Origins of Globalization
I. Introduction to Globalization
Globalization refers to the growing interconnectedness and interdependence of countries,
economies, cultures, technologies, and political systems. It involves the integration of markets,
the flow of goods and services, the exchange of ideas, and the spread of people and cultures
across borders. The process is driven by advances in transportation, communication, and
international cooperation.
The term “globalization” became widely used in the late 20th century, but its roots stretch back
thousands of years through trade networks, migration, and cultural exchange. While modern
globalization is often linked to the digital age and international corporations, earlier forms
existed in ancient empires, religious expansion, and long-distance commerce.
From the earliest migrations of human beings out of Africa around 50,000 years ago to the
21st-century digital revolution, globalization has taken many forms. Its modern manifestation
involves economic integration, political diplomacy, cultural blending, technological advancement,
and environmental interdependence.
Key Features of Globalization
● Connectivity – Enhanced communication and transportation link people and places
across the globe.
● Integration – Economies and cultures become more interconnected and mutually
influential.
● Flow of Resources – Movement of goods, services, money, labor, and ideas across
borders.
● Complex Interdependence – Nations increasingly rely on each other for resources,
security, and technology.
● Rapid Change – Technological and political shifts can instantly affect global systems.
Debates on Globalization
Some view globalization as a force for economic growth, cultural diversity, and innovation, while
others criticize it for increasing inequality, eroding local traditions, and causing environmental
harm. Its impacts are complex and vary by region and sector.
II. Perspectives on the Origins of Globalization
1. Hardwired Perspective – Nayan Chanda (2007)
According to Nayan Chanda, globalization is an inherent part of human nature, stemming from
the basic human need to improve life and connect with others. He identifies four “urges” that
have driven human interaction across history:
● Commerce – The desire to exchange goods and services, evident in early barter
systems and long-distance trade.
● Religion – The spread of belief systems, such as missionaries traveling to distant lands
to share their faith.
● Politics – The expansion of influence through diplomatic relations, treaties, and
exploratory missions.
● Warfare – Conquest and the control of resources and territories through military force.
Chanda points out that even the migration of prehistoric humans out of Africa approximately
50,000 years ago can be seen as an early form of globalization, as it marked the spread of
human populations across continents.
2. Cyclical Perspective – Jan Aart Scholte (2005)
Jan Aart Scholte views globalization as a recurring process that unfolds in cycles of growth and
decline. This means that globalization is not new; there have been previous “global ages” that
eventually diminished, only to re-emerge in a new form. For instance, the interconnectedness of
the Roman Empire collapsed after its fall, and centuries later, a similar level of
interconnectedness returned during the European colonial period.
3. Epoch Perspective – Göran Therborn (2000), cited by Ritzer (2015)
Göran Therborn outlines six distinct historical waves of globalization:
1. Globalization of Religion (4th–7th centuries) – Spread of major world religions such as
Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism across large areas through trade, conquest, and
missionary work.
2. European Colonial Conquests (late 15th century) – Maritime empires formed by Spain
and Portugal through exploration and conquest, leading to the integration of vast
territories into global networks.
3. Intra-European Wars (late 18th–early 19th centuries) – Conflicts like the Napoleonic
Wars reshaped borders and political alliances.
4. Heyday of European Imperialism (mid-19th century–1918) – Expansion into Africa, Asia,
and the Pacific, motivated by industrial demands for resources and markets.
5. Post–World War II Period – The United States emerged as the dominant global
superpower, creating institutions like the UN and promoting a liberal economic order.
6. Post–Cold War Period – The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 removed a major
geopolitical barrier, allowing markets and political systems to integrate further.
4. Events-Based Perspective
This perspective highlights specific landmark events as turning points for globalization:
● The expansion of the Roman Empire, which connected large parts of Europe, North
Africa, and the Middle East under one political and economic system.
● The rise of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, which created a Eurasian network
facilitating trade and cultural exchange.
● The Voyages of Discovery: Christopher Columbus’s voyage to the Americas (1492),
Vasco da Gama’s sea route to India (1498), and Ferdinand Magellan’s circumnavigation
of the globe (1522).
● Modern events: the first transatlantic telephone cable (1956), the first transatlantic TV
broadcast (1962), the launch of the Internet (1988), and the September 11, 2001 terrorist
attacks, which reshaped global security priorities.
5. Broader, More Recent Changes
In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, several developments accelerated globalization:
● The United States maintained unmatched military, economic, and cultural influence after
WWII.
● The rise of multinational corporations (MNCs) like Ford and General Motors transformed
global production and markets.
● The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 opened previously closed economies to global trade.
● China’s economic rise turned it into a major manufacturing hub and cultural player on the
world stage.
III. Historical Timeline of Globalization
1. Silk Road (1st century BC–5th century AD)
○ A network of trade routes linking China to the Roman Empire via Central Asia.
○ Facilitated the exchange of silk, spices, precious metals, art, and ideas.
○ Also transmitted diseases like the bubonic plague.
2. Spice Routes (7th–15th centuries)
○ Dominated by Muslim traders who controlled Mediterranean and Indian Ocean
commerce.
○ Spread Islam to Southeast Asia and East Africa.
○ Key products: spices, gold, ivory, and textiles.
3. Age of Discovery (15th–18th centuries)
○ European maritime powers connected East and West.
○ The Columbian Exchange transferred crops (maize, potatoes, tomatoes), animals
(horses, cattle), diseases (smallpox, measles), and technologies between
hemispheres.
4. First Wave of Globalization (19th century–1914)
○ Fueled by the British Empire’s dominance and the Industrial Revolution.
○ Innovations like steamships, trains, and telegraphs expanded global trade.
5. World Wars (1914–1945)
○ WWI disrupted global trade networks.
○ WWII further damaged economies, prompting post-war reconstruction.
6. Second & Third Waves (Post-WWII–late 20th century)
○ Led by the United States, with institutions like the United Nations and European
Union promoting integration.
○ Growth of air travel, television, and mass media accelerated cultural and political
exchanges.
7. Globalization 4.0 (21st century)
○ Driven by the digital economy, artificial intelligence, e-commerce, and 3D printing.
○ New challenges: cyber threats, misinformation, and environmental crises.
IV. Types of Globalization
1. Economic Globalization
○ Interdependence of world economies through trade, investment, and technology.
○ Example: Philippine exports (coconut oil, mangoes, electronics) and imports
(rice, petroleum).
2. Military Globalization
○ Cooperation and competition in defense systems and strategies.
○ Example: NATO alliances; US-Philippines joint military exercises under the VFA.
3. Cultural Globalization
○ Exchange of cultural traits and traditions.
○ Example: Spanish colonial Catholicism, Chinese cuisine, American pop culture in
the Philippines.
4. Ecological Globalization
○ Shared environmental challenges.
○ Example: Paris Climate Accord, spread of invasive species like golden apple
snail in Southeast Asia.
5. Political Globalization
○ International cooperation and governance systems.
○ Example: UN, WTO, ASEAN memberships.
6. Technological Globalization
○ Spread of innovation and communication tools.
○ Example: Smartphones, social media, e-commerce platforms.
7. Geographical Globalization
○ Intensification of physical connections through migration and travel.
○ Example: OFWs abroad, global shipping and logistics.
V. Causes and Drivers of Globalization
1. International Finance and Capital Mobility
○ Global capital flows through foreign direct investments and stock markets.
○ Example: Japanese investments in Philippine infrastructure.
2. Multinational Production
○ Global value chains that cross multiple countries.
○ Example: Electronics assembled in the Philippines with parts from Asia.
3. Trade Liberalization
○ Reduction of tariffs and quotas.
○ Example: ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA).
4. Technological Advancements
○ Container shipping, jet travel, Internet communication.
5. Political Agreements
○ UN, ASEAN, WTO as platforms for cooperation.
6. Cultural and Social Drivers
○ Migration, tourism, and global sports events promoting cultural blending.
VI. Pros and Cons of Globalization
A. Pros (Advantages)
1. Encourages Free Trade and Economic Growth
○ By reducing or eliminating tariffs, quotas, and other trade barriers, globalization
allows goods and services to move freely between countries. This opens up
markets for producers and provides consumers with more choices.
○ Example: Philippine bananas and pineapples are now major exports to countries
like Japan and China because of trade agreements under ASEAN and WTO
membership.
○ Impact: Countries can specialize in industries where they have an advantage,
leading to higher productivity and GDP growth.
2. Creates Jobs and Business Opportunities
○ The expansion of multinational corporations (MNCs) and foreign direct
investment (FDI) creates employment in host countries. It also provides local
entrepreneurs with access to international markets.
○ Example: The growth of the BPO industry in the Philippines has provided millions
of jobs in call centers, IT support, and outsourcing services, largely serving US
and European clients.
3. Promotes Cultural Exchange and Mutual Understanding
○ Through travel, media, education, and migration, people are exposed to different
cultures, languages, and traditions. This helps break down stereotypes and
encourages cooperation.
○ Example: The popularity of Korean dramas and K-pop in the Philippines has
boosted tourism to South Korea and inspired language study programs.
4. Improves Access to Technology and Innovation
○ Developing countries can adopt advanced technologies more quickly due to
globalization, which boosts productivity in industries like agriculture, healthcare,
and manufacturing.
○ Example: Telemedicine and e-learning platforms became widely used in the
Philippines during COVID-19, allowing remote education and healthcare access.
5. Enables Cooperation on Global Issues
○ Globalization allows countries to coordinate responses to shared challenges such
as climate change, terrorism, and pandemics.
○ Example: The Paris Climate Agreement unites countries in setting goals to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
B. Cons (Disadvantages)
1. Increases Economic Inequality
○ While globalization can make countries richer overall, wealth is often unevenly
distributed. Rich nations and large corporations gain more benefits, while poorer
countries and marginalized groups struggle to compete.
○ Example: In the Philippines, small-scale farmers face challenges selling their
products when cheap imported goods flood the market due to trade liberalization.
2. Leads to Job Outsourcing
○ Companies may move their manufacturing or services to countries with lower
labor costs, causing job losses in higher-wage countries.
○ Example: Some Western manufacturing sectors have declined as production
shifted to Asian countries like China, Vietnam, and the Philippines.
3. Concentrates Political Influence in Wealthy Elites and MNCs
○ Large multinational corporations can influence policy-making to serve their
interests, sometimes at the expense of public welfare.
○ Example: Global oil companies have been accused of lobbying against stricter
environmental regulations to protect their profits.
4. Facilitates the Spread of Diseases
○ Increased travel and interconnected trade make it easier for infectious diseases
to spread globally.
○ Example: COVID-19 spread rapidly worldwide in early 2020 due to high levels of
international travel before lockdowns were enforced.
5. Causes Environmental Degradation
○ Global demand for raw materials and industrial goods can lead to
overexploitation of resources, deforestation, and pollution.
○ Example: Large-scale deforestation in Southeast Asia is linked to global palm oil
demand, destroying biodiversity and contributing to climate change.
