MOUNTAIN OF FAITH MIRACLE CENTER

THEOLOGY CLASS CERTIFICATE 2025/2026

UNIT CORD: CTHEO 02
UNIT NAME: THE NATURE OF GOD

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THE ORIGIN AND NATURE OF THE
CHURCH

Definition
The church is the new covenant people of God, rooted in the promises to Israel and inaugurated by the
Holy Spirit, which refers both to all believers in Jesus Christ, both living and dead, and to local
gatherings of believers. Summary

The church is the new covenant people of God. The word church can be used to refer both to all
believers, both living and dead (universal church), and to individual local gatherings of believers (local
church). The church has its roots in the promises made to God's people in the Old Testament,
particularly that God would bless the world through Abraham's offspring. While there is continuity
between the Old Testament people of God and the church, the church is the community of Jesus, new at
Pentecost. As such, the church is the fulfillment of God's promise to the prophets that he would make a
new and better covenant with his people and write his law on their hearts. The mission of the church is
the Great Commission (Matt. 28: 18-20): to go out into the world with the authority of the risen Christ
and make disciples, baptizing them and teaching them to follow Jesus until he returns, all to the glory of
God.
The church has its origin in the eternal purposes of God. It is the new covenant community of Jesus,
rooted in Israel, constructed by Jesus, and inaugurated by the Holy Spirit. The church is the people of
God, chosen by the Father, and graciously brought into a relationship with the triune God and one another.
The church is the redeemed communion of saints, bought by the blood of Christ, universal and invisible,
incorporating all believers throughout all ages—those on earth and those in heaven. The church is the
adopted family of God, once slaves to sin but now brought into a loving relationship with God as Father
and each other as brothers and sisters in Christ. The church is the body of Christ, having him as head,
dependent on him, gifted by the Holy Spirit, crafted as a unity with diversity, and reliant on one another,
functioning as Christ's instruments in the world. The church is the bride of Christ, particularly loved by
him, saved by his sacrificial work on the cross, exclusively devoted to him, and increasingly adorned in
beauty for him, the bridegroom. The church is the temple of the Spirit, filled with the fullness of Christ,
marked by God's presence. The church is the new humanity, composed of Jewish and Gentile Christians
united in Christ, and demonstrating the way life was always supposed to be. The church is the branches
that abide in the true vine that is Christ, in union with him and dependent on him. The church is the
gathered covenant community, regularly coming together for worship, communion, discipleship,
fellowship, ministry, and mission. The church is the kingdom community, existing in the already and the
not yet, living out God's eternal purpose of cosmic unity, all for God's glory (See Bruce Riley Ashford
and Christopher W. Morgan, "The Church," in ESV Systematic Theology Study Bible, 1 71 3.)

The Origin of the Church

The people of God began with Adam and Eve in the garden of Eden. He created them in his image, which
means that they are created in fellowship with their Maker (Gen 1:27). Even though they rebelled against
him, he did not reject them but promised to send a Redeemer (3:16). Later, God called Abraham from a
family of sun-worshippers and enters into a covenant with him, promising to be his god, both to him and
his descendants (Gen. 17:7). God promised to give Abraham a land, to make him into a great nation, and
through him to bless all peoples (12:3). From Abraham is born Isaac and to Isaac is born Jacob, whose
name God changed to Israel and from whom God brought the twelve tribes of his people. The rest of the
Old Testament involves God's dealings with these twelve tribes of Israel.
Through ten great plagues and a dramatic exodus, God called the nation of Israel out of Egyptian bondage
to be his people. He gave them the Ten Commandments, claimed them as his people, and gave them the
Promised Land, which they occupied after defeating the Canaanites. Later God gave them David as king

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in Jerusalem. God promised to make David's descendants into a dynasty and to establish the throne of one
of them forever (2 Sam. 7 0.14-1 6).
In mercy, God sent many prophets to warn his Old Testament people of the judgment that would come
if they did not repent of their sins and turn to the Lord.
Nevertheless, they repeatedly rebelled against him and his prophets. In response, he sent the northern
kingdom of ten tribes into captivity in Assyria in 722 BC and the southern kingdom of two tribes, Judah
and Benjamin, into captivity in Babylon in 586 BC. Through the prophets, God also promised to provide
a Deliverer (Isa. 9:6-7;

God promised to restore his people to their land from Babylonian captivity after seventy years of exile
(Jer. 25: 1 1-12), and he brings this about under Ezra and Nehemiah. The people rebuilt the walls of
Jerusalem and built a second temple. The Old Testament ends in the book of Malachi with God's people
continuing to turn away from him, but also with a promise of one who would come to prepare the way for
Messiah (Mal. 3:1).
After four hundred years, God sent his Son as the promised Messiah, Suffering Servant, King of Israel,
and Savior of the world. Jesus made the purpose of his coming clear: "The Son of Man did not come to
be served, but to serve, and to give his life as a ransom for many" (Mark 10:45). He formed his new
community (Matt. 5:7). He chose disciples, spent time with them, taught them about the kingdom of
God, casted out demons, performed miracles, and predicted his death and resurrection. After he was
raised, he instructed his disciples to take the gospel to all nations to fulfill his promise to Abraham to
bless all peoples (Matt. 28:1 8-20).
On the day of Pentecost, Jesus sent his
Spirit, who forms the church as the New Testament people of God (Acts 2:1 -1 3). The Spirit empowered
the disciples to spread the gospel to the world (Acts 1 :8) He also empowered the apostles and guided them
into truth. Even more, the Spirit still now indwells the church, leads it, and gives every one of its people
spiritual gifts to serve God and each other (Eph.2:1 9-22; 4:1 -1 6).
The church is often described in Old
Testament terms (Gal. 6:1 6; Phil. 3:3; 1 Pet. 2:9-1 0), and there is both continuity and discontinuity
between Old Testament Israel and the church. On the one hand, there is one single covenant people of
God, with roots in the Abrahamic covenant and Israel. On the other hand, the church is the new covenant
community of Jesus, new at Pentecost.

The Nature of the Church

The Church Universal and Local
The word "church" (ekk/esia) in the New Testament refers to the church in its many manifestations. The
term can refer to churches meeting in homes (1 Cor. 1 6:1 9; Phlm. 1-2), to city-wide or metropolitan
churches (Acts 8: 1; 20:1 7), corporately with the churches in a specific Roman province (Acts 9:31; 1
Cor. 16:1 9), and on a few occasions to the whole ecumenical church (Acts 1 5:22). But the most common
uses of the term can mean either the universal or local church.

The Universal Church

Sometimes "church" is used to depict what some may call the universal church, which speaks of the unity
of all believers everywhere, both living and dead (Eph. 1 :22; 3:20-22; 5:27). The church in this sense is
not identical with any one local church, denomination, or association. It is not entirely visible to human
beings and refers to the total of all believers from all places and all times.

The Local Church

Most of the time in the NT the "church" refers to the local church, the gathered community of
God's people who are covenanted together to worship the triune God, love one another, and
witness to the world (Acts 14:23; 16:5). This designation is the main usage of the term "church";
the Bible emphasizes the church as a local group of identifiable believers committed to Christ
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and each other, working together to glorify God and to serve his mission. The local church is
the primary center of fellowship and worship, and the chief means God uses for evangelism,
disciple making, and ministry. The local church is where the Word is taught and preached (2
Tim. 3:16-4:2). The local church is where the ordinances are practiced in baptism and the Lord's
Supper (Matt. 28: 18-20; 1 Cor. 1 1 :23-26). These truths are why Paul plants local churches,
appoints leaders for them, sends delegates to them, and writes epistles to them. Local churches
are significant in his theology, and they are
crucial in his mission strategy. In the local church, there is a sharing of life together, growing in maturity
together, ministering together, worshipping together, and witnessing together.

The Church as the People of God

Under the old covenant, Israel was a mixed community, comprised of believers and unbelievers. In the
New Testament, the church is the people of God under the new covenant. While evangelicals differ on
how to interpret covenant and define how children of believers relate to the church's membership, there is
wide agreement that the New Testament emphasizes the church is the people of God. Jeremiah predicts
the superiority of the new covenant to the old. Because of their sins and unbelief, the Israelites whom God
delivered from Egypt broke the old Mosaic covenant and died in the wilderness. The new covenant will
be much greater because it will center on God's work. The Lord promises that he will be his people's God,
and they will belong to him. He will write his law on their hearts, they will know him, and they will obey
him (Jer. 31 :31 34). Jesus teaches that his death ratifies the new covenant (Luke 22:20), and so does Paul
(1 Cor. 1 1:25). Although
Scripture teaches that there is one people of God through the ages, Jesus's death and resurrection
inaugurates changes for those who know him. He is the "mediator of a new covenant" and ushers in the
promises that Jeremiah made.
The church as God's people is clarified through the images of the church. The church as God's people
are also the body of Christ (Col. 1 :1 8), people united to Christ. The church is the bride of Christ
(Eph. 5:25-32), people who are increasingly holy in Christ. The church is the temple of the Spirit (1 Cor.
6:19-20; 2 Cor. 6:1 6; Eph. 2:19-22), people who are saints and indwelt by the Spirit. The church is the
new humanity (Eph. 2:1 5; 4:1 3, 24), people who are reconciled to God. The church is the family of
God (Rom. 8:1 5, 17; Gal. 4:4-5; 1 John 3: 1), people who know God as Father and each other as
brothers and sisters. As God's people, the church belongs to him, and, amazingly, he belongs to the
church. This truth will be fully realized only in the new heavens and earth, after God raises his own from
the dead, glorifies them, and dwells among them (Rev. 21 : 1-4).
The Church and Its Mission
In Matthew 28: 18-20, Jesus gives the Great Commission to his disciples, which becomes the
marching orders for the church. He begins by asserting that he is
the exalted Son who is Lord over all, both in heaven and on earth, and over all nations (28: 1 8; see also
Dan. 7:14). The universality of the commission is striking; Jesus has all authority, directs the disciples to
make disciples of all nations, instructs them to teach all that he has commanded them, and charges them to
do so "all the days," until the end of the age. The church not only has its origin in the eternal purposes of
God with its roots in Israel, its basis in the saving work of Christ, its inauguration by the Holy Spirit, its life
from union with Christ, and its end as the glory of God. The church is also God's showcase for his eternal
plan of bringing forth cosmic reconciliation and highlighting Christ as the focal point of all history. The
church is to showcase not only God's purposes but even God himself. In and through the church, God shows
his grace, wisdom, love, unity, and holiness (the letter to the Ephesians emphasizes this). Moreover, as God
displays himself, he glorifies himself. It is no wonder Paul proclaims, "Now to Him who is able to do above
and beyond all that we ask or think according to the power that works in us—to Him be glory in the church
and in Christ Jesus to all generations, forever and ever. Amen" (Eph. 3:20-21 ). Further Reading
Derek Thomas, "What is the Church?"
Edmund P. Clowney, The Church
G. K. Beale, The Temple and the Church's Mission: A Bib/ica/ Theology of the Dwelling Place of
God Gregg R. Allision, Sojourners and Strangers: The Doctrine of the Church
Jonathan Leeman, "What is a LocalChurch?"
Justin Taylor, "What is the 'Church'?"

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 Kendell H. Easley and Christopher W. Morgan, eds., The Community of Jesus: A Theology of
the Church.
Mark Dever, The Church: The Gospel Made Visible

The Membership of the Church

Definition
Church membership concerns belonging to or being a part of the church of Jesus Christ. It involves
different concepts of the church, entry requirements, and the responsibilities and privileges of
membership. Summary
In a time when churches are either
discounting or re-emphasizing church membership, it is important to consider some fundamental
understandings of membership from theological, historical, and denominational perspectives. This
article explores membership in relationship to five issues: (1) different perspectives on continuity
and discontinuity between the people of God prior to the coming of Jesus Christ and those after his
coming; (2) the universal church and local churches; (3) churches that baptize infants
(paedobaptism) and those that baptize believers (credobaptism); (4) responsibilities and privileges
of members; and (5) removal of people from, and restoration of them to, church membership.

Introduction
What constitutes membership in the church depends upon one's concept of the church. In one sense, the
church as the people of God includes a great number of members. Even the issue of who constitutes the
people of God is a debated point. In another sense, the church as a local assembly includes a very limited
number of members. The specific makeup of local church membership depends on entry requirements
(especially the rite of baptism) and their accessibility to infants, believing adults, or (almost) everyone.
Moreover, the responsibilities and privileges of membership, including removal from it, vary according
to several factors.

Continuity and Discontinuity

Two significant concepts of the church exist according to different perspectives on continuity and
discontinuity between the people of God prior to the coming of Jesus Christ and those after his
coming.
The continuity perspective affirms one people of God who are under one covenant of grace. Adam and
Eve, the descendants of Abraham, the people of Israel under the old (Mosaic) covenant, the post-exilic
returnees to Jerusalem, the disciples of Jesus of Nazareth, and Christians under the new covenant: all of
these constitute the one people of God. Though obvious differences distinguish these various groups—for
example, experiences of the Holy Spirit, circumcision, Passover, baptism, the Lord's Supper—every
person was/is part of the people of God. Each one was/is elected by God and thus saved by his grace and
their faith in the divine promises offered to them. Together, they compose the one people of God.
According to this continuity position, the church as the people of God has existed from the very beginning
of the human race.

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Some proponents of this view believe that the church has replaced the people of Israel; thus, the Jewish
people as a whole (not including those who embrace the gospel and become part of the new covenant
church) have no future hope. Other proponents believe that there still exists a future for the people of
Israel. When the "fullness of the Gentiles has come in" (Rom 1 1 :25), God will once again turn to his
people, and "all Israel will be saved" (Rom 1 1 :26) by acknowledging Jesus as their long-awaited Messiah.
The discontinuity perspective affirms different peoples of God according to the various covenants that
God established at different junctures in the history of salvation. For example, prior to the coming of Jesus
Christ, the old covenant people of God consisted largely of Jewish worshipers of Yahweh following the
law of Moses in the land of Israel (or as exiles hoping to return). They circumcised their eight-day old
boys, observed the Sabbath, celebrated the Passover and other annual festivals, and nourished the hope of
a Spirit-anointed Messiah who would bring forgiveness of sins as part of a new covenant.
In contrast, after the coming of Christ, the new covenant people of God consist of followers of Jesus
who are largely Gentile in background living all over the world. Aided by grace to repent and believe,
they have embraced the good news of the death and resurrection of Christ. They gather weekly on
Sundays to worship, baptize to initiate members into the community, celebrate the Lord's Supper
(communion, the Eucharist), and nourish the hope of the return of the Messiah to usher in the fullness
of salvation.
As a slight variation, the discontinuity position affirms one people of God, extending from Adam and Eve
to the last person before the return of Christ, while reserving the metaphors of the body of Christ and the
temple of the Holy Spirit for the new covenant church. Accordingly, the church was not in existence before
the coming of Christ, yet the people of God existed from the beginning. It was not until after the life, death,
resurrection, and ascension of the incarnate Son, and the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the day of
Pentecost, that the church as the body of Christ and the temple of the Spirit could (and indeed did) come
into existence.

The Universal Church and the Local Church

Membership in the church also depends on whether one is concerned about the church in a universal
sense (e.g., Eph 5:25) or the church in a local sense (e.g., 1 Cor 1:2). In the first case (universal), the
church consists of a great number of members. From a continuity perspective, all of the faithful—all
worshipers of
Yahweh and all followers of Jesus Christ— who have died, and all those who are alive now, compose the
universal church. From a discontinuity perspective, the members include all the followers of Jesus
Christ, both those who have died in Christ and all who are alive now in Christ. In either perspective,
there is a heavenly aspect and an earthly aspect to the universal church. And in either perspective, the
universal church consists of a great number of members.
In the second case (local), membership in a local church consists of a very limited number of people.
Even megachurches with membership numbering in the tens of thousands or hundreds of thousands are
quite limited relative to the number of the people of God who have ever lived. But with this discussion
comes an important issue: who composes the membership of a local church?
Entrance Requirements and their Accessibility Several responses to this question are offered. Historically,
from the perspective of the state-church structure, (almost) all citizens of the region/nation were
considered to be members of the church. For example, in the medieval period in Europe, being a citizen
meant that one was a member of the Roman Catholic Church. Exceptions included Jews, Muslims, and
adherents of other religions, along with atheists and heretics. (When state churches were the order of the
day in most European areas, these exceptions were rare.) Whether the state was supreme in this system
(Erastianism) and possessed the power to enforce its laws on the church and excommunicate its members,
or whether the church was sovereign (papal supremacy) over its members, has historically been a point of
debate and contention. In either case, entrance requirements were limited to being born in the region/state
and being baptized, which was an ecclesial action taken for granted. Everyone, or almost everyone, who
was born was baptized by the church, making membership in the church accessible to (almost) everyone.
Today, the practice of baptism continues to determine who composes the membership of a local church.
With regard to this sacrament/ordinance, the two practices of infant baptism (paedobaptism) and believer's
baptism (credobaptism) dominate.
The Roman Catholic Church, Eastern
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Orthodox churches, and paedobaptist Protestant churches baptize infants and thereby incorporate them
into their membership. Within paedobaptist churches, different theologies of baptism undergird their
practice of baptizing infants. For example, the Roman Catholic Church believes that the sacrament of
baptism washes the infants from their original sin, regenerates them, and incorporates them into Christ and
his Church. As another example, Presbyterian churches do not consider the sacrament to be salvific; rather,
it incorporates infants of believing parents into the community of faith and signals the divine promise of
grace for future salvation. Such a practice depends heavily on the continuity between the old covenant
people of God, who circumcised infants for inclusion in the community, and the new covenant people of
God, who similarly baptize infants for inclusion—along with their believing parents—in the church. In
paedobaptist churches, baptism is the entrance requirement for membership and is accessible to the
children of believing parents who are church members. (These churches also practice adult baptism, which
bears much similarity to baptism in credobaptist churches, which is the next topic.)
Baptist churches, free churches, Bible churches, and similar churches baptize people who express a
credible profession of faith in Jesus Christ for salvation. They do not baptize infants, disagreeing with
baptismal regeneration as held by the Roman Catholic Church. They further disagree with the infant
baptism of paedobaptist Protestant churches, membership in which consists of both believing parents and
their baptized children. By contrast, credobaptist churches insist that hearing the gospel, repenting of sin,
and trusting in Jesus Christ must precede (at least logically, if not temporally) baptism, which is then
administered to believers and inaugurates them into local church membership. Unlike the people of Israel,
which incorporated adults as well as their children (who, in the case of boys, were circumcised), the church
reserves membership for those who embrace the gospel and have been baptized. Thus, baptism is the
entrance requirement for membership and is accessible only to those who believe inChrist.

Membership Responsibilities and Privileges

Membership in a local church formalizes the relationships between the Christians who have
committed themselves to that church. The atmosphere in which these relationships—and, thus, church
membership—thrive is that of love, which Scripture emphasizes over and over (Eph 4:1 5-1 6). In
some churches, membership—its responsibilities and privileges—is structured according to a church
covenant. Even when no formal statement exists, these commitments generally involve two groups:
leaders and members. As for the first group, church leadership commits itself to engage in the
following on behalf of its members: fostering corporate worship of the triune God, preaching and
teaching the Word of God, administering the sacraments/ordinances of baptism and the Lord's Supper,
praying for church members, leading them in accordance with the will of the Lord, shepherding them
through protection from false doctrines and practices, providing stellar (though still sinful) examples
of Christlikeness, employing members and their gifts for the growth of the church, maintaining unity
and prompting toward greater purity, marshaling members for missional endeavors, providing
pastoral care, stewarding wisely the members' sacrificial giving, and the like.
As for the second group, church members commit themselves to the following:
engaging together in worship of the triune God, responding with faith and obedience to the Word of
God, being baptized and celebrating the Lord's Supper, praying for church concerns and ministries,
submitting to the leaders and their wise guidance, directly addressing disagreement and conflict with
the leaders (rather than gossiping about them or disgruntledly leaving the church), submitting to church
discipline when they (members) go astray, following the pattern of faithfulness and obedience set for
them by the leaders, employing their gifts for the health and growth of the church, maintaining unity
and pursuing purity, engaging in missional endeavors, responding to pastoral care, giving sacrificially,
and the like.

Removal from and Restoration to Membership

At times, despite a church's best efforts in providing for its members and supporting its leaders, they
become entrenched in sin and refuse to turn from it. They flounder in their relationship of love to the
church and fail in terms of their responsibilities as members and leaders. Such tragic situations prompt the
church to exercise discipline against its persistently sinning people.
Jesus provides directives for addressing sin among the members of his body (Matt 1 8:1 5-20). In an
escalating four-part sequence involving confrontation and repentance or non-repentance, Jesus instructs
the church to expose the sin committed by one of its members against another member. The progression
begins with (step 1) a personal conversation, followed by (step 2) a small group confrontation, then (step
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3) a church-wide intervention, concluding with (step 4) a church-wide excommunication. At each step,
the hoped-for response is repentance: the member who sinned confesses and turns from his sin, thus
bringing the matter to the good conclusion of a restored relationship. Failure to respond with repentance
triggers the next step, which engages more people and intensifies the exhortation to break with sin and
be restored.
Steps three and four elicit the participation of all the members, with failure to respond with repentance in
the last step prompting the members to expel the person entrenched in sin from membership in the church.
Such excommunication removes the unrepentant person from membership, thus preventing him from
participating in the Lord's Supper and exercising ministry within the church. It also calls for the members
to break off their relationship of love and treat him as "a Gentile and a tax collector" (Matt 1 8:1 7), that
is, as an outsider to the church. Removed from the realm of grace, forgiveness, comfort, support, and love,
the unrepentant person is turned over to the clutches of Satan and his realm of destruction, corruption,
temptation, deception, accusation, and torment.
The purpose for such a radical measure is always a good one: to remove all support from the expelled
member, permitting him to come to the end of himself. At this point he comes to his senses, confesses and
repents of his sin, and seeks restoration of relationship with both the member against whom he sinned and
the church from which he was removed. In some cases, restitution (of a reputation, of property or money)
is necessary as part of the restoration process. Recognizing the genuineness of repentance, the members
once again embrace the repentant person, forgiving and comforting him, and restoring him to membership
in the church. Scripture addresses other situations that call for church discipline: heretical teaching (Titus
1 :9-14; 2 John 9-1 1), divisiveness (Rom 1 6:17-1 8; Titus 3:1 0-1 1), idleness (2Thes 3:6, 1 1-12), and
leadership failures (1 Tim 5:19-21).

Conclusion
Membership in the church depends on a number of factors. Proponents of continuity hold that church
membership extends as far back as Adam and Eve and includes the faithful of all time—all worshipers
of Yahweh and all disciples of Jesus Christ. Proponents of discontinuity maintain that membership in the
church is reserved for disciples of Christ. Because the church did not (and could not) exist prior to the
completion of Christ's mission and the inauguration of the mission of the Holy Spirit on Pentecost, only
Christians are members of the church.
Moreover, membership in the universal church, whether from a continuity or discontinuity
perspective, includes both the faithful who have died and those who currently live. Universal church
membership is very extensive. Membership in the local church is dependent on certain entrance
requirements—for example, being a child of believing parents who are church members
(paedobaptism), or believing in the gospel for salvation (credobaptism). To local church members
come responsibilities and privileges of membership, and at certain times churches must remove sinful
members and hope for their repentance and restoration to membership.
The Ordinances of the Church
Definition
An ordinance is a Christian rite, associated with tangible elements (water; bread and wine), that is
celebrated by the church of Jesus Christ. The term is closely associated with the word sacrament, which
is an outward and visible sign of an inward and invisible grace.
Summary
Among the three branches of Christendom, two church rites— baptism and the Lord's Supper—are
regularly celebrated. Despite this commonality, the three traditions differ as to the proper terminology
(ordinances or sacraments), the actual number (two; seven; seven plus), and the nature of these rites.
Focusing on Protestant theology and practice, this article addresses baptism, in both its paedobaptist and
credobaptist expressions, and the Lord's Supper. It further rehearses the four major views of this latter
ordinance:
transubstantiation (Roman Catholic); consubstantiation, or sacramental union (Lutheran);
memorial (Zwinglian); and spiritual presence (Reformed). Introduction
Broadly speaking, Christianity encompasses three major branches: Roman Catholicism,
Eastern Orthodoxy, and
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Protestantism. In all churches affiliated with these traditions, two common celebrations stand out:
baptism and the Lord's Supper (Communion; Eucharist). Tragically, what seemingly unites the three
branches actually conceals a division involving the terminology, number, and nature of these rites.
Terminology: Ordinances or
Sacraments
How are we to refer to these two rites? The answer to this question reveals a deep division among Catholic,
Orthodox, and Protestant churches. For most, baptism and the Lord's Supper are sacraments; for others,
they are ordinances. The name sacrament is derived from the Latin word, sacramentum, which was used
in Latin translations of the Bible. The Greek New Testament uses the word puothmov (mystérion =
mystery) to refer to matters that God once hid but now has revealed through the gospel (e.g., Rom 16:25-
26; Eph 3:3-13; col 1:24-27). The early church applied this term to its administration of baptism and the
Lord's Supper, considering them to reveal a mystery of divine grace. When the Greek Bible was translated
into Latin, puothmov (mystérion) became sacramentum, which could refer to a rite or an oath of allegiance.
By the fifth century, Augustine's definition of sacrament as an outward and visible sign of an inward and
invisible grace became decisive. The church considered these two rites as sacred signs designed by God
to indicate a divine reality, a reality that was included in and caused by the signs themselves.
The name ordinance became associated with these two rites when Protestant churches made a decisive
break with the Roman Catholic Church. Included in the protest of some Protestants was a rejection of
the name sacrament, it had too many connotations associated with Catholic theology and practice of
baptism and the Lord's Supper. In its place these Protestant churches put the name ordinance,
signifying that these rites were ordained, or instituted, by Christ himself. Today, the Roman Catholic
Church,
Orthodox churches, and many
Protestant churches refer to these rites as sacraments, while some Protestant churches call them ordinances.
Per the title of this article, the word ordinance will be used, but without prejudice for the term sacrament.

Number of Ordinances
How many ordinances are there? As before, the answer to this question reveals a deep division among the
three traditions of Christendom. The Catholic Church has seven sacraments: Baptism, Confirmation, the
Eucharist, Penance, Anointing of the Sick, Holy Orders, and
Matrimony. While embracing these seven "major mysteries," Orthodox
churches do not have a definite number of sacraments and include other events of blessing, service,
prayer, song, procession, and more that render tangible the presence of God. Protestant churches have
two: baptism and the Lord's Supper. In terms of the historical development of this difference in number,
Augustine's idea of a sacrament as a visible sign and cause of an invisible grace became the standard
definition for the church. Much later ( N I 1 50), theologian Peter Lombard enumerated the seven
sacraments. Subsequent comments (e.g.,
Thomas Aquinas [1225-1274],
Council of Florence [1 431-1449]) refined Lombard's treatment but maintained the number. The Council
of Trent officially proclaimed these seven, adding that "if anyone says ... any one of these seven is not
truly and properly a sacrament, let him be anathema [cursed]" (7th session [1 547], Decree Concerning the
Sacraments). This condemnation, along with others decreed by Trent, underscores that a major difference
introduced by the Reformation had to do with the number—and, to be treated next, the nature—of

Sacraments.
Indeed, it was the conviction of
Protestant churches that the church
should celebrate only two sacraments. The reason for this reduction in number was that Christ ordained
only two rites with their accompanying tangible signs. Jesus commanded his disciples to "make disciples
of all the nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit" (Matt
28: 19). Thus, Christ ordained baptism, with the accompanying sign of water, as a rite that the church must
observe. At his last supper, Jesus instituted the Lord's Supper: "Now as they were eating, Jesus took bread,
and after blessing it broke it and gave it to the disciples, and said, 'Take, eat; this is my body.' And he took
a cup, and when he had given thanks he gave it to them, saying, 'Drink of it, all of you, for this is my blood
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 of the covenant, which is poured out for many for the forgiveness of sins"' (Matt 26:26-28). Thus, Christ
ordained the Lord's Supper, with the accompanying signs of bread and wine, as a rite that the church must
Observe.
Accordingly, a major division plagues the churches affiliated with the three branches of Christianity in
terms of the number of the ordinances. But there is further disagreement still.
Nature of the Ordinances What is the nature of the ordinances? The answer to this question unveils yet
another division among churches. There are three general answers:
The sacraments infuse grace ex opere operato (by their administration) into the people of God. His
grace is transmitted through the sacraments as they are administered, and that grace effects the
transformation of the character of their recipients, whose participation in the sacraments is necessary
for salvation.
The sacraments are means of grace by which God confers the benefits of salvation to his people. Rather
than infusing grace, the sacraments, in conjunction with the Word of God, offer a promise of divine
blessing (e.g., sanctification) to their recipients, who appropriate the promise by faith.
The ordinances symbolize the faith and obedience of the people of God. Rather than transmitting grace or
serving as means of grace, the ordinances are opportunities for their recipients to express their allegiance
to Christ.
To fully appreciate the nature of the Protestant ordinances, each one must be considered. Baptism
In the early church, baptism by immersion was administered to people who grasped the gospel, repented
of their sins, and believed in Jesus Christ for salvation (e.g., Acts 2:37-41 An important development
was the baptism of infants. Some leaders denounced the practice, while others traced its origin to the
apostles. Eventually, the church found a parallel between the baptism of infants and the Old Testament
rite of circumcision. The church also linked infant baptism to the removal of original sin. By the fifth
century, infant baptism became the official practice of the church. Today, the ordinance of baptism is
administered to infants
(paedobaptism; Greek paidea = child) and to believing adults (credobaptism; Greek credo
= belief). These two views of the recipients of baptism express different views of its
nature.

Infant Baptism
Discussion of the nature of paedobaptism falls under two categories. The first category is exemplified
by Roman Catholicism.
As the first of the seven sacraments, baptism cleanses its recipients from original sin, regenerates
then, and incorporates them into the Catholic Church. Effective ex opere operato (by administering
the sacrament), baptism infuses grace and thereby begins the lifelong process of transforming the
character of the Catholic faithful. Cooperating with this grace, Catholics become progressively more
and more justified and, engaging in good works, are enabled to merit eternal life. Importantly,
baptismal regeneration means that baptized infants are saved; indeed, this sacrament is necessary for
salvation.
The second category of infant baptism is exemplified by (historical) Reformed
Protestantism. Baptism is a means of grace by which God offers a promise to its recipients: they will
thereby become partakers of the salvation of which baptism is the divinely appointed sign and seal. By
being baptized, infants are not saved. Rather, they are incorporated into the covenant community in
which they will hear the gospel and, as heirs of the covenant promise, will embrace the grace of God by
faith for salvation. Moreover, the sacrament is not effective ex opere operato but depends on the Word
and the Spirit for its validity.
Believer's Baptism
According to credobaptism, baptism is an ordinance instituted by Christ for people who offer a credible
profession of faith in him and who, in obedience to his command, are baptized. In most cases, the mode
of baptism is immersion: people are completely lowered under the water and brought up out of the water.
Discussion of the nature of credobaptism falls under two categories. The first category is exemplified by
Southern Baptists.

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 Baptism "is an act of obedience symbolizing the believer's faith in a crucified, buried, and risen Savior,
the believer's death to sin, the burial of the old life, and the resurrection to walk in newness of life in
Christ Jesus" (Baptist Faith and Message 2000). Accordingly, the nature of baptism is a human act by
which faith in God's provision of salvation is expressed. It is not salvific but testifies to salvation already
experienced.
The second category builds on this common view of the nature of baptism by expanding on its
meanings, as indicated in the New Testament. First, on the basis of Jesus's command to baptize "in
the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit" (Matt 28: 1 9), baptism associates new
believers with the triune God. Second, as noted above, immersing baptism vividly portrays new
believers' identification with the death, burial, and resurrection of Christ (Rom 6:3-5; Gal 3:26-28). A
third meaning of baptism is cleansing from sin, in accordance with Peter's Pentecost message: "Repent
and be baptized every one of you, in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins" (Acts
2:38; cf. Act 22:1 6; Ezek 36:25).
Escape from divine judgment is a fourth meaning of baptism. Just as Noah and his family escaped God's
judgment of the flood (the antitype), so also Christians escape from divine judgment via baptism—the
plunging under water as a type of death (1 Pet 3:20-21). As a fifth meaning, baptism symbolizes
incorporation into the church. It is the initiatory rite, signaling new believers' intention to follow
obediently and faithfully the mediator of the new covenant, Jesus Christ, in new covenant community.

Lord's Supper
The second ordinance to be
Discussed in terms of its nature is the Lord's Supper, also referred to as (Holy) Communion (1 Cor 1 0:16-
17), the Eucharist (Greek eucharistia = thanksgiving), the breaking of bread (Matt 26:26; 1 Cor 1 1 :24),
and other names. Scripture addresses this rite in only two places: Jesus's institution at his last supper (Matt
26:26-29 and parallels) and Paul's instructions in 1 Corinthians (1 0:14-22; 1 1 :17-34). In the early church,
only baptized believers in proper relationship to Christ could participate in this ordinance, which was
celebrated weekly.
In terms of the meaning of the Lord's Supper, the early church held several views. Some saw it as a
sacrifice, linked to the prophecy of Malachi (1 : 10-1 1). As to the nature of this sacrifice, some believed
that the sacrifices are the bread and wine as fruits of divine creation, while others held that the sacrifices
are the actual body and blood of Christ. Others focused on the Lord's Supper as an act of commemoration.
Still others considered it in strongly symbolic terms. The early church also underscored several benefits
of participation in the Lord's Supper, including release from death, nourishment, and sanctification.
Eventually, four positions on the nature of the Lord's Supper developed, all of which continue to be held
today.
Transubstantiation is the Roman Catholic position, officially proclaimed in 121 5. During the
administration of the sacrament of the Eucharist, the bread is transubstantiated—or changed—
into the body of Christ, and the wine into the blood of Christ, by the power of God. As explained
by Thomas Aquinas, transubstantiation is the change (trans) of substance (that which makes
something what it is). However, the accidents (the characteristics that can be perceived by the
senses) remain the same. As the sacrament of the Eucharist is administered, though the bread
still looks, smells, feels, and tastes like bread, its substance has been changed into the body of
Christ. Similarly, though the wine still looks, smells, and tastes like wine, its substance has been
changed into the blood of Christ. All Protestant churches reject transubstantiation.
Consubstantiation, or sacramental union, is the Lutheran view. As developed by Martin Luther
(1483-1 546), the Lord's Supper is a last testament made by Christ as he was about to die. In this
promise he designated an inheritance—the forgiveness of sins—and appointed its heirs—all
those who believe in his promise. Moreover, during the administration of the sacrament, Christ
is truly present in both his deity and humanity, "in, with, and under" the substance of the bread
and wine. Because Christ's body is everywhere present, and in accordance with his words of
institution ("this is my body"; Matt 26:26), God brings about the presence of Christ in the Lord's
Supper. Memorialis the view of many non-sacramentalist (e.g., Baptist) churches. As developed
by Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1 531 ) this position is that the Lord's Supper is a memorial of
Christ's death. Being located in heaven, Christ's body (and blood) cannot be present in the

11
 sacrament. Moreover, Christ's words of institution ("this is my body"; Matt 26:26)—are
figurative and cannot be taken literally. Accordingly, the memorial view stands against both
transubstantiation and consubstantiation. Most importantly, Jesus commanded, "Do this in
remembrance of me" (Luke 22:1 9; 1 Cor 1 1 :24); thus, the Lord's Supper is a memorial
celebration by which the church remembers what Christ did on the cross to accomplish salvation.
Spiritual presence is the view of many Reformed Protestant churches (e.g., Presbyterian;
Christian Reformed). Moving beyond the memorial view, John Calvin (1 509-1 564) maintained
that the bread and wine are certainly symbols, but they are not empty symbols: they render what
they symbolize. By his spiritual presence, Christ presents himself and his saving benefits
through these means of grace. How Christ can be located in heaven and spiritually present in the
Lord's Supper is ultimately a mystery. But Calvin invoked the power of the Holy Spirit to unite
Christ in heaven with the church on earth. The benefits of this sacrament include participation
with Christ, church unity, and nourishment toward sanctification.

Conclusion
Though the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox churches, and
Protestant churches administer baptism and the Lord's Supper, these common celebrations conceal a great
division among the three branches. They differ widely as to the terminology (sacraments or ordinances),
number (seven, seven plus others, two), and nature (paedobaptism, credobaptism, transubstantiation,
consubstantiation, emorial view, spiritual presence view) of these rites.

The Organization of the Church

Definition
Apart from the foundational offices of apostles and prophets, the early churches had qualified leaders,
elders and deacons, who served the church under the lordship of Christ, guided by both the Scriptures
and the Spirit. Summary
The New Testament presents a consistent, though perhaps not completely uniform, pattern of church
leadership. One of the offices was variously called "elders," "overseers," or "pastors" (all three of these
terms refer to the same group and were used interchangeably in the New Testament). These leaders were
charged to lead, shepherd, teach, and equip the flock entrusted to them. The other office, that of deacon,
was intended to serve the needs of the flock and to enable the elders to carry out their responsibilities.

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Other offices mentioned in the New Testament either refer to a foundational role (apostle, prophet) or a
role not tied to an individual congregation (apostle, evangelist).
The organizational structure of the early church was simple, even if not completely uniform. Churches
had qualified, designated leaders who served the church under the lordship of Christ, guided by both
the Scriptures and the Spirit.
Although various titles were used to describe leaders in the church, oftentimes multiple terms could be
used to describe the same office. But how many church offices do we find in the New Testament? The
Number of Church Offices Apostles, Prophets, & Evangelists In Ephesians 4:1 1 Paul mentions that the
risen Christ has given leaders to the church, including "apostles," "prophets," and "evangelists" (cf. 1
Cor. 12:28). Should each congregation therefore have such designated offices? The reason most Christian
congregations do not use these titles (perhaps with the exception of "evangelist") is that these offices
were not tied or limited to a single congregation. This is especially true for apostles, particularly the
Twelve Apostles (and the apostle Paul). In the New Testament, the Greek term "apostle" (aposto/os) has
a technical usage which specifically refers to those who were chosen and commissioned by Jesus as well
as a non-technical usage which refers more generally to a "messenger" or "accredited representative"
(for example, 2 Cor. 8:23; Phil. 2:25). Those given the title according to the former meaning had to be
eyewitnesses of Jesus's resurrection (Acts 1 :22; 1 Cor. 9: 1) and commissioned by Jesus (Acts 9:5-6;
15-16; 26:1 518; cf. Gal. 1:1). Paul declares that these apostles were given to the church as a foundational
office (Eph. 2:20), which included the writing of Scripture. As such, their authority was not limited to
one particular church but extended to all the churches. Prophets are rarely mentioned in the life of the
early church, with most of the references found in the book of Acts (1 1 :28; 13:1; 1 5:22-23, 32; 21 : 1
1). We also know that the church at Corinth had prophets (1 Cor. 12:28; 14:20). The primary function of
the prophet was to proclaim God's word to his people, which was especially crucial before the New
Testament was written (cf. Heb. 1:1 -2). Again, Ephesians 2:20 confirms that the church was built on the
foundation of the apostles and prophets. The term "evangelist" is used only three times in the New
Testament (Acts 21 Eph. 1; 2 Tim. 4:5). Although not much is known about evangelists, they often
accompanied the apostles or were sent on special tasks. As the title indicates, their primary mission was
sharing the gospel with others. Because those who held this office ministered outside the church as they
evangelized the lost, the office should not be viewed as limited to a local congregation.
Informal Terms
Sometimes leaders are mentioned but no title is given. For example, Galatians 6:6 mentions that those who
receive instruction should support "the one who teaches." In 1 Thessalonians 5:121 3, Paul exhorts the
congregation to give recognition and respect to "those who labor among you and are over you in the Lord
and admonish you." The author of Hebrews likewise urges the congregation to "obey" their leaders and
"submit" to them (Heb. 1 7; cf. 13:7, 24). Although we do not know what particular "office" these leaders
may have held, we do know that the author has in mind a distinct group of individuals. When Paul writes
the Pastoral Epistles, there are two established offices in the church—overseers and deacons. Yet, overseers
and deacons were also mentioned in Paul's earlier letter to the Philippians (1 : 1). In 1 Timothy 3, Paul
gives qualifications for the two offices, with qualifications for overseers in 3:1-7 (see also Titus 1:5-9) and
deacons in 3:8-13. Other titles that are also used for church leaders include "elder" and "pastor." Although
the term "pastor" (or "shepherd") is commonly used in our modern church context, it is used only one time
in the New Testament as a reference to a church leader (Eph. 4:1 1). The verb form, poimaino, "to shepherd/
pastor," however, is used in Acts 20:28 and 1 Peter 5:2. In this latter passage, the term is understood in
connection with our Lord's title, "Chief Shepherd/pastor"; reasoning from this observation, the pastoral
office has often been referred to as that of "under-shepherd." But what is the relationship between the terms
"overseer" (episkopos), "elder" (presbyteros), and "pastor" (poimén)?

 The Office of Elder

 Elders & Overseers
The terms "elder" and "overseer" are two different titles that refer to the same office. This can be
demonstrated in a least four ways. First, the two terms are used interchangeably. In Acts 20, Paul calls for
the "elders" of Ephesus to meet him at Miletus (20:17) and
then tells them that the Holy Spirit has made them "overseers" to shepherd God's church (20:28). Paul
writes to Titus instructing him to appoint "elders" in every town (Titus 1 :5), but when he gives the needed
13
qualifications just two verses later he switches to the term "overseer" (1 : 7). As a fellow elder, Peter
exhorts the "elders" to shepherd the flock of God, serving as "overseers" (1 Pet. 5:1 -2).
Second, elders are never given a separate list of qualifications. If elder and overseer are two separate
offices, then it would seem reasonable to expect Paul (or some other New Testament author) to give the
necessary qualifications for each office. Both 1 Timothy 7 and Titus 1:7-9 only mention qualifications
for the office of overseer. However, in both 1 Timothy 5:17-25 and Titus 1 :5, "elders" are also mentioned.
If the offices are distinct, then we are never given the the qualifications for someone to become an elder
which would be surprising for such an important position (see 1 Tim. 5:22). Third, elders and overseers
have the same functions of ruling or leading (Acts 20:28; 1 Tim. 3:4-5; 7) and teaching (1 Tim. 3:2; 5:17;
Titus 1:9). Because they are given the same tasks, they should be viewed as representing the same office.
Fourth, elders and overseers are never listed as separate offices which suggests that the three-tiered
ecclesiastical system is foreign to the New Testament. Elders & Pastors Although the title "pastor" is
commonly used today, it is used only one time in the New Testament as a designation for a church leader.
In Ephesians 1, Paul declares that in addition to apostles, prophets, and evangelists, the risen Christ has
given "pastors and teachers" to the church. The term "pastor" is linked with the term "teacher," which
together denote one order of ministry (i.e., the pastortea e r). What then is the relationship between the
office of pastor and that Of the elder or overseer? There are two compelling reasons these terms represent
the same office. First, elders or overseers are given the same tasks as pastors of shepherding (Acts 20:1

7, 28; Eph. 1; 1 Pet. 5:1 -3) and teaching (1 Tim. 3:2; 5:17; Titus 1 :9). Second, if the office of
pastor is separate from the elder or overseer, then we have no list of qualifications for those who hold
this office. Paul gives qualifications for elders or overseers but never for pastors. Consequently, it is best
to view the three (elder, overseer, pastor) as representing the same office in the early church. This
equation of the three to be indicated in 1 Peter 5:1 -4. The Number of Elders Although the New Testament
does not designate a particular number of elders to lead the church, there is a consist pattern of each
church being led by a plurality of elders. In fact, shared leadership is a common theme in the Bible,
which is seen in the Old Testament with the elders of Israel. In the New Testament, Jesus chose twelve
apostles to lead the church. The early church also appointed seven men to assist the apostles to care for
the needs of neglected widows (Acts 6:1 -6). This pattern of plurality was continued with the
establishment of Christian eldership. The New Testament evidence indicates that it was the norm for
every church to be led by a plurality of elders. There is no example in the New Testament of one elder
or pastor leading a congregation as the sole or primary leader. There was a plurality of elders at the
churches in Jerusalem (Acts 1 1 :30; Acts 1 5:4, 22-23), Antioch of Pisidia, Lystra, Iconium, and Derbe
(Acts 14:23), Ephesus (Acts 7; 1 Tim. 7), Philippi (Phil. 1:1), the cities of Crete (Titus 1 :5), the churches
in the dispersion to which James wrote (Jas. 5:1 4), the Roman provinces of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia,
Asia, and Bithynia (1 Pet. 5: 1), and possibly the church(es) to which Hebrews was written (Heb. 13:7,
17, 24).

The Authority of Elders

According to the New Testament, elders possess authority. Paul instructs the Thessalonian
Christians to respect those who "labor" among them, who "are over" them in the Lord, and who
"admonish" them (1 Thess. 5:12). Just as elders have authority in their homes, so also they have authority
in the church (1 Tim 3:4-5). Paul tells Timothy that the elders who "rule" (or lead) well are worthy of
double honor (1 Tim. 5:17). The author of Hebrews appeals to the church to "obey" and "submit to" their
leaders (Heb. 13:17; see also 1 Cor. 16:1 5-16; 1 Pet. 5:5).
The duties of the elders also infer a certain amount of authority. As teachers, they are charged with the
task of authoritatively proclaiming God's Word (1 Tim. 3:2; 5:1 7; Titus 1:9). As shepherds, the elders
are given the task of leading God's people (Acts 20:28; Eph. 1; 1 Pet. 5:2). As representatives, they
speak and act on behalf of the entire congregation (Acts 1 1 :30; 20:17). The authority of the eldership
comes from God and not the congregation (Acts 20:28; Eph. 4:1 1). Furthermore, the elders's authority
is not absolute (Gal. 1:8). They derive their authority from the Word of God. The authority that the
elders possess is not so much found in their office but in the duties they perform. Finally, the authority
of the elders did not extend beyond the local church.

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 The Qualifications & Duties of Elders
The qualifications for an elder or overseer represent the basic characteristics that are expected of all
Christians (1 Tim. 3:1 -7; Titus 1:5-9; 1 Pet. 5:1 -4). The focus of the qualifications is on who a person is
more than what a person does. The only qualification that directly relates to an elder's duties in the church
is that he must be "able to teach" (1 Tim. 3:2) sound doctrine and be able to correct those who are in error
(Titus 1:9). Elders have at least four main roles: (1) leader, (2) shepherd, (3) teacher, and (4) equipper.
First, an elder is called to lead the church. Just as a husband and father leads his family, so also an elder
must lead the church (1 Tim. 3:4-5). Those who lead well are worthy of double honor (1 Tim. 5:17).
Second, an elder is called to shepherd Christ's church (1 Pet. 5:1 -2). The elders must be willing to protect
the sheep from the false teachers (Acts 20:28-29). Elders are called to visit those who are spiritually and
physically sick or weak (Jas. 5:14). They are to care for the souls entrusted to them as "those who will
have to give an account" (Heb. 13:17). They must follow the example of Jesus, "the chief Shepherd" (1
Pet. 5:4) who "lays down his life for the sheep" (John 1 0:1 1; cf. 1 5:13). Third, elders are teachers of

God's word (Eph. 1; 1 Tim. 3:2; 5:17; Titus 1:9). Finally, elders are to equip others to do the work
of the ministry (Eph. 4:1 1). Just as Paul urged Timothy to entrust what he learned to faithful men who
would then teach others (2 Tim. 2:2), so also elders are to raise up the next generation of leaders and
disciple-makers in the church.

The Office of Deacon

The office of deacon is a separate and distinct office to that of the elder (or overseer or pastor). The word
"deacon" comes from the Greek term diakonos, which normally means "servant." In some contexts,
however, the term can be used more formally to designate someone who holds an office in the church. Of
the 29 occurrences of diakonos, only three or four refer to an office-holder (Rom. 1 6: 1; Phil. 1: 1; 1 Tim.
3:8, 12). The origin of the deacon seems to be connected to the Seven chosen in Acts 6. Although the noun
"deacon" is not used, the verbal form is used and so this passage serves as a prototype of the New Testament
deacon. When the apostles discovered that the Hellenistic widows were being neglected, they decided to
call all the disciples together to choose seven qualified men to be appointed with the task of overseeing
the daily distribution of food. By appointing these men, the apostles took this problem seriously but also
did not get distracted from their primary calling of prayer and the ministry of the word (Acts 6:1 -6). This
is a similar paradigm to what we see with the offices of elder or overseer and deacon. Like the apostles,

the elders's primary role is one of preaching the word of God (Eph. 1; 1 Tim. 3:2; 5:17; Titus 1:9).
Like the Seven, deacons are needed to serve the congregation in whatever needs may arise. Thus, Acts 6
provides a helpful model of how godly servants can assist those who are called to preach the word of God
and shepherd the church of God. The New Testament does not offer much information concerning the role
of deacons since the qualifications in 1 Tim. 3:81 2 focus on one's character and family life. The most
noticeable distinction between elders and deacons is that deacons do not need to be "able to teach" (1 Tim.
3:2), which suggests that the deacons do not have an official teaching role in the church. As the title itself
indicates, deacons do not rule or lead the congregation but have a service-oriented ministry. Like elders,
deacons must lead their families well. But when referring to deacons, Paul omits the section where he
compares managing one's household to taking care of God's church (1 Tim. 3:5). Deacons are not given a
ruling or leading position in the church since that is a function that belongs to the elders. Although the
Bible does not clearly indicate the function of deacons, based on the pattern established in Acts 6 with the
apostles and the Seven, it seems best to view the deacons as servants who do whatever is necessary to
allow the elders to accomplish their God-given calling of shepherding and teaching the church. As a result,
each local church is free to define the tasks of deacons based on their particular needs.

Conclusion

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The New Testament presents a consistent, though perhaps not completely uniform, pattern of
church leadership. Sometimes these leaders were called Elder "overseers," or "pastors" (all three
of these terms refer to the same office and were used interchangeably in the New Testament). The
overwhelming evidence in the New Testament is that every congregation was led by a group of
elders and not merely by a single pastor. While elders do have authority to lead the church, their
authority should be balanced by the congregation.

The Unity of the Church

Definition
The unity of the church refers to the union of the people of God, in all their various distinctives and
expressions, bound to God and to
one another by the gospel.

Summary
The unity of the church is to be a reflection of the unity of the one God upon which the church is built.
The ideal (unity) and the real (division) do not always match up in the life of the church. A biblical theology
of unity reveals a richer and deeper understanding of unity than mere uniformity, but it also holds out the
goal of visible unity towards which Christians should aspire. The model of church unity presented in
Scripture is a unity-in diversity which protects it on one side from an over-reliance on human hierarchies
but also from too great of an emphasis upon human autonomy.

The Unity of the Church and the Unity of God

The unity of the church must begin in the first instance with reference to the God who has narrated and
enacted the gospel across the pages of Scripture. The unity of the church is a function of the unity of
the God which the church is called to worship. There is only one God and one gospel and the church's
inner dynamic is to reflect this reality. That which binds the church together is the God to whom the
church is called to worship. One God and therefore one people of God.
Yahweh reminded Israel consistently they were to have no other gods (Exod 20). The underlying premise
was that Israel's identity would inevitably be formed by the gods they worshipped. Worship the Living
God and Israel would be "alive" to justice and compassion. Worship the dead idols, and they, like the
golden calf (Exod 32), would have eyes but would not see, they would have ears by would not hear, and
their hearts would grow stone cold to justice and compassion.
It is the covenantal relationship between the one God and his people that gives rise to the claim that the
church is to be one. Its unity is not a function of its cultural location, the native language it speaks, the
kinds of food it enjoys or the music to which it listens. But its unity consists in the monogamous
relationship it bears universally to the one true and living God.

Unity in Diversity
The fact that the church speaks different languages, sings different kinds of music, and engages in
different cultural habits tells us that the unity of the church is never intended to be uniformity - full stop.
While in no way discounting that fundamental Biblical truth of the "one God - one church" formula, the
gospel also calls the church to celebrate diversity at important points. Two of the more significant
Biblical passages in this regard are Eph 4 and 1 Cor 12. Ephesians 4 makes the case that God has called
individuals to different offices in the church, and understanding the diverse roles of those who occupy
those offices is crucial to understanding the means by which the church will flourish and retain its unity.
First Corinthians 12 calls attention to the diverse gifts represented by people in the church and that no
one may to say to another, "I do not need you." Both of these passages give us the beginning of a richer
and more robust "unity-in-diversity" understanding of the church identity. We might remember that the
most frequent metaphor of Christ's relationship to the church (and of God's relationship to the people
of God) is that of marriage. The "two and one" dynamic at the heart of marriage is in some sense a
conceptual analogy to the way in which the church is united to Christ. The two become one, but the two
do not become identical. They remain different even as they are united. So the church is to be "one and
many" at the same time. United by the gospel, and living out this gospel across many cultures, many
languages, many kinds of music, and many differently gifted individuals.
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The Nature of the Church In the New Testament, there are three enduring claims relative to the identity
of the church:
It is founded on Jesus Christ.
It comes into being by the Holy
Spirit.
The church is to cross the fundamental divides of culture,
language, nation, tribe and race. It is Jesus' life, death, resurrection and ascension that are the
necessary precursors and foundations of the church. Jesus is the rock upon which the church is founded
(Matt 16). From Pentecost forward, the power of the Holy Spirit by which the gospel is proclaimed is the
glue which holds the church together and continues to push it outward (Acts 2). From the very beginning
of the church the crossing of language and national boundaries was key to its evangelism and scandalous
to a watching world (Acts 1 5). The church founded upon Jesus Christ is the same as the church brought
into being by the Holy Spirit which is the same as the church which crosses from Jerusalem to Judea to
Samaria to Rome within the very narrative of the book of Acts.
Diversity and Denominations
By virtue of the fact that the church exists across many cultures and language groups, and consists of
diverse offices and diverse gifts, the question may fruitfully be asked: What does the unity of the church
practically look like? The question is ever more pressing in this increasingly post-denominational world,
where previously the unity of the church was often theologically conceived against the backdrop of
denominations. Presbyterians were united by a common theological tradition. Anglicans were united by
a common liturgical tradition. Methodists were united by a common practice of piety. The obvious
question of denominations is the divisions and deep differences between denominations. The vast array
of denominations represented in any Western context makes it difficult to discern the unity of the church
that should grow out of the unity of the gospel. The pluralization of the denominations has brought with
it the perception that the gospel itself is pluralized. "Denominationalism" is the term we often put on this
besetting sin. If only we could get "beyond denominationalism," is the lament of many evangelicals today.
This has led some to agitate for a post-denominational church, seeing denominations themselves as the
cause of the problems of the deep divisions present in the church. However, this places too much of the
blame on the original construct of Protestant denominations. Historically denominations functioned not
as the means of greater independence or division, but as concrete ways to protect peculiar emphases and
traditions of the church in diverse places and times against government (the monarchies of Europe) related
homogenizing influences. Denominations in this sense have been the central bearers of religious traditions
and appropriate dissent from state controlled ecclesiastical hierarchies. The demise of denominations has
been in part a function of the modern revolt against tradition as well as the increasing influence of
democracy and autonomy in the late modern world. Denominations have served as a dissenting voice
against religious hegemony - a religious uniformity contrary to the gospel. Historically denominations
were the means to protect dissent while also remaining loyal to the larger social project of liberal
democracies. Denominations with rare exceptions in the West never viewed

as the "one true church." They saw themselves as branches of the one
true church removed from essential control by governing authorities. This permitted and at times
encouraged a wider confessional conversation among the various branches of the Protestant churches.
Unlike Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy or the state churches of Europe, Protestants had a
built-in structural context for unity-in-difference. However, it is fair to say that under the increasing
pluralization of late modernity, denominations became all too fiercely independent of each other, and
under the conditions of a consumer culture, they became fiercely protective of their "market share." The
result was the inability of people in the pews to see any remnant of the visible unity of the gospel beyond
local congregational

The Unity of a Biblical

Theological Vision
We must then think not in terms of the cultural location nor of the cultural shapes of the church as key to
its unity, but rather to an animating theological vision which "sees" unity in and through the categories of
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Scripture. What might those categories be? As we noted at the outset, the unity of the church is rooted in
the deep conviction that God's people in spite of all their differences are united to him by faith in Jesus
Christ. The story of the church is the great story of God's redeeming work culminating in Jesus. This
"common history" means that diverse branches of the church's diverse family tree all are bound to an
identical spiritual genealogy. The story of creation, fall, redemption, and consummation is the common
story for every genuine church. The story of Abraham, of Moses, of David is the common story of the
church no matter which language it speaks or which age it lives in. The church across the ages and across
the globe is bound together by the same gospel as interpreted and proclaimed by the apostles.
This apostolic foundation entails that Scripture is the fundamental constitution of the church. As
the United States is divided by fifty states yet united by a common constitution, so the church
exists in many diverse times and places while being united by a common constitution.

Unity, Identity and Autonomy

There are two significant errors as it relates to the unity of the church. The first error is to draw too close
an identity between Christ and the church, as if there is not merely an organic unity between the two but
an actual identity of the two. This would entail that the authority of church is identical with the authority
of Christ. On this rendering, when the church speaks (through its officers) Christ is speaking. The danger
of this way of thinking is precisely the danger of equating the redeemed with the Redeemer. This is to
view the church as a monarchy wherein the human head of the church is too closely equated with the
Christ as the head of the church. The second error at the other end of the religious spectrum assumes that
there is no unity across many cultures and congregations other than individuals individually deciding to
follow Jesus. In political analogies, this is radical ecclesial democracy, wherein the unity of the church
consists in nothing other than the consensus of the governed. Believers are not united by the church, but
they are united by means of common concerns and interests to follow Jesus. This kind of error suggests
that the only kind of unity would be invisible and external to the church.

Conclusion: Unanswered
Questions
There is a vast middle ground between these two extremes, and the diversity of church traditions on these
matters animates the ongoing theological conversation about the appropriate ways that churches are to
visibly express the "unity-indiversity" which reflects the gospel. It may be said of all those in this middler
territory that the unity of the church arises from its origin, and since the canon created and still creates the
church, this unity cannot be lodged either in a historical office or merely in personal experience. Wherever
the Word is truly preached (gospel proclaimed) and practiced (gospel signified), therein, and therein only,
is the church unified regardless of its cultural location, or its native tongue or its musical forms.

The Priesthood of All Believers an Essay ByJ. V. Fesko

Definition
The doctrine of the priesthood of all believers states that all believers in Christ share in his priestly status;
therefore, there is no special class of people who mediate the knowledge, presence, and forgiveness of
Christ to the rest of believers, and all believers have the right and authority to read, interpret, and apply
the teachings of Scripture. Summary In contrast to the beliefs of the medieval church, the Protestant
doctrine of the priesthood of all believers holds that there is no longer a priestly class of people within
God's people, but that all believers share in Christ's priestly status by virtue of their union with Christ.
Although there was a select group of priests in the OT, who mediated the knowledge, presence, and
forgiveness of God to the rest of Israel, Christ has come and fulfilled the priestly role through his life,
death, and resurrection. Therefore, Christ was the final priestly mediator between God and his people, and
Christians share in that role through him. This means that Christians are not dependent upon the priests
within the church to interpret Scripture for them or affect God's blessing of forgiveness for them; all
Christians are equally priests through Christ and stand upon the same ground before the cross. This does
not mean that we should do away with pastoral or ministerial authorities. While those authorities are a part
of the way that God blesses his church with instruction in sound doctrine, those with churchly authority
need the rest of the body just as much. Medieval Views vs. Protestant Understandings Medieval
theologians believed that salvation came from God through the church. In these simple terms, this sounds
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very similar to the way most Christians understand it. There are, however, significant differences between
medieval and Protestant understandings of how God works through the church. The medieval church
taught that God works exclusively through a select class of priests as they administered the seven
sacraments of the church: baptism, the Eucharist (Lord's Supper), confirmation, penance, extreme unction,
marriage, and holy orders. Protestants, on the other hand, believe that all people in the church are priests,
or in the language of the 1 6th century reformer, Martin Luther, the priesthood of all believers. What are
the differences between these two views? In short, the medieval view rests on the teaching of church
tradition whereas the Protestant view grows out of Scripture. Medieval Christians believed that the church
was part of a celestial hierarchy where everything in the heavens and earth had its place in a great chain
of being. The great chain begins with God, then archangels, and angels; this heavenly hierarchy finds its
earthly parallel through the sacraments, those who are inspired by God to comprehend them, and those
initiated by them. God passes his knowledge and grace down the chain to the angels, who in turn invest
this information in the sacraments, and those who administer the sacraments (priests), who then give them
to the laity. Salvation chiefly comes through the sacraments and the priests who administer them, and the
priests are a unique class of individual who have been gifted by God to contemplate the things of God.
They are of a higher order than ordinary people who have no capacity for such sublime truth. This view
of a hierarchy prevailed in the church through the middle ages until the 1 6th century Protestant
Reformation. Luther challenged this prevailing notion because he rejected the church's claims; he believed
the church rested its idea of the unique priestly class on tradition rather than the authority of Scripture.
Luther instead believed that offering the sacrifice of the mass did not make one a priest but rather anyone
who had faith in Christ, our great high priest, was indeed a priest of God. In Luther's typical pithy manner,
he claimed: "Faith alone is the true priestly office." Luther's idea of the priesthood of all believers versus
the priesthood of only a select few rests in the priestly office of Christ and in the believer's blessing to
share in all that Christ is through union with him.

Scriptural Teaching
Scripture clearly identifies Jesus Christ as our great high priest: "Since then we have a great high priest
who has passed through the heavens, Jesus, the Son of God, let us hold fast our confession" (Heb. 4:14).
The Old Testament whispered and hinted about the priestly office of Christ through types and shadows,
such as Aaron, Israel's first high priest, and the Levites. God instructed Aaron, for example, that he had
to cleanse Israel of their sins through the protocols of the Day of Atonement (Lev. 16). Aaron, and Aaron
alone, had to sacrifice a bull to cleanse ceremonially himself (Lev. 1 6:1 1) and then take some of the
blood, enter the holy of holies, and sprinkle it on the mercy seat (Lev. 16:14). God instructed him to take
two scapegoats and sacrifice one of them and sprinkle its blood on the altar (Lev. 1 6:1 8) and take the
second goat, lay his hands on it, confess Israel's sins over it, and then send it out of the camp into the
wilderness (Lev. 16:21). In this act the goat was to "bear all their iniquities" and carry them away (Lev.
16:22). As the Old Testament progressively unfolded God's plan of redemption, the prophets revealed that
the Messiah was the ultimate sacrifice. No longer would Israel look to the blood of bulls and goats but to
the blood of the Messiah, who would be pierced for our transgressions, crushed for our iniquities, bear
our griefs, and carry our sorrows (Isa. 53:4-5). No longer would the scapegoat bear Israel's sins but rather
Jesus would, "And the Lord has laid on him the iniquity of us all" (Isa. 53:6). The Messiah would be both
sacrifice and priest: "But when Christ appeared as a high priest of the good things that have come, then
through the greater and more perfect tent (not made with hands, that is, not of this creation) he entered
once for all into the holy places, not by means of the blood of goats and calves but by means of his own
blood, thus securing an eternal redemption" (Heb. 9:1 1-12). In his baptism, God anointed Jesus with the
Holy Spirit to carry out his threefold office of prophet, priest, and king (Luke 3:1 -21; Matt. 17; Mark 1:1
-1 1). Likewise, we who are in union with Christ share in this same anointing through Christ's outpouring
of the Spirit upon the church (Acts 2:1 -41, esp. 33, 38; cf. Gal. 3:14). Through Christ's priestly office, all
believers who are united to him share in his anointing. Two chief texts of Scripture teach us this truth.
The first is 1 Peter 2:9, "You are a chosen race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people for his own
possession, that you may proclaim the excellencies of him who called you out of darkness into his
marvelous light." Within the context of Peter's statement, he rests the church's identity as a royal
priesthood in their union with Christ. They have come to the living stone rejected by men but chosen and
precious in the sight of God, and as such, they have become living stones "to be a holy priesthood, to
offer spiritual sacrifices acceptable to God through Jesus Christ" (1 Pet. 2:4-5). Our priestly office finds
its fount and source in Christ's priestly office. The second text is like this first one, "And they sang a new
song, saying, 'Worthy are you to take the scroll and to open its seals, for you were slain and by your blood
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you ransomed people for God from every tribe and language and people and nation" (Rev. 5:9). What is
an implication of Christ's redemptive work? What is one of the things he accomplishes through his shed
blood? "You have made them a kingdom and priests to our God, and they shall rein on the earth" (Rev.
5:10). Believers united to Christ share in all that he is and does, and in this case, they share in his priestly
office. Unlike the Old Testament priests, who offered sacrificial animals, New Testament believers rest in
the finished work of Christ, the one true sacrifice. Now, as Peter writes, we proclaim the excellencies of
the God who called us out of darkness into light and offer spiritual sacrifices to God through Christ, the
sacrifices of our bodies as "living sacrifices" (Rom. 12: 1) and praise to God, that is, "The fruit of lips that
acknowledge his name" (Heb. 13:1 5). The implications of this scriptural teaching are profound.
The most significant blessing is that there is no hierarchy of beings (archangels, angels, archbishops,
bishops, and priests) standing between the believer and God. Rather, we have union, communion, and
fellowship with God through our great high priest, Jesus Christ. When Christ uttered his last breath on the
cross, he tore in two the temple veil that shrouded the holy of holies. Christ's priestly work opened the new
and living way through the veil of his flesh so that all believers have immediate access to God who is in
the heavenly holy of holies. As Christ taught his disciples, "For where two or three are gathered in my
name, there am I among them" (Matt. 18:20).

Implications
That all believers are priests means that not only ministers but also the person in the pew has the right
and authority to read, interpret, and apply the teachings of the Bible. A caste of priests does not have
this right. No longer must we place our implicit faith in the teaching of the church magisterium (the
official teaching arm of the church), but like the Bereans in the days of the apostle Paul, we can learn
immediately from the word of God and the instruction of the Holy Spirit (Acts 17:1 1).
Every person, therefore, who is united to Christ, shares in his priestly office, but this great blessing does
not mean that we should reject the authority, function, and office of minister. We are indeed a holy nation
and kingdom of priests. Christ dispenses this holy office to all Christians through the outpouring of the
Spirit. But in addition to this blessing, Christ has also given to the church gifts: "And he gave the apostles,
the prophets, the evangelists, the shepherds and teachers, to equip the saints for the work of ministry, for
the building up the body of Christ" (Eph. 4:1 1-12). The shepherds and teachers of the church are priests
just like the rest of the body of Christ, but the Spirit uniquely gifts them so they can equip the church for
their own growth in grace and the proclamation of the gospel. These shepherds and teachers do not belong
to a higher order of being, as in the medieval understanding. Rather, they are one part of the body of Christ,
not greater than any other part but necessary nonetheless. The shepherd cannot say to the person in the
pew, "I have no need of you because the Spirit has gifted me to be a shepherd." Conversely, the person in
the pew cannot say to the shepherd, "I have no need of you because I am a priest in Christ." God has
sovereignly arranged the body of Christ in such a manner that each part, though different in function and
gifts, needs every other part (1 Cor. 12:4-26).
Rejoice that because of your union with Christ you share in all who he is and does. In this case, his high
priestly office means that you too are a holy and royal priest.

PREPARED BY BISHOP MARTIN

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