children

Article
Association between Academic Performance, Physical Activity,
and Academic Stress in Compulsory Secondary Education:
An Analysis by Sex
Dilan Galeano-Rojas 1 , Marina Cuadros-Juárez 1 , Borys Bismark León Reyes 2 ,
Mónica Alexandra Castelo Reyna 3 , Claudio Farías-Valenzuela 4 and Pedro Valdivia-Moral 1, *

1 Department of Musical, Plastic and Corporal Expression Didactics, Faculty of Educational Sciences,
Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain; dagaleanor@correo.ugr.es (D.G.-R.);
mariinacj10@correo.ugr.es (M.C.-J.)
2 Facultad de Educación, Universidad Estatal de Milagro UNEMI, Machala 070201, Ecuador;
bleonr@unemi.edu.ec
3 Faculty of Computer Science and Electronics, Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Riobamba 060105,
Ecuador; monica.castelo@espoch.edu.ec
4 Escuela de Ciencias de la Actividad Física, Universidad de Las Américas, Santiago 9170022, Chile;
cfaria46@edu.udla.cl
* Correspondence: pvaldivia@ugr.es

Abstract: Objectives: The main objective of this study is to analyze the relationships between academic
performance, physical activity, and academic stress in secondary education students, while the
secondary objective is to establish differences by gender in the physical activity and academic stress
levels of secondary students based on academic performance. Methods: The sample was composed of
students from both sexes who attended public institutions. Data collection was conducted applying
an ad hoc questionnaire for academic performance, the PAQ-C questionnaire for physical activity, and
Citation: Galeano-Rojas, D.; the QASSE questionnaire for academic stress. Data analysis was performed using descriptive statistics:
Cuadros-Juárez, M.; León Reyes, B.B.; Spearman’s correlation coefficient was used for associations, while comparisons were conducted via
Castelo Reyna, M.A.; the Mann–Whitney U test and Kruskal–Wallis H test. Results: The results show that academic stress
Farías-Valenzuela, C.; Valdivia-Moral,
is negatively correlated with physical activity and academic performance. Men present significantly
P. Association between Academic
higher values in physical activity, while women present higher mean values in general academic
Performance, Physical Activity, and
stress and the academic overload dimension. Lastly, regarding academic performance, significant
Academic Stress in Compulsory
Secondary Education: An Analysis by
differences were observed in the family pressure dimension, with students who perform better
Sex. Children 2024, 11, 1161. academically presenting lower mean values in this dimension of academic stress. Conclusions: In
https://doi.org/10.3390/ conclusion, the more the general academic stress, the lower the physical activity levels and academic
children11101161 performance. In addition, physical activity appears as a potential coping strategy for academic stress,
and its influence on academic performance should be further studied in secondary education.
Academic Editor: Josune
Rodríguez-Negro
Keywords: academic stress; academic performance; physical activity; gender; secondary education
Received: 25 August 2024
Revised: 21 September 2024
Accepted: 23 September 2024
Published: 25 September 2024 1. Introduction
Currently, the health and wellbeing of adolescents have become topics of special
interest at the global level [1–3]. The adolescence stage implies significant behavioral
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
changes that may lead to unstable and unhealthy behaviors attributed to adherence to
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. pernicious habits such as alcohol or drug consumption, a poor diet, and sedentarism [4,5].
This article is an open access article Therefore, adolescence is a key stage to establish a healthy lifestyle that reflects on other
distributed under the terms and dimensions of life such as education and professional perspectives, which will, in turn,
conditions of the Creative Commons have implications at the physical, psychological, and emotional levels [2,6,7].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// Sedentarism has become one of the most widespread risk factors in the world’s popu-
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ lation [8,9]. It is estimated that more than 50% of adolescents exhibit sedentary behaviors
4.0/). and have a physically inactive lifestyle [10–12]. In addition, according to Barth et al. [13],

Children 2024, 11, 1161. https://doi.org/10.3390/children11101161 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/children

Children 2024, 11, 1161 2 of 11

physical inactivity in children and youngsters is accompanied by an increase in mental

health problems. More than 14% of children in the world present these conditions [14],
which can impact their quality of life in the short, medium, and long term, as this is a
critical period for their development [5,15–17].
In particular, the transition to secondary education is, for most students, a stage riddled
with anxiety and stress due to the academic demands and the new educational, social,
and physical environment to which they need to adapt [18,19]. According to Naranjo [20]
and Marcial et al. [21], the increase in stress levels can cause students physical, mental,
and emotional health problems, reducing their self-esteem and affecting their personal
development. In this context, academic stress consists of a reaction of students to school
stimuli or demands considered stressors—i.e., exams, homework and task overloads,
family pressure, or their own expectations—which affect both their wellbeing and academic
performance [22–24].
In this sense, academic stress is recognized as a risk factor and a problem that school
centers should prevent by fostering a positive and healthy environment [25]. Furthermore,
considering that the sources of academic stress in general cannot be avoided, generat-
ing suitable coping strategies becomes necessary [26], mainly because of the relationship
between academic stress and academic performance, which is key at the personal, pro-
fessional, family, and institutional level [27,28]. Academic performance is understood
as students’ achievement and progress in terms of learning, based on the educational
objectives established during the school stage [29]. According to Scrimin et al. [26] and
Colunga-Rodríguez et al. [30], the close link between academic stress and academic failure
can generate higher levels of frustration and anxiety that, in turn, are related to worse
academic performance. This becomes even more evident in higher education stages, as
reflected by a higher school failure rate [31,32].
In this sense, the study of factors that affect academic performance, such as academic
stress, has gained growing interest at the social and research level, as the influence of
parents, teachers, and some sectors of society are decisive [28,33]. In this line, various
studies indicate that the practice of regular physical activity (PA) can positively contribute
to the academic performance and psychological wellbeing of students [19,34–36]. PA is
understood as any body movement produced by the skeletal muscles that implies spending
energy and allows for performing daily activities in the environment [37]. More physically
active students with high levels of stress have been found to present less stress-induced
diseases, while students with a more sedentary lifestyle and high levels of stress are more
vulnerable to various diseases [11,38,39]; therefore, PA may have a protective effect against
stress and other associated diseases [25].
In fact, Wunsch et al. [24] maintain that PA acts as a moderator variable between stress
and academic performance, as it has positive effects on memory, reaction time, creativity,
intelligence, and the synthesis process as a consequence of higher levels of oxygen in the
brain, and it improves cognitive function [13,40]. In addition, strong factors such as an
involvement with teachers and classmates and the possibility of practicing PA at school and
outside school are associated with lower stress levels, with PA being an effective coping
strategy for frustration that improves the mood and reduces anxiety levels [41], as well as
facilitating adherence to healthy life behaviors such as good sleep and diet, which are in
turn associated with better academic performance [36,42].
In this sense, considering that adolescents spent a high number of hours at school,
and that the stress derived from various demands is a factor that affects academic perfor-
mance [16], the relationship between stress and the lifestyle choices related to the practice
of PA should be identified, as according to Visier-Alfonso et al. [42], the mechanisms behind
this influence are still unclear. Contextual factors, such as the academic periods during
which stress is assessed, the type of stress, and the nature of the PA interventions (exercise,
training, sports, etc.), as well as the bidirectional or tridirectional relationships explored
in the investigation of stress and its connection to other psychosocial variables [15,24,36],
highlight the need for further research on this topic at the secondary education level. There-
Children 2024, 11, 1161 3 of 11

fore, the main objective of this study is to analyze the relationships between academic
performance, PA, and academic stress in secondary students, while the second objective is
to establish differences by gender in the PA and academic stress levels of students based on
academic performance.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Participants
The sample was composed of 310 students from mixed public Compulsory Secondary
Education (ESO, in Spanish) institutions from the Spanish provinces of Granada, Jaén, and
Málaga. The sampling was non-probabilistic and by convenience, as participants were
selected according to the characteristics of the study [43].
Regarding the characteristics of the sample, the mean age of the participants was
13.9 years old (SD = 1.22), 169 were men (54.5%), 125 were women (40.3%), and 16 did not
specify a sex (5.2%). In addition, 82 participants were in their 1st year of ESO (26.5%), 74 in
their 2nd year (23.9%), 96 in their 3d year (31%), 53 in their 4th year (17.1%) and 5 did not
specify their year (1.6%).

2.2. Design
The study employed a quantitative research approach with a non-experimental and a
descriptive cross-sectional design, as the variables were not manipulated, and the data col-
lection was conducted at a specific time and only once in order to describe the phenomena,
contexts, and facts analyzed and explain the trends in the population under study [43].

2.3. Instruments and Variables

A Likert scale was used as it enabled the measurement of different dimensions, such as
the beliefs, thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of the participants, through various questions.
The variables and measurement instruments validated for the population under study are
introduced below:
• Sociodemographic characteristics
An ad hoc questionnaire was employed to collect the following sociodemographic
data: age, sex, type of school attended, country of origin, and grade.
• Academic performance
An ad hoc questionnaire was created as in previous studies [13,44]. The mathematics,
physical education, language, and English grades of the last term were considered to
establish general academic performance. The measurement scale is the same used to grade
students at school centers, i.e., ranges from 1 to 10. In addition, the criterion adopted
to establish the academic performance level of students was “low” for grades from 0 to
6, “medium” for grades from 7 to 8, and “high” for grades from 9 to 10, as in other
studies [30,45].
• Physical activity
The Spanish version of the PAQ-C questionnaire was applied [46]. This instrument
calculates the PA of students during the last seven days through 10 questions, of which
9 refer to the level of PA and one to the presence of pathologies or events that impeded
conducting PA during the last week. The response scale generates scores from 1 to 5, with
higher scores indicating higher levels of PA: The internal consistency of the instrument
presented in this study was α = 0.91, and it obtained α = 0.83 after validation.
• Academic stress
The Questionnaire on Academic Stress in Secondary School (QASSE) was employed [22].
The instrument is composed of 24 items presented on a Likert scale, where 1 equals “no
stress at all” and 5 “a lot of stress”. The questionnaire measures the following dimensions:
academic overload and school performance (items 1, 4, 5, 7, 10, 16, 18, 20, and 23), inter-
action with classmates, (items 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 17, and 24), family pressure (items 15, 19, 21,
Children 2024, 11, 1161 4 of 11

and 22) and future prospects (items 11, 12, 13, and 14). The internal consistency of the
questionnaire after its validation was α = 0.92, and in this study, it reached α = 0.91.

2.4. Procedure
A literature review was first conducted to have an overview of research on this topic.
Then, the objective of the study was established, and the instruments for data collection
were selected. Subsequently, the management team from the ESO institutes was contacted
and informed about the purpose of the study through an informative letter, as well as
about the approval of the same by the Ethics Committee of Universidad de Granada under
the code 3324/CEIH/2023. Upon acceptance, schools were requested to send informed
consent forms to the guardians or parents of students. In addition, the students’ families
were informed about the objective of the students’ participation, clarifying that this was
completely voluntary, anonymous, and confidential, and that students could abandon the
study at any time in line with the recommendations of the Declaration of Helsinki [47].
For data collection, participants were given paper questionnaires. When answering
them, students were accompanied by members of the research team, who could answer
any questions or solve any problems that might arise. Lastly, after data collection, the data
were statistically analyzed to obtain the results, discuss them, and establish conclusions
based on the objectives of the study.

2.5. Statistical Analysis

The data normality was compared using the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test. Descriptive
statistics are presented as mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentages. The
internal consistency of the questionnaires used was calculated via Cronbach’s alpha. Based
on normality, it was decided that non-parametric tests would be used for inferential
statistics. To determine the degree of correlation between academic performance, physical
activity, and academic stress, Spearman’s correlation test was employed. Subsequently,
Mann–Whitney’s U test was used to compare means by sex, while Kruskal–Wallis’s H test
was selected for academic performance, calculating the size effect through Hedges’ g and
eta squared, respectively. The statistical program used was SPSS V27 (Inc., IBM Corp.,
Armonk, New York, NY, USA). A significance of <5% was adopted.

3. Results
The results of this work are presented below in the same order as the established
objectives and based on the statistical tests mentioned above. The mean and standard
deviation values of the variables under study are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Mean and standard deviation of the variables under study.

M SD
Physical activity 2.66 0.77
Academic performance 6.87 1.62
General academic stress 2.88 0.80
Academic overload 3.34 0.90
Interaction with classmates 2.38 0.89
Future prospects 2.87 1.16
Family pressure 2.93 1.04
Note: M = mean; SD = standard deviation.

PA is observed to present an M = 2.66, i.e., moderate PA levels. In academic perfor-

mance, M = 6.87 is on a “medium” scale value, with an SD = 1.62, which indicates some
variability among participants. Regarding general academic stress, an M = 2.88 value is
observed, with participants showing higher academic stress levels in the academic overload
dimension (M = 3.34) and lower ones in the classmate interaction dimension (M = 2.38).
Children 2024, 11, 1161 5 of 11

In Table 2, a descriptive analysis is presented based on the academic performance

levels, i.e., low, medium, and high academic performance.

Table 2. Descriptive analysis of academic performance.

N %
Low 93 30
Medium 144 46.4
High 73 23.6
Total 310 100

After analyzing the percentages, 30% of the students present a low academic perfor-
mance, while most participants (46.4%) have a medium academic performance. In turn, the
smallest percentage (23.6%) corresponds to students with a high academic performance.
Table 3 presents the results of the correlation analysis between variables through
Spearman’s coefficient.

Table 3. Correlation coefficients between the study variables.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Rho 0.087 −0.119 −0.150 * −0.042 −0.025 −0.115
1. Physical activity
Sig. 0.268 0.147 0.049 0.575 0.739 0.138
Rho −0.169 * −0.069 −0.046 −0.256 ** −0.140 *
2. Academic performance
Sig. 0.016 0.293 0.467 <0.001 0.029
Rho 0.842 ** 0.767 ** 0.777 ** 0.800 **
3. General academic stress Sig. <0.001 <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
Rho 0.454 ** 0.531 ** 0.550 **
4. Academic overload Sig. <0.001 <0.001 <0.001
5. Interaction with Rho 0.492 ** 0.574 **
classmates Sig. <0.001 <0.001
Rho 0.525 **
6. Family pressure
Sig. <0.001
7. Future prospects
Note: * = p < 0.05; ** = p < 0.01; Rho = Spearman’s correlation coefficient.

Initially, PA is observed to be negatively related to general academic stress (p = 0.049,

rho = −0.150), i.e., the higher the PA level, the lower the academic stress levels. In turn, aca-
demic performance is negatively correlated to general academic stress (p = 0.016,
rho = −0.169) and the dimensions of family pressure (p = <0.001, rho = −0.256) and fu-
ture prospects (p = 0.029, rho = −0.140). Lastly, general academic stress and each of its
dimensions are positively and significantly related with each other (p = <0.01).
Table 4 presents the results of the Mann–Whitney U test for calculating the mean differ-
ences based on gender. Statistically significant differences were found in PA
(p = 0.005, g = 0.71), with higher mean values in men. In turn, there are significant
differences in general academic stress (p = 0.007, g = 0.79) and the dimension of academic
overload (p = <0.001, g = 0.88), with higher mean scores for women. No significant statisti-
cal differences were present in the other variables; however, it is noteworthy that women
present higher mean values in all dimensions of academic stress.
Children 2024, 11, 1161 6 of 11

Table 4. Statistical differences by gender.

Gender
Variables Man Women p G
M ± SD M ± SD
Physical activity 2.77 ± 0.69 2.49 ± 0.74 0.005 0.71
Academic performance 6.86 ± 1.53 6.92 ± 1.73 0.478 1.63
General academic stress 2.75 ± 0.84 3.05 ± 0.71 0.007 0.79
Academic overload 3.15 ± 0.90 3.58 ± 0.84 <0.001 0.88
Interaction with classmates 2.28 ± 0.88 2.46 ± 0.83 0.051 0.86
Family pressure 2.86 ± 1.16 2.92 ± 1.16 0.728 1.16
Future prospects 2.88 ± 1.09 3.01 ± 0.98 0.252 1.05
Note: M = mean; SD = standard deviation; p = significance (<0.05); G = heel effect size.

Lastly, the results of the Kruskal–Wallis H test in Table 5 show significant differ-
ences related to academic performance in general academic stress (H = 6.79, p = 0.034,
η2 = 0.02) and in family pressure (H = 21.36, p = <0.001, η² = 0.08). After the post hoc
analysis using the Games–Howell method, students with high academic performance
present significantly lower mean scores than students with a medium (p = 0.002) and lower
(p = <0.001) performance in the family pressure dimension. However, general academic
stress did not exhibit significant differences according to low, medium, and high academic
performance after the post hoc analysis.

Table 5. Statistical differences by academic performance.

Academic Performance
Variables Low Medium High p η²
M ± SD M ± SD M ± SD
Physical activity 2.54 ± 0.78 2.76 ± 0.73 2.55 ± 0.72 0.117 0.02
General academic stress 3.02 ± 0.80 2.85 ± 0.76 2.69 ± 0.80 0.034 0.02
Academic overload 3.45 ± 0.92 3.29 ± 0.89 3.28 ± 0.95 0.247 0.01
Interaction with classmates 2.30 ± 0.85 2.41 ± 0.86 2.14 ± 0.87 0.144 0.01
Family pressure 3.11 ± 1.07 2.86 ± 1.17 2.18 ± 1.10 <0.001 0.08
Future prospects 3.07 ± 1.10 2.79 ± 0.99 2.78 ± 1.06 0.123 0.02
Note: M = mean; SD = standard deviation; p = significance (<0.05); η² = effect size of square eta.

4. Discussion
The main objective of this study was to analyze the relationships between academic
performance, physical activity, and academic stress in secondary education students, while
the secondary objective was to establish differences by gender of levels of physical activity
and academic stress based on academic performance. This study shows an association
between the variables analyzed, which provides key information for the acknowledgment
of academic stress in the school context as a factor that affects the academic performance
of students as multiple factors become stressors [25], for which effective coping strategies
are required [26], such as the regular practice of PA [34,36], as students with higher levels
of PA present less academic stress, and the lower the academic stress, the better the
academic performance. In line with this, the findings of this study can lead to the design of
effective coping strategies for school stress, with the goal of improving students’ academic
performance through the practice of PA, which will contribute to the adherence of ESO
students to a healthier lifestyle.
Initially, the descriptive data analysis reveals moderate PA levels in the population
under study, a medium academic performance, and higher academic stress levels in the
academic overload dimension, but lower ones in the interaction with classmate’s dimension.
These results agree with those of previous studies showing that PA levels remain moderate–
low, as students are a population that does not follow a great percentage of the established
Children 2024, 11, 1161 7 of 11

PA recommendations [10,12], due to the fact that they spend most of the day performing
low-energy or sedentary activities, such as playing video games, watching television, or
using the telephone, to which is added the little interest in encouraging young people
to have a healthy and active lifestyle of the media that have a great influence on their
behaviors [10,12].
Regarding academic performance, the relative mean of other studies often remains in
the “medium” value scale, considering that there are multiple factors affecting this variable
(economy, family, gender, sociodemographic characteristics) and that this, in turn, plays
a mediating role in terms of healthy lifestyle habits [2,48]. In addition, in the works of
Muñoz-Donoso et al. [6] and Borghi et al. [23], high academic stress levels from academic
overload were also found, with physically less active students perceiving more stress from
homework and assignments, and the exams period being frequently the biggest stressor in
this category, mainly due to poor time management. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that
interaction with classmates motivates lower stress, as the pressure of the social environment
has been demonstrated to also be a significant source of stress [26,49].
The results of the correlation analysis between variables indicate that both academic
performance and PA are negatively associated with general academic stress, i.e., the higher
the general academic stress, the lower the PA levels and academic performance. These
findings are in line with studies such as that by Zhu et al. [15], which also demonstrates
the need to reduce academic stress and increase PA practice, since the higher the academic
stress levels, the lower the PA levels and the higher the vulnerability to mental health
disorders. In this context, the study by Castro-Sánchez et al. [44] also shows that PA is
associated with lower stress and higher academic performance, despite this last association
not being significant in this study. This is because the regular practice of PA releases
endorphins, which are neurotransmitters that generate feelings of happiness and reduce
the perception of pain, which contributes to lower levels of anxiety and stress [44]. In
addition, PA improves cognitive function, memory, and concentration, crucial factors for
learning and academic performance [13,24].
In contrast, in the work by Castro-Sánchez et al. [44], academic performance also
displays a positive relationship with stress; however, the authors warn that these data
should be interpreted with caution, as is it understood that students with higher academic
stress levels perform worse academically [50]. Regardless, students with medium levels
of academic stress have been demonstrated to improve their learning achievements with
adequate coping strategies, which can be, to a certain extent, an opportunity to improve
performance [51,52]. Students can adapt to stressful situations thanks to a modulation in
the production of cortisol, which provides the energy and substrates necessary to cope with
the stimuli that give rise to stress [23], taking into account, in addition, its relationship with
levels of motivation and resilience [23,44].
Regarding differences by gender, significant differences were found in PA levels, with
higher mean values in men, which is in accordance with other studies where men presented
the highest PA values [19,53]. In this line, Bobo-Arce et al. [54] and Burton et al. [55]
believe that girls often have lower PA levels owing to different social stereotypes inside
and outside the school environment that make them be more concerned with academic
tasks. In addition, significant differences were observed in the general academic stress and
the academic overload dimension, with higher mean values in women. This psychological
malaise is attributed to the overload of academic tasks, assessments from teachers, class-
work, and lack of time for academic-related activities [56]. In this sense, as indicated by
Jones et al. [57], and Gasiūnienė and Miežienė [19], more physically active students—such
as men in this case—present lower levels of academic stress. Therefore, the practice of
regular PA is suggested to enrich the psychological health of students [58].
Lastly, with respect to academic performance, there are significant differences in gen-
eral academic performance, and in the family pressure dimension, students who perform
well academically present lower levels of academic stress derived from family pressure.
In this context, the inverse relationship between family pressure and future prospects and
Children 2024, 11, 1161 8 of 11

academic performance found in the correlation analysis should be noted. Pressure from
parents and the social environment has been demonstrated to increase the fear of failure,
which may generate more anxiety and stress [26,49,59]. According to Naranjo [20], family
pressure is classified as an external source of stress, while future prospects is an internal
source; these sources increase in specific periods such as exam week, when the family’s
perfectionist and rigid expectations exceed reality and generate frustration, making stu-
dents feel incapable and unable to project their ideas for the future, and they arrives at a
position of predominant anxiety. This scenario, according to Colunga-Rodríguez et al. [30],
is associated with worse academic performance.
Thus, in line with the practice of PA as a potential coping strategy for academic stress,
the study of its influence on academic performance should be furthered [60], underscoring
the essential role of family in the promotion and adherence to PA, to which are attributed
multiple benefits for mental health, such as the reduction of academic stress [61]. The social
support provided by the family can significantly affect the motivation, participation, and
continuity of young people in physical–sport activities, both positively and negatively,
especially from an emotional perspective [20,59,62]. It has been shown that parents who
adopt active behaviors and promote a healthy lifestyle tend to have children who also
incorporate these habits into their daily lives [63]. Therefore, family support is essential to
promote a physically active and healthy lifestyle during this stage, and it is even reflected
in academic performance.
One of the main limitations of this study is its non-experimental and descriptive
cross-sectional design, which does not allow for establishing causal relationships; therefore,
the results should be interpreted with caution. In addition, regarding the measurement
instruments, the use of accelerometers could provide more accurate information about
the PA of students. Moreover, since all the participants attended public education centers,
similar studies could be conducted in the future, but comparing public, state-subsidized,
and private schools, expanding the sample size and including upper and lower grades
to determine how the results change based on grade and age. Lastly, after analyzing
the results of this study, interventions and longitudinal experimental studies should be
conducted with a focus on the regular practice of PA, to measure its influence on the stress
and academic performance of students.

5. Conclusions
With respect to the objectives proposed, and specifically to the main objective, it is
concluded that academic performance, PA, and academic stress have different relationships
with one another. In this context, academic performance is negatively associated with
general academic stress, while general academic stress and each of its dimensions are
positively related.
As for the secondary objective, ESO students see their PA levels and academic per-
formance reduced as academic stress increases. In this scenario, women score higher in
general academic stress and academic overload, and present lower levels of PA. Conversely,
men present higher levels of PA and less academic stress in all dimensions. Therefore, it
can be asserted that PA is an effective coping mechanism for academic stress disorder in
secondary education. Lastly, based on academic performance, statistical differences are
found in the family pressure dimension as a source of academic stress, with high-achieving
students presenting less family pressure compared to students with a medium and low
academic performance. Thus, the family plays a key role in the onset of stress. Therefore,
encouraging the practice of PA among students should be a priority task for families and
schools, proposing spaces and activities that are adapted to the needs and interests of stu-
dents in order to improve their physical and mental health, which, in turn, can potentially
contribute to better school performance.
Children 2024, 11, 1161 9 of 11

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.C.-J. and P.V.-M.; methodology, D.G.-R. and C.F.-V.;
software, B.B.L.R. and M.A.C.R.; formal analysis, D.G.-R. and M.C.-J.; investigation, M.C.-J. and
C.F.-V.; resources, P.V.-M. and B.B.L.R.; writing—original draft preparation, M.C.-J. and D.G.-R.;
writing—review and editing, P.V.-M. and C.F.-V. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration
of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board (or Ethics Committee) of the University
of Granada. Code: 3324/CEIH/2023. Date of approval: 16 March 2024.
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Written informed consent has been obtained from the participant(s) to publish this paper.
Data Availability Statement: Data are not available due to ethical requirements because they contain
personal data.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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