Learning (Module 4)
1. Concept of Learning
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience and practice. It is
a modification of behavior that helps an individual adapt to their environment.
Definitions of Learning:
Learning is the modification of behavior through experience and training. (Gates)
Learning is a process of progressive behavior adaptation. (Skinner)
Learning is the acquisition of habits, knowledge, and attitudes. (Crow and Crow)
Nature of Learning:
1. Learning is a continuous process.
2. It involves both direct and indirect experiences.
3. It can lead to positive or negative changes in behavior.
4. Learning is universal and goal-oriented.
5. It prepares individuals for adaptation and adjustment.
2. Classical Conditioning: Principles of Conditioning
Classical Conditioning, developed by Ivan Pavlov, explains learning as the formation of
associations between stimuli and responses.
Principles of Classical Conditioning:
Acquisition: The initial learning stage where the conditioned response is established.
Extinction: The weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is
presented repeatedly without reinforcement.
Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest
period.
Stimulus Generalization: Responding to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to differentiate between similar stimuli.
Higher-Order Conditioning: When a new neutral stimulus becomes conditioned by being
paired with an already established conditioned stimulus.
3. Operant Conditioning: Law of Effect, Reinforcement, Punishment
Operant Conditioning, developed by B.F. Skinner, focuses on learning through rewards
and punishments.
Key Concepts:
Thorndike's Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by positive outcomes are strengthened,
while those followed by negative outcomes are weakened.
Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior.
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus (e.g., rewards).
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., stopping loud noise).
Punishment: Weakens behavior.
Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus (e.g., scolding).
Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away privileges).
Schedules of Reinforcement:
Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing behavior every time.
Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcement given intermittently, which leads to stronger
learning.
Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Interval, Variable Interval Schedules.
Shaping and Chaining: Gradually reinforcing successive steps toward the desired
behavior.
4. Cognitive Learning and Latent Learning
Cognitive Learning emphasizes the role of mental processes in learning.
Edward Tolmans Latent Learning: Learning occurs but is not demonstrated until there is
motivation (e.g., rats learning a maze but only showing knowledge when a reward is
presented).
Cognitive Maps: Internal mental representations that help in navigation and problem-
solving.
5. Observational Learning (Social Learning Theory by Bandura)
Albert Bandura proposed Observational Learning, emphasizing learning by watching
others.
Steps in Observational Learning:
1. Attention: Focusing on the modeled behavior.
2. Retention: Storing the observed behavior in memory.
3. Reproduction: Converting stored information into action.
4. Reinforcement: Positive or negative feedback affecting whether the behavior is
repeated.
6. Insight Learning (Kohlers Experiment on Chimpanzees)
Wolfgang Köhler demonstrated Insight Learning in chimpanzees using problem-solving
tasks.
Steps in Insight Learning:
1. Identifying the problem.
2. Understanding the problem.
3. Incubation of ideas.
4. Trial of responses.
5. Insight development (sudden realization).
6. Application of the solution.
