327. A young Xiobid is here supporting his
sister, who has been shot down by the arrows of the offended
gods. In the base is inserted a curious relief showing the
facade of a temple, etc., with an inscription of uncertain
meaning.
402 is a Roman portrait-statue upon which has been
placed a head of the "Pseudo-Seneca" type (pp. 35, 216),
405 a decorative figure intended for a temple-precinct (in this
case that of Fortune at Pneneste), the basin serving as a
stoup for holy water. 406, see on No. 264. 407 is Hermes
(wrongly restored as Perseus), 408 possibly a portrait of
Agrippina the Younger, the mother of Nero, 409 a variation
on the theme of the young Satyr with the double flute which
we saw in the Gallery of the Capitoline Museum, 410 (re-
298 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [XII.
stored as Flora) a careful but lifeless copy of a fourth-
century type.
Let us now enter the Gabinetto delle Maschere, notic-
ing on the passage- wall (421) an early Greek grave = relief
representing a youth forced by a small boy holding an oil-
flask. The high, narrow tombstone was crowned by a
decorative palmette. Although it is not a work of the high-
est art, its freshness and spontaneity are startling in their
contrast with the conventional Roman copies by which it is
surrounded. Compare it, for instance, with the grave-statue
of a girl of the Flavian period (423) on the L. of the entrance,
copied from a Hellenistic type of Artemis.
The " Gabinetto " takes its name from the Mosaics let
into the floor, which were found in Hadrian's Villa ; three
of them show masks and dramatic properties, the fourth a
landscape. The border, with arabesques and the heraldic
emblems of Pius VI, is modern.
By the R. wall notice first (425) a Nymph or Mrenad
belonging to the school which produced No. 254 (in the
Galleria) ; these artists were specially interested in the
effect of wind on drapery, and flourished towards the end
of the fifth century B.C.
Let us now examine the five statues of Aphrodite
in this room. 429, indeed, represents not the goddess
herself, but Sabina, the wife of Hadrian ; but the type
is that wrongly called the "Venus Genetrix" (from a
mistaken idea that Caesar placed an example thereof
in the temple which he built to his divine ances-
tress), and often (but equally wrongly) identified with
the "Aphrodite in the Gardens" of Alcamenes, the
pupil of Phidias. It is, however, a creation of an
Attic school contemporary with that to which we owe
No. 425. Note that the under-garment covering the L.
breast was added by the Roman artist because he was por-
traying an Empress. 436, a reduction of the Cnidian Aphro-
dite of Praxiteles (see p. 274) is only worthy of mention as
illustrating the lowest depths to which the copyist of a great
work can descend. We then come to three Hellenistic
XII.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 299
types. 427 is the most interesting, since we know the name
of the artist— Doedalsas the Bithynian, who lived in the first
half of the third century B.C. The original was brought to
Rome and placed in the temple of Jupiter in the Porticus
Octavia.1. Probably, however, this is not a direct copy of
Doedalsas' work, but of one of the variations on the same
theme to which it gave rise. The " Venus accroupie'' of the
Louvre is a better representative of the original conception.
The half-Greek, half-barbarian sculptor was a master in the
rendering of the nude, but his work lies quite outside the
province of religious sculpture (unlike that of Praxiteles) ;
and the same is true, although in a lesser degree, of Xos.
433 and 441. The first represents the goddess drying her
hair after the bath : the motive may be traced to that of
the Polyclitan Diadutnenos and like statues, but it is modi-
fied so that the composition no longer presents a flat, relief-
like surface to the spectator, but has the full roundness of
actuality. The contrast between the nude torso and the
draped lower limbs is effective. 441 is a replica of a much
finer statue at Syracuse ; this latter is headless, but the
shape of the neck (and the evidence of a poor copy at Carls-
ruhe) show that the goddess was looking to the L., not to the
R. (this head is modern). Moreover, the R. arm should be
restored much as the L. arm is in this case, while the L.
hand should hold up the drapery by the knot. The arms,
therefore, when rightly restored, place the statue in the
series to which the "Medici Venus" at Florence and that
of the Capitol (p. 111) belong : but the drapery which they
lack enhances the artistic effect.
Of the other statues, 432 is the replica of the Red
Satyr in the Capitoline Museum mentioned on p. 126;
both were probably the work of the school of copyists
from Aphrodisias ; while 443 is a fourth-century type
of Apollo (which should hold laurel -branch in R., bow
in L.) often attributed to the Corinthian Euphranor.
The reliefs from an architectural frieze, (431, etc.) have
already been mentioned (p. 287). Notice the four grave-
altars or cippi (under 425. 429, 433, 441) which are good
3oo THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
examples of a school of decorative work which flourished
under the Early Empire. 441 A is that of a freedman whose
patron was consul in 11 B.C. The chair in rosso antico was
probably used for a vapour bath.
The Loggia Scoperta, adjoining the Gabinetto delle
Maschere, is closed. It has a fine view, and contains some
reliefs and busts of no great importance.
Returning to the Sala degli Animali, we turn to the L.
and pass into the Cortile del Belvedere. The inner
arcade and corner cabinets are additions to the original
plan. Beside the entrance are (64, 65) two hounds, which
have been supposed to be from bronze originals by Lysippus
(cf. the wounded dog in the Museo Barracco, p. 188).
Turning to the R. we see a sarcophagus with a battle of
Greeks and Amazons, upon which is placed a badly-
weathered Greek bust inscribed with the name of
Sophocles and for that reason of great value, since it
has enabled us to identify other heads of the poet. Above,
on the wall, a late sarcophagus with architectural back-
ground and family groups. Further to R., on a child's
sarcophagus, {/^) a sleeping figure fantastically restored
with a snake encircling the arm, originally belonging to
the lid of a sarcophagus.
We now enter the cabinet of the Laocoon, and find our-
selves in presence of one of the most famous works of
ancient sculpture — amongst the very few originals of world-
wide celebrity in their day which have been preserved to us.
Pliny the Elder, in his Natural History, tells us that it stood
in his day in " the house of the Emperor Titus " ; and it came
to light in 1506 near the Sette Sale (p. 227), i.e. on part
of the site once occupied by Nero's Golden House, and
doubtless reserved for themselves by the Flavian emperors.
He further tells us the names of the artists — Agesander,
Polydorus, and Athenodorus the Rhodians — who carved the
group " by consultation," as he quaintly puts it. Th
however, doubtless part of th« cicerone's patter, like the
further statement that it was made of one block of marble —
there are in reality four. Recent discoveries in Rhodes
xii.] THE RIGHT RANK OF THE TIBER 301
itself have brought to light inscriptions showing that the
artists named by Pliny lived in the first century i;.c.; proba-
bly Agesander was the father, the others his sons. The
group must be dated 50-40 B.C.; and the production of
so great a masterpiece at a time when Greek art was fast
falling under the spell of academic classicism is a re-
markable proof of the vitality of the Rhodian school.
Laocoon was priest of Apollo at Troy (in Vergil's well-
known story he is priest of Neptune, but the bay-wreath
here is decisive , and for an old offence against the god was
visited with the punishment here depicted. Two snakes
attacked and slew him and his sons as they were ministering
at the altar. We must not forget that the scene so vividly
presented, which to us is only redeemed from horror by its
artistic beauty, filled the ancient spectator with religious
awe, inspired by the late, but unfailing, vengeance of the
offended god. Moreover, the tragic significance of the
group would be immediately grasped, while the modern
traveller to whom the myth has to be explained, finds the
group deficient in adequate motive.
Artistically speaking, the defects of the Laocoon are
patent. It is true that the R. arm of the father is wrongly
restored : an arm from a copy on a somewhat reduced scale
(discovered in 1906' is placed beside the original, and shows
that it ought to be bent towards his head. This gives the
group the triangular form which Hellenistic artists preferred:
but it is too obviously calculated for a single point of view
(it stood, no doubt, in a niche). Such flat, relief-like compo-
sition in a single plane of vision can only be attained by-
some sacrifice of naturalism. Again, it has often been
pointed out that the sons of Laocoon have not the forms of
boys, but of small men. Indeed, the figures of the boys are
entirely dwarfed by comparison with that of Laocoon — a
masterpiece, both of anatomical detail, in which modern
science has only been able to find one trifling error, and (in
the head) of agonised expression.1 As such it can scarcely
1 It is, of course, inconceivable that (even in the ancient world)
such a figure could have been made from a living model.
302 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xil.
be paralleled : but the well-known type of Homer (p. 11S)
has been conjectured to be a work of the same school.
Travellers who visit Florence should compare the copy
(in the Uffizi) made by Baccio Bandinelli in 1520 for Leo X,
who had been compelled by Francis I of France to promise
him " the Laocoon " as a gift. The copy never reached
Paris, and the original only in 1797 !
The statues, sarcophagi, etc., which follow are not import-
ant till we come to 81, a slab from one of the processional
friezes of the Ara Pacis Augusta? (p. 204). As, however, the
heads in the front row are restored, it helps us but little to
appreciate the style of these figures ; for this we must visit
Florence. Lictors (in front) and priests attended by camilli
are here shown.
Next observe a grave-altar (84) sustaining a block of
variegated alabaster, with the seated figure of the deceased
in high relief. It is a good piece of Flavian work.
The statue of Hygieia (85) in the following niche is de-
rived from a graceful fourth-century work ; the head is
a fifth-century type. In front of it (87A) is an altar bearing
the name of one Ti. Claudius Faventinus, and dedicated (in all
probability) to Mars and Venus : it belongs to a class of which
we have seen an example fromOstia in the MuseodelleTerme.
Mars and Venus are themselves represented beneath the
inscription, with the chariot of the Sun and a figure of Vul-
can (the husband of Venus) above. On two sides are
scenes from the tale of Troy in bands of relief, beginning
with the Judgment of Paris ; on the other (as on the altar
from Ostia) the legend of Rome's beginnings is depicted
(Mars and Rhea Silvia, the twins, the wolf and the shep-
herds). The style of lettering and reliefs forbids us to
identify Faventinus with the officer who transferred the
allegiance of the fleet at Misenum from Vitellius to Vespa-
sian. The altar is of second-century date. It is instructive
to compare it with that upon which it stands, a good speci-
men of Augustan work, though much damaged. On the side
towards the court we see an apotheosis —probably that of
Julius Ca?sar, the witnesses of the event being Augustus and
mi. J THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 303
Livia with her sons ; and on the opposite front Victory bear-
ing a shield on which is inscribed the dedication of the
altar to Augustus by senate and people. On the narrow
ends we have the omen of the sow which greeted y'Eneas on
his landing in Italy, and the dedication by Augustus of two
figures of Lares (cf. p. 137). A relief (88) representing
;i triumphal car preceded by Roma and a group of soldiers
seems to be of the time of Domitian ; in style it stands
midway between the Arch of Titus and Trajanic sculptures.
We next pass into the cabinet of the Apollo, once the
most admired of ancient statues, but long since dethroned
from its proud position since we have come to know what
the original work of the Greeks was like. First of all, notice
that the heavy garment (which would, of course, slip off the
L. forearm if worn as it is here) is an addition of the copyist
n marble : the original was of bronze, and in this material
the extended L. arm needed no support. Next, observe that
Apollo is neither standing nor walking : his feet, it is true,
are touching the earth, but the gliding motion of the body is
almost that of flight, and we must think of him as sustained
by his divine power. The R. hand (badly restored) should
hold a laurel-branch, the L. a bow (there is a small bronze
replica in the Stroganoff collection at St. Petersburg which
appears to hold an aegis with Medusa's head in the L., but its
genuineness is disputed). The meaning of the figure can-
not be mistaken — the god has by his sudden appearing dis-
comfited the powers of darkness. The conception is a fine
one, and the historical occasion is not far to seek — the
threatened sack of Delphi by the Gauls in 278 B.C., which
was averted (as the story ran) by the intervention of Apollo
in person. Many high authorities have indeed abandoned
this view, and hold the statue to represent a work of Leo-
chares, an Attic artist who worked on the Mausoleum : we
shall see a copy of his Ganymede presently. But the figure
transcends the limits which fourth-century sculpture ob-
served, and aims at a kind of effect unknown before the
Hellenistic period. The original must have been a splendid
work, deserving most, though not all, of the admiration once
3o4 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xil.
lavished upon this statue ; even the copyist (who lived in the
second century A.D.), utterly uninspired and lifeless as his
work is, has not wholly emptied it of its dignity and
grandeur.
The Apollo was found towards the end of the fifteenth
century, we know not where, and brought to the Vatican by
Giuliano della Rovere (who was already its owner) when he
became Julius II.
93 is part of a sarcophagus of the Antonine age, with
hunting scenes, 94 a copy of a Greek relief inspired by the
balustrade of the Temple of Athena Nike at Athens.
Over the doorway, outside the cabinet, notice an elegant
frieze showing the train of Bacchus — clearly a Hellenistic
composition.
On the E. side of the Cortile there is little to notice. 98
and 27, decorated with griffins and Satyrs in low relief, are
the two halves of a table-support (trapezophorns) ; in the
original design the Satyrs were endeavouring to push each
other away from the drinking-bowl. 28, an oval sarcophagus,
has for its decoration an effective composition of dancing
Satyrs and Mamads, skilfully put together from well-known
types. On the porphyry column (101 ) stands a bust of Nerva ;
it is difficult to say whether it is ancient or modern. The
sleeping Nymph (30) rests on the sarcophagus of Sex
Varius Marcellus, father of the Emperor Heliogabalus.
We now enter the cabinet which contains the works of
Canova, which were placed in the Belvedere in 181 1, when
the Apollo and the Laocoon were in Paris. The Perseus,
holding the head of Medusa in his outstretched L. arm, is
an obvious imitation of the Apollo : the boxers, Damoxenus
and Creugas, need a word of explanation. According to
the story told by Pausanias, Damoxenus slew his adversary
by a foul blow, and was therefore deprived of the crown of
victory by the judges. Canova has endeavoured to hint at
this by representing Damoxenus as a low, brutal type.
Nothing can help us better to appreciate the gulf which
separates ancient from modern sculpture than to compare
these works with those which they replaced. The Apollo is
XII.] THE RIGHT HANK OF THE TIBER 305
dramatic : the Perseus melodramatic. The Laocoon is awe-
inspiring : the boxers repulsive. With all the resources of
modern anatomy, Canova could not produce the impres-
sion of living flesh which the seeing eye of the Greek enabled
him to convey.
On the N. side of the Cortile, notice (39) a second-century
sarcophagus representing a Roman commander to whom
barbarian captives are being brought ; on the narrow ends
are groups from a triumphal procession (captives driven or
carried) in low relief. It belongs to the same class as that
which we saw in the Museo delle Terme.
Above it is (38) a relief showing a battle of gods and
giants. We have seen other portions of this frieze in the
Lateran (p. 239) and the Antiquarium (p. 254). There is
some reason for thinking that it may have come from the
Temple of Tellus (the earth-goddess, mother of the giants)
not far from S. Pietro in Vincoli.
The statue of " Venus Felix " (42) in the niche has a por-
trait head, and may have represented Faustina the younger,
wife of M. Aurelius. It was long supposed to be a portrait
of Sallustia Barbia Orbiana, wife of Severus Alexander, but
cannot be as late. The type is one derived by late art from
the Cnidian Aphrodite of Praxiteles, with the addition of the
figure of Eros.
43, a Dionysiac sarcophagus pieced together from many
fragments, was found in the Catacomb of S. Calixtus,
and shows how such pagan works were employed in
Christian cemeteries.
A medallion portrait (of some Greek literary man) on the
column 45A belongs to a class of works used for the decora-
tion of ancient libraries. 48, a late sarcophagus, with a
doorway in the centre, represents husband and wife with
masks at their feet and Muses at their side ; they evidently
had literary tastes.
Below is (49) a sarcophagus representing the battle of the
Greeks and Amazons before Troy. In order to emphasise
the importance of the central group — Achilles and Penthe-
silea — the artist has represented them on a larger scale
x
306 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
than the surrounding figures. The busts of husband and wife
on the lid date the work unmistakably to the third century.
In the corner cabinet is (53) the so-called Antinous of
the Belvedere, really a statue of Hermes, which pre-
sents some points of similarity with the Hermes of Praxiteles
at Olympia, and was clearly inspired by a study of that
artist's works. The style of this copy — and still more that
of a replica in the British Museum — points to an original in
bronze. The figure in the British Museum wears winged
sandals, and it is possible that the restorer of this statuet
who has spoilt the shape of the legs and ankles, may have
removed such traces of them as he found. Like a similar
figure found on the Greek island of Andros, this statue
doubtless had its place in a tomb, and represented either
Hermes the Conductor of Souls, or the departed under the
guise of the divinity : hence the expression of melancholy
which caused the name of Antinous to be given to it. The
original can hardly have been later than the close of the
fourth century B.C.
55 is a relief, executed by a Roman artist of Hadrian's
time, in a conventional style reminiscent of Egyptian art,
which represents a procession in honour of Isis.
56, a wretched copy of a statue of Priapus, the god of
gardens and fertility, is only interesting from its subject.
On the wall above 58 (a reclining grave-statue of Flavian
date) is a much damaged, but interesting relief, of which
there is a better preserved replica in the Naples Museum.
The seated figures are Aphrodite and Helen, who is
listening to the persuasive entreaties of the goddess on
behalf of Paris (the figure seated on the pillar behind her is
that of Peitho, the goddess of persuasion). Paris in his
turn is accompanied by the winged Love-God ; and behind
him the statue of the Amycla^an Apollo indicates the scene
of the action (near Sparta). The group of Paris and Eros
is reproduced on Attic vases which are hardly later in date
than 400 B.C., and there is much to be said for the view
that the orignal composition was a painting of the fifth
century B.C.
xii.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 307
On the small sarcophagus (61 stands a fragment worthy
of attention, which represents a Nereid riding on a hippo-
camp : as it is made of Italian marble, it must be a copy
(but a very good one), from a decorative Hellenistic original.
The statues which stand in the open court — mostly female
portraits of late date — need not detain us. They often
reproduce motives of drapery derived from Greek art, but in
so degraded a form as to lose all their beauty.
We now pass into the Vestibule (entrance opposite to the
Sala degli Animali), in which is a fine basin of pavonaz-etto
and one or two good torsi (7 a seated female figure, probably
Aphrodite, 5 from a replica of the statue restored as Corn-
modus in the Braccio Nuovo, p. 322). Notice, too, an
inscribed Cippus (under No. 7) with the figure of a Diadu-
menos taken from the famous statue of Polyclitus. On the
balcony, from which there is a fine view, is an ancient
vane.
Turning first to the L. we find ourselves in front of the
statue of Meleager ; we have seen a much finer replica of
the head in the Villa Medici. The L. arm once held a
spear, and this, together with the dog, and above all the
boar's head, leave us no doubt as to the meaning of the
figure. The boar's head however, is, probably, the drapery
certainly, a copyist's addition : some, indeed, think that the
figure was originally intended as a nameless hunter. The
head is clearly in the style of Scopas : the statue may bear
the same relation to the master's work as the so-called
Antinous does to that of Praxiteles. The copy is a lifeless
one and has suffered from modern polishing.
The curious torso 11) enwrapped with a network of
woollen fillets represented a prophet (or even Apollo himself).
18 is a female figure with a musical instrument like a
zither in her lap. 21 is a fine head of Trajan, found
in the harbour which he caused to be dug at Ostia. It
stands on a block with reliefs on two sides which evidently
formed the corner of a frieze. On the front is represented a
Roman warship manned by fully-armed marines and
bearing, the ensign of the Crocodile. This has given rise
3oS THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xil.
to the supposition that the monument to which the frieze
belonged (it was found in the sanctuary of Fortune at
Prseneste) may have been set up in commemoration of the
battle of Actium ; the style would be consistent with such a
date. The details are accurately rendered. Above, on the
wall, is a singular relief from a large sarcophagus which
represents a harbour, with ships, swimmers, etc., and the
surrounding buildings. The human population is figured on
a small scale ; the larger figures are those of divinities (the
heads of two are roughly blocked out, so that if required
they could be turned into portraits). The interpretation of
these figures is difficult, but the two principal ones seem to
be Dionysus and Ariadne. The figures in front of the
temples are those of the divinities worshipped therein. We
cannot identify the harbour : the old view that it was that of
Carthage, with Dido and ^Eneas, cannot be maintained.
Proceeding in the opposite direction, we come to the
Atrio quadrato, which contains (3) the famous Torso of the
Belvedere, signed by the Greek artist " Apollonius the son
of Nestor the Athenian" in characters which point to
the last century B.C. Apollonius, if a copyist, was a
copyist of no mean order ; and it is very likely that his
work — even if inspired by that of earlier masters — is an
original. The interpretation and restoration of the torso
present an unsolved and perhaps insoluble problem. If the
skin which covers the rocky seat and the head laid on the
L. thigh are those of a lion, then the subject is of course
Heracles : and if so, he was most probably playing the lyre,
which was supported on the L. leg ; or he may have been
resting both hands on the end of his club. Many authorities,
however, hold that the skin is that of a panther : the statue
is then interpreted either as Polyphemus, who is shading
his eyes with his L. hand and gazing at Galatea (a far-fetched
notion), or Prometheus modelling the first man in clay.
The rendering of bodily form in very different from that
of the Laocoon, probably a contemporary work, and the
two are worth comparing. The Rhodian group (or at least
its central figure) is eminent in its accuracy of detail : the
XII.] THE RICHT BANK OF THE TIBER 309
torso is treated in the ideal style which the artist had
doubtless learnt to admire in the Parthenon sculptures.
The masses of flesh and muscle are broadly indicated without
insistence on detail- note that veins and sinews are omitted ;
but we feel that the artist, though he has achieved great
things within his self-imposed limits, is an imitator rather
than a creator, and as such is scarcely worth of the ex-
travagant admiration which Michelangelo, Winckelmann,
and many others have lavished upon the torso — an admiration
which, had they lived to see the very handiwork of Attic
sculptors, they would have reserved for them alone.
In the niche to the R. of the torso is the Sarcophagus of
Scipio Barbatus, found in the tomb of the Scipios, whence
come also the inscriptions by which it is surrounded, and
the head (like the sarcophagus, of peperind) which stands
upon it. The sarcophagus is in the form of an altar, decorated
with simple architectural forms (frieze of triglyphs and
metopes, etc.). The epitaph is in Saturnian verse — the native
form of Italian poetry, based not on quantity, but on accent.
Its meaning is as follows :— "Cornelius Lucius Scipio Bar-
batus ("the bearded "), the son of his father Gna;us, a man
brave and wise, whose outward form was matched by his
inward virtues, who was consul, censor, and a;dile amongst
you [i.e. the Roman people], captured Taurasia and Cisauna
in Samnium, subdued all Lucania and carried off hostages.''
It is not likely, however, that these verses were written until
long after the death of Scipio. On the cover of the sarco-
phagus are faint traces of the original inscription, painted in
red,but not engraved ; this only gave the titles of the deceased.
Again, the Latin of this inscription is demonstrably later in
its forms than that of another referring to the son of Scipio
Barbatus (who was consul in B.C. 298). The great fame of
the family (and probably also the inscription) dates from the
Hannibalic war. Now look at the head which stands on
the sarcophagus, that of a youth wearing a wreath of laurel.
It has been thought to represent the port Ennius, who sang
the praises of Scipio Africanus and had his statue in the
tomb of the family, as we learn from Cicero ; but that was
3io THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
of marble (and may therefore have been placed there at a
later time). The bay-wreath seems to point to a priest of
Apollo, and in point of fact one of the inscriptions mentions
a Scipio who attained the dignity of a decemvir sacris
faciundis or Keeper of the Sibylline Books — a priesthood
attached to the service of the Delphic god. He lived in the
middle and latter part of the second century B.C., when we
know \hdA.peperi?w was used in Rome for statuary (cf. p. 256),
and may be the person represented.
The reclining female figure (of the Antonine period) is
from the lid of a sarcophagus which faithfully reproduces
the shape of a low wooden couch with bronze plates at the
corners.
We now descend a flight of steps to the long gallery of the
Museo Chiaramonti, arranged for Pius VII by Canova.
It contains more than seven hundred pieces of sculpture,
which vary greatly in merit, not many being of the first rate
importance. There are thirty compartments, which will be
described in succession ; the numbering begins at the further
end.
Compartment XXX. On the L. is a herm (734) bearing
the name of Solon : the head placed on it is, however, a poor
portrait of Epicurus. On the wall (735) a cast of the relief
with three female figures which we saw in the Museo delle
Terme (p. 202), in which has been inserted a fragment of the
central figure belonging to the same group.
Compartment XXIX. To the L., in the lower row, notice
(705) a statuette of Odysseus carrying a wine-cup which he is
about to present to Polyphemus — part of a Hellenistic group.
We saw the corresponding figure of Polyphemus in the
Museo Capitolino(p. 106). 702 is Antoninus Pius, 699 possibly
the young Emperor Gordian III (a.d. 238-44), 698 probably
Cicero, although not very close in its resemblance to the
Capitoline bust (p. 1 19) ; in the upper row, 693 is a copy of the
Heracles of Scopas.
Opposite, notice (708; a fragmentary relief which shows
a young Satyr turning round to inspect the growth of his
tail ; by its means we are able to interpret and restore the
xii.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 311
statues which represent the same subject (cf. p. 202). The
heads in the upper row are unimportant ; in the lower row
notice (719) a copy from a first-rate Greek portrait ; 725 is
not quite so good.
Compartment XXVIII. To L. 683 is a statue of Hygieia
with a cast of the head of the "Calliope" in the Sala delle
Muse), once grouped with Asklepios, as the remains of his
arm show. 682 bears a fine head of Antoninus Pius. 686
(to R.) may be mentioned, since it was supposed to represent
the Vestal Tuccia, who proved her innocence by carrying
water from the Tiber in a sieve|; but the sieve in this case
is the work of a restorer.
Compartment XXVII. Notice to L. on the wall, two
fragments (642, 644) of relief belonging to two panels, on
each of which are three maidenly figures ; other portions
of the same panels have been identified at Florence and
Munich. On 644 the maidens are Goddesses of the Dew,
worshipped at Athens under the names of Aglauros,
Pandrosos, and Herse ; all that is left of the third figure
is the R. hand with the pitcher, from which the dew is
streaming. 642 belongs to a slab on which the Hours
were represented, dancing hand in hand. The originals
were of the fourth century. Notice, too, 643, which is
earlier in style (it is copied from a fifth-century relief), and
shows us the earth-goddess giving the child of Hephaestus,
Erichthonius, one of the primitive divinities of Athens, into
the care of Athena. Amongst the heads, etc., on the shelves,
notice 652, a replica of the head of the Old Centaur of the
Capitol. It wears a wreath of vine-leaves, but this is an
addition of the copyist (just as the sculptor of a copy in
Berlin added an ivy-wreath). 653A has been thought to
be a portrait of Antonia, the daughter of Mark Antony and
mother of Claudius. 655 represents Narcissus looking at
his reflection in the water. Opposite, notice on the upper
shelf 667, copied from a good Greek portrait, and 669, a
small head of Aphrodite, believed by some to be a piece
of original Greek work ; in the lower row (671) a herm of
the bearded Dionysus — the type is now thought to have
3i2 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
been the creation of Alcamenes, the pupil of Phidias, and
to have been in origin intended as " Hermes before the
Gate," on the strength of an inscription found at Pergamon.
674 is supposed to be a portrait of Severus Alexander.
Compartment XXVI. To L. the Imperial statue (635)
bears the head of a third-century prince, who has been
conjecturally identified as Philip junior, son of Philip the
Arabian (a.d. 244-7) '■> m anv case it illustrates the brutal,
barbaric type of the emperors of that time. 636 represents
Heracles with his little child Telephus, the son of Auge
exposed by her father on the Arcadian mountains and
reared by a doe. It cannot fail to strike the observer that
Heracles is paying no attention to his long-lost son ; the
fact is that the figure of the child is an addition made by the
sculptors of Pergamon, where Telephus reigned as king
according to the local myth. The original type seems to
date from the fourth century : it has been attributed — on
very insufficient grounds — to Praxiteles.
Opposite is (639) a statue characteristic of the later
Imperial period. The portrait-head represents (probably)
Julia Soasmias, the mother of Heliogabalus ; the body is a
variant of an Aphrodite type, which we have just seen in
the Gabinetto delle Maschere. 638, on the other hand,
is a fine piece of work — a Greek original, which it is in-
structive to compare with the wretched statue beside it.
It represents a maiden flying from her pursuer — the motive
challenges comparison with those of the Niobid group, but
this is earlier in date.
Compartment XXV. To the L. 596 is a fragment of the
composition (Dionysus visiting a poet) which we saw on
the base in the Sala dei Busti (p. 296). 593 and 594 are Greek
work, but of inferior merit. Among the heads notice 598,
a Greek philosopher ; 600, Augustus (early in his reign) ; 602,
a Roman of the Republic ; 605, a Greek — doubtless a
writer — of the time of Trajan, as is shown by the form of
the bust (p. 37) ; 607, a fine head of Poseidon (from a
Hellenistic original in bronze), embodying a characteristic
ideal of the Sea-God.
XII.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 313
Opposite, 619 is a good female portrait of the Early
Empire; 620, an ideal type of the fifth century B.C ; 621,
a Caryatid : 624. possibly Trajan as a youth ; 625, Antinous
as Attis ; 62SA, Augustus ; 629, a portrait of the early
third century A.D.
Compartment XXIV. To the L. 591 is a statue of a type
used for heroic figures with a good head of Claudius (which
does not belong to it). On the R. 588 is a pasticcio put
together by a Roman copyist from two types (Dionysus and
a Satyr), which have nothing to do with each other, a fact
which is painfully obvious. 587 (Ganymede and the Eagle)
is a dull copy of a pretty Hellenistic creation.
Compartment XXIII. To L. on the wall are two frag-
ments of relief which seem to be of Greek workmanship.
549 represents a girl decorating a building ; 55 1 is a seated
philosopher like the Anaximander of the Museo delle Terme
(p. 202). On the shelves are some good Roman portraits.
554 (upper row) represents Antoninus Pius towards the
close of his life ; 555 was once called Pompey, and has more
recently been identified with Nerva ; it has more claim to
be regarded as a portrait of that Emperor than most of the
busts which pass for such ; 556 is of early Antonine date.
In the lower row, 559 is a boy of the time of M. Aureiius ; 560
is a good Flavian portrait ; 561 a first-rate one of Trajan's
time — probably the best in existence which dates from that
period. Notice particularly the form of these two busts,
which enables us to date them, as the heads have never
been broken off. 562 represents the best work of the early
third century ; 563 is a fine portrait of the late Republic.
Thus all periods of Roman portraiture are here repre=
sented (except the latest), and the traveller should pause to
study their characteristics. Below 561 is a grave-altar with
beautiful Augustan decoration.
Opposite are (567-569) three Mithraic reliefs. The middle
i>nt- depicts the slaying of the bull, with busts of sun and
moon in the upper corners, and torch - bearers (named
Cautes and Cautopates) at either side ; these are often found
on such reliefs. 567 represents Zervan 'Greek Kronos), the
314 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
divinity of Infinite Time in the Mithraic religion, with a lion's
head and a snake encircling his body ; 568 gives us part
of the usual subject (note the bull's tail ending in ears of
corn) with side-scenes, such as we frequently see and often
find it hard to interpret ; 573 (below) is a statuette of Zervan.
The heads are unimportant ; notice (580) the statuette of an
old woman (with modern head), a Hellenistic work ; the
fashion in which she wears her cloak perhaps points to
Egypt, i.e. Alexandria.
Compartment XXII. To L. 543 and 545 are late torsi
made for Imperial statues in which head, arms, etc., were
separately made. On 543 has been set a head copied from
a good fourth-century original ; on 545, a poor portrait of
Tiberius ; 544, Silenus (very like Socrates), and a panther,
probably wrongly restored, belongs to an early Hellenistic
school. Opposite, 547 is a colossal bust of Isis wearing the
Egyptian headdress called calvatica; it is said to have been
found in Hadrian's villa. It can scarcely be called a work
of art.
Compartment XXI. To L. the fragment of a grave-
monument with figures of husband and wife (500) is of the
Antonine age : contrast it with the " Cato and Porcia " of
the Sala dei Busti. Amongst the heads, notice (507) a Poly-
clitan athlete head, and next to it (508) a portrait of Men =
ander. In the lower row, 509 is a poor copy of the
Meleager, 510A and 512 two first=rate examples of Re-
publican portraiture, with its unsparing realism. 51 ia
is a good replica of the head of the Hera Barberini (No. 546
in the Rotunda). 516c (below) is a gracefully decorated
fragment of a marble seat.
Opposite, 531 is a portrait of an Attic general of the fourth
century (poor work). 535 is the head of a Qaul belonging to
the same group of monuments as the Dying Caul of the
Capitol and the Gaul and his wife of the Ludovisi collection;
but it is far more realistic than either of those works.
Compartment XX. On the L., 494 is a notable statue of
Tiberius, found at the ancient Privernum (a country town of
no great importance) which represents him in his earlier
xii.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 315
years, idealised under the form of Jupiter. 493 is a portrait
of a boy of the third century A.D. and a good piece of work for
its time. For 495 compare the Eros in the Capitoline Museum
p. 10S. Opposite, notice 497, a fragment of a large sarco-
phagus, representing mills turned by horses ; there are traces
of painting, which was used to supply the missing part of
the horse to the L.
Compartment XIX. To L , notice on the upper shelf (460)
a torso of Apollo in the robe of the citharcedus for the sake
of its technique : the tunic is of alabaster, the girdle of
giallo atitico, the cloak of red and white marble. Below is
(465) the fragment of the figure of "Penelope" by which
we are enabled to correct the restorations of the figure in
the Galleria delle Statue. The workmanship is good. 464
a group of Mithras and the bull, is in bigio. The hound
(467) is a good piece of work.
Opposite, 472 (though a poor copy) represents an early
Greek original, probably of the Peloponnesian school. 475
is a fairly good portrait of about the time of Claudius.
Compartment XVIII. 449, a commonplace Roman por-
trait-figure, ito
s be noted as illustrating Roman, not Greek
fashion in dress. 450 is much restored, but the head is that
of Polyclitus' Doryphoros (p. 321) and the torso is of the
same period. 451 (Aphrodite or a Nymph) is a pretty fourth-
century type ; the herm is restored. 453 (to R.) may have
been an Imperial statue : the head set thereon is Meleager
(a bad copy).
Compartment XVII. On the lower shelf, observe (418) a
female portrait of the Early Empire, probably of a princess
of the reigning house, between two charming busts of chil-
dren (417, 419), clearly brothers. With them was found 423,
a still finer piece of work. Note that Augustan artists were
peculiarly successful in their portraits of children. 420 is
shown by the close-fitting cap to be Hepha?stus (Vulcan) ;
notice the want of symmetry between the two sides of the
face. It has been conjectured to be a copy from Alcamenes,
the pupil of Phidias. In any case, it is a finely characterised
ideal of the god of craftsmen. 422 is Demosthenes. 424,
.3i6 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
found with the three boys' heads, is also of Augustan date, as
is shown by the form of the bust ; the short beard is, how-
ever, not that of a Roman. 424B has been called Sulla,
and this is just possibly right : the head seems to be of
Sulla's time, but to be the work of a Greek rather than of a
Roman artist.
Opposite, notice on the upper shelf 431, a head of Men-
ander, 433 and 435, Roman Republican portraits, on the
lower 441 a conscientious, if not very lifelike, copy of an
extreme fine Greek head often thought to be a portrait of
Alcibiades. That it dates from the fourth century B.C.
(after Alcibiades' death) is no argument against this view ;
compare the portraits of Euripides and Sophocles (" Lateran "
type). But the head is no portrait ; it is a heroic ideal type,
and one of the finest. 439, 443, and the fragments below the
shelf, belong to a frieze with Erotes hunting which decorated
a domed hall in Hadrian's villa. There are others in com-
partments XV and III.
Compartment XVI. The two heads (399 Tiberius, 401
Augustus) and the seated statue of Tiberius (400) were found
at Veii, and are good and typical examples of the academic
official art of the Early Empire.
Opposite, notice 403, a statue of Athena (with modern
head) not for its artistic merit, but because the motive is
obviously borrowed from a type of Artemis which we have
already seen (681) and shall see again (16), to which it is
more appropriate. An example of this type (supposed by
some to be the original) found at Ephesus is in the British
Museum ; doubtless, therefore, the Artemis was also dedi-
cated at Ephesus.
Compartment XV. To L., notice 360, a copy of an archaic
Greek relief (first half of fifth century B.C.) representing the
Three Graces. The original stood outside the Propylaea
at Athens, and bore the signature of an artist named
Socrates. Hence arose a popular legend that the relief was
the work of the philosopher which is absurd. In spite of
all its stiffness and severity, we see in it the dawning of that
feeling for beauty and genius for composition which gave
XII.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 317
birth (within a century) to such reliefs as that of which we
saw a fragment in Xo. 644. The female head, No. 363, be-
longs to the same period, but to the Peloponnesian school.
364, an Antonine portrait, illustrates the peculiar treatment
of the hair by artists of that time. 366 may be Faustina the
Younger, 368 is an old lady, her contemporary. 369 (lower
row) is of Augustan date, 371 of the time of Hadrian. 372A,
brought from Greece by Morosini (the Venetian who bom-
barded die Parthenon) was once supposed to be a fragment
of the Parthenon frieze : it is, however, made of Boeotian
limestone, and was a local work produced under Athenian
influence, which bears testimony to the diffusion of the
artistic faculty in fifth-century Greece. Note that the bridle
of the horse (now lost) was executed in bronze. 374 is a
Republican portrait.
Opposite, 383 is a third-century empress (?) ; 387, wearing
a turban, a lady of Trajan's time ; below, 392, Hadrian ;
393A, a princess of the Julio-Claudian house, once richly
decorated with ornaments in bronze (notice the holes).
Compartment XIV. 352 was supposed to be Paris, and
so restored with the apple ; it is really a Mithraic torch-
bearer (cf. No. 567), executed in the time of Hadrian, but
adapted from fourth-century types. The seated Nymph
(353) was once grouped with two Erotes (notice their feet
on the rock) ; the quiver and bow belonged to one of them.
354 is a graceful and quite individual conception of Athena
(fourth century, perhaps not Attic) badly copied.
To R., between two conventional portraits (355, 357) of
a mother and daughter from an ancient villa at Tusculum,
is a poor specimen of Trajanic art — a Dacian captive
(cf. p. 253).
Compartment XIII. To L., 300 is a small fragment of
a shield decorated with a relief of Amazons in battle. It
belonged to a copy of the Athena Parthenos of Phidias,
whose shield was thus adorned. Of the animal figures the
lynx (313) and panther (315) are the best. To R., 332 might
be Marciana, Trajan's sister; 341 represents the moon-
goddess.
3i8 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
Compartment XII. 293 is a torso of the Doryphoros ;
294 is a curious Heracles, which we should attribute
to Polyclitus if we had only the torso, and (perhaps) to
Lysippus if we looked at the head, so small in proportion.
The riddle is unsolved. Opposite, notice 297, a resting
athlete, obviously by an imitator of Praxiteles (note the
leaning pose and the attitude of the arm, like the Apollo in
the Capitoline Museum (p. 124).
Compartment XI. To L., 253 is a good portrait of Titus
256 may be an ideal portrait of a Greek poetess (Corinna
has been suggested), 257 is a good copy of a Greek athlete
portrait of about 300 B.C.; in the lower row, 259 is a fine
Republican head, 261 and 263 are ladies of Trajan's time
(the latter very good), 265 a contemporary of Antoninus
Pius. Opposite, 285 is reduced from an archaic Apollo,
perhaps by Canachus, a sculptor of Sikyon in the Pelo-
ponnese, 287 is a prettily conceived but poorly executed
figure of a sleeping fisher -boy, 287 A a male ideal head
of the early Attic school (it has been thought to repre-
sent Erechtheus, a mythical king of Athens, from a statue
by Myron).
Compartment X. 240 may have been a portrait of a boy-
prince, but its head is a cast. 242 (with a modern head)
is copied from an archaic bronze Apollo. 241 (found at
Otricoli, a moderate piece of work) is hard to explain ;
it maybe a Greek or Italian divinity, or possibly even Isis
with the child Horus, and so an Alexandrian work. The
colossal head (244, to R.) of a marine divinity was found in
Hadrian's Villa. The Muse (245) is a poor copy from one
of the figures in the group attributed to Philiscus (p. 292).
Compartment IX. 185 represents a Lar on horseback.
On the lower shelf are female portraits, 195 A Antonine, 200
Hadrianic. Opposite, notice a fragment of relief from a
sarcophagus (214) representing a picnic. The head (232)
in nero antico belongs to the same class as the " Scipio " of
the Capitoline Museum (see p. 118). Notice the two grave-
altars, 198 and 230.
Compartment VIII. To L., notice the colossal head of
XII.] THE RIGHT HANK OF THE TITER 319
Athena, copied from an Attic original by Phidias. The
eyelashes are restored (rightly) in bronze, the eyes in
glass — they were made of precious materials.
Opposite, the uppermost of the two sarcophagi (179) can
be dated by its inscription to the first ten years of
M. Aurelius' reign (A.D. 161-170). The scenes represented
are from the legend of Admetus and Alcestis — the wife in
Euripides' tragedy who was rescued by Heracles when
about to die in place of her husband ; in the centre, Alcestis
on a couch with her mourning family, to R. Admetus,
Heracles, and Alcestis (veiled) at the gate of Hades ; notice
the dog Cerberus, the Fates in the background, and at the
end Pluto and Persephone. The figures to L. belong to the
central scene (Apollo with the tripod, etc.). Note that
Admetus and his wife are clearly portraits of the deceased.
Contrast the execution of this sarcophagus with that of 180
(below it), which belongs to the following century (Dionysus
and Ariadne, and landscapes). 181 is the triple-bodied Hecate
— " Diana of the Crossways."
Compartment VII. To L., on the upper shelf, notice
especially 135, a fine and characteristic head from a statue
of a Roman statesman (not Caesar, as some have thought) of
the late Republic — the toga drawn over the head shows
that he was sacrificing. 136 is some three centuries later.
Below. 141 and 143, are of Hadrian's time (note the shape
of the busts). 140 is a Greek philosopher. Of the ideal
heads, 139 reproduces the type of Heracles by Polyclitus,
144 a bearded Dionysus by the fifth-century artist, to whom
we owe the portrait of Pythagoras in the Capitoline Museum
(p. 119), 145 most probably an Eleusinian divinity.
Opposite, 152 is a fragment of relief which represented
a triumphal procession. The spoils were carried on
stretchers (as those of Jerusalem on the arch of Titus). In
the lower row, 165 has been explained as a barbaric type,
but is really a badly executed head of Venus drying her
hair (cf. p. 299). 166 is a replica of the head of the charioteer
in the Palazzo dei Conservators
Compartment VI. To L., 120 is a Hadrianic adaptation
32o THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.

of an early Greek female type (found in Hadrian's Villa)

121 a poetess (with a head like those of the Muses of
Tivoli), 122 a charming type of Artemis the Huntress,
which has been claimed both for Praxiteles and Lysippus,
and described as a Greek original. It is later in date than
either of those artists, and, whether by a Greek artist or
not, is a copy from bronze. To R. 124, a late and bad por-
trait-statue has the head of some Claudian prince set upon it.
Compartment V. To L., on upper shelf, 75 is a head
with the mask of a comic actor. 79 a fragment of a group
representing Scylla and one of the companions of Odysseus
(cf. the Polyphemus group, p. 106). Below, the replicas 83
and 86 (differently restored) represent Hygieia. 87 is a
graceful statuette of Eros wearing the lion's skin of Heracles
(from Hadrian's Villa). Opposite, 107 may be a portrait of
Julius Caesar (unfortunately the nose is restored and the
face has suffered from over-cleaning). 114, the statuette of
a Roman boy, is of a good period and worth noticing.
Compartment IV. To L., 63 (with a poor head which
does not belong to it) is derived from an Attic Athena of
the late fifth century B.C. There is reason to think that the
original was by Alcamenes, the pupil of Phidias, and that
the L. hand rested on a shield (the motive of the L. arm
in this and other copies is glaringly inconsistent with the
style and date of the original). Opposite is the entrance to
the Braccio Nuovo (busts of Augustus and Trajan on either
side).
Compartment III. To L. contrast 20, a fragment of
second-century ornament, with 22, obviously a Renaissance
work. Below, 26 is Septimius Severus, 30 Antoninus Pius,
35 Titus. 28 is a head (with an exaggerated expression of
pain) belonging to the Amazon type which we shall presently
see in the Braccio Nuovo. Opposite, 54 (lower shelf) is a
good Flavian portrait ; 60 may belong to the same period.

The family group below (60 e), like the " Cato and Porcia,''
represents the lower art of the Early Empire.
Compartment II. To L. 14 represents a bad attempt to
do what the copyist of No. 120 (see above) achieved success-
xii. I THE RIGHT HANK OF THE TIBER 321

fully. 15 is a very fair specimen of a Roman portrait-statue

draped in the toga (with a head of Antonine date . As to
16, see on No. 403. The statues opposite are poor.
Compartment I. 2 Apollo) and 5 are good specimens
of early Imperial bas-reliefs. 6 and 13 (opposite) are personi-
fications of Autumn and Winter (heads modern, that of 6
copied from the "Tragic Muse'" at the entrance of the
Rotunda). They were found in a villa in the Campagna.
12 is a fragment of relief with figures of three gladiators,
well characterised.
We now turn back and enter the Braccio Nuovo. Be-
fore we review its contents in their numerical order (begin-
ning on the R. of the door let us look for a moment at
No. 126, the third statue on the L. This is a copy of the
Dorypkoros of Polyclitus (cf. the heads in the Museo Bar-
racco, p. 186 ff.), and is as typical of fifth-century athletic
sculpture as the Apoxyomenos, which we shall see in a few
moments, is of the fourth. The original was of bronze
without the heavy support which is necessary in marble)
and represented a youth shouldering a spear. Notice first
the pose. Archaic Greek sculpture (like that of Egypt and
the East) represented the human figure perfectly upright,
with the legs motionless and strictly parallel, like a pair of
columns : in the fifth century sculptors felt their way to a
freer pose, which introduced a contrast between the functions
of the limbs in rest and motion, as well as between the muscles
of the upper part of the body, when relaxed and in tension.
Polyclitus" solution of the problem was a very individual one
— the R. leg bore the weight of the body, the L. was thrown
back, producing the appearance of a figure just pausing in
its walk. Ancient critics remarked that his statues seemed
to be "all of one pattern." They also criticised his system
of proportions — which in its day was deemed so perfect
that this statue was called the "Canon" — saying that his
figures were too squarely built, as indeed they appear to us.
Notice, lastly, the absence of expression in the face ; Poly-
clitus aimed at solving a problem of form, not at embodying
a spiritual conception.
322 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER |xn.
We will now take the several monuments in order, begin-
ning to R. of the entrance, i is a herm of Dionysus (with
plaster head), 2-4 Roman portraits of small merit. 5 (with
modern head) is a poor copy of one of the Caryatids which
supported the roof of the porch of the Erechtheum on the
Acropolis at Athens— the original has been removed to the
British Museum. We know that there were such Caryatids
in the original Pantheon of Agrippa (p. 173), but this cannot
be one of them. The function of the figure in supporting a
light entablature is just indicated, but not exaggerated, by its
pose and the fall of its drapery. 7, a poor replica of the
head of "Melpomene" in the Hall of the Muses, shows
clearly that the original of both was of bronze. 0, a Greek
portrait-statue in hunting costume, has had a head of Corn-
modus set upon it. 9, the head of a Dacian captive, is from
Trajan's Forum. It is coarsely executed, and was meant to
be seen from a distance. 11, a statue of Silenus playing
with the infant Bacchus, must have been a famous work, as
several replicas are known : the pose, and the shape of the
support, recall the colossal Heracles at Naples, which
(as we know) was inspired by (not copied from) that of
Lysippus ; the spirit of the statue is rather that of Praxiteles.
Perhaps it was the work of a master influenced by both.
12 is a good third-century bust, which illustrates the fashion
of wearing the toga under the Later Empire. The folds on
the breast were carefully arranged in flat bands like planks
— hence the name ccmtabulatio. The pallium as a Christian
vestment, in its latest form, was derived from a garment
similarly worn.
14 deserves special notice. It is a statue ot Augustus
found at Prima Porta, where his wife Livia had a villa. He
is represented as Imperator, in the act of addressing his
assembled legions — yet with a touch of idealism in that he
is bareheaded and barefooted. From the features we should
infer that he was past middle age when the portrait was
made , and the reliefs on the cuirass— which are full of
calculated symbolism— enable as to assign a date to the
statue. At the top is Cadus, the sky-god, rising from the
xii.] THE RIGHT HANK OF THE TIBER 323
clouds : below, to his L., the chariot of the Sun ; to R. the
goddess of the Morning Dew (note the pitcher, and compare
the relief in the Musco Chiaramonti, No 644) bearing a
figure of Dawn. To the Heaven above answers Earth below
— a mother-goddess with her children, holding in her hand
the horn of plenty. But the significant figures are reserved
for the centre of the cuirass. Here we see a Parthian hand-
ing over a legionary standard to a youthful figure, fully armed,
shown by his faithful war-dog to be Mars. We are reminded
of Augustus' great diplomatic triumph, the restoration (in
20 B.C.) of the standards taken by the Parthians from
Crassus on the fatal day of Carrhae (53 B.C.). But we can
date the statue later than this. To R. and L. sit two mourn-
ing women, personifying the conquered nations of Gaul
(to R. ; note the dragon-trumpet and the boar on the stan-
dard) and Spain (to L. ; the sword is characteristic). They
refer to Augustus' pacification of the West, completed in
13 B.C. and celebrated by the erection of the Ara Pacis
(p. 184). Finally, the Eros and dolphin which prop the R.
leg remind us of the divine ancestry of the Julian house,
sprung from /Eneas the grandson of Aphrodite. We can
detect traces of colour, still bright when the statue was
found in 1863, but fast fading. Pink, blue, red, brown and
yellow were freely used ; the cuirass was to be imagined of
gilded metal adorned with enamels. The sculptor was
doubtless sought amongst the masters of the craft, and his
work gives us no mean idea of Augustan art. The weakest
point is perhaps the drapery.
17 is either a statue of the youthful Asclepios (/Esculapius)
or a portrait of a physician of the Antonine period, idealised
under the form of the god of healing and therefore differing
in such a detail as the plain eyeballs from the ordinary
portrait of the time.
18 is a very good head of Claudius, with the somewhat
pathetic expression which we often notice in his portraits ;
20 has been restored with a plaster cast of the head of
Nerva in the Cortile del Belvedere ; 21 is a good portrait of
the time of Septimius Severus or Caracalla, 22 resembles the
324 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
head of the archaic Apollo in the Salonc of the Capitoline
Museum, No. 20 (see p. 122), and may be copied from a
work of the same artist.
23, a Roman grave-statue, reproduces a favourite type of
draped figure, created probably by the Rhodian sculptor
Philiscus (whose Muses have already been mentioned) in the
second century B.C. ; it is conventionally termed " Pudicitia,"
i.e. Modesty.
24, an archaic type, is in nearly all respects identical with
a head (85) in the Room of the Philosophers, but once had
horns ; it therefore probably represents a river-god, while
the Capitoline bust may be meant for Apollo.
26 is a statue of Titus — the "darling of the human race "
— which was found together with No. 1 1 1 opposite ; this
latter figure has naturally been identified with his daughter
Julia, beloved and deified by Domitian, but the resemblance
of the face to her coin-types is not close.
27 (of which 100 opposite is a cast), 40, and 93 are effective
heads of Medusa used in architectural decorations, apparently
from Hadrian's Temple of Venus and Rome.
In the recess which follows are grouped several statues,
chiefly of Satyrs, which served as fountain-figures and
garden decorations in Roman villas. The two seated Satyrs
(32 and 33) were composed as pendants, and the same is
true of the Nereids (34 and 35) ; these were found in a villa
facing the falls of the Anio at Tivoli. 38A (the boy-Satyr
playing the flute) was a very popular type, dating from early
Hellenistic times : 38B] is Narcissus, and belongs to the
same period.
37, a daughter of Niobe, is the finest of all the extant
figures belonging to copies of a well-known group of statues
representing the tragic fate of the Niobids. The original
group was brought to Rome from Asia Minor by Sosius,
a Roman military commander, in 35 B.C., and stood in the
Temple of Apollo in the Campus Martius, where it became
one of the famous sights of Rome. The art-critics of the
Empire disputed whether it should be assigned to Scopas or
Praxiteles — from which we may surely infer that it was not
xii. 1 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 325
the work of either of those artists, though doubtless by
some nameless sculptor inspired by them (more particularly
by Scopas). In the centre of the group was Niobe herself,
clasping her younyest daughter in her arms in a vain
endeavour to shield her from the arrows of Apollo ; there arc
copies (but not first-rate ones; of this and other figures at
Florence (and some scattered in Roman museums, p. 1 10). It
is hard to say how the figures were arranged ; they stand on
a rocky, uneven surface, but will not fit into a pediment.
The one before us is a splendid example of the treatment of
drapery in broad masses, and were it not that the surface of
the plinth is smooth (the rocks were omitted by the copyist),
we might assign it to the original group. The replica at
Florence is less simple in its drapery, and as it is a poorer
copy, we must suppose that it was made from a later rendering
of the figure. This one must clearly be closer to the fourth-
century original. Observe how far removed we are from the
pathological detail of the Laocoon, which illustrates a legend
of the same tragic significance.
The fine vase of basalt in the centre of the gallery was
found on the site of the house of Atticus (the friend of
Cicero) on the Quirinal, the mosaics on which it stands
at Tor Marancia (see p. 348).
41, a statue of Apollo the lyre-player (head restored),
belongs to a school with whose work we are already-
acquainted (see on No. 495 in the Sala delle Muse) : the
drapery of this figure is remarkably like that of the Victory
of Pa.'onius, a Thracian sculptor, discovered at Olympia.
The four female busts which follow can be dated by the
fashion of their hair ; 45 (the best) is Claudian, 42 Flavian,
46 late in the second century, 43 fairly early in the third.
44 is a copy of the Wounded Amazon of Cresilas ; on this
see p. 123. 47 must be compared with No. 5 ; note the greater
freedom of pose and drapery which shows this to be a later
adaptation of the motive. It was found (with others, one
signed by two Xeo-Attic artists, Criton and Xicolaus; on the
Appian Way, in a sanctuary built by Herodes Atticus
(a famous Athenian millionaire of the second century A.D.)
326 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [XII.
in honour of his wife and Faustina the Elder, whose priestess
she was.
48 is a very good portrait of Trajan, 49 a excellent portrait
of the late Republic on a third-century bust.
50 represents the moon-goddess Selene, conceived as
approaching the sleeping Endymion. 52 has been thought
to be a portrait of Matidia, niece of Trajan and mother-in-
law of Hadrian.
53 is a finely conceived statue of a tragic poet — one could
easily believe it to be that of /Eschylus which stood beside
the Lateran Sophocles (p. 235). The poor portrait of Euripides
which has been set on it is much too small for the figure.
54 is a good portrait of the Emperor Pupienus, one of the
two set up by the Senate during its brief tenure of power in
a.d. 238, but shortly afterwards murdered.
56, with a portrait-head which might be that of Julia, the
daughter of Titus, is derived from a fine Attic Athena of the
fifth century, which was of bronze. There is a well-known
replica at Deepdene.
58 (with a strangely modern expression) may be Soaemias,
the mother of Heliogabalus ; 60 is an extremely fine portrait
of a famous Roman (there are other examples) whom we
cannot name, a contemporary of Julius Caesar. 61 may be
Crispina, the wife of Commodus.
62 is a portrait of Demosthenes, copied from that by
Polyeuctus, which was set up by the Athenians in 280 B.C.
We are told that the orator was represented with clasped
hands ; and in 1901 the hands of another copy were found,
which show that this one is wrongly restored. Note the
thin, wasted body and keen face, bearing manifest traces of
the life-long struggle waged by Demosthenes with natural
disadvantages and implacable enemies.
63 is a remarkable example of the Renaissance of por
traituie under Gallienua and closely resembles a head in the
Capitoline Museum (p. 126) ; 64 is a good female portrait
of the time of Augustus.
67 is a unique copy of the bronze Apoxyomenos of Lysip-
pus — the masterpiece of fourth-century athletic sculpture.
XII.] THE RIGHT HANK OF THE TWER 327
The essential difference between this figure and the Dory-
phoros of Polyclitus, v\ hich we have just seen, lies not so much
in the altered s< heme of proportions (the head accounts for 1
instead of 1 of the total height) as in the rounding and
modelling of the forms — there are none of the sharply
divided planes of the earlier statue, nor are we confined to
a single point of view in regarding it. The athlete is repre-
sented in the act of scraping himself with the strigil after
exercise, and the die in the R. hand is due to a blunder of
the restorer. The face has more expression than those of
Polyclitus' statues, and comes nearest to those of Scopas
amongst Lysippus' contemporaries. The original was
brought to Rome by Agrippa to adorn his Baths (p. 172).
Turning back towards the entrance, notice 69, a good por-
trait of Trajan:s time, and 72, a head of Ptolemy, the grand-
son of Cleopatra and last king of Mauretania, who was
summoned to Rome by Caligula and put to death for the
sake of his vast treasures. Next to it is 71, a copy of the
Amazon of Polyclitus; as to this see p. 123, and notice
the characteristic pose of the legs. 76 seems to be a por-
trait of Gordian III (a.d. 238-244).
J7, a portrait-statue of Augustan date, conjectured to be
Antonia, the wife of Drusus and mother of Germanicus and
Claudius, is noteworthy for its drapery, copied from a fourth-
century type. 81 is a faithful, not idealised, portrait of
Hadrian. 83 is an almost precise replica of the Hera Bar-
berini in the Rotunda (p. 278).
Notice 86, a figure which has two replicas (though with
different attributes) in this gallery — Nos. 59 and 74. We
see how Roman copyists adapted a famous Greek type — in
this case one of the early fourth century B.C. — to various uses.
87 is a very good portrait of the time of Caracalla, 89 has
had a head of the aged Sophocles set upon it ; 90 is perhaps
Faustina the Younger (or her daughter Lucilla), 91 a lady
of Trajan's time. 94 (restored as Ceres; is shown by the
woollen fillets on the shoulder to be a statue of a priestess ;
it is, like No. 120 in the Museo Chiaramonti (p. 319., adapted
from a fifth-century type.
328 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xil.
I n the recess on the R. let us first of all notice the busts. 97 A
is one of the masterpieces of Roman Imperial art ; it has been
dubbed " Mark Antony," but is really of the Flavian period,
as is shown by the unbroken shape of the bust. The treat-
ment of the hair might suggest a later date, but there is no
mistaking the " impressionist" tcuch of the artist who hits off
a character — intellectual, yet sensual — with a few strokes of
the chisel. 98 (above) may be Julia Domna ; 100 is a youthful
Marcus Aurelius. 102 is a modern head of Augustus, placed
here to complete the supposed triumvirate, for the " Mark
Antony" is balanced by a "Lepidus'"' — No. 106; here the
bust form is Trajanic, but the portrait seems to be a little
later (Hadrian introduced the fashion of wearing the
beard). The other busts are either modern or of little
importance.
Amongst the athlete types, notice that 99 and 103 repro-
duce the same original (the head of 99 belonged to a dupli-
cate of 105, that of 103 is modern) — a youth holding up an
oil-flask in his L. hand and letting the fluid trickle into his R.
palm ; 105 belongs to the same school, but is a slightly later
work ; the subject was an athlete scraping his L. wrist with
the strigil. Both pairs of statues (counting the head of 99
as one) stood in the same villa at Tivoli as Xos. 32-35.
101 is clearly akin to the Doryphoros of Polyclitus, but it
is hard to be sure if it actually reproduces a work of the
master himself.
Now turn to the colossal figure of the Nile (109), found
iu 15 1 3 on the site of the temple of Isis in the Campus
Martius ; the Tiber, now in the Louvre, was discovered not
far off. The first clearly represents an original product of
Alexandrian art — the second a pendant executed in Rome
itself. The impish crew of children — -sixteen in all — typify
the sixteen cubits through which the Nile must rise in order
to fertilise the soil of Egypt. Do not omit to notice the low
reliefs on the plinth, which portray the river itself and its
animal and vegetable life, with pygmies in boats. The genius
of the artist has redeemed from triviality the frigid conceit
which is embodied in the group ; and the majestic figure of
\-n.| THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 329
the river-god must be pronounced the masterpiece of Ptole-
sculpture.
112 is a fine head of doubtful interpretation, generally
ibed as Hera, but by others supposed to be Persephone
or Selene, since it seems too young for a matronly goddess.
The original can hardly have been earlier than 300 B.C.
114 is known as the Athena Giustiniani ; it has already
been mentioned on p. 112. The replica in the Capitol has
no aegis, and perhaps this was added by the copyist in this
The original was of bronze, and from the severity of
the type we must date it in the fifth century B.C. — the
influence of the art of Phidias seems unmistakable. The
ideal of the maiden goddess is finely conceived.
116 is a first-rate portrait of the late Republic — it recalls
the features of Cn. Domitius Ahenobarbus, the grandfather
of Nero. 117 bears a good head of Claudius. 118 is a
Dacian, like No. 9 ; it is said to have been found in
Trajan's harbour at Ostia. 120 is a poor copy of the
''Marble Faun," 121 a head of Commodus in the charac-
teristic technique of his time. On 123 is set a portrait of
Lucius Verus (cf. p. 288).
124 is one of the finest third-century busts in existence,
and represents Philip the Arabian, Emperor a.d. 244-7.
It shows that, in spite of increasing poverty in technical
resource, Roman sculptors were still able to depict craft and
cruelty with unerring hand. (The head of 125 is a modi rn
copy from that of the Apollo of the Belvedere.)
1 27 was the finest of the heads of Dacians found in
Trajan's Forum, but has suffered much at the hands of a
modern scalpellino. The cap {pileus) was only worn by the
Dacian aristocracy ; the racial type is admirably rendered.
129 is a statue of Domitian- one of the few portraits of
that much-hated Emperor which are preserved. The type
should be compared with that of No. 14 opposite ; but note
that the historical figures on the cuirass are absent. Instead,
we have the emblems of land (Nymph and ox) and sea
(Dolphin and Triton). The features are those of a man
more cultured but less benevolent than Vespasian and
33o THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xil.
Titus. 130 is another portrait of the time of Gallienus
(cf. 67). 132 is an effective fourth-century type of Hermes ;
the head (which does not belong to it) is a good replica of
that of the "Antinous" of the Belvedere (p. 306). 133 is a
faithful portrait of Julia Domna.
135 (restored rightly as Hermes) would be of little
interest but for the fact that it bears the signature of Zeno
of Aphrodisias, one of a school of sculptors of whom we
have already heard (p. 1 14). It is a purely decorative work
(like Nos. 65 and 67 A, which are similar).
Passing out of the Braccio Nuovo, we see on our R. the
entrance of the Gal'eria Lapidaria, which contains an
important collection of Latin inscriptions and a few interest-
ing sculptures.
In Compartment XLVII, notice the use of the " Pudicitia"
type as an ornament, apparently for a tombstone. Observe
several sarcophagi with plain flutings and figures only in
the middle and at the ends — a frequent type. On 169
(Compartment XXXIX) the husband and wife are seen in
the centre ; it is a good piece of second-century work ; on
159 (Compartment XXXVII) their place is taken by Victory
writing on a shield. In Compartment XXXV notice (147)
a grave-altar with reliefs representing on one side a smithy,
on the other a cutlers shop. The Mithraic monuments in
Compartment XXXIII were found at Ostia. Compartment
XXXI contains several tombstones of equites sitigulares,
a mounted bodyguard instituted by Trajan and formed of
Germans. In Compartment XXIX, 128 is an interesting
tombstone with a relief showing a piece of artillery (no
doubt with improvements invented by the deceased,
Vedennius Moderatus, who served under the Flavian
emperors). In Compartment XXVI notice 115A, the tomb-
stone of a man and wife, whose portraits appear in front ;
on the L. side they are seen instru* ting their children. In
Compartment XXIV, 101 is the torso of a Triton which
formed a pendant to that which we saw in the Galleria delle
Statue (p. 289). In Compartment XIX, 83A is the tombstone
of a boy (second century a.i>. . represented with the at-
xii.] THE RIGHT HANK OF THE TIBER 331
tributes of Apollo. 8o.\, a family group, lias 11 union in-
scriptions over the heads.
Returning to the Museo Chiaramonti, we may obtain
admission to the Giardino della Pigna (entrance to I..
just before ascending the steps to the Belvedere). The
sculptures preserved here are for the most part of minor
importance, but there is a group of monuments by the R.
wall which should be noticed. The Pigna itself, a colossal
bronze pine-cone, is traditionally held to have adorned the
summit of the original Pantheon ; not only, however, is
there no evidence of this, but it seems to have been from
the first used as a fountain, being full of holes through
which jets of water streamed. Probably it stood in or near
the temple of Isis in the Campus Martius — this region was
called " Pigna'" in the Middle Ages ; thence, at some un-
known date, it was transferred to the "paradisus" or fore-
court in front of Old St. Peter's, where it stood under a
canopy supported by columns. When it was removed to
the Belvedere by Innocent VIII, it had long ceased to serve
as a fountain. It bears a thrice repeated inscription which
tells us that the maker was called P. Cincius Salvius. It rests
on a large figured capital decorated with athletic types.
On either side of the Pigna are placed bronze peacocks
(once gilt) ; they seem to have stood by the entrance of the
Mausoleum of Hadrian, and thence to have been removed
to the fore-court of Old St. Peters and used to decorate the
canopy over the Pigna. The peacock was in Pagan times
the symbol of apotheosis, in Christian times that of im-
mortality.
Behind the Pigna is the pedestal of the Column of
Antoninus Pius (cf. p. 184), found in 1703, removed to the
Vatican gardens by Pius VI, and placed in the Giardino
della Pigna by Gregory XVI. The column, set up by
M. Aurelius and L. Yerus in memory of their adoptive
father, was of plain granite, crowned by a statue of the
deified Emperor. There is a remarkable contrast between
the style of the relief on the front and that of those on the
sides. The first is a conventional scene of apotheosis.
332 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
Antoninus and Faustina are borne aloft on the wings of a
youthful ideal figure, accompanied by eagles on either side.
Below them are seated (R.) Roma, whose shield is adorned
with the Wolf and Twins, and (l.) a youthful figure holding
an obelisk— the Campus Martius. The style is that of
Hadrianic classicism. On the sides are realistic representa-
tions of the dccursio, a cavalry manoeuvre executed during
the ceremony of consecration. The ensigns carried by the
central figures are those of the praetorian guards. Here
we have new principles asserting themselves, which were to
carry Roman art further and further away from the classical
standard. The figures seem almost like marionettes.
On the E. side of the court notice (52) a colossal head,
much restored, ideal in type, and beside it (53) a " province "
like those which we saw in the Palazzo dei Conservatori.

Returning to the Sala a Croce Greca we may ascend the

staircase in front of us, reaching a landing from which (on
the R.) we enter the circular domed hall called the Sala
della Biga. It takes its name from (623) the Biga or two-
horse chariot of marble which stands in the centre of the
room. The body of the car — gracefully decorated with
ears of corn and poppies springing from acanthus plants —
was for centuries used as an episcopal chair in S. Marco. The
pole adorned with pearls, fillet, and branches of bay (inside
the car) is a symbol of tree worship. The horses are almost
wholly modern.
Proceeding from R. to L. notice first (608) a fine statue of
the bearded Dionysus, commonly known as " Sardan-
apallus" from the inscription (certainly not due to the
artist) on the edge of the cloak. The R. hand should be
restored with the thyrsus. It lias been ascribed to Alca-
menes, to Cephisodotus (the father of Praxiteles), or to
Praxiteles himself. So far as the date is concerned, the
second of these artists suits the style of the statue, and
especially of the drapery, best. Below it is (609) a sarco-
phagus representing Erotes chariot-racing ; there are two
similar ones (613, 617) in the room.
 XII.] THE RIGHT HANK OF THE TWER 333
610 again represents Dionysus, but in a very different
way. The almost effeminate forms of the youthful god
point to the Hellenistic age.
611, copied from a bronze athlete-statue of the fifth
century, which represented a runner, received the name of
Alcibiades because its head (mostly restored) was thought
to resemble the supposed portrait of that statesman in the
Sala delle Muse.
612 is a fine example of Roman drapery ; it represents a
priest in the act of sacrifice, with the toga drawn over his
head, and dates from the close of the Republic (the head
does not belong to it). As the statue is made of Pentelic
marble, and may have come from Greece, it is possibly the
work of a Greek artist, who found a congenial task in por-
traying the ample folds of the Roman toga.
615, the effect of which is marred by the props intro-
duced by the copyist, reproduces a bronze of the later fifth
century (and the Attic school) : the subject is an athlete
placing himself in position for the throw of the discus —
just before the body-swing which will bring him into the
attitude of No. 618, which represents Myron's more famous
statue ; on this see p. 219. (The discus would first be
transferred to the R. hand.) The artist may have been
Alcamenes.
616 was called Phocion because the head of an Athenian
general (whom we cannot identify) was set upon it. It
really represented Hermes, wearing a broad-brimmed hat
and holding the caduceus in his L. hand, and is copied from
a fifth-century original.
On 61 8 see above ; remember that the modern head is
looking forward instead of backward at the discus. The
inscription with the name of Myron is modern.
619 is a charioteer [auriga\ wearing the costume used in
the races of the circus : the knife was used to cut the reins
in case of accident. The head was lost — we must imagine
it with the aid of those which we have seen, p. 218 ; that
which has replaced it is derived from a Polyclitan type.
620 is copied from a Greek portrait-statue, probably of
334 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER (xn.
the fourth century, but bears a Roman head of the second
century A.D., wrongly identified as Sextus, the Stoic teacher
of Marcus Aurelius. Below it is (621) a sarcophagus re-
presenting the mythical chariot-race between Pelops and
CEnomaus at Olympia, with details — such as the metcc—
borrowed from the Roman circus.
Leaving the Sala della Biga, we turn to the R. and enter
the (ialleria dei Candelabri, so-called from the ancient
marble candelabra which flank the arches by which it is
divided into bays. The monuments on the R. will be
described first, then those (returning) on the L. in each bay.
First bay. 1 is a vase of breccia verde ; 2 (much restored)
a bird's nest containing children, used as a garden decoration.
1 1 is a torso of the Satyr pouring wine, after Praxiteles,
which we saw in the Ludovisi collection (p. 207) ; 45 (opposite)
is a head of the same type. 19 recalls the boy playing with
nuts in the Palazzo dei Conservatori (p. 140). 21, a marble
vase, poorly executed, has interesting reliefs showing
Lycurgus, king of Thrace, attacking the worshippers of
Dionysus. 26, a toe from a figure estimated to have been
forty-eight feet high, may have belonged to one of the
statues in the Temple of Venus and Rome (p. 79).
The candelabra (31, 35) were found at Otricoli. On the
base of 31 we see Apollo, Marsyas hanging on a tree (with
his pupil Olympus), and a slave sharpening the knife for his
punishment.
To L., notice 52, a resting Satyr, in green basalt, used to
imitate the patina of bronze.
Second bay. 74, which represents Pan pulling a thorn
out of the foot of a Satyr, is (though poor in execution)
a good example of a Hellenistic fountain-group. 81 (from
Hadrian's Villa) reproduces the barbaric form under which
Artemis of Ephesus, the great nature-goddess of Asia
Minor, was worshipped in later antiquity. It has usually
been supposed that this type was a primitive one, but recent
excavations have shown that in early times Artemis was
represented at Ephesus in the natural human form, so that
the Greeks seem to have borrowed this almost repulsive con-
XII.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER J35
ception from their Asiatic neighbours. 83 is a sarcophagus
similar to that in the Lateran (p. 239) with scenes from the
myth of * >restes, the murder of Clytemnestra and iEgisthus
in the centre, the three Furies to L., Orestes at Delphi to R.
The designs are so much superior to the execution that they
have been thought to be derived from paintings. 87, a
barbarian in Oriental costume, is rightly restored as a
decorative support for a vase, and may be compared with 90,
where three Sileni perform the same function : note that the
wine-skins which take the place of cushions on their shoulders
served as spouts for the fountain. 93 and 97 once stood in
S. Costanza ; the figures of Erotes with which they were
decorated have been partly destroyed by Christian hands.
To L., 113 is a sarcophagus illustrating the legend of
Protesilaus, the first of the Greeks killed at Troy, and after-
wards restored to his wife Laodamia (for a brief space of
time) in answer to her prayers. On the R. side we see the
punishment of Sisyphus, Ixion, and Tantalus in Hades.
iiSa, a small group representing Ganymedes carried oft*
by the eagle to be the cupbearer of the gods, is undoubtedly
a reduced copy from a famous bronze work by the Attic
sculptor Leochares, and as such has a value far beyond its
artistic merit. The impression of skyward motion is well
given ; the L. arm of Ganymedes should be shading his eyes
from the dazzling sun. The supposed resemblance in style
to the Apollo of the Belvedere, which has led many
archaeologists to attribute that statue to Leochares, is non-
existent. (Contrast the ancient treatment of this legend
with that of No. 104, a modern work.
100 is an example of the fantastic capitals used in later
Roman architecture.
The third bay contains sculptures, etc. (notice the wall-
paintings of floating figures of the type common at
Pompeii) found at Tor Marancia (p. 348), and others of
greater importance. 131 is a mosaic with still-life
subjects in brilliant colours. 134A is a modern copy of
a putecU or well-head (now in Madrid with Bacchic scenes,
placed here as a pendant to 134c, which shows Hermes
336 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xil.
bringing the child Dionysus to the Nymphs. 134B deserves
attention as an adaptation of early Greek types to the uses
of Roman religion. As its inscription shows, it represents
Semo Sanctis, an ancient Italian divinity identified with
Dius Fidius, the god who protected the sanctity of oaths,
and was dedicated by the college of priests who presided
over the ceremonial burying of thunderbolts. The type,
however, is that of an archaic Apollo, with a free rendering
of the nude. 135 (head restored) is from a Greek portrait-
figure which may be compared with the Posidippus and
" Menander " of the Galleria delle Statue. 137 is best
interpreted as a statue of the Roman yoddess Libera, the
consort of the wine-god Liber, identified with Dionysus.
The artist has sought his inspiration in the art of the fifth
century : the drapery recalls that of Phidias and his school.
The candelabra, 1 57 and 219, are from S. Agnese, and though
the upper part is different the bases agree with those of 93
and 97, so that they probably belong to the same set. To
L notice 148, a Hellenistic figure of a Satyr carrying a child
(perhaps the baby Dionysus) on his shoulders, and 149A,
as to which see on the " Eros of Centocelle :; (p. 289) ; in this
case Thanatos is indicated by the torch.
Fourth bay. 162, a statuette of Victory leaning on a
trophy and placing her foot on a ship's prow, is derived from
a monument of the Hellenistic period set up to commemorate
a victory by sea. 166 is a graceful candelabrum adorned
with the attributes of Artemis. 176 and 178 are replicas of
the young Satyr looking at his tail, of which we have already
spoken (p. 202). 177, an aged fisherman, is one of the
best examples of the realistic tendency in Hellenistic ge?ire
sculpture, for which we should compare the drunken old
woman of the Capitol and the Shepherdess of the Palazzo
dei Conservatori (p. 140). The reliefs (much damaged) of
the putcal (179) represent the punishment of the Danaids,
eternally filling a leaky jar and that of Oknos, which we
have already seen (p. 241). 183 is part of a figure of Kronos
(identified with Saturn) ; in his R. hand he held the stone
wrapped in swaddling-clothes which was given him to
XII.] THE RIGHT HANK OF THE TIBER 337
swallow in place of Zeus. 184 is a reduced copy of a famous
bronze by Eutychides, a pupil of Lysippus, representing
the Fortune of Antioch on the Orontes (founded in 300 B.C.).
The river-god at her feet is restored with uplifted arm, but
should be swimming. The conception is eminently graceful,
and even so poor a copy as this can help us to appreciate
the formal merits of early Hellenistic sculpture ; its defects
are those common to all allegorical representation. The
crown of towers, the ears of corn, the mountain (Silpios)
on which the goddess sits, the river-god, are so many ex-
ternal symbols added to what might be a charming ge?ire
figure (like the terra-cotta figurines of Tanagra) in order
to transform it into a divinity ; the religious spirit is entirely
lacking. The reliefs of the candelabrum (187) represent (in
archaistic style) the contest between Apollo and Heracles
for the Delphic tripod. (190 is a cast of the largest work of
the kind in existence, which was removed by Napoleon and
never restored). To L. notice 198, a fiuteal with figures of
shades disembarking from Charon's boat, 194, a copy of the
" boy with a goose" (p. 127) ; 200, an " archaistic" statue of
Apollo transformed by the restorer into an Artemis (the
quiver has taken the place of the lyre) ; 203, a.vatiant (with-
out wings) of the type represented by 189, 204, a sarco-
phagus with the slaughter of the Niobids, similar to that in
the Lateran (p. 239) ; and 208 (found in the Basilica at
Otricoli), which represents a prince of the Julian house.
Fifth bay. 222 is a careful copy from a Peloponnesian
original in bronze of the middle of the fifth century B.C., re-
presenting a girl=runner about to start in a race, such as
those in which Spartan maidens took part. The restraint
and simplicity of early Greek art are here seen as clearly as
in the "boy extracting a thorn" (p. 144), which belongs to
much the same period and school. On the L., notice (246) a
fountain-figure of Pan, adopted from a Polyclitan type (in
this case the shepherd's pipe has been replaced by a vase),
and 234A, a fragment of relief found on the Palatine, with
the figure of a chi!d=Satyr drinking, which we have seen
on the large landscape relief in the Lateran (p. 232). This
 338 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xil.
is a much finer piece of work. 240, an Ethiopian slave
carrying his master's strigil and oil-flask, is a clever but re-
pulsive study of the racial type.
Sixth bay. 38 is a statue of Artemis, which recalls by its
drapery the Athena Parthenos of Phidias, but is somewhat
later. The head, however, is from a type of Phidias' school.
On the sarcophagus (253) with Selene and Endymion is
placed (253c) a female statuette of early Hellenistic date,
which shows fine workmanship, though injured by restoration
As a study of drapery it is of outstanding excellence. It
may have represented Persephone. 257 represented Gany-
medes before his rapture, and is therefore wrongly restored
with the wine-cup. He should be shading his eyes with the
L. hand. On the L., 261 has been claimed as a copy of the
famous Paris of Euphranor (but see p. 290), and many re-
plicas of it are in existence ; but it may have been intended
for Ganymede. 264 is a figure from the Niobid group (p. 324).
269 is a sarcophagus with scenes from the story of Castor
and Pollux, who overcame Idas and Lynceus and carried
off their affianced brides, Hilaira and Phoebe. On it stands
(269c) the statuette of a Persian from one of the groups
dedicated by Attalus I of Pergamon on the Acropolis of
Athens (see p. 214). The group to which this figure belonged
represented the battle of Marathon. 37, a portrait-figure of
one Pompeia Attia, has a head set on it which seems to have
worn a laurel-wreath and perhaps to have been a portrait of
a poetess.
From the landing on which the Sala della Biga and
Galleria dei Candelabri open we enter the Museo Gre=
goriano Etrusco, in which we may make the acquaintance
of that Etruscan art which exercised so profound an in-
fluence on early Rome and bequeathed to Roman art the
realism which blended so strangely with the ingrained
idealism of the Greeks. This strife of opposing tendencies
is illustrated in the first room (or entrance-hall), where the
recumbent figures from the lids of sarcophagi found near
Toscanella, with their minute rendering of details (ornaments,
etc.) contrast with the attempt to reproduce a Greek model
XII.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 339
in the sarcophagus of nenfro (a volcanic stone quarried in
Etruria) made the slaughter of the Niobids. The horse's
heads in the same material stood on either side of the en-
trance to a tomb.
In Room II is a collection of ash=chests made of alabaster
and travertine, found for the most part near Volterra and
Chiusi. Here we see the figure of deceased on the lid ; the
front is decorated in relief with scenes from Greek mythology
(notice 56, the raceof Pelops and CEnomaus, cf.p.334) ; 61, Paris
and Helen embarking for Troy ; and 86, Actoson torn by his
hounds) or from the demonology of the Etruscans themselves
(44 and 67, a demon conducting a horseman, i.e. the dead
man). Note the bright colours used. On the cases are
several realistic portrait-heads in terra-cotta.
In Room III are some inscribed monuments, notably a
tomb in the form of a circular temple. The meaning of the
Etruscan inscriptions can often be guessed, but the affini-
ties of the language are not yet determined.
Room IV contains some excellent examples of sculpture
in painted terra=cotta. The statue of Hermes in the
middle of the room (from a Hellenistic type) and the frag-
ments of female figures (211, 234, 266) were found near
Tivoli. 215. a sarcophagus upon which lies stretched a
figure of Adonis, wounded in the thigh, with his faithful
dog by his side, is the finest of its kind. The splendid
decorative frieze (154-6) on the L. wall is said to have come
from Cervetri (Cnere). There are also good examples of
architectural terra=cottas, some of archaic style (e.g. 170,
246, and the winged Pegasus in the middle of the back
wall).
Rooms V-VIII contain the collection of Greek vases.
These were imported into Etruria from the eighth century
B.C. onwards ; local imitations are few in number, and easily
distinguished by their poor drawing. The forms of these
vases are admirably adapted to their uses. The ampJiora,
used for holding oil and wine, had a wide mouth and two
upright handles ; the crater, or mixing-bowl, was bell-
shaped, with handles near the bottom : the hydria, in which
340 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
water was carried, had two horizontal and one vertical
handle, and a shoulder making sharp angles with neck and
body ; the amochoe, or jug for pouring wine, had a high,
gracefully curved handle and often a trefoil mouth ; the
cylix was a shallow, two-handled drinking-cup (deeper bowls
were called scyphi or canthari) ; the lekythos, or oil-flask,
was a tall vase with a narrow neck and mouth. The pro-
gress of Greek art is traceable in the decoration of the
vases. At first we have bands of animal and human figures,
almost purely ornamental, in black on a light ground :
then the figures acquire names and the subjects are taken
from mythology, and the background acquires a warm red
tone, while the black silhouette is enriched with inner mark-
ings by means of incised lines. Towards 500 B.C. a great
innovation was made by Athenian potters, who reversed
the colours, drawing the outlines of their figures on the
red clay and filling in the background with black. The
artists of this school often signed their names on the vases
— especially the drinking-cups, or cylices; and from the
study of such works we are able to distinguish the styles of
several vase-painters and to attribute unsigned vases to
them. The great merit of these craftsmen resides in the
sureness of touch with which their drawings are executed
and their innate instinct for beauty of line, both in single
figures and in composition ; the conventional style of their
paintings recalls the severity of archaic sculpture. The
progress of art in the fifth century is reflected in the grow-
ing freedom of drawing ; but the gulf between high art and
mere industry becomes gradually wider. After 400 B.C.,
with the economic decline of Athens, vase-painting for ex-
port gradually ceases, and Southern Italy becomes the
most important centre of manufacture.
In the centre of Room V is a circular vase wilhout handles
(called a deinos) on a high stand. Its decoration consists
largely in rows of animals ; in the topmost band, however,
we have a mythical scene — the hunt of the Calydonian boar
— on one side, and on the other, a fight over the body of a
dead warrior, which only needs inscriptions to make it an
HI.] THE RIGHT HANK OF THE TIBER 341
illustration of Homer. In the wall-cases we have first of all
Corinthian fabrics, identified by the alphabet and dialect
of their inscriptions ; notice 5, which has the names of Ajax,
Hector, and .Eneas painted beside the figures, although
there is no passage in Homer where these three heroes are
brought together precisely in this way. No. 7 shows us
a boar-hunt with fancy names (Dionr Polyphamos, etc.).
We then come to Attic black-figured vases, ioa is signed
by the artist Nicosthenes, a large producer of vases dis-
tinguished rather by the elegance of their form (they are
close imitations of bronze) than by the interest of their sub-
jects, which are generally Dionysiac. 12 (Athena fighting
with a Giant) has the inscription " Nicostratus is beautiful"
— typical of many found on Attic vases, often giving the
names of men celebrated in Athenian history. In this
room have lately been placed specimens of the hut - urns
found in the Alban hills (cf. p. 177) and stucco reliefs
(notice 168) from a tomb of the second century A.D.
In the centre of Room VI, notice a large Attic amphora
(signed by Exekias) ; on one side are Ajax and Achilles
playing at dice; on the other, Castor and Pollux returning
home. This is one of the masterpieces of the black-figured
technique, which in the hands of Exekias became highly
conventional ; note the elaborate ornamentation of the
heroes' cloaks made with incised lines. Amongst the vases
in cases, notice 51, which is of Ionic workmanship (i.e.
made in W. Asia Minor), and 70. which shows the sale of
an olive crop — the owner exclaims: "Would God I might
become wealthy." Between the windows are five " Pana=
thenaic " amphoras, given as prizes in contests at Athens ;
and in the window-cases some Italian imitations of later
Greek vases, made in Campania, with Latin inscriptions.
In the semicircular gallery (VII) are red-figured vases
of the larger forms. Those of Attic make, such as 84, an
amphora with the single figure of Achilles ; 99, a hydria
with a representation of Thamyris, the mythical Thracian
singer (note the beginnings of an indication of landscape) ;
97, Apollo sailing over the sea on his tripod, etc., contrast
342 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
favourably with the large amphora.- with volute handles,
such as 89 (grave-monument and funeral banquet), 117
(Orestes at Delphi), etc., made in Apulia and Campania in
later times. 121 represents the most interesting class of
these vases — those with scenes from the theatre, and
especially from the burlesques of Greek mythology per-
formed at Tarentum and elsewhere ; here we see the visit of
Zeus to Alcmene, the wife of Amphitryon, who became the
mother of Heracles.
In Room VIII we see the cylices in which the art of the
Attic vase painters found its highest and most characteristic
expression. In the first glass case are those of the earlier
styles ; notice (275) one in the interior of which are depicted
Prometheus, bound to a pillar, and his brother Atlas up-
holding the world (inspired by a passage in Hesiod). It has
generally been supposed that the group of vases to which
this belonged were manufactured in the sixth century B.C.
at Cyrene in X. Africa, but recent excavations have shown
that a similar fabric was made at Sparta. Among the
black-figured Attic cylices is one (258) signed by Pam-
phaios ; notice the large eyes with which the outside is
decorated. In the second case are the red-figured cylices ;
note their increasing elegance of form as compared with
those with black figures. Although signed vases by the
great masters are wanting, we can recognise the style of
Brygos, distinguished by the delicacy of its drawing, in 225
(a symposium), 227 (Hermes stealing the oxen of the sun),
and 174 (warriors arming). A remarkable cylix with Jason
vomited forth by the dragon might be by Euphronios, the
most original of these vase-painters.
In the centre of the room stands a beautiful Attic crater
of the fifth century with polychrome decoration on a
ground of white pipe-clay, which may help to give us
a faint impression of the painting of the time. The main
subject is the presentation of Dionysus by Hermes to
Silenus and the Nymphs ; on the back we see three Nymphs
or Muses, two with stringed instruments |and one about to
dance.
xii.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 343
In the window-cases is a collection of ancient glass and
enamels. The glass mosaics (so-called "millefiori" glass)
have been thought to represent the lost "Myrrhine" fabric
spoken of by ancient writers.
In the wall-cases are examples of the black ware
(buccherd) made in Etruria (on the upper shelves , as well
as Greek vases of various forms ; note in the first case a
beautiful aenochce or jug with Menelaus pursuing Helen,
dropping his sword ; Aphrodite and Peitho ("Persuasion"),
are in the background. The subject is also found on one of
the metopes of the Parthenon. On the wall above are
copies of Etruscan wall-paintings, with scenes partly from
Greek, partly from Etruscan legend.
Returning to Room VI, we turn to R. into Room IX,
which contains a large collection of the bronzes for which
the Etruscans were famous. (There are also some speci-
mens of Roman work, such as 173, a fragmentary portrait-
statue, 174, 2CO. and 206, remains of a colossal statue of
Neptune from Civita Yecchia). The great majority of the
objects are articles of household use or ornament, many of
which would now be manufactured in less durable materials,
while none would possess a tithe of the artistic value be-
longing to the products of Etruscan industry. Notice
especially, by the back wall (57), a censer on wheels, (155) a
bed, and (69) a trumpet ; opposite the third window (207) a
cista like that in the Museo Kircheriano, engraved with
scenes from the Gymnasium ; also the mirrors with en-
graved designs, usually mythological or Etruscan inscrip-
tions. Statuary is well represented by (313) a warrior known
as the Mars of Todi, bearing an Umbrian inscription, but
no doubt an Etruscan work ; (329) opposite the middle
window, a statuette of a boy wearing the bulla or amulet
(with Etruscan inscription), and (283) a similar statuette of
a boy holding a bird. These may be ascribed to the third
century P..C. 16 (by the exit) is copied from a Greek type
of the Hellenistic period.
The revolving case in the centre of the room contains the
treasure found in a tomb of the seventh century B.C. at
544 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
Cervetri (Caere), known as the Regulini-Galassi tomb.
Additional fragments have been recovered in recent excava-
tions. This tomb (like that at Palestrina, whose contents
are in the Museo Kircheriano) was rich in gold ornaments,
which show strong Oriental influences, and the silver
bowls of Phoenician workmanship are not wanting. The
bronze chariot (205) is of the fifth or fourth century B.C.
In another case are a collection of objects found at
Pompeii in 1849. Amongst them is a Greek relief of the
fifth century, representing a horseman.
From Room IX we pass through a corridor containing
some small bronzes from Ostia and a collection of leaden
water-pipes in Room X. In this are three sarcophagi from
Cervetri (one with a representation of the myth of Clytem-
nestra and Orestes) and pottery, etc., from Chiusi. On the
walls are hung copies from Etruscan tomb-paintings which
illustrate the gradual progress of art under Greek influence.
In Room XI, which comes next, is a collection of anti-
quities found near Viterbo ; notice the gold ornaments of
Greek manufacture. Returning to Room IX we pass
through the door to the r. of the bronze chariot into Room
XII. Here we see, besides minor objects of bronze, ivory,
etc., a reproduction (in a niche) of an Etruscan tomb-
chamber, with three couches upon which the bodies of the
dead were laid.
Below the Etruscan Museum is the Egyptian Museum
(entered from the Sala a Croce Greca). The collection was
founded by Gregory XVI, and is chiefly rich in monuments
of the imitative Egyptian style, which became fashionable
in Rome under the Empire. Such objects have chiefly
been found either on the site of the Iseum in the Campus
Martius (p. 175) or in Hadrian's Villa. Room I contains
three sarcophagi in black basalt of the "Sake" period (sixth
century B.C.), and mummy cases of earlier date. In Room
II is (25A) the earliest object in the collection, a bust of
Mentahotep, a king of the Eleventh Dynastry (about D.C.
2000). The Middle Empire is represented by (22) a frag-
ment of a seated statute of Rameses II ; the two lions (16,
xn.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 345
18) date from the reign of the last of the Pharaohs, Nektanebo
II (358-341 B.C.) ; and 12 is a statue of Ptolemy II, the
founder of the library of Alexandria, which stands next that
of his wife Arsinoe. In Room III (113) a statuette of a priest
holding a small shrine of Osiris, is important on account of
its inscription, which relates to the Conquest of Egypt by
Cambyses (525 B.C.) The mummy-cases in the corridor are
chiefly of the Saite period ; 141 (in the centre case) is the
gravestone of an official who had charge of the Great
Pyramid. In the room beyond are smaller objects (statuettes,
scarabs, etc. ) ; Room VI 1 1 contains papyri, Room X Assyrian
and other Oriental monuments. Room IX (to R. of Room I)
is reserved for imitative monuments executed at Rome in
the Egyptian style which was especially popular under
Hadrian. The most noticeable is (36) a colossal figure of
Antinous in white marble. Between the doors is (56) a
figure of the Nile.
The Vatican Library (entrance on the ground floor
opposite the stairs leading to the Museum of Sculpture)
contains some important antiquities. In the Museo Pro=
fano, which we first enter, are four bronze portraits ; they
represent (R.) Augustus — an excellent portrait — (l.) Nero ;
the others are Septimius Severus and Balbinus, the colleague
of Pupienus (p. 115), a good example of third century por-
traiture.
By the entrance to the next section are two porphyry
columns with figures in relief. We see in each case two
Emperors (note the laurel wreath, and globe in L. hand)
embracing each other. There are two very similar groups
in S. Marco at Venice, and columns each with one figure in
relief in the Louvre. They were all probably made in
Egypt and symbolise the unity of East and West, or merely
of two joint Emperors. They may be as early as the fourth
century a.r, and illustrate the " Orientalisation of late
Imperial art.;'
In the third room of the Museo Cristiano is an important
collection of ancient paintings. The most famous of these
^on the R. wall) is known as the Aidobrandini marriage,
346 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
found on the Esquiline at the beginning of the seventeenth
century, and owned by the family of Clement VIII until it
was bought by Pius VII. It was long thought to be copied
from some famous original, perhaps by Apelles, the greatest
of Greek painters, but the motives seem to have been
borrowed by a Roman artist from various sources and com-
bined into a picture with some sacrifice of clearness. In
the centre we see (probably) the bride in her parents' home,
listening to the persuasive utterance of Aphrodite (this or a
similar group is found in terra-cottas of Hellenistic date) ;
Hymenals, the god of marriage, is seated on the threshold.
On the R. are maidens about to sing the cpithalamium, and
one pouring a libation ; to L. are others who seem to be
preparing a bath for the bride. The composition is like
that of a relief, and the figures are widely spaced, but this
is no proof of early date. Almost more interesting are the
landscapes from the Odyssey (R. and L. walls) which
formed a kind of continuous picture divided into sections
by scarlet pilasters in the upper part of a wall. They were
found on the Esquiline in 1840, in a house of the early
Imperial period, and were probably executed under Augustus
or Tiberius. We know that it was a fashion at that time to
decorate walls with cycles of mythological paintings, and
here we have an example of this practice ; but what we
notice is that the landscape, not the figures, is all-important
to the artist, and this shows that the "architectural" style
of wall-painting (cf. p. 91) sprang from the effort to open
up imaginary prospects into surrounding space. We begin
with a series of three pictures of Odysseus and his comrades
in the country of the Lasstrygones (two on L., the third on
R. wall). In the first we see the ships of Odysseus in the
offing, and three of his companions greeted on landing by
the giant daughter of the king, who is carrying a pitcher.
Notice the figures of the mountain-god, the nymph of the
stream, the boatman who personifies the shore (as the
Greek inscription above his head shows), and the three
wind-gods in the sky. We shall find these supernatural
denizens of the landscape in other scenes. The flocks and
xii.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 347
herds seem to owe their presence to a reminiscence of
Homer's description of the country of the Liestrygones,
where the nights were so short that the outgoing and home-
coming herdsmen met on the way to pasture. In the
second picture the giants, led by their king Antiphates,
are attacking the crew of Odysseus, some of whom have
already been slaughtered. Pan and a Nymph, seated on a
rock, personify the " Pastures." In the third scene the
La^strygones are destroying the ships of Odysseus with
huge blocks of stone. In this picture the landscape is
particularly well treated. The following scene, representing-
the voyage of Odysseus, forms a transition to the next
episode in his wanderings — the visit to Circe, whose place
(in the next picture) occupies the central point in the wall
(notice the perspective of the pilasters, which emphasises
this). On the L. we see Odysseus greeted by Circe at the
door of her house ; in the centre the sorceress, who has
failed to cast her spell over him, is kneeling at the feet of
the hero. There was another illustration of the story of
Circe in the next panel, but it is almost obliterated. We
now come (l. wall) to two of the most interesting of the
landscapes — those which show Odysseus in the Land of
Shades. In the first of these we see his ship to L., then an
archway of rock which represents the entrance of Hades.
Within is a scene dimly lighted by the rays which pass
through the arch. Odysseus has sacrificed the ram, and
the Shades are pressing forward to taste its blood. In
front of them is the prophet Tiresias, from whom Odysseus
is inquiring as to his destiny. Pha?dra, Ariadne, and Leda
are close behind him. The green waters beside which they
stand are those of Acheron, and the river-god himself sits
on the bank. In the last scene (only half preserved) we
see the torments of famous criminals. The daughters of
Danaus are pouring water into the vessel which never is
filled (they are not mentioned by Homer, but have been
added by the artist) ; Tityus is stretched at full length, with
vultures gnawing his body. Sisyphus is rolling his stone ;
and Orion (for it must be he, though the inscription seems
348 THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xil.
to give a different name); is engaged in the endless pursuit
of his prey.
Below these paintings are hung a series of female figures,
known as the heroines of Tor Marancia (an ancient villa
about one and a half miles from the Porta S. Sebastiano,
near the Via della Sette Chiese). Though poor in execution,
and probably not earlier in date than the third century A.D.,
they doubtless reproduce earlier types, for they form a
gallery of sinners, driven to crime or suicide by overmaster-
ing passion, the conception of which must date back to
Alexandrine times. We see them all, however (except
Myrrha), in the moment preceding the commission of the
fatal act, which is only hinted at by some significant detail.
On the back wall are Pasiphie with the cow fashioned by
Daedalus, and Myrrha, flying in horror from an unseen
pursuer (her father) ; to R. Phaedra holding the rope with
which she is about to hang herself, and Scylla (who betrayed
her father to Minos by cutting off the lock of hair upon
which his safety depended) standing on the walls of Myara
with the fatal lock in her hand. On the L. wall is Canace,
holding the sword with which she is about to stab herself —
the attitude is that of the daughter of Pelias on the relief in
the Lateran, p. 233 ; and an unnamed figure which does 7iot
(as was once thought) belong to this series, but was found at
S. Basilio, on the Via Nomentana. It is the work of abetter
artist than the painter of the " heroines," but has suffered
from restoration.
There are also some interesting paintings found at Ostia
in this room. The most interesting are those which represent
processions of children. In one we see some approaching
a statue of Artemis (Diana) with lighted torches, while
others are carrying busts and bunches of grapes on poles.
In the other, the procession is being formed, and a ship on
wheels is depicted to L. The "Ship of Isis" was thus
conveyed in a spring festival at Rome. Between these
paintings is one of a chariot-race with Cupids as drivers.
There are also a picture of a ship being laden with grain
(her name is his Geminiand) and a decorative figure of Mars.
XII.] THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER 349
Before returning to the L. bank, we may visit the Mau =
soleum of Hadrian, better known as the Castel S. Angelo.
Hadrian chose for his tomb a site in the " Gardens of
Domitia," and built a new bridge, the Pofis s£/itts, now the
Ponte S. Angelo, as an approach to it. This took the place
of a bridge built by Nero about a hundred yards down
stream, the remains of which are only visible at low water ;
this fell into disrepair, and was destroyed (at the latest) by
Aurelian, as it would have weakened his chain of defences
(p. 361). Excavations in 1892 showed that the Pons y-Elius
had originally eight arches, and was approached by a
sloping road from the L. bank. Both the bridge and the
Mausoleum were practically completed in A.D. 136, and two
years later Hadrian was buried there. It was used as the
burial-place of the Antonine emperors and their families, as
well as by Septimius Severus and Caracalla, who claimed
a fictitious descent from Commodus. The later history 0}
the monument, from its conversion into a fortress, cannot
here be traced. The mediaeval alterations and the building
of the Appartamento Papale by the Renaissance Popes, have
left but little of the structure in its original form. If we
enter by the gateway opposite the Ponte S. Angelo and turn
to L. we shall find a small museum in which, beside busts
of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius and architectural fragments,
there is a restored model by Colonel Borgatti which will
give the traveller an excellent idea of the ancient monument,
with its square base (on the top of which the modern passage
runs), its massive cyclinder, faced with marble, decorated
with pilasters and a cornice supporting a row of statues,1
its tumulus of earth planted with cypresses, and the central
superstructure upon which a colossal statue of Hadrian in
a four-horse chariot once stood. Such at least is the most
probable reconstruction, though the details must be uncertain.

1 We are told that these statues were hurled down by the

defenders of the Mausoleum upon the heads of the besieging
Goths in a.d. 537 ; but it is impossible that the " Barberini Faun"
at Munich, which was found near the base of the monument, can
have been one of these.
35o THE RIGHT BANK OF THE TIBER [xn.
Notice the fragments of the marble frieze, decorated with
ox- heads and garlands, which ran round the cylinder.
Next observe that the cylinder is faced with huge blocks
of peftertno, which, however, were hidden by marble slabs, of
which only a few remain on the E. side. We enter a passage
walled with blocks of travertine, which were once faced with
slabs of giallo antico, at the end of which is a niche for a
colossal statue. To the R. is a spiral passage, once richly
decorated with pilasters and cornice of marble and paved with
mosaic, which after making a complete circuit of the cylinder
brings us to the central tomb=chamber, in the niches on
either side of which Hadrian and his wife were buried. The
modern stairway crosses the chamber on a sloping bridge
and soon brings us to the Cortile delle Palle, from which
we ascend to the Papal apartments ; what we here see belongs
to the history of mediaeval, not to that of classical Rome.
 XIII

THE VILLA Dl PAPA GIULIO

fT^HIS is the villa built for Julius III (i 550-1555) by

L J. Yignola, and transformed in 1888 into a museum for
remains found in the " Provincia di Roma.1' The greater
part of the antiquities which it contains were found in the
territory of Falerii, in the neighbourhood of Civita Castel-
lana, forty miles to the N. of Rome. The Falisci, who in-
habited this district, were the nearest kinsfolk of the Latins,
and their dialect closely resembled Latin. Falerii was taken
by the Romans in 396 B.C. and its inhabitants were removed
in 241 li.c. to a new town on a lower site].
To reach the Villa di Papa Giulio we take the Vicolo dell'
Arco Oscuro, a turning on the R. from the Via Flaminia,
about half a mile outside the Porta del Popolo. In the room
to R. of the entrance is a fine Etruscan sarcophagus from
Cervetri, with the figures of man and wife on the cover. In the
cases are vases, bronzes, etc., from Corchiano (near Falerii).
On the walls are copies of Etruscan tomb paintings and of
a sarcophagus (now in the museum at Florence) with paint-
ings of a battle between Greeks and Amazons, which are
purely Greek in spirit and are valuable for the history of
Greek painting. To L. of the entrance is a room containing
architectural terra=cottas from the temples at Falerii ;
also a coffin made of a hollowed tree-trunk (like the children's
coffins found in the early cemetery near the Forum) from
Gabii (in the Campagna).
From the corridor a staircase (on the L.) leads to the upper
floor. Here the objects discovered in the Faliscan territory
are arranged in chronological order, and furnish an epitome
352 THE VILLA DI PAPA GIULIO [xm.
of the progress of material civilisation in central Italy from
the Early Iron Age onwards. In the first room (Cases I-V)
are vases of native Italian fabrics, both black and red ;
in Case VI we find a few specimens of the ware generally
called " Proto=Corinthian," exported from Greece at the
beginning of the colonising period (700 B.C. and earlier). In
Case VII we come to Italian imitations of the black=figured
vases such as we saw in the Museo Gregoriano. Notice in
the centre case a hut=urn in bronze, as well as ornaments
in glass, gold, and amber.
In the second room are Greek vases (black-figured in
Case XI to L., red-figured in the following cases). The
gradual progress of the art of vase painting is well-illustrated.
Notice as a fine example of the severe style a fragment
(close to the door leading into the corridor) which belonged
to a psykter or wine-cooler with high stem, representing
Centaurs at war with Lapithae ; observe the use of light brown
varnish for shading. In the centre case is a beautiful astra-
galos, or vase in the shape of a knuckle-bone, signed by the
artist Syriskos, and others of the finest period (fifth century
B.C.) In Case XXII is a skull with gold settings for false
teeth.
In Room III we find Faliscan imitations of Greek vases,
which may be distinguished by their coaser drawing and by
the pale colour of the clay. Note also the sensuous tendency
of Italian art and its marked preference for Dionysiac sub-
jects. We often find pairs of vases. Thus two cylices bear
the \x\scx\\)\\ox\ foied vino pipafo (or pafo), era carefo, "to-day I
will drink wine, to-morrow I shall go without it," and two
stamnoi (wide-mouthed vases with small handles) have an
identical subject (Ganymede, Jupiter, Cupid, and Minerva —
names inscribed). In the end cases are vases with a silver
glaze on which were gilded decorations in relief.
To L. at the end we enter a cabinet containing the trea-
sure found in the tomb of a priestess at Todi (where the so-
called "Mars'' of the Museo Gregoriano was discovered,
p. 343). Besides the gold ornaments, some of which were
sewn on to a dress, notice the fine bronzes in the central
XIII.] THE VILLA DI PAPA GIUL10 353
case (lamp-stand, jug. vase with figure of Heracles as handle,
drinking-cup with double herm as base).
In an inner cabinet are some remarkable specimens of
terra=cotta sculpture from the pediments of temples at
Falerii. Notice the fragments of limbs and drapery with
dark painted background and a female figure with a richly
patterned mantle ; these are of early date. Much finer are
two figures, one male one an Aphrodite, belonging to the
Hellenistic period, and but little inferior to original Greek
work.
Returning to Room 1 1 we pass (to R.) into the upper corridor
where are several cases of vases, bronzes, etc., arranged
chronologically, from Xarce, an ancient town near Faleriif
and other sites. The vases in Case LXYI illustrate the
Corinthian pottery which gradually give place to Attic
fabrics.
In the side court (to R. of the fountain) a model of a
temple has been set up, with the aid of remains found at
Alatri (ancient Aletrium, S. of Rome; ; this illustrates the
use of painted terra-cotta in early Italian aichitecture and
its vivid colouring.
 XIV

THE WALLS OF ROME

ON the " map of historic Rome" (p. xx) are traced both
the lines of fortification by which Rome was enclosed.
More than six centuries separate the earlier from the later
wall ; and while the latter is for the most part in excellent
preservation (save where it has been destroyed in modern
times), the former is only traceable in isolated fragments.
It has already been explained (p. 7) that the tradition
which ascribed the great wall of Early Rome to the Etruscan
king, Servius Tullius, cannot be maintained. Apart from
the evidence afforded by the extant remains, it is clear that
when the Gauls took and sacked Rome in 390 B.C., it was, as
a whole, an unwalled city ; the Capitol, no doubt, had its
own defences, and the earliest walls of the Palatine (p. 88)
must have been in existence ; but for the rest Rome was, at
most, protected by earthen ramparts. Livy tells us that in
388 B.C., two years after the retreat of the Gauls, the Capitol
was fortified in opus quadratum, which surely implies that
its earlier defences were less solid. Again, in 378 B.C. we
hear of a contract for the building of walls in opus quad-
ratum, and we may fairly conclude that this refers to some
part of the existing " Servian " wall, which was then gradually
brought to completion. We saw that a wall built in the
same style may be traced at various points on the Palatine,
and were led to the conclusion that it formed an inner
citadel.
We find no trace of the " Servian " wall between the Tiber
and the Capitol ; there were two gates here, one by the river
and one on the line of the Via Bocca della Verita. Remains

354
xiv.] THE WALLS OF ROME 355
of it exist on the Capitol, especially in the Via delle tre pile ;
but the building of Trajan's Forum destroyed every trace of
it in the depression between Capitol and Quirinal. On this
latter hill it has been discovered at several points. In the
Piazza Magnanapoli a small piece came to light when the
Via Nazionale was laid ; it is enclosed in an iron railing
and labelled as the li wall of the kings :: ; and in the Palazzo
Antonelli (Xo. 158, Via Nazionale, on the staircase to R.)
may be seen an archway which (it has been thought; may
have been one of its gates — the Porta Sanqualis. Other
fragments are in the Colonna Gardens, and in those of S.
Susanna and S. Maria della Vittoria, and a small portion
was recently discovered in clearing the site for the new
Ministry of Agriculture. (Here, beside the "Servian" wall,
were found remams of another and an earlier one, made of
the volcanic stone called " nenfro.")
It has been explained that the wall took a sharp turn to
the S. near the Colline Gate (see p. 197) ; and from this
point the builders could no longer take advantage of the
natural escarpment of the hill, and were forced to raise more
elaborate defences, consisting in an agger or embankment,
with retaining walls and a ditch on the outside. To this
section belong the extensive remains which are to be seen in
the yard of the goods station, and are worthy of a visit. The
embankment, which was about one hundred feet wide and
fifty feet high, seems originally to have had a retaining wall
on the inside only ; this was built of greenish tufa and much
restored in later times. The outer retaining=wall, which
is here well preserved, reaches a height of about forty feet,
and is a fine example of Roman opus quadratum in alternate
courses of "' headers " and "stretchers." It is clearly seen
how it was built in sections one hundred and twenty feet in
length, doubtless let out to different contractors. There
seem to have been bonding-walls at intervals running
through the embankment.
We have met with further traces of the " Servian " enceinte
on the Esquiline at the Arch of Gallienus (p. 221) and in the
neighbourhood of the Auditorium of Maecenas. From here
356 THE WALLS OF ROME [xiv.

its course is hard to trace, since the buildings of the Empire-

have obliterated its remains on the Crelian and in the
valleys on either side thereof; but there is a large piece of
wall on the Aventine, about one hundred feet in length,
referred to on p. 263. Notice, however, that, as we see it, it
has been subjected to much restoration and alteration in
later times. The wide arch or window is no part of the
original plan, and the concrete backing, which may be seen
by climbing the bank at the side, is a proof that it was
utilised as part of a late Republican or early Imperial
structure.
The walls of Aurelian illustrate the ultimate develop-
ment of the science of fortification in antiquity, just as the
" Servian " walls are typical of its earlier stages. They were
begun in a.d. 271, when Aurelian had only just succeeded in
stemming the tide of barbarian invasion which had swept
over Northern Italy, and was about to depart on his first
expedition against Palmyra ; and though pushed on with the
utmost haste, they were not completed until the reign of
Probus (a.d. 276-82). In A.D. 402 the defences were restored
by Honorius in face of the imminent danger from the Goths ;
by this time immense accumulations of rubbish had gathered
about the walls, and these were not removed, but merely
levelled, so that the thresholds of some of the gates were
raised by several feet. The walls were again restored by
Belisarius, and by several of the Popes ; and it was left for
the municipality of Modern Rome to begin the process of
demolition, which (though for the present checked) will, it is
to be feared, lead in time to their disappearance.
Augustus had divided the city into fourteen "regions" ;
and the circuit was enclosed by a customs barrier at which
an octroi was levied. Where strategical reasons did not
forbid it, Aurelian followed the line of this barrier ; and
inscriptions relating to the octroi have been found close
to some of the gates in his wall. But some portions of the
fourteen regions lay outside his line of defence. For ex-
ample, the obelisk which now stands on the Pincio was
found at some distance outside the Porta Maggiore, where
xiv.] THE WALLS OF ROME 357
it had been set up by Hadrian at the entrance of the
cenotaph of Antinous : and this, we are told, marked the
city boundary. Again, the first region of Augustus took in
the Appian Way as far as the crossing of the brook Almo
(now the Marrana), which is a few minutes' walk from the
Porta S. Sebastiano ; while in the Trastevere Aurelian only
fortified a triangular section of the fourteenth region, having
its apex at the gate {Porta Aiirelia) which is now the
Porta S. Pancrazio.
The line of the walls was therefore traced with strict
reference to military requirements ; but great skill was
shown by the architects both in adapting existing buildings
to their use and in avoiding (as far as possible) the necessity
of expropriating private owners : the ring of Imperial parks
of which we have spoken above (p. 10) furnished a great
part of the site.
If we leave Rome by the Porta del Popolo, which has
taken the place of the ancient Porta Flaminia, and turn
to the R. by the Via delle Mura, we shall find ourselves at
the foot of the lofty substructures which support the Passeg-
giata del Pincio. Though their ancient aspect has been
altered by modern buttresses, we can see that they consisted
in a series of high arcades, dating not from the time of
Aurelian, but from the Early Empire ; they were, in fact,
raised by the Acilii Glabriones, whose park on the Pincian
has already been mentioned (p. 190), and were incorporated
by the architects of Aurelian in his wall. At the N.E.
angle is a piece of wall in opus reticulatum which is inclined
at an angle of 6r or y° to the perpendicular and seems to
threaten collapse. It has been in this condition since the
time of Procopius (sixth century a.d.) and is called the
Muro Torto. When the existing substructures ended,
the wall was carried along the slope of the Pincian and
through the Horti Salltistiani (p. 194), which was an
Imperial park ; the Porta Pinciana was not one of the
principal gates, but a postern, and owes its present form to
Honorius. It was the scene of a gallant stand made by
Belisarius against the Goths in a.d. 537. From this point
358 THE WALLS OF ROME [xiv,
to the Porta Salaria the construction of the wall (which cut
athwart the ancient lines of streets and buildings) can be
studied both from within (Via Campania) and from without
(Corso d*Italia), and, it may be added, the breaches which
have been so ruthlessly made in this section in recent years
have at least shown something of its internal structure. It
is built of brick-faced concrete with filling chiefly of tufa,
but also of sculptured and architectural fragments, and is
on the average about thirteen feet thick. For about the
same height it is massive ; above this there is a sentinel's
passage with a continuous arcade on the inner side, about
twenty feet high. The roof of this passage formed an open
platform, with a crenellated parapet now destroyed. At
intervals of about thirty yards there are rectangular towers
which project about ten feet on the outside of the wall ;
they had two chambers — the lower level with the sentinel's
passage, the upper with the platform, and originally rose
some twenty feet above the top of the curtain.1 This system
of defences agrees with the rules laid down by ancient
writers on the art of fortification — except that they recom-
mend that the sentinel's passage should be separated from
the towers by drawbridges.
The towers of the Porta Salaria were destroyed in 1871,
and it was then found that three tombs — one that of the
"infant prodigy," Q. Sulpicius Maximus (p. 140) — had been
enclosed in the masonry of the wall. Another tomb, that of
the famous orator Q. Haterius, who died in a.d. 26, was
found to be enclosed in the eastern tower of the Porta
Nomentana, destroyed in 1827 (a little to the W. of the
modern Porta Pia). Beyond the Porta Pia (Viale del Policli-
nico) are two small posterns (closed) in the wall, which here
skirts the garden of the British Embassy ; a breach was
made in 1892 for the passage of the Via Montebello, and it
was found that a house of the first century A.D. had been
simply buried in concrete, cut down to the thickness of the
wall and incorporated therein.
J One of the best preserved is between the opening of the Via
Piemonte and that of the Via Rasilicata.
xiv.] THE WALLS OF ROME 359
We now come to the remains of the Castra Pretoria,
or camp of the pnetorian guard, built in A.n. 23 by-
Tiberius at the suggestion of his favourite, Sejanus — a
visible symbol of the reign of the sword — but partly dis-
mantled by Constantine, who finally disbanded the prae-
torians in a.d. 312. Three sides of its walls were made
part of the defences by Aurelian builders, who raised their
height some ten to fifteen feet. If we go round the outside
of the camp we can easily trace the line of demarcation
between the earlier and later brickwork, and also see the
remains of two of the original gateways (blocked up), one
on the N. and the other on the E. side. The S. side was
restored in late times with materials taken from ancient
buildings in the neighbourhood.
At the S.W. angle of the praetorian camp was a gate
(now closed) of which the name is unknown ; if we follow
the Via delle Mura we shall come to the Porta S. Lorenzo
which has taken the place of the ancient Porta Tiburtina.
Turning to the R., inside the gate, we shall see an arch, now
blocked, and filled up with earth almost to the springing of
its vault. From its inscription we learn that it was origin-
ally built by Augustus to carry the triple aqueduct of the
Aqua Marcia, Tepula, and Julia (p. 224) ; on the raised level
stood an inner arch belonging to Aurelian's fortification,
bearing an inscription which recorded its restoration by
Honorius. When the modern gateway was built it was
found that a ny»iplucum or ornamental fountain had been
enclosed in the wall, and the statues which adorned it left
standing !
From this point to the Porta Praenestina {Porta Mag'
giore), described on p. 222, the aqueduct just mentioned was
made use of by the builders of Aurelian, we can see its re-
mains on the inside near the Barriera Tiburtina.
Again, from the Porta Maggiore to the angle N.E. of S.
Croce in Gerusalemme, the double aqueduct of the Claudia
and Anio Novus may be seen to form part of the wall (from
the garden on the L. of S. Croce). We then come to the
Amphitheatrum Castrense, as to which see p. 225, and hence
36o THE WALLS OF ROME [xiv.
the wall ran straight1 to the Porta S. Giovanni (dating from
1574), beyond which is the ancient Porta Asinaria (closed).
Below the Lateran, where the wall is again buttressed as
it is under the Villa Medici — in spite of much modern re-
storation, the foundations of the buttresses are ancient —
there are clearly visible remains of ancient buildings, no
doubt belonging to the palace of the Laterani, and dating —
to judge by their brickwork — from the time of the Severi ; a
part of this palace was destroyed by Aurelian. The course
of the wall, which skirts the edge of the Caelian, now be-
comes somewhat irregular : there are fine views both of the
Campagna and of the buildings and trees of the Caslian.
We pass the closed gates— the Porta Metrovia (or Metroni)
and the Porta Latina, with well-preserved round towers —
and then come to the Porta S. Sebastiano, the ancient Porta
Appia, largely rebuilt by Honorius with the remains of the
Temple of Mars without the walls. Some way further on
we see a gateway built into Aurelian's wall which dates from
the first century A.D., and belonged to a villa. For a time it
served as a postern, but was blocked up by Honorius. It
was flanked by Corinthian half-columns, carrying a frieze
and architrave, all of travertine.
The construction of a bastion by Antonio di Sangallo for
Paul III has removed all trace of the gate by which the Via
Ardeatina issued from the city, and we next come to the
Porta Ostiensis (Porta S. Paolo), the towers of which are
again due to Honorius' restoration ; just beyond it is the
Pyramid of Cestius, a tomb which, as is recorded by the
inscription on the E. side, was built in 330 days for a certain
Gaius Cestius Epulo, who lived under Augustus and was
praetor, tribune, and Septemvir Epulonum, i.e. a member of
the college of priests who had the management of sacrificial
banquets. Among his heirs was Agrippa, who died in
12 B.C. The pyramid must therefore be earlier than that
date. It is built of concrete with a facing of marble. Hence
the wall ran directly to the Tiber and returned along the
river bank (this part has been destroyed) as far as the Mar-.
' A portion of it collapsed in 1893.
xiv.] THE WALLS OF ROME 361
morata. Here there were two towers, one on each bank of
the river ; on the k. bank was the Porta Portuensis, about
five hundred yards outside the modern Porta Portese. The
Transtiberine fortification has almost entirely disappeared,
and the Porta Aurelia (Porta S. Pancrazio) and Porta Septi-
miana (Porta Settimiana) have been modernised.
On the R. bank the wall began again at the Pons Aure-
lius, represented by the modern Ponte Sisto, and was con-
tinued until it reached a point on a level with the Porta
Flaminia. The mausoleum of Hadrian (p. 349) was con-
verted into a tcte de pout and its approaches fortified. The
wall has, however, completely disappeared.
 INDEX
Amphora, 339
Achilles, 41, 107 f.
.Elius Lamia, gardens of, 138 Anacreon, 32, 136
.Emilius Lepidus, M., 44, 265 Ancilia, ?-,
.Lschines, 283 Ancona, 161
.Lsculapius, 70, 266, 290 Ancus Martius, 67
Affricano, 19 Animal sculpture, 14^, 188,
Agesander, 300 285 ff.
Agoracritus, 27S Antinous, 3S, 130, 233, 2jg
Agrippa, M. Vipsanius, 10, (so-called, of the Belve-
173, 182, 223, 360 Antioch, dere), 32, 306
33, 337
Agrippina (elder), 113, (youn-
ger) 242 Antiquarium, 253 ff.
Aius Locutius, 89 Antisthenes, 283
Alabaster, 20 Aphrodisias, sculptors of, 1 14,
Aloe, 91 119, 121, 126, 207, 299
Alaric, 50, 195 Aphrodite, throne of, 32, 206;
Alatri, 353
Capitoline, in, 275 ; Cni-
Alba Longa, 218 dian, 32, 274 f. ; crouch-
Alban hills, 3, 223, 260 ing, 34, 298 ; types of,
Albani, Cardinal, 104 298 277
f. See Venus.
Albano, Lake of, 109 Apis,
Alcamenes, 124, 278, 298, Apollo, of the Belvedere;
312, 320, 333 29 f., 33, 271, 303 ; Lizard-
Alcibiades, 54, 316 slaying, 32, 291
Aldobrandini marriage, 345 f. Apoxyomenos, 33, 326
Alexander, 33, 129, 188 Appian Way, 260
Alexandria, 219, 277 Appius Claudius, 222, 260
Alexandrian art, 35, 125, 186 Aqueducts — 222 ff. ; Anio
Algardi, 113 novus, 223, 359 ; Anio
Algidus, 260 vetus, 223 ; Aqua Anto-
Alimentary table, 201 niniana, 223, 260, 263 ;
Altars. 137, 200, 302. See Appia, 222 ; Claudia, 17,
Ara 223, 242, 256, 359 ; Julia,
Amalasuntha, 137 223
Amazons, 32, 123, 129, 186, 223. ; 223
pula,
Marcia, 223 ; Te-
; Virgo, 10, 182,
327
Am Maxima, 264
Amphitheatre. See Colos-
seum Ara Pacis Au^ustae, 37, 39,
A mphitheatrum Castrense, 184, 204 f., 302
225, 359 Arcesilaus, 285
363
364 INDEX
Arch — of the Argentarii, 267; Basilicas — .Emilia, 45, 63 ;
of Augustus, 46 ; of Clau- of Constantine, 12, 15, 24,
dius, 1S1 ; of Constantine, 7S, 258 ; Julia, 49, 62, 93 ;
39 f., 57, 249 ft. ; of Dio- of Junius Bassus, 44, 148 ;
cletian, 181 ; of Dolabella of Neptune, 182 ; Porcia,
and Silanus, 243 ; of Dru- 44 ; Sempronia, 44 ; Ulpia,
sus, 261 f. ; of Fabius, 45 ; 15 5-
of Gallienus, 221, 355 ; of Belisarius, 356
Septimius Severus, 26, 40, Belvedere, 102, 271
Bernini, 193
46, 55 ; of Tiberius, 58 ;
of Titus, 5, 25, 39, 80, 237, Bias, 281
249 ; of Trajan, 261 ; of Biga, Sala della, ^^2
Verus, 261. Bigio, 18 ; b. morato, 18
Arco, dei Pantani, 14, 154; Black Stone, 53
di Portogallo, 135 Bocca della Verita, 266
Area Capitolina, 10 1, 146 Boethus, 34, 127
Argiletum, 63, 154 Bramante, 271
Ariadne, 35, 41, 286 f. Breccia, 20 f.
Aristeas, 121 Bridges — Pons JElius, 349 ;
Aristotle, 171, 208 Pons iEmilius, 265, 268 ;
Armamentarium, 249 Aurelius, 361 ; Cestius,
Arval brotherhood, 201, 275 268 ; Fabricius, 268 ; Sub-
Ash-chests, Etruscan, 339 licius,
tiniani, 8,263
265, 268 ; Valen-
Aspasia, 281
Assyrian sculpture, 185 Bronze Age, 176
Athalaric, 137 Bronzes, Room of, 148 ;
Athena, 105, 112, 329 Etruscan, 343 f.
Athenis, 31 Brutus, L. Junius, 143 ; M.
Athenodorus, 300 Junius, 130
Atrium, 91 f., 270 Bryaxis, n, 277
Atrium Vesta;, 72 Brygos, 342
Attalus I, 34, 107, 214, 338 Bupalus, 31
Auditorium of Maecenas, 226, Burnum, 161
355 Busts, shapes of, 17 n.
Auguratorium, 84
Augustan art, 17 , 204 Cacus, Stairs of, 89.
Augustus, statue of, from Caelian, 5, 7, 17, 99, 229
Prima Porta, 37, 322 ; Caelius Saturninus, 240
bust of, in Vatican, Z7< Caesar, Julius, 9^,45, 49,51,
293. See Emperors.
Aventine, 5, 7 f., 229, 263, of,
53. 131, 186, 194;
59.
57- 122, 320 "portraits
Calamis, 255
356 Caldarium, 258 f.
Babylonian sculpture, 185 Cum ill us, 36, 144, 205
Baia?, Bay of, 278 Canachus, 318
Barbarians, types of, in art, Canova, 192, 304, 310
128, 132, 137. 33s Capitol, 5 ff., S$, 100 II.
Barberini suppliant, 297 Cappellaccio, 13, 64, 88
Barracks of vigiles, 17, 270 Career, 4')
Basalt. 20 Carinae, 8
 INDEX
365
athians, 1 58 f. Cispius, 6, 226
Castor and Pollux, 64, jn Cista Ficoroni, 180
Castra Pra?toria, 359 Classicism in art, 36
Catilinarians, 47 Cleopatra, 268 ; (so-called,
Cato the EUlcr, 44 statue), 271, 286
" Cato and Porcia," 294 Clivus Capitolinus, 48, 58,
Cella Soliaris, 258 10 1 ; C. Publicius, 263 ;
Celts, 34 C.2 Sacer, 78 ; C. Scauri,
Cenatio Jovis, 95 24267 ; C. Victoria?, 86, 93,
Centaurs, 35, 121, 138, 286 142
Cephisodotus, 33, 203 Cloaca Maxima, 7, 42, 62,
Cermalus, 6, 87
Cervetri, sculptures from, 37, Coinage Roman, 179
39. 235 i treasure from, Colosse, 11, 14, 22 f., 25,
344 165 um,
Charioteers, 146, 218, 232, 237 ff.
Columbarium, 230, 261 f.
333 Columna rostrata, 44, 132,
Churches — S. Adriano, 47,
5 1 f . ; S. Anastasia, 99 ; Columns — of Antoninus
S. Andrea della Valle, 240; Pius, 40, 1 84, 3 3 1 ; of Marcus
S. Bartolommeo, 266 ; S. Aurelius, 40, 182 ; of
Bonaventura, 96 ; S. Ce- Phocas, 58 ; of Trajan,
cilia, 270 ; S. Cesareo, 96 ; 40, 156 ft.
SS. Cosma e Damiano, ~~, Comitium, 7, 10, 42, 51 ff.,
141 ; S. Costanza, 25,
86
Concrete, 18
272 ; S. Francesca Ro-
mana, 79 ; S. Giorgio in Constantia, 182
Velabro, 86, 267 ; S. Gio- Constantine, portrait, 132.
vanni dei Falegnami, 46 ; See Emperors
S. Giovanni in Laterano, 5, Consus, 58, 260
52 ; S. Lorenzo in Lucina, Corbulo,
Crater, 339portrait, t,j, 118
135 ; S. Maria degli An-
geli, 198, 258 ; S. Maria Cresilas, ^2, 123, 129, 142,
Antiqua, 65, 83 ; S. Maria 325
in Araceli, 100 ; S. Maria Crypta Balbi, 167
in Campitelli, 8, 166 ; S. Curia. See Senate-house
Maria in Cannapara, 57 ; Curia Pompeii, 168
S. Maria in Cosmedin, 88, Curtius, M., 60, 1 ^^
266 ; S. Maria Maggiore, Cylix, 339 ff.
5 f.. 148 ; S. Martina, 47 ;
5. Pietro in Vaticano, 23, Dacians, 138 ff. ; figures of,
269 f. ; S. Pietro in Yincoli 106, 253, 329
6, 8, 305 ; Forty Martyrs, Damophon, 35, no
66, 83 ; S. Saba, 7 ; S. Decebalus, 117, 158
Sabina, 5 Decemvir sacris faciundis, 310
Cicero, 47, 85, 93(portrait)i 19 Demeter, 278
Cipollino. 19 Demosthenes, 34, 283, 326
Circus — Flaminius, 166, 270; Dew-goddesses, 311
Maximus, 88, 98, 230, 257; Diadumenos, 186, 291, 299,
Vatican, 269 307
366 INDEX
Dionysiac sarcophagi, 41 Xerva, 61, 279; Otho,
Dioscuri, 103, 196. See Cas- 227 ; Pertinax, 289 ; Pes-
tor and Pollux cennius Niger, 56 ; Philip
Dioscurides, 142 the Arabian, 38, 329 ;
Discobolus, no, 219, 333 Probus, 356 ; Pupienus,
Doedalsas, 34, 299 326 ; Septimius Sever us,
Domitius Ahenobarbus, Cn., 4*. 57< /i. 77. I4i. 267,
136 349 ; Severus Alexander,
Domus Augustana, 94 ; D. 103, 107, 221 ; Theodosius
Aurea, see Golden House ; I, 73 ; Tiberius, 10, 17, 48,
D. Flavia, 94 ; D. Liviae, 93, 152; Titus, n, 224,
16, 93 ; d. publico, 72 f. ; 227, 234; Trajan, n, 38,
d. transitoria, 226 57, 61 f., 81, 158 ff., 227 ;
Doryphorus, 186, 315, 318, Verus, 275, 288 ; Vespa-
sian, 17, 77, Son., 127,
321 the Elder, 262
Drusus J33> 1 54- 200, 224, 288,
Duilius, G., 132, 165 302 ; Vitellius, 101, 133,
302; (portraits) 112 ff.,
Emperors : Byzantine — An- 125 f., 233 f.
astasius I, 137 ; Constans Emporium, 265
II, 174; Zeno, 137, 242 Empresses, Byzantine and
Emperors : Roman — Anto- Roman — Ariadne, 137 ;
ninus Pius, 52, 184, 331 ; Faustina (elder), 280,
Augustus, 91., 17, 49, 57, (younger) 305 ; Julia Dom-
84 f., 96, 98, 106, 152, 185, 147 71, 267,
na, 280; Julia
257 ; Aurelian, 16, 356 ff. ; Maramaea, 107 ; Livia, 1 5 f. .
Caligula, 65, 93, 220, 288 ; 93 ; Plotina, 276 ; Sabina,
Caracalla, 48, 55 f., 218,
257, 263, 267, 349 ; Clau- Endymion, 41
Ennius, 309
dius, 181 f., 224, 229, 276 ;
Claudius Gothicus, 251 ; Epimenides, 284
Clodius Albinus, 289 ; Com- Equites singulores, 128
modus, 139, 349 ; Con- Eros, 108, in
stantine, 12, 39, 55, 104, Esquiline, 5 ff., 85, 221 ft.
195, 249 ; Constantius II, Etruscan art, 338 ff., 351
l37> 257 '. Diocletian, 12, Etruscans, 2, 22, 28, 147, 185
39. 46, 51, 55. 181, 197 ; Euphranor, 124, 299, 338
Domitian, 60, 65 f., 97, Euphronios, 342
103 f., 134, 175, 329; Ga- Euripides, 34, 118, 326
lerius, 55 ; Gallienus, 39, Eutychides, 33, 337
222 ; Geta, 55 f., 267 ; Excubitorium, 269
Gordian III, 41, 208 ; Exedra, 96, 198, 227
Exekias, 341
Hadrian, 11, 16, 72, Son.,
93, 97, 106, 138, 173, 279,
349 ; Heliogabalus, 304 ; Fabius Maxim us, Q., 89
Honorius, 356 ; Marcus Fabius Xanthus, 58
Aurelius, n, 102, 1331?., Falerii, 28, 351 ff.
182 ff., 251 f. ; Maxentius, Fasti, 7$, 136
52 f., 77 f., 249 ; Nero, 11, Faustulus, 53, 84
16 f., 79 n., 85, 226, 242 f. ; Fis[-tree, Sacred, 84, 135
 INDEX
Graces, 316 367
Fioi di persico, 19
Fisherman, 336 Granite, 20
Flamines, 68, j; Grave-reliefs, 147, 187 f., 298
Flavian dynasty, 11, 16, 57, ( Greeks, 2, 4, 21 f., 26 ff.
93 ; Flavian palace, 5, 16, Grove of the Caesars, 269
18, 93 f-
Forum — of Augustus, 152 il.; Harpocrates, 12 >
Boarium, 8, 230, 264 ; Hera, 278
Holitorium, 8, 165 ; of Hermaphrodite, 35, 193, 215
Julius Caesar, 45, 151; of Hermes of the Belvedere, 306
Xerva. 155 ; of Peace, 78, Hippodronuts, 195
154; Romanum, 7, 9, Honos, 81
42 ft.; of Trajan, 11, 39, Horatius, 265
155 ff., 190, 231, 250, 355 Horrea, 106, 265
Frigidarium, 250 f. Hut-urns, 177, 341, 352
Fulvius Xobilior, M., 44 Hydria, 339
Furrina. grove of, 269 Hymettus marble, 18
Galleria Lapidaria, 330 Ingenuus,
Io, 91 288
Ganymede, 33, 335
Gardens of Agrippina, 269 ; Iron Age, 177
of Caesar, 268 ; of Domitia, Isis, 139, 175
269
Island, in Tiber, 266
Gates — Porta Appia, 262,
360 ; Asinaria, 360 ; Au- Janiculum, 4, 265, 268
relia, 357 ; Capena, 98, Janus Quadrifrons, 266
257 ; Carmentalis, 165 ; Jerusalem, temple of, 81
Esquilina, 221 ; Flaminia, Juba II, 106
357, 222 ; Metro via, 360 ; Jugurtha, 47
Maggiore, 222 ; Mugonia, Julian the Apostate, so
called, 119
88 ; Ostiensis, 361 ; Port-
ese, 268, 361 ; Prae- Juno Ludovisi, 36, 209
nestina, 359 ; Romana, Juturna, 68, 83
86 ; Salaria, 140, 358 ; J uvenal, 1 1
San Pancrazio, 268 ; San-
qualis, 355 ; Settimiana, . Kronos, 336
268 ; Tiburtina, 359
Gauls, 7, 54, 106 ; (in art) Lacus Curtius, 42, 60
34, 41, 128 Landscape, in sculpture, 36.
Genre sculpture, 129, 145, See Reliefs
193. 215 Lanuvium, 107
Giotto antico, 18 I Laocoon, 29, 35, 228, 271,
Girl-runner, 31, ^t,j Lararium, 95
Gladiators, 191 300 f .
Glass, ancient, 343 Lares, 137, 148, 280
Glycon, 257 Lateran, 102, 143, 230 ff.
Golden House, 11, 79 n., 226 Latins, 3, 177
Gold ornaments, Greek, 344 Lavinium, 218
Goths, 50, 356 f. Leda, ^^, 1 1 1
Gracchi. 4; Lekythos, 340
 185
INDEX
368
Leocharcs, 33, 363, $31, Monumentum Ancyranum,
Lex Regia, 127
Libera, 336 Mosaics, 108, 148, 191, 231,
Library, Vatican, 345 241, 276, 285
Licinius Crassus, M., 85 Munatius Plancus, L., 49
Ligures Bsebiani, 201 Muses, 275, 280, 2X2 f.. 292
Livilla, ?88 Museums — Barracco,i85 ft.;
Lombard remains, 220 Kircheriano, 175 ff. ; La-
Lucus Furrinse, 269 teran, 221 ft. ; Terme,
Luna marble, 28 198 ff. ; Vatican, 272 ff.
Lupercal, 84, 88 (Egyptian, 344 ; Etruscan,
Lusius Quietus, 160
Lutatius Catulus, Q., 45, 150 338) I, 31, 143
Myron
Lysippus, 32, 108, 124, 149, Myron II, 34, no
188, 194, 208, 212, 236, 326
Naevius Surdinus, L., 59, 133
Macedonia, 9 Xemi, Lake of, 109, 220
Maecenas, 142, 221, 226 Neo-Attic sculptors, 36, 135
Maenad. 32, 142 Neolithic Age, 3, 176
Nero antico, 19
Mappa, 140
Marathon, 338 Nero, Pool of, 243
Xicosthenes, 341
Marble plan of Rome, 77, 145
Marbles, 17 ff. Nile, 35, 271, 328
Marcellus, M. Claudius, 166 Xiobids, n, no, 297/324
Nova Ma, 83, 93
Marforio, 104
Marius, trophies of, 103, 133 Xuma Pompilius, 67
221 Nuraghe, 178
Mark Antony, so-called, 38 Nymphaeum,
ander, 103 95 ; of Alex-
Market
328 of Nero, 242
Mars, 53, 55, 75, 80, 186 Obelisks, 184, 242, 257
Octavia, 166
" Mars of Todi." 345 Octavius, Cn., 167
Marsyas, 59, 61 f., 143. 235
Mausoleum — of Augustus Odyssey, landscapes from,
185 ; of Hadrian, 11, 269
349 ; of Helena, 274 CEnocho'e, 340
Meleager, of the Vatican, 32 346 ff. L., 45, 48
Opimius,
190, 307 Oppius, 6, 8, 2 2<>
Menander, 314 ; so-called Ops, 72, 76
194, 292 Opus albarium, 72 ; o. Alex-
Menelaus, 36, 207 andrinum, 64 ; 0. incer-
Meta Sudans, 249 tum, 16 ; 0. mixtum, 17 ;
Metellus, Q. Caecilius, 167 0. quadratum, 14 ; o. rcti-
Michelangelo, 101 f., 141, 198 culatum, 16 ; 0. sectile,
Milestone, Golden, 58 147 ; o. signinutn, 75 ;
Mithradates, 145 o. spicatum, 77, 248 ; o.
Mithras, 234, 313 testaceum, 16
Monte Cavallo, 50 ; M. Ma- Orders of architecture-
263 rio, 268 ; M. Testaccio; 8, Composite, 25 ; Corinthian,
25. 200, 265; Doric, 25;
 INDEX 369
Ionic, 25, 2O5 ; Tuscan. 25, Phidias, 32, 123. 129, 197,
IUI 277, 291. 319. 338
Orestes and Electra, group, Philippi, 152
36, 207 Philiscus, 292, 318, 324
Ornament, 26, 232, 23$ Phoenician bowls, 178, 344
Osiris, 277 Phradmon, 123
Ostia, paintings from, 348 ; Pigna, 331
sculptures from, 200 Pincian, 4, 10, 189
Otricoli, sculptures from, Piscina, 258
275 f- Plato, 1 19, 284
Pltttei, 61
Pa'dagogium, 98 f. Polycles, 215, 283
Paintings, 91, 181, 215 ff., Polyclitus, 31, 50, 123, 129,
241, 345 «■ 186 f., 255, 307, 315, 327,
Palaeolithic Age, 17; 337
Polydorus, 300
Palatine,
Palazzo — dei 5 ff.,Conservatory
16, "84 ft. Polyeuctus, 34, 326
19, 101 f., 131 ff. ; del Polygnotus, 241
Senatore, 5, 47, 101 f., Polyphemus, 92
150 ; Spada, 168 ff. Pomerium, 11, 87, 229, 265
Palestrina, 178, 180 Pompeii, 9, 92
Palmyra, 356 Pompey (so-called), j68
Palmyrene art, 147, 186 Pomponius Hylas, Colum-
Pamphaios, 342 barium of, 261
Pantheon, 11, 20, 22, 172 ff. Pontifex Maximus, 67, 76
Papias, 121 Pontiftces, 75
Parian marble, 18 Popes — Anastasius IV, 274 ;
Paris, 290, 338 Benedict XIV, 104, 175,
Parks — of the Acilii, 190 ; 244, 271 ; Boniface IV,
of ^Elius Lamia. 138 ; 174; Clement VII, 271 ;
Horti Liciniani, 222 ; of Clement VIII, 346 ; Cle-
Lucullus, 189 ; of Mae- ment XII, 102. 251, 271 ;
cenas, 10 ; 142, of Sallust, Clement XIV, 271 ; Gre-
io, 194 ft. gory XVI, 272, 344 ; Ha-
Pasiteles, 36, 207 drian I. 266 ; Innocent
Pasquino, 104, 171, 294 VIII, 181, 271 ; Innocent
Pavonazzetto, 18 X, il>4 ; Julius II, 102,
Pendentives, 24, 260 270, 304 ; Julius III, 351 ;
Penelope (so-called). 315 Leo X, 302 ; Xicolas V,
Pentelic marble, 1 8 102 ; Paul III, 268, 360 ;
Peperino, 13 ; sculptures in, Paul V, 79, 271 ; Pius IV,
256, 309 271 ; Pius V, 103 ; Pius
Pergamene art, 34, 128, 209, VI, 271 ; Pius VII, 272 ;
2S9, 294 f., 338 Sixtus IV, 102, 143, 2p> ;
Periander, 281 Sixtus V, 98
Pericles, 32, 281 Porphyry, 20
Personifications in sculpture, Porta santa, 18
134 f. Porticus — Deorum Consen-
Pessinus, 91 ) tium, 49, 150; Divorum,
Pharsalus, 152 175 ; Metelli, iu ; Octa-
 INDEX
57o
via, 167 ; Octavise, 166 f. ; Rosso autico, 19
Philippi,
167 167 ; Pompeiana, Rostra, 44, 53, 56 f., 63, 253

Portra — Greek, 116 if., Sabines, 6, 67

129; itsRoman, 27, 36 f., Sa^pta, 181
112 ff., 125 ff., 233 f., 238, Sallust, gardens of, 128,
293 ff., 313 f.
Posidippus, 292 194 ff. 161
Salonae,
Pozzolana, 15, 23 Samiarium, 249
Prcetexta, 144 Sarapis, 33, 277
Prsetextatus, Vettius Ago- Sarcophagi, 41 f., 192, 203,
rius, 49 207, 219, 309 ; (Etruscan),
Prati di Castello, 9 338 f. ; (Egyptian), 344
Praxiteles, 29, 32 £., 124, 197, Sardanapallus, so-called, 332
203, 207, 240, 274 f., 289, Sardinia, 128, 178
291 Scalae Gemoniae, 47, 101
Prehistoric remains, 3, 175 ff. Schola Xanthi, 58
Prometheus, 108, 202 Scipio Africanus, 118; S.
Pseudo-Seneca, type, 35, 116, Barbatus, 41, 201 r 261,
216 309 ; S. Orfitus, 126
Ptolemy I, 277 Scopas, 32 f., 106, 139, 208 f.,
Pudicitia, 35, 107, 324 219, 235, 255, 307
Puteal, 36, 1 12, 335 f. Secular games, 210
Pitticidi, 221 Seleucus, 216
Pyramid of Cestius, 360 Serao Sancus, 336
Pythagoras (philosopher), 54, Senate-house, 47, 5 1
1 19 ; (sculptor) 122 Septimontium, 6
Septizodium, 98, 256
Quirinal, 5 ff., 10, 194 11. Serpentine, 20
Quirinus, 6, 217 Servius Tullius, 7. See Walls
Sessorium, 225
Raphael, 193, 286 Sette Sale, 227, 300
Regia, 17, 43. 67. 7l< l3S Sextius Calvinus, C, 89
Reliefs — grave, 147, 187 f., Shoemaker, tombstone of,
298 ; historical, 27, 133, 141
217 ; landscape, 116, 120 ff. Sibylline books, 90
169 ff., 202, 232, 287, 337 ; Silanion, 34, 284
stucco, 211, 341; tragic, Smaragdus, 59
233 ; votive, 188 Socrates, 116, 316
Remus, 1 36 Solon, 142
Rex Sacrorum, 67 Sophia, S., 260
Rhea Sylvia, 80, 217 Sophocles, 34, 235, 284
Rhodian art, 35, 300 Sosicles, 122
Roads — Via Appia, 15, 98, Sosius, G., 166
103, 257 f. ; Labicana,237; Sosus, 108
Latina, 107, 238, 260. See Sperone, 13
Streets Spoliarium, 249
Romulus (founder ot Rome). Stadium of Domitian, 172
53, 6o, 67, 84, 136, 217 ; Statin Annona, 266
(son of Maxentius), 77 Stephanus, 36, 207
 INDEX
Stesichorus, 108 Juno and .Minerva, 9, 13,
Streets — Via Lata, 164, 181, 61, 100 f., 133 ; of Jupiter
J04 ; Nova Via, 83, 93 ; Stator, 82, 237 ; of Jupiter
Via Sacra, 43, 51, 67 ff., Victor, 85, 89 ; of the
237 ; Via Triumphalis,249; Lares, 82 ; of Marcus 371
Vic us Capitis Africae, 242 ; Aurelius, 184 ; of Mars
Ykus Jugarius, 51 ;. Vicus without the walls, 360 ;
of Mars Ultor, 152, 190 ;
Patricius, 226 ; \'icus pis- of Mater Matuta, 265 ; of
cina' publicae, 263 ; Vicus
Tuscus, 58, 65, 86
Studius, 215 Minerva, 155; of "Min-
erva Medica," so-called,
Subiaco, 2 1 3 24, 222 ; of Pietas, 165 ;
Subura, 8, 154, 220 of Portunus, 264 ; of
Sulla, 9, 45, 133, 145 Quirinus, 217 ; of Saturn,
Sulpicius Maximus, Q. , 140 1 3, 43, 49 f. 62 ; of the Sun,
Summum Choragium, 249 184 ; of Tellus, 305 ; of
Suovetaurilia, 55, 61, 251 Trajan, 163 ; of Venus
Syria, 9 Cloacina, 62 ; of Venus
Syriskos, 352 Erycina, 195, 206 ; of
Venus Genetrix, 9, 151;
Tabernae, 50 of Venus and Rome, 79 ;
Tablintim, ji, 91 of Vespasian, 46, 48, 62,
Tabularium, 9, 13, 22 I., 149, 237 ; of Victory, 86
47 f., 101, 149 f. Tensa, 146
Tacitus, 87 Tepidarium, 258 f.
Tarpeian rock, 149 Terra-cotta (sculptures), 148,
Tarquinius Priscus, 100 339. 3S1 ! (architectural).
Tarquinius Superbus, 42, 67 148, 179, 220, 351
Tatius, T., 67 Terremare, 176
Telamones, 272 Theatres — of Balbus, 10, 167;
Temples — of Antoninus and of Marcellus, 10, 166 ; of
Faustina, 19, 76 ; of Pompey, 167 f., 278
Apollo (in the Campus Theodorus, 168
Martius), 8, 166 ; of Apollo Thermae — of Agrippa, 10,
(on the Palatine), 31, 86, 172 ; of Caracalla, 12, 22,
96 n. ; of Augustus, 65, 24, 197, cletian,
257 12,ff.24,
; of197Dio-
85. 93 ; of Castor and ff.,
Pollux, 13, 44, 63 ff., 93 ; 257 f. ; of Helena, 225 ;
of Ceres, etc., 27, 266 ; of of Nero, 174; of Titus,
Claudius, 242 ; of Con- 227 ; of Trajan, 227
cord, 44, 148 f. ; of Cybele, Thorn-extractor, 31, 144
85, 90, 190 ; of Diana, 229; Thothmes
Tiber, 4, 9 III, 242
of Fortune, 265 ; of Ha-
drian, 183 ; of Hercules, Tiberius Gemellus, 288
266 ; of Hope, 165 ; of Tibicines, 256
Isis and Serapis, 175, 271 ; Timarchus, 50
of Janus, 63, 165 ; of Juno, Timesitheus, 207
[67 ; of Juno Sospita, 165 ; Timotheus, ^2, 111, 290
of Jupiter (in the Campus Tivoli, 14
Martius). 167 ; of Jupiter, Todi. 28, 343. 352
 INDEX
372
Tombs — of Cjecilia Metella, Vestals, 72, 76
15 ; of the Haterii, 237 ; Vigiles, 269 f.
of the Scipios, 251 ; of Villas — Borghese, 196 ft ;
Vergilius Eurysaces, 225 Corsini, 269 ; Farnesina,
Tor Marancia, 325, 335, 352 269 ; Ludovisi, 195 ; Me-
Torso of the Belvedere; 308 dici, 5, 190 ; Mills, 5, 95 f ;
Trastevere, 268 of Nero (at Subiaco), 213 ;
Travertine, 13 f. of Papa Giulio, 351 ft ; of
Tribunal, 59 the Quinctilii, 20 ; (float-
Tritons, 34, 39, 289 ing, on the lake of Nemi),
Tufa, 13 220
Tullianum, 47 Villanora urns, 177.
Viminal, 5 f., 226
Umbilicus Urbis Roma', 58 Virtus, 81
Ustrinum, 135, 184 Vulcan, 43, 55

Vallis Murcia, 257

Walls — of Aurelian, 356 ft;
Vases, Greek,
Velabrum, 339 267
8, 86, ft'., of Servius Tullius, so-
called, 7, 197, 221, 263,
Velia, 5 f., 8, 67, 85
Venus of the Capitol, 35-=
Wolf, bronze, of Capitol, 135
Venus Genetrix (so-called),
354 ff.
32, 298 Zenas I, 119
Vercingetorix, 47
Verde antico, 20 Zenas II, 1 14, 293
Vertumnus, 233 Zeno (philosopher), 35, 129 ;
Vesta, 43, 70 ft. (sculptor), 207
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