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Neuron
A neuron (American English), neurone (British
English),[1] or nerve cell, is an excitable cell that Neuron
fires electric signals called action potentials across a
neural network in the nervous system. They are
located in the nervous system and help to receive
and conduct impulses. Neurons communicate with
other cells via synapses, which are specialized
connections that commonly use minute amounts of
chemical neurotransmitters to pass the electric
signal from the presynaptic neuron to the target cell
through the synaptic gap.
Anatomy of a multipolar neuron
Neurons are the main components of nervous tissue Identifiers
in all animals except sponges and placozoans. Plants MeSH D009474 (https://meshb.nlm.nih.go
and fungi do not have nerve cells. Molecular v/record/ui?ui=D009474)
evidence suggests that the ability to generate electric
NeuroLex sao1417703748 (http://uri.neuinfo.
signals first appeared in evolution some 700 to 800
ID org/nif/nifstd/sao1417703748)
million years ago, during the Tonian period.
Predecessors of neurons were the peptidergic TA98 A14.0.00.002 (https://ifaa.unifr.ch/
secretory cells. They eventually gained new gene Public/EntryPage/TA98%20Tree/E
modules which enabled cells to create post-synaptic ntity%20TA98%20EN/14.0.00.00
scaffolds and ion channels that generate fast 2%20Entity%20TA98%20EN.htm)
electrical signals. The ability to generate electric TH H2.00.06.1.00002 (https://ifaa.unif
signals was a key innovation in the evolution of the r.ch/Public/EntryPage/PDF/TH%20
nervous system.[2] Chapter%20H2.00.pdf)
FMA 54527 (https://bioportal.bioontolog
Neurons are typically classified into three types y.org/ontologies/FMA/?p=classes&
based on their function. Sensory neurons respond to
conceptid=http%3A%2F%2Fpurl.o
stimuli such as touch, sound, or light that affect the rg%2Fsig%2Font%2Ffma%2Ffma
cells of the sensory organs, and they send signals to 54527)
the spinal cord and then to the sensorial area in the
Anatomical terms of neuroanatomy
brain. Motor neurons receive signals from the brain
and spinal cord to control everything from muscle
contractions[3] to glandular output. Interneurons connect neurons to other neurons within the
same region of the brain or spinal cord. When multiple neurons are functionally connected
together, they form what is called a neural circuit.

A neuron contains all the structures of other cells such as a nucleus, mitochondria, and Golgi
bodies but has additional unique structures such as an axon, and dendrites.[4] The soma or cell
body, is a compact structure, and the axon and dendrites are filaments extruding from the soma.
Dendrites typically branch profusely and extend a few hundred micrometers from the soma. The
axon leaves the soma at a swelling called the axon hillock and travels for as far as 1 meter in
humans or more in other species. It branches but usually maintains a constant diameter. At the

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farthest tip of the axon's branches are axon terminals, where the neuron can transmit a signal
across the synapse to another cell. Neurons may lack dendrites or have no axons. The term neurite
is used to describe either a dendrite or an axon, particularly when the cell is undifferentiated.

Most neurons receive signals via the dendrites and soma and send out signals down the axon. At
the majority of synapses, signals cross from the axon of one neuron to the dendrite of another.
However, synapses can connect an axon to another axon or a dendrite to another dendrite. The
signaling process is partly electrical and partly chemical. Neurons are electrically excitable, due to
the maintenance of voltage gradients across their membranes. If the voltage changes by a large
enough amount over a short interval, the neuron generates an all-or-nothing electrochemical pulse
called an action potential. This potential travels rapidly along the axon and activates synaptic
connections as it reaches them. Synaptic signals may be excitatory or inhibitory, increasing or
reducing the net voltage that reaches the soma.

In most cases, neurons are generated by neural stem cells during brain development and
childhood. Neurogenesis largely ceases during adulthood in most areas of the brain.

Nervous system
Neurons are the primary components of the nervous system, along with the glial cells that give
them structural and metabolic support.[5] The nervous system is made up of the central nervous
system, which includes the brain and spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system, which
includes the autonomic, enteric and somatic nervous systems.[6] In vertebrates, the majority of
neurons belong to the central nervous system, but some reside in peripheral ganglia, and many
sensory neurons are situated in sensory organs such as the retina and cochlea.

Axons may bundle into nerve fascicles that make up the nerves in the peripheral nervous system
(like strands of wire that make up a cable). In the central nervous system bundles of axons are
called nerve tracts.

Anatomy and histology

Neurons are highly specialized for the processing and transmission of cellular signals. Given the
diversity of functions performed in different parts of the nervous system, there is a wide variety in
their shape, size, and electrochemical properties. For instance, the soma of a neuron can vary from
4 to 100 micrometers in diameter.[7]

The soma is the body of the neuron. As it contains the nucleus, most protein synthesis occurs
here. The nucleus can range from 3 to 18 micrometers in diameter.[8]
The dendrites of a neuron are cellular extensions with many branches. This overall shape and
structure are referred to metaphorically as a dendritic tree. The branches form fractal patterns
that repeat at multiple size scales.[9] This fractal tree is where the majority of input to the
neuron occurs via the dendritic spine.
The axon is a finer, cable-like projection that can extend tens, hundreds, or even tens of
thousands of times the diameter of the soma in length. The axon primarily carries nerve signals
away from the soma and carries some types of information back to it. Many neurons have only
one axon, but this axon may—and usually will—undergo extensive branching, enabling
communication with many target cells. The part of the axon where it emerges from the soma is
called the axon hillock. Besides being an anatomical structure, the axon hillock also has the
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greatest density of voltage-dependent sodium
channels. This makes it the most easily excited
part of the neuron and the spike initiation zone
for the axon. In electrophysiological terms, it has
the most negative threshold potential.
While the axon and axon hillock are generally
involved in information outflow, this region
can also receive input from other neurons.
The axon terminal is found at the end of the
axon farthest from the soma and contains
synapses. Synaptic boutons are specialized
structures where neurotransmitter chemicals are
Diagram of a typical myelinated vertebrate
released to communicate with target neurons. In
motor neuron
addition to synaptic boutons at the axon terminal,
a neuron may have en passant boutons, which
are located along the length of the axon.
The accepted view of the neuron attributes dedicated
functions to its various anatomical components;
however, dendrites and axons often act in ways
contrary to their so-called main function.[10]

Axons and dendrites in the central nervous system

are typically only about one micrometer thick, while
some in the peripheral nervous system are much
thicker. The soma is usually about 10–25
micrometers in diameter and often is not much
larger than the cell nucleus it contains. The longest Schematic of a single pyramidal neuron, with a
axon of a human motor neuron can be over a meter synapse from an incoming axon onto a dendritic
long, reaching from the base of the spine to the toes. spine

Sensory neurons can have axons that run from the

toes to the posterior column of the spinal cord, over 1.5 meters in adults. Giraffes have single axons
several meters in length running along the entire length of their necks. Much of what is known
about axonal function comes from studying the squid giant axon, an ideal experimental
preparation because of its relatively immense size (0.5–1 millimeter thick, several centimeters
long).

Fully differentiated neurons are permanently postmitotic[11] however, stem cells present in the
adult brain may regenerate functional neurons throughout the life of an organism (see
neurogenesis). Astrocytes are star-shaped glial cells that have been observed to turn into neurons
by virtue of their stem cell-like characteristic of pluripotency.[12]

Membrane
Like all animal cells, the cell body of every neuron is enclosed by a plasma membrane, a bilayer of
lipid molecules with many types of embedded protein structures.[13] A lipid bilayer is a powerful
electrical insulator, but in neurons, many of the protein structures embedded in the membrane are
electrically active. These include ion channels that permit electrically charged ions to flow across
the membrane and ion pumps that chemically transport ions from one side of the membrane to the
other. Most ion channels are gated, permeable only to specific types of ions. Some ion channels are
voltage gated, meaning that they can be switched between open and closed states by altering the
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voltage difference across the membrane. Others are chemically gated, meaning that they can be
switched between open and closed states by interactions with chemicals that diffuse through the
extracellular fluid. The ions include sodium, potassium, chloride, and calcium. The interactions
between ion channels and ion pumps produce a voltage difference across the membrane, typically
a little less than 1/10 of a volt at baseline. This voltage has two functions: first, it provides a power
source for an assortment of voltage-dependent protein machineries that are embedded in the
membrane; second, it provides a basis for electrical signal transmission between different parts of
the membrane.

Histology and internal structure

Numerous microscopic clumps called Nissl bodies (or Nissl
substance) are seen when nerve cell bodies are stained with
a basophilic ("base-loving") dye. These structures consist
of rough endoplasmic reticulum and associated ribosomal
RNA. Named after German psychiatrist and
neuropathologist Franz Nissl (1860–1919), they are
involved in protein synthesis and their prominence can be
explained by the fact that nerve cells are very metabolically
active. Basophilic dyes such as aniline or (weakly)
hematoxylin[14] highlight negatively charged components, Golgi-stained neurons in human
and so bind to the phosphate backbone of the ribosomal hippocampal tissue
RNA.

The cell body of a neuron is supported by a complex mesh

of structural proteins called neurofilaments, which
together with neurotubules (neuronal microtubules) are
assembled into larger neurofibrils.[15] Some neurons also
contain pigment granules, such as neuromelanin (a
brownish-black pigment that is byproduct of synthesis of
catecholamines), and lipofuscin (a yellowish-brown
pigment), both of which accumulate with age.[16][17][18]
Actin filaments in a mouse cortical
Other structural proteins that are important for neuronal
neuron in culture
function are actin and the tubulin of microtubules. Class
III β-tubulin is found almost exclusively in neurons. Actin
is predominately found at the tips of axons and dendrites during neuronal development. There the
actin dynamics can be modulated via an interplay with microtubule.[19]

There are different internal structural characteristics between axons and dendrites. Typical axons
seldom contain ribosomes, except some in the initial segment. Dendrites contain granular
endoplasmic reticulum or ribosomes, in diminishing amounts as the distance from the cell body
increases.

Classification
Neurons vary in shape and size and can be classified by their morphology and function.[21] The
anatomist Camillo Golgi grouped neurons into two types; type I with long axons used to move
signals over long distances and type II with short axons, which can often be confused with

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dendrites. Type I cells can be further classified by the

location of the soma. The basic morphology of type I
neurons, represented by spinal motor neurons, consists of
a cell body called the soma and a long thin axon covered by
a myelin sheath. The dendritic tree wraps around the cell
body and receives signals from other neurons. The end of
the axon has branching axon terminals that release
neurotransmitters into a gap called the synaptic cleft
between the terminals and the dendrites of the next
neuron.
Image of pyramidal neurons in mouse
cerebral cortex expressing green
Structural classification fluorescent protein. The red staining
indicates GABAergic interneurons.[20]

Polarity
Most neurons can be anatomically characterized as:[4]

Unipolar: single process. Unipolar cells are exclusively

sensory neurons. Their dendrites receive sensory
information, sometimes directly from the stimulus itself.
The cell bodies of unipolar neurons are always found in
ganglia. Sensory reception is a peripheral function, so
the cell body is in the periphery, though closer to the
CNS in a ganglion. The axon projects from the dendrite
endings, past the cell body in a ganglion, and into the
central nervous system.
Bipolar: 1 axon and 1 dendrite. They are found mainly
in the olfactory epithelium, and as part of the retina.
Multipolar: 1 axon and 2 or more dendrites
Different kinds of neurons
Golgi I: neurons with long-projecting axonal
processes; examples are pyramidal cells, Purkinje
cells, and anterior horn cells
Golgi II: neurons whose axonal process projects locally; the best example is the granule
cell
Anaxonic: where the axon cannot be distinguished from the dendrite(s)
Pseudounipolar: 1 process which then serves as both an axon and a dendrite

Other
Some unique neuronal types can be identified according to their location in the nervous system
and distinct shape. Some examples are:

Basket cells, interneurons that form a dense plexus of terminals around the soma of target
cells, found in the cortex and cerebellum
Betz cells, large motor neurons in primary motor cortex
Lugaro cells, interneurons of the cerebellum
Medium spiny neurons, most neurons in the corpus striatum
Purkinje cells, huge neurons in the cerebellum, a type of Golgi I multipolar neuron
Pyramidal cells, neurons with triangular soma, a type of Golgi I
Rosehip cells, unique human inhibitory neurons that interconnect with Pyramidal cells

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Renshaw cells, neurons with both ends linked to alpha motor neurons
Unipolar brush cells, interneurons with unique dendrite ending in a brush-like tuft
Granule cells, a type of Golgi II neuron
Anterior horn cells, motoneurons located in the spinal cord
Spindle cells, interneurons that connect widely separated areas of the brain

Functional classification

Direction
Afferent neurons convey information from tissues and organs into the central nervous system
and are also called sensory neurons.
Efferent neurons (motor neurons) transmit signals from the central nervous system to the
effector cells.
Interneurons connect neurons within specific regions of the central nervous system.
Afferent and efferent also refer generally to neurons that, respectively, bring information to or send
information from the brain.

Action on other neurons

A neuron affects other neurons by releasing a neurotransmitter that binds to chemical receptors.
The effect on the postsynaptic neuron is determined by the type of receptor that is activated, not by
the presynaptic neuron or by the neurotransmitter. Receptors are classified broadly as excitatory
(causing an increase in firing rate), inhibitory (causing a decrease in firing rate), or modulatory
(causing long-lasting effects not directly related to firing rate).

The two most common (90%+) neurotransmitters in the brain, glutamate and GABA, have largely
consistent actions. Glutamate acts on several types of receptors and has effects that are excitatory
at ionotropic receptors and a modulatory effect at metabotropic receptors. Similarly, GABA acts on
several types of receptors, but all of them have inhibitory effects (in adult animals, at least).
Because of this consistency, it is common for neuroscientists to refer to cells that release glutamate
as "excitatory neurons", and cells that release GABA as "inhibitory neurons". Some other types of
neurons have consistent effects, for example, "excitatory" motor neurons in the spinal cord that
release acetylcholine, and "inhibitory" spinal neurons that release glycine.

The distinction between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters is not absolute. Rather, it
depends on the class of chemical receptors present on the postsynaptic neuron. In principle, a
single neuron, releasing a single neurotransmitter, can have excitatory effects on some targets,
inhibitory effects on others, and modulatory effects on others still. For example, photoreceptor
cells in the retina constantly release the neurotransmitter glutamate in the absence of light. So-
called OFF bipolar cells are, like most neurons, excited by the released glutamate. However,
neighboring target neurons called ON bipolar cells are instead inhibited by glutamate, because
they lack typical ionotropic glutamate receptors and instead express a class of inhibitory
metabotropic glutamate receptors.[22] When light is present, the photoreceptors cease releasing
glutamate, which relieves the ON bipolar cells from inhibition, activating them; this
simultaneously removes the excitation from the OFF bipolar cells, silencing them.

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It is possible to identify the type of inhibitory effect a presynaptic neuron will have on a
postsynaptic neuron, based on the proteins the presynaptic neuron expresses. Parvalbumin-
expressing neurons typically dampen the output signal of the postsynaptic neuron in the visual
cortex, whereas somatostatin-expressing neurons typically block dendritic inputs to the
postsynaptic neuron.[23]

Discharge patterns
Neurons have intrinsic electroresponsive properties like intrinsic transmembrane voltage
oscillatory patterns.[24] So neurons can be classified according to their electrophysiological
characteristics:

Tonic or regular spiking. Some neurons are typically constantly (tonically) active, typically firing
at a constant frequency. Example: interneurons in neurostriatum.
Phasic or bursting. Neurons that fire in bursts are called phasic.
Fast-spiking. Some neurons are notable for their high firing rates, for example, some types of
cortical inhibitory interneurons, cells in globus pallidus, retinal ganglion cells.[25][26]

Neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers passed from
one neuron to another neuron or to a muscle cell or gland
cell.

Cholinergic neurons – acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is

released from presynaptic neurons into the synaptic
cleft. It acts as a ligand for both ligand-gated ion
channels and metabotropic (GPCRs) muscarinic
receptors. Nicotinic receptors are pentameric ligand- Synaptic vesicles containing
gated ion channels composed of alpha and beta neurotransmitters
subunits that bind nicotine. Ligand binding opens the
channel causing the influx of Na+ depolarization and
increases the probability of presynaptic neurotransmitter release. Acetylcholine is synthesized
from choline and acetyl coenzyme A.
Adrenergic neurons – noradrenaline. Noradrenaline (norepinephrine) is released from most
postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic nervous system onto two sets of GPCRs: alpha
adrenoceptors and beta adrenoceptors. Noradrenaline is one of the three common
catecholamine neurotransmitters, and the most prevalent of them in the peripheral nervous
system; as with other catecholamines, it is synthesized from tyrosine.
GABAergic neurons – gamma aminobutyric acid. GABA is one of two neuroinhibitors in the
central nervous system (CNS), along with glycine. GABA has a homologous function to ACh,
gating anion channels that allow Cl− ions to enter the post synaptic neuron. Cl− causes
hyperpolarization within the neuron, decreasing the probability of an action potential firing as
the voltage becomes more negative (for an action potential to fire, a positive voltage threshold
must be reached). GABA is synthesized from glutamate neurotransmitters by the enzyme
glutamate decarboxylase.
Glutamatergic neurons – glutamate. Glutamate is one of two primary excitatory amino acid
neurotransmitters, along with aspartate. Glutamate receptors are one of four categories, three
of which are ligand-gated ion channels and one of which is a G-protein coupled receptor (often
referred to as GPCR).

1. AMPA and Kainate receptors function as cation channels permeable to Na+ cation
channels mediating fast excitatory synaptic transmission.

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2. NMDA receptors are another cation channel that is more permeable to Ca2+. The function
of NMDA receptors depends on glycine receptor binding as a co-agonist within the
channel pore. NMDA receptors do not function without both ligands present.
3. Metabotropic receptors, GPCRs modulate synaptic transmission and postsynaptic
excitability.
Glutamate can cause excitotoxicity when blood flow to the brain is interrupted, resulting
in brain damage. When blood flow is suppressed, glutamate is released from
presynaptic neurons, causing greater NMDA and AMPA receptor activation than normal
outside of stress conditions, leading to elevated Ca2+ and Na+ entering the post
synaptic neuron and cell damage. Glutamate is synthesized from the amino acid
glutamine by the enzyme glutamate synthase.

Dopaminergic neurons—dopamine. Dopamine is a neurotransmitter that acts on D1 type (D1

and D5) Gs-coupled receptors, which increase cAMP and PKA, and D2 type (D2, D3, and D4)
receptors, which activate Gi-coupled receptors that decrease cAMP and PKA. Dopamine is
connected to mood and behavior and modulates both pre- and post-synaptic
neurotransmission. Loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra has been linked to
Parkinson's disease. Dopamine is synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine. Tyrosine is
catalyzed into levodopa (or L-DOPA) by tyrosine hydroxylase, and levodopa is then converted
into dopamine by the aromatic amino acid decarboxylase.
Serotonergic neurons—serotonin. Serotonin (5-Hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) can act as excitatory
or inhibitory. Of its four 5-HT receptor classes, 3 are GPCR and 1 is a ligand-gated cation
channel. Serotonin is synthesized from tryptophan by tryptophan hydroxylase, and then further
by decarboxylase. A lack of 5-HT at postsynaptic neurons has been linked to depression.
Drugs that block the presynaptic serotonin transporter are used for treatment, such as Prozac
and Zoloft.
Purinergic neurons—ATP. ATP is a neurotransmitter acting at both ligand-gated ion channels
(P2X receptors) and GPCRs (P2Y) receptors. ATP is, however, best known as a cotransmitter.
Such purinergic signaling can also be mediated by other purines like adenosine, which
particularly acts at P2Y receptors.
Histaminergic neurons—histamine. Histamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter and
neuromodulator. Histamine-producing neurons are found in the tuberomammillary nucleus of
the hypothalamus.[27] Histamine is involved in arousal and regulating sleep/wake behaviors.

Multimodel classification
Since 2012 there has been a push from the cellular and computational neuroscience community to
come up with a universal classification of neurons that will apply to all neurons in the brain as well
as across species. This is done by considering the three essential qualities of all neurons:
electrophysiology, morphology, and the individual transcriptome of the cells. Besides being
universal this classification has the advantage of being able to classify astrocytes as well. A method
called patch-sequencing in which all three qualities can be measured at once is used extensively by
the Allen Institute for Brain Science.[28] In 2023, a comprehensive cell atlas of the adult, and
developing human brain at the transcriptional, epigenetic, and functional levels was created
through an international collaboration of researchers using the most cutting-edge molecular
biology approaches.[29]

Connectivity
Neurons communicate with each other via synapses, where either the axon terminal of one cell
contacts another neuron's dendrite, soma, or, less commonly, axon. Neurons such as Purkinje cells
in the cerebellum can have over 1000 dendritic branches, making connections with tens of
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Chemical synapse

thousands of other cells; other neurons, such

as the magnocellular neurons of the
supraoptic nucleus, have only one or two
dendrites, each of which receives thousands
of synapses.

Synapses can be excitatory or inhibitory,

either increasing or decreasing activity in the
target neuron, respectively. Some neurons
also communicate via electrical synapses,
A signal propagating down an axon to the cell body and
which are direct, electrically conductive
dendrites of the next cell
junctions between cells.[30]

When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it opens voltage-gated calcium channels,
allowing calcium ions to enter the terminal. Calcium causes synaptic vesicles filled with
neurotransmitter molecules to fuse with the membrane, releasing their contents into the synaptic
cleft. The neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and activate receptors on the
postsynaptic neuron. High cytosolic calcium in the axon terminal triggers mitochondrial calcium
uptake, which, in turn, activates mitochondrial energy metabolism to produce ATP to support
continuous neurotransmission.[31]

An autapse is a synapse in which a neuron's axon connects to its dendrites.

The human brain has some 8.6 x 1010 (eighty six billion) neurons.[32][33] Each neuron has on
average 7,000 synaptic connections to other neurons. It has been estimated that the brain of a
three-year-old child has about 1015 synapses (1 quadrillion). This number declines with age,
stabilizing by adulthood. Estimates vary for an adult, ranging from 1014 to 5 x 1014 synapses (100
to 500 trillion).[34]

Nonelectrochemical signaling
Beyond electrical and chemical signaling, studies suggest neurons in healthy human brains can
also communicate through:

force generated by the enlargement of dendritic spines[35]

the transfer of proteins – transneuronally transported proteins (TNTPs)[36][37]

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They can also get modulated by input from the environment and hormones released from other
parts of the organism,[38] which could be influenced more or less directly by neurons. This also
applies to neurotrophins such as BDNF. The gut microbiome is also connected with the brain.[39]
Neurons also communicate with microglia, the brain's main immune cells via specialized contact
sites, called "somatic junctions". These connections enable microglia to constantly monitor and
regulate neuronal functions, and exert neuroprotection when needed.[40]

Mechanisms for propagating action potentials

In 1937 John Zachary Young suggested that the squid giant axon could be used to study neuronal
electrical properties.[41] It is larger than but similar to human neurons, making it easier to study.
By inserting electrodes into the squid giant axons, accurate measurements were made of the
membrane potential.

The cell membrane of the axon and soma contain voltage-gated ion channels that allow the neuron
to generate and propagate an electrical signal (an action potential). Some neurons also generate
subthreshold membrane potential oscillations. These signals are generated and propagated by
charge-carrying ions including sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), chloride (Cl−), and calcium (Ca2+).

Several stimuli can activate a neuron leading to electrical activity, including pressure, stretch,
chemical transmitters, and changes in the electric potential across the cell membrane.[42] Stimuli
cause specific ion-channels within the cell membrane to open, leading to a flow of ions through the
cell membrane, changing the membrane potential. Neurons must maintain the specific electrical
properties that define their neuron type.[43]

Thin neurons and axons require less metabolic expense to produce and carry action potentials, but
thicker axons convey impulses more rapidly. To minimize metabolic expense while maintaining
rapid conduction, many neurons have insulating sheaths of myelin around their axons. The
sheaths are formed by glial cells: oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells
in the peripheral nervous system. The sheath enables action potentials to travel faster than in
unmyelinated axons of the same diameter, whilst using less energy. The myelin sheath in
peripheral nerves normally runs along the axon in sections about 1 mm long, punctuated by
unsheathed nodes of Ranvier, which contain a high density of voltage-gated ion channels. Multiple
sclerosis is a neurological disorder that results from the demyelination of axons in the central
nervous system.

Some neurons do not generate action potentials but instead generate a graded electrical signal,
which in turn causes graded neurotransmitter release. Such non-spiking neurons tend to be
sensory neurons or interneurons, because they cannot carry signals long distances.

Neural coding
Neural coding is concerned with how sensory and other information is represented in the brain by
neurons. The main goal of studying neural coding is to characterize the relationship between the
stimulus and the individual or ensemble neuronal responses and the relationships among the
electrical activities of the neurons within the ensemble.[44] It is thought that neurons can encode
both digital and analog information.[45]

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All-or-none principle
The conduction of nerve impulses is an example
of an all-or-none response. In other words, if a
neuron responds at all, then it must respond
completely. Greater intensity of stimulation, like
brighter image/louder sound, does not produce a
stronger signal but can increase firing
frequency.[46]: 31 Receptors respond in different
ways to stimuli. Slowly adapting or tonic
receptors respond to a steady stimulus and
produce a steady rate of firing. Tonic receptors
most often respond to increased stimulus
intensity by increasing their firing frequency,
usually as a power function of stimulus plotted
against impulses per second. This can be likened
to an intrinsic property of light where greater
As long as the stimulus reaches the threshold, the
intensity of a specific frequency (color) requires full response will be given. A larger stimulus does not
more photons, as the photons can not become result in a larger response, and vice versa.[46]: 31
"stronger" for a specific frequency.

Other receptor types include quickly adapting or phasic receptors, where firing decreases or stops
with a steady stimulus; examples include skin which, when touched causes neurons to fire, but if
the object maintains even pressure, the neurons stop firing. The neurons of the skin and muscles
that are responsive to pressure and vibration have filtering accessory structures that aid their
function.

The pacinian corpuscle is one such structure. It has concentric layers like an onion, which form
around the axon terminal. When pressure is applied and the corpuscle is deformed, mechanical
stimulus is transferred to the axon, which fires. If the pressure is steady, the stimulus ends; thus,
these neurons typically respond with a transient depolarization during the initial deformation and
again when the pressure is removed, which causes the corpuscle to change shape again. Other
types of adaptation are important in extending the function of several other neurons.[47]

Etymology and spelling

The German anatomist Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer introduced the term neuron in 1891,[48] based
on the ancient Greek νεῦρον neuron 'sinew, cord, nerve'.[49]

The word was adopted in French with the spelling neurone. That spelling was also used by many
writers in English,[50] but has now become rare in American usage and uncommon in British
usage.[51][49]

Some previous works used nerve cell (cellule nervose), as adopted in Camillo Golgi's 1873 paper on
the discovery of the silver staining technique used to visualize nervous tissue under light
microscopy.[52]

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History

Drawing by Camillo Golgi of a

hippocampus stained using the silver
nitrate method

The neuron's place as the primary functional unit of the

nervous system was first recognized in the late 19th
century through the work of the Spanish anatomist
Santiago Ramón y Cajal.[53]
Drawing of a Purkinje cell in the
To make the structure of individual neurons visible, cerebellar cortex done by Santiago
Ramón y Cajal improved a silver staining process that had Ramón y Cajal, demonstrating the ability
been developed by Camillo Golgi.[53] The improved process of Golgi's staining method to reveal fine
involves a technique called "double impregnation" and is detail
still in use.

In 1888 Ramón y Cajal published a paper about the bird cerebellum. In this paper, he stated that
he could not find evidence for anastomosis between axons and dendrites and called each nervous
element "an autonomous canton."[53][48] This became known as the neuron doctrine, one of the
central tenets of modern neuroscience.[53]

In 1891, the German anatomist Heinrich Wilhelm Waldeyer wrote a highly influential review of the
neuron doctrine in which he introduced the term neuron to describe the anatomical and
physiological unit of the nervous system.[54][55]

The silver impregnation stains are a useful method for neuroanatomical investigations because, for
reasons unknown, it stains only a small percentage of cells in a tissue, exposing the complete micro
structure of individual neurons without much overlap from other cells.[56]

Neuron doctrine
The neuron doctrine is the now fundamental idea that neurons are the basic structural and
functional units of the nervous system. The theory was put forward by Santiago Ramón y Cajal in
the late 19th century. It held that neurons are discrete cells (not connected in a meshwork), acting
as metabolically distinct units.

Later discoveries yielded refinements to the doctrine. For example, glial cells, which are non-
neuronal, play an essential role in information processing.[57] Also, electrical synapses are more
common than previously thought,[58] comprising direct, cytoplasmic connections between
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neurons; In fact, neurons can form even tighter couplings:

the squid giant axon arises from the fusion of multiple
axons.[59]

Ramón y Cajal also postulated the Law of Dynamic

Polarization, which states that a neuron receives signals at
its dendrites and cell body and transmits them, as action
potentials, along the axon in one direction: away from the
cell body.[60] The Law of Dynamic Polarization has
important exceptions; dendrites can serve as synaptic
output sites of neurons[61] and axons can receive synaptic
inputs.[62]

Compartmental modelling of neurons

Drawing of neurons in the pigeon
Although neurons are often described as "fundamental
cerebellum, by Spanish neuroscientist
units" of the brain, they perform internal computations. Santiago Ramón y Cajal in 1899. (A)
Neurons integrate input within dendrites, and this denotes Purkinje cells and (B) denotes
complexity is lost in models that assume neurons to be a granule cells, both of which are
fundamental unit. Dendritic branches can be modeled as multipolar.
spatial compartments, whose activity is related to passive
membrane properties, but may also be different depending
on input from synapses. Compartmental modelling of dendrites is especially helpful for
understanding the behavior of neurons that are too small to record with electrodes, as is the case
for Drosophila melanogaster.[63]

Neurons in the brain

The number of neurons in the brain varies dramatically from species to species.[64] In a human,
there are an estimated 10–20 billion neurons in the cerebral cortex and 55–70 billion neurons in
the cerebellum.[65] By contrast, the nematode worm Caenorhabditis elegans has just 302 neurons,
making it an ideal model organism as scientists have been able to map all of its neurons. The fruit
fly Drosophila melanogaster, a common subject in biological experiments, has around 100,000
neurons and exhibits many complex behaviors. Many properties of neurons, from the type of
neurotransmitters used to ion channel composition, are maintained across species, allowing
scientists to study processes occurring in more complex organisms in much simpler experimental
systems.

Neurological disorders
Charcot–Marie–Tooth disease (CMT) is a heterogeneous inherited disorder of nerves (neuropathy)
that is characterized by loss of muscle tissue and touch sensation, predominantly in the feet and
legs extending to the hands and arms in advanced stages. Presently incurable, this disease is one of
the most common inherited neurological disorders, affecting 36 in 100,000 people.[66]

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Alzheimer's disease (AD), also known simply as Alzheimer's, is a neurodegenerative disease

characterized by progressive cognitive deterioration, together with declining activities of daily
living and neuropsychiatric symptoms or behavioral changes.[67] The most striking early symptom
is loss of short-term memory (amnesia), which usually manifests as minor forgetfulness that
becomes steadily more pronounced with illness progression, with relative preservation of older
memories. As the disorder progresses, cognitive (intellectual) impairment extends to the domains
of language (aphasia), skilled movements (apraxia), and recognition (agnosia), and functions such
as decision-making and planning become impaired.[68][69]

Parkinson's disease (PD), also known as Parkinson's, is a degenerative disorder of the central
nervous system that often impairs motor skills and speech.[70] Parkinson's disease belongs to a
group of conditions called movement disorders.[71] It is characterized by muscle rigidity, tremor, a
slowing of physical movement (bradykinesia), and in extreme cases, a loss of physical movement
(akinesia). The primary symptoms are the results of decreased stimulation of the motor cortex by
the basal ganglia, normally caused by the insufficient formation and action of dopamine, which is
produced in the dopaminergic neurons of the brain. Secondary symptoms may include high-level
cognitive dysfunction and subtle language problems. PD is both chronic and progressive.

Myasthenia gravis is a neuromuscular disease leading to fluctuating muscle weakness and

fatigability during simple activities. Weakness is typically caused by circulating antibodies that
block acetylcholine receptors at the postsynaptic neuromuscular junction, inhibiting the
stimulative effect of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Myasthenia is treated with
immunosuppressants, cholinesterase inhibitors and, in selected cases, thymectomy.

Demyelination
Demyelination is a process characterized by the gradual
loss of the myelin sheath enveloping nerve fibers. When
myelin deteriorates, signal conduction along nerves can be
significantly impaired or lost, and the nerve eventually
withers. Demyelination may affect both central and
peripheral nervous systems, contributing to various
neurological disorders such as multiple sclerosis, Guillain-
Barré syndrome, and chronic inflammatory demyelinating Guillain–Barré syndrome – demyelination
polyneuropathy. Although demyelination is often caused
by an autoimmune reaction, it may also be caused by viral
infections, metabolic disorders, trauma, and some medications.

Axonal degeneration
Although most injury responses include a calcium influx signaling to promote resealing of severed
parts, axonal injuries initially lead to acute axonal degeneration, which is the rapid separation of
the proximal and distal ends, occurring within 30 minutes of injury.[72] Degeneration follows with
swelling of the axolemma, and eventually leads to bead-like formation. Granular disintegration of
the axonal cytoskeleton and inner organelles occurs after axolemma degradation. Early changes
include accumulation of mitochondria in the paranodal regions at the site of injury. The
endoplasmic reticulum degrades and mitochondria swell up and eventually disintegrate. The
disintegration is dependent on ubiquitin and calpain proteases (caused by the influx of calcium

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ions), suggesting that axonal degeneration is an active process that produces complete
fragmentation. The process takes about roughly 24 hours in the PNS and longer in the CNS. The
signaling pathways leading to axolemma degeneration are unknown.

Development
Neurons develop through the process of neurogenesis, in which neural stem cells divide to produce
differentiated neurons. Once fully differentiated they are no longer capable of undergoing mitosis.
Neurogenesis primarily occurs during embryonic development.

Neurons initially develop from the neural tube in the embryo. The neural tube has three layers – a
ventricular zone, an intermediate zone, and a marginal zone. The ventricular zone surrounds the
tube's central canal and becomes the ependyma. Dividing cells of the ventricular zone form the
intermediate zone which stretches to the outermost layer of the neural tube called the pial layer.
The gray matter of the brain is derived from the intermediate zone. The extensions of the neurons
in the intermediate zone make up the marginal zone when myelinated becomes the brain's white
matter.[73]

Differentiation of the neurons is ordered by their size. Large motor neurons are first. Smaller
sensory neurons together with glial cell differentiate at birth.[73]

Adult neurogenesis can occur and studies of the age of human neurons suggest that this process
occurs only for a minority of cells and that the vast majority of neurons in the neocortex form
before birth and persist without replacement. The extent to which adult neurogenesis exists in
humans, and its contribution to cognition are controversial, with conflicting reports published in
2018.[74]

The body contains a variety of stem cell types that can differentiate into neurons. Researchers
found a way to transform human skin cells into nerve cells using transdifferentiation, in which
"cells are forced to adopt new identities".[75]

During neurogenesis in the mammalian brain, progenitor and stem cells progress from
proliferative divisions to differentiative divisions. This progression leads to the neurons and glia
that populate cortical layers. Epigenetic modifications play a key role in regulating gene expression
in differentiating neural stem cells, and are critical for cell fate determination in the developing
and adult mammalian brain. Epigenetic modifications include DNA cytosine methylation to form
5-methylcytosine and 5-methylcytosine demethylation.[76] DNA cytosine methylation is catalyzed
by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs). Methylcytosine demethylation is catalyzed in several stages
by TET enzymes that carry out oxidative reactions (e.g. 5-methylcytosine to 5-
hydroxymethylcytosine) and enzymes of the DNA base excision repair (BER) pathway.[76]

At different stages of mammalian nervous system development, two DNA repair processes are
employed in the repair of DNA double-strand breaks. These pathways are homologous
recombinational repair used in proliferating neural precursor cells, and non-homologous end
joining used mainly at later developmental stages[77]

Intercellular communication between developing neurons and microglia is also indispensable for
proper neurogenesis and brain development.[78]

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Nerve regeneration
Peripheral axons can regrow if they are severed,[79] but one neuron cannot be functionally replaced
by one of another type (Llinás' law).[24]

See also
Artificial neuron Growth cone
Bidirectional cell List of animals by number of neurons
Biological neuron model List of neuroscience databases
Cellular neuroscience Neuronal galvanotropism
Compartmental neuron models Neuroplasticity
Connectome Red neuron
Dogiel cell Sholl analysis

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Further reading
Bullock TH, Bennett MV, Johnston D, Josephson R, Marder E, Fields RD (November 2005).
"Neuroscience. The neuron doctrine, redux". Science. 310 (5749): 791–3.
doi:10.1126/science.1114394 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1114394). PMID 16272104 (h
ttps://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16272104). S2CID 170670241 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/
CorpusID:170670241).
Kandel ER, Schwartz JH, Jessell TM (2000). Principles of Neural Science (4th ed.). New York:
McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-8385-7701-6.
Peters A, Palay SL, Webster HS (1991). The Fine Structure of the Nervous System (3rd ed.).
New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-506571-9.
Ramón y Cajal S (1933). Histology (10th ed.). Baltimore: Wood.
Roberts A, Bush BM (1981). Neurones without Impulses. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 0-521-29935-7.
Snell RS (2010). Clinical Neuroanatomy (https://books.google.com/books?id=ABPmvroyrD0C).
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 978-0-7817-9427-5.

External links
IBRO (International Brain Research Organization) (https://web.archive.org/web/201304252026
53/http://ibro.info/). Fostering neuroscience research especially in less well-funded countries.
NeuronBank (http://NeuronBank.org) an online neuromics tool for cataloging neuronal types
and synaptic connectivity.
High Resolution Neuroanatomical Images of Primate and Non-Primate Brains (https://web.arch
ive.org/web/20190621124504/http://brainmaps.org/).
The Department of Neuroscience at Wikiversity, which presently offers two courses:
Fundamentals of Neuroscience and Comparative Neuroscience.
NIF Search – Neuron (https://www.neuinfo.org/mynif/search.php?q=Neuron&t=data&s=cover&
b=0&r=20) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150122215813/https://www.neuinfo.org/my
nif/search.php?q=Neuron&t=data&s=cover&b=0&r=20) 2015-01-22 at the Wayback Machine
via the Neuroscience Information Framework
Cell Centered Database – Neuron (https://web.archive.org/web/20110813070057/http://ccdb.uc
sd.edu/sand/main?event=showMPByType&typeid=0&start=1&pl=y)
Complete list of neuron types (http://neurolex.org/wiki/Category:Neuron) according to the
Petilla convention, at NeuroLex.
NeuroMorpho.Org (http://NeuroMorpho.org) an online database of digital reconstructions of
neuronal morphology.
Immunohistochemistry Image Gallery: Neuron (https://web.archive.org/web/20111008142032/h
ttp://www.immunoportal.com/modules.php?name=gallery2&g2_view=keyalbum.KeywordAlbum
&g2_keyword=Neuron)
Khan Academy: Anatomy of a neuron (https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/human-bi
ology/neuron-nervous-system/v/anatomy-of-a-neuron)
Neuron images (http://www.histology-world.com/photoalbum/thumbnails.php?album=96)

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