THULIRR IAS ACADEMY

1923 B, H - Block, 2nd Street, 12th Main Road, Anna Nagar West, Chennai - 600040

The Indian Constitution

 The Indian Constitution, originally adopted with 22 parts, now has 25 parts due to subsequent amendments. It
is the longest written constitution in the world, providing a comprehensive framework for governance.

Major Parts of the Indian Constitution:

 Part I: The Union and its Territory (Articles 1-4): Defines India as a Union of States and specifies its
territory.
 Part II: Citizenship (Articles 5-11): Deals with the provisions for Indian citizenship.
 Part III: Fundamental Rights (Articles 12-35): Enshrines the basic rights guaranteed to all citizens, such as
the right to equality, freedom, and protection against exploitation.
 Part IV: Directive Principles of State Policy (Articles 36-51): These are guidelines for the state to formulate
policies for the welfare of the people, though they are not enforceable by courts.
 Part IV A: Fundamental Duties (Article 51A): Added by the 42nd Amendment, these outline the duties of
citizens towards the nation.
 Part V: The Union (Articles 52-151): Deals with the Union Executive (President, Vice-President, Prime
Minister, Council of Ministers), Parliament, and the Union Judiciary (Supreme Court).
 Part VI: The States (Articles 152-237): Covers the State Executive (Governor, Chief Minister, Council of
Ministers), State Legislature, and the High Courts.
 Part VII: States in Part B of the First Schedule (Repealed): This part was repealed by the 7th Constitutional
Amendment Act of 1956.
 Part VIII: The Union Territories (Articles 239-242): Deals with the administration of Union Territories.
 Part IX: The Panchayats (Articles 243-243O): Introduced by the 73rd Amendment, it provides for the
establishment and powers of Panchayati Raj institutions (rural local self-government).
 Part IX A: The Municipalities (Articles 243P-243ZG): Added by the 74th Amendment, it deals with urban
local self-government (municipalities).
 Part IX B: Co-operative Societies (Articles 243ZH-243ZT): Added by the 97th Amendment, it deals with co-
operative societies.
 Part X: The Scheduled and Tribal Areas (Articles 244-244A): Contains provisions for the administration of
Scheduled and Tribal Areas.
 Part XI: Relations between the Union and the States (Articles 245-263): Deals with the legislative,
administrative, and financial relations between the central and state governments.
 Part XII: Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits (Articles 264-300A): Covers finance, borrowing, property,
and legal proceedings.
 Part XIII: Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the Territory of India (Articles 301-307): Deals with
freedom of trade and commerce within India.
 Part XIV: Services Under the Union and the States (Articles 308-323): Covers public services and public
service commissions.
 Part XIV A: Tribunals (Articles 323A-323B): Added by the 42nd Amendment, it provides for the
establishment of administrative and other tribunals.
 Part XV: Elections (Articles 324-329A): Deals with the Election Commission and the conduct of elections.
 Part XVI: Special Provisions Relating to Certain Classes (Articles 330-342): Contains special provisions
for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, Anglo-Indians, and other backward classes.
 Part XVII: Official Language (Articles 343-351): Defines the official language of the Union and states.
 Part XVIII: Emergency Provisions (Articles 352-360): Deals with national, state, and financial emergencies.
 Part XIX: Miscellaneous (Articles 361-367): Contains various miscellaneous provisions.
 Part XX: Amendment of the Constitution (Article 368): Outlines the procedure for amending the
Constitution.
 Part XXI: Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions (Articles 369-392): Includes temporary,
transitional, and special provisions for certain states.

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 Part XXII: Short Title, Commencement, Authoritative Text in Hindi and Repeals (Articles 393-395):
Deals with the short title, commencement date, authoritative text, and repeals.

12 Schedules.
 The Indian Constitution, at its commencement in 1950, had 8 Schedules. Through subsequent amendments,
four more schedules were added, bringing the current total to 12 Schedules.
 First Schedule: Lists the names of the States and Union Territories with their territorial extent.
 Second Schedule: Contains provisions relating to the emoluments, allowances, and privileges of the
President, Governors of States, Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Lok Sabha and State Legislative
Assemblies, Chairman and Deputy Chairman of the Rajya Sabha and State Legislative Councils, Judges of
the Supreme Court and High Courts, and the Comptroller and Auditor General of India.
 Third Schedule: Contains the forms of oaths or affirmations for various constitutional office holders, including
Union and State Ministers, Members of Parliament and State Legislatures, Judges, and the Comptroller and
Auditor General of India.
 Fourth Schedule: Deals with the allocation of seats in the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) to the States and
Union Territories.
 Fifth Schedule: Contains provisions for the administration and control of Scheduled Areas and Scheduled
Tribes (except in the states covered by the Sixth Schedule).
 Sixth Schedule: Contains provisions for the administration of Tribal Areas in the states of Assam,
Meghalaya, Tripura, and Mizoram.
 Seventh Schedule: Divides legislative powers between the Union and the States through three lists:
 Union List: Subjects on which the Parliament has exclusive power to legislate (e.g., defense, foreign affairs,
railways).
 State List: Subjects on which State Legislatures have exclusive power to legislate (e.g., public order, police,
public health).
 Concurrent List: Subjects on which both the Parliament and State Legislatures can legislate (e.g., education,
forests, marriage). In case of a conflict, the Union law prevails.
 Eighth Schedule: Lists the 22 official languages recognized by the Constitution.
 Ninth Schedule: (Added by the 1st Amendment Act, 1951) Contains acts and regulations that are protected
from judicial review, primarily related to land reforms and the abolition of the Zamindari system. However,
laws added to this schedule after April 24, 1973, are now subject to judicial review.
 Tenth Schedule: (Added by the 52nd Amendment Act, 1985) Deals with the disqualification of members of
Parliament and State Legislatures on the ground of defection (the "Anti-defection Law").
 Eleventh Schedule: (Added by the 73rd Amendment Act, 1992) Specifies the powers, authority, and
responsibilities of Panchayats (rural local self-government institutions), encompassing 29 functional items.
 Twelfth Schedule: (Added by the 74th Amendment Act, 1992) Specifies the powers, authority, and
responsibilities of Municipalities (urban local self-government institutions), encompassing 18 functional items.

Amendments to the Constitution.

 The Indian Constitution, adopted in 1950, is a living document that has been amended numerous times to
adapt to the evolving needs of Indian society and governance.
 As of June 2025, there have been 106 amendments to the Constitution.
Procedure for Amendment:
 Article 368 in Part XX of the Indian Constitution outlines the procedure for amending the Constitution. There
are three main ways the Constitution can be amended:
 By Simple Majority of Parliament: Some provisions can be amended by a simple majority (more than 50%
of the members present and voting) in both Houses of Parliament. These include matters like the admission or

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establishment of new states, formation of new states, abolition or creation of legislative councils in states, and
some aspects of citizenship. These are not considered "amendments" for the purpose of Article 368.
 By Special Majority of Parliament: The majority of the provisions require a special majority, which means a
majority of the total membership of each House and a majority of two-thirds of the members of each House
present and voting. This applies to:
o Fundamental Rights
o Directive Principles of State Policy
o All other provisions not covered by the first and third categories.
 By Special Majority of Parliament and Ratification by Half of the State Legislatures: For amendments
affecting the federal structure of the Constitution, in addition to the special majority in Parliament, the
amendment bill must also be ratified by the legislatures of at least half of the states by a simple majority. This
applies to provisions such as:
o Election of the President and its manner
o Extent of the executive power of the Union and the States
o Supreme Court and High Courts
o Distribution of legislative powers between the Union and the States
o Any of the Lists in the Seventh Schedule
o Representation of states in Parliament
o Article 368 itself.
Key Aspects of the Amendment Process:
 An amendment bill can only be introduced in either House of Parliament, not in State Legislatures (with a few
exceptions like a resolution for the creation or abolition of legislative councils in states).
 It can be introduced by a minister or a private member and does not require the President's prior permission.
 The President's assent to a Constitutional Amendment Bill is mandatory.
 The Supreme Court, through the "Basic Structure Doctrine" (laid down in the Kesavananda Bharati case,
1973), has held that Parliament cannot amend the basic structure of the Constitution.
Amendments:
 As of February 2025, there have been 106 amendments to the Constitution of India since it was first enacted
in 1950.
 The Indian Constitution is considered one of the most amended national constitutions in the world.
 1st Amendment (1951): Empowered the state to make special provisions for the advancement of socially
and economically backward classes. Also added the Ninth Schedule to protect certain laws from judicial
review, particularly those related to land reforms, and imposed reasonable restrictions on freedom of speech
and expression.
 7th Amendment (1956): Reorganized states on linguistic lines, abolished the classification of states into four
categories, and made provisions for the establishment of common High Courts for two or more states.
 10th Amendment (1961): Incorporated Dadra and Nagar Haveli into the Union of India as a Union Territory.
 12th Amendment (1962): Incorporated Goa, Daman, and Diu as Union Territories.
 13th Amendment (1962): Granted special provisions with respect to the state of Nagaland.
 14th Amendment (1962): Incorporated Pondicherry (Puducherry) into the Union of India as a Union Territory
and provided for legislative assemblies and council of ministers in certain Union Territories.
 21st Amendment (1967): Added Sindhi as an official language in the Eighth Schedule.
 24th Amendment (1971): Affirmed the Parliament's power to amend any part of the Constitution, including
Fundamental Rights, and made it obligatory for the President to give assent to a Constitutional Amendment
Bill.

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 25th Amendment (1971): Restricted the right to property and made it a legal right instead of a fundamental
right. Introduced Article 31C.
 26th Amendment (1971): Abolished privy purses and privileges of former rulers of Indian princely states.
 36th Amendment (1975): Made Sikkim a full-fledged state of India.
 42nd Amendment (1976): Often called the "Mini-Constitution" due to its extensive changes. Key provisions
include:
o Added the words "Socialist," "Secular," and "Integrity" to the Preamble.
o Added Fundamental Duties (Part IVA).
o Made the President bound by the advice of the Council of Ministers.
o Strengthened Directive Principles over Fundamental Rights.
o Extended the term of Lok Sabha and state assemblies from 5 to 6 years.
 44th Amendment (1978): Undid many of the changes made by the 42nd Amendment, largely to restore
democratic principles after the Emergency period. Key provisions include:
o Restored the original term of Lok Sabha and state assemblies to 5 years.
o Replaced "internal disturbance" with "armed rebellion" for national emergency.
o Made the right to property a legal right, removing it from Fundamental Rights.
o Ensured that Articles 20 and 21 (protection in respect of conviction for offences and protection of life
and personal liberty) cannot be suspended during a national emergency.
 52nd Amendment (1985): Introduced the Anti-Defection Law, adding the Tenth Schedule to the Constitution
to prevent political defections.
 61st Amendment (1989): Reduced the voting age from 21 years to 18 years for both Lok Sabha and State
Legislative Assembly elections.
 69th Amendment (1991): Granted special status to Delhi, making it the National Capital Territory (NCT) and
providing it with a legislative assembly and council of ministers.
 73rd Amendment (1992): Granted constitutional status to Panchayati Raj institutions, introducing Part IX and
the Eleventh Schedule to the Constitution.
 74th Amendment (1992): Granted constitutional status to Urban Local Bodies (Municipalities), introducing
Part IXA and the Twelfth Schedule to the Constitution.
 86th Amendment (2002): Made education a Fundamental Right for children between 6 and 14 years of age
by inserting Article 21A.
 91st Amendment (2003): Imposed limits on the size of the Council of Ministers (15% of the total strength of
the Lok Sabha/State Assembly) and strengthened the anti-defection law.
 92nd Amendment (2004): Added Bodo, Dogri, Maithili, and Santhali to the Eighth Schedule, increasing the
number of official languages to 22.
 97th Amendment (2012): Gave constitutional status and protection to cooperative societies, making the right
to form cooperative societies a Fundamental Right and adding a new Part IXB related to cooperative
societies.
 99th Amendment (2014): Established the National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC) for the
appointment of judges. This amendment was later struck down by the Supreme Court.
 100th Amendment (2015): Amended the First Schedule to give effect to the land boundary agreement
between India and Bangladesh.
 101st Amendment (2016): Introduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST).
 102nd Amendment (2018): Granted constitutional status to the National Commission for Backward Classes
(NCBC).
 103rd Amendment (2019): Provided for a 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) in
educational institutions and government jobs.

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 104th Amendment (2020): Extended the reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in
the Lok Sabha and State Assemblies for another ten years (until January 25, 2030), and removed the
reserved seats for the Anglo-Indian community.
 105th Amendment (2021): Restored the power of state governments to identify and specify Socially and
Educationally Backward Classes (SEBCs) for the purpose of reservations.
 106th Amendment (2023): Provides for 33% reservation for women in the Lok Sabha, State Legislative
Assemblies, and the Legislative Assembly of the National Capital Territory of Delhi.

Part I: The Union and its Territory

 Article 1: India is a Union of States, defining its name and territory.
 Article 2: Parliament can admit new states into the Union.
 Article 3: Parliament can form new states, alter areas, boundaries, or names of existing states.
 Article 4: Laws made under Articles 2 and 3 provide for amendments to the First and Fourth Schedules.
Part II: Citizenship
 Article 5: Defines citizenship at the commencement of the Constitution.
 Article 6: Rights of citizenship for migrants from Pakistan.
 Article 7: Rights of citizenship for certain migrants to Pakistan.
 Article 8: Rights of citizenship for persons of Indian origin residing outside India.
 Article 9: Persons voluntarily acquiring foreign citizenship cease to be Indian citizens.
 Article 10: Continuance of the rights of citizenship.
 Article 11: Parliament to regulate the right of citizenship by law.
Part III: Fundamental Rights
 Article 12: Defines "the State" for the purpose of Fundamental Rights.
 Article 13: Laws inconsistent with or in derogation of Fundamental Rights are void.
 Article 14: Equality before law and equal protection of laws.
 Article 15: Prohibition of discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, sex, or place of birth.
 Article 16: Equality of opportunity in matters of public employment.
 Article 17: Abolition of Untouchability.
 Article 18: Abolition of titles.1
 Article 19: Guarantees six freedoms: speech, assembly, association, movement, residence, and profession.
 Article 20: Protection in respect of conviction for offences.
 Article 21: Protection of life and personal liberty.
 Article 21A: Right to education for children aged six to fourteen years.
 Article 22: Protection against arrest and detention in certain cases.
 Article 23: Prohibition of traffic in human beings and forced labour.
 Article 24: Prohibition of employment of children in factories, etc.
 Article 25: Freedom of conscience and free profession, practice, and propagation of religion.
 Article 26: Freedom to manage2 religious affairs.
 Article 27: Freedom as to payment of taxes for promotion of any particular religion.
 Article 28: Freedom from attending religious instruction in certain educational institutions.
 Article 29: Protection of interests of minorities.
 Article 30: Right of minorities to establish and administer educational institutions.
 Article 31: (Repealed) Right to property (now Article 300A).
 Article 31A: Saving of laws providing for acquisition of estates, etc.
 Article 31B: Validation of certain Acts and Regulations (Ninth Schedule).
 Article 31C: Saving of laws giving effect to certain Directive Principles.
 Article 32: Remedies for enforcement of Fundamental Rights (Right to Constitutional Remedies).

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 Article 33: Power to Parliament to modify Fundamental Rights for Armed Forces.
 Article 34: Restriction on rights while martial law is in force.
 Article 35: Legislation to give effect to the provisions of this Part.
Part IV: Directive Principles of State Policy
 Article 36: Defines "the State" for this Part.
 Article 37: Application of the principles in this Part; not enforceable by any court.
 Article 38: State to secure a social order for the promotion of welfare of the people.
 Article 39: Certain principles of policy to be followed by the State (e.g., equal pay for equal work, adequate
means of livelihood).
 Article 39A: Equal justice and free legal aid.
 Article 40: Organization of village panchayats.
 Article 41: Right to work, to education, and to public assistance in certain cases.
 Article 42: Provision for just3 and humane conditions of work and maternity relief.
 Article 43: Living wage, etc., for workers.
 Article 43A: Participation of workers in management of industries.
 Article 43B: Promotion of co-operative societies.
 Article 44: Uniform Civil Code for the citizens.
 Article 45: Provision for early childhood care and education4 to children below the age of six years.
 Article 46: Promotion of educational and economic interests of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and
other weaker sections.
 Article5 47: Duty of the State to raise the level of nutrition and the standard of living and to improve public
health.
 Article 48: Organization of agriculture and animal husbandry.
 Article6 48A: Protection and improvement of environment and safeguarding of forests and wild life.
 Article 49: Protection of monuments and places and objects of national importance.
 Article 50: Separation of judiciary7 from executive.
 Article 51: Promotion of international peace and security.
Part IV A: Fundamental Duties
 Article 51A: Lays down the eleven Fundamental Duties for citizens.
Part V: The Union
 Article 52: The President of India.
 Article 53: Executive Power of the Union.
 Article 54: Election of President.
 Article 55: Manner of election of President.
 Article 61: Procedure for impeachment of the President.
 Article 63: The Vice-President of India.
 Article 64: The Vice-President to be ex-officio Chairman of the Council of States.
 Article 72: Power of President to grant pardons, etc.
 Article 74: Council of Ministers to aid and advise President.
 Article 75: Other provisions as to Ministers (appointment, tenure, etc.).
 Article 76: Attorney-General for India.
 Article 79: Constitution of Parliament.
 Article 80: Composition of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha).
 Article 81: Composition of the House of the People (Lok Sabha).
 Article 108: Joint sitting of both Houses in certain cases.
 Article 110: Definition of "Money Bills".
 Article 112: Annual financial statement (Budget).
 Article 123: Power of President to promulgate Ordinances during recess of Parliament.
 Article 124: Establishment and constitution of Supreme Court.

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 Article 129: Supreme Court to be a court of record.

 Article 131: Original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court.
 Article 136: Special leave to appeal by the Supreme Court.
 Article 141: Law declared by Supreme Court to be binding on all courts.
 Article 143: Power of President to consult Supreme Court.
 Article 148: Comptroller and Auditor-General of India.
Part VI: The States
 Article 153: Governors of States.
 Article 154: Executive power of State.
 Article 161: Power of Governor to grant pardons, etc.
 Article 163: Council of Ministers to aid and advise Governor.
 Article 164: Other provisions as to Ministers (appointment, tenure, etc.).
 Article 168: Constitution of Legislatures in States.
 Article 169: Abolition or creation of Legislative Councils in States.
 Article 213: Power of Governor to promulgate Ordinances during recess of State Legislature.
 Article 214: High Courts for States.
 Article 215: High Courts to be courts of record.
 Article 226: Power of High Courts to issue certain writs.
 Article 233: Appointment of district judges.
 Article 235: Control over subordinate courts.
Part VII: The States in Part B of the First Schedule
 Article 238: (Repealed) Deals with Part B States.
Part VIII: The Union Territories
 Article 239: Administration of Union territories.
 Article 239AA: Special provisions with respect to Delhi.
Part IX: The Panchayats
 Article 243: Definitions for this Part.
 Article 243A: Gram Sabha.
 Article 243B: Constitution of Panchayats.
 Article 243D: Reservation of seats in Panchayats.
 Article 243K: Elections to the Panchayats.
Part IX A: The Municipalities
 Article 243P: Definitions for this Part.
 Article 243Q: Constitution of Municipalities.
 Article 243ZA: Elections to the Municipalities.
Part IX B: Co-operative Societies
 Article 243ZH: Definitions for this Part.
 Article 243ZI: Incorporation of co-operative societies.
Part X: The Scheduled and Tribal Areas
 Article 244: Administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas.
Part XI: Relations between the Union and the States
 Article 245: Extent of laws made by Parliament and by the Legislatures of States.
 Article 246: Subject-matter of laws made by Parliament and by the Legislatures of States (Union List, State
List, Concurrent List).
 Article 246A: Special provision with respect to goods and services tax.
 Article 249: Power of Parliament to legislate with respect to a matter in the State List in the national interest.
 Article 256: Obligation of States and the Union.
 Article 262: Adjudication of disputes relating to waters of inter-State rivers or river valleys.
 Article 263: Provisions with respect to an Inter-State Council.

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Part XII: Finance, Property, Contracts and Suits

 Article 265: Taxes not to be imposed save by authority of law.
 Article8 266: Consolidated Funds and public accounts of India and of the States.
 Article 267: Contingency Fund.
 Article 275: Grants from the Union to certain States.
 Article 280: Finance Commission.
 Article 300A: Persons not to be deprived of property save by authority of law9 (Right to Property).
Part XIII: Trade, Commerce and Intercourse within the Territory of India
 Article 301: Freedom of trade, commerce, and intercourse.
 Article 302: Power of Parliament to impose restrictions on trade, commerce, and intercourse.
Part XIV: Services under the Union and States
 Article 309: Recruitment and conditions of service of persons serving the Union or a State.
 Article 312: All-India Services.
 Article 315: Public Service Commissions for the Union and for the States.
 Article 320: Functions of Public Service Commissions.
Part XIV A: Tribunals
 Article 323A: Administrative Tribunals.
 Article 323B: Tribunals for other matters.
Part XV: Elections
 Article 324: Superintendence, direction, and control of elections to be vested in an Election Commission. 10
 Article 326: Elections to the House of the People and to the Legislative Assemblies of States to be on the
basis of adult suffrage.
Part XVI: Special Provisions relating to certain classes
 Article 330: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the House of the People.
 Article 331: Representation of the Anglo-Indian community in the House of the People (now effectively
ceased).
 Article 332: Reservation of seats for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in the Legislative Assemblies
of the States.
 Article 338: National Commission for Scheduled Castes.
 Article 338A: National Commission for Scheduled Tribes.
 Article 340: Appointment of a Commission to investigate the conditions of Backward Classes.
 Article 341: Scheduled Castes.
 Article 342: Scheduled Tribes.
Part XVII: Official Language
 Article 343: Official language of the Union (Hindi in Devanagari script).
 Article 345: Official language or languages of a State.
 Article 348: Language to be used in the Supreme Court and in the High Courts and for Acts, Bills.
 Article 350A: Facilities for instruction in mother-tongue at primary stage.
 Article 351: Directive for development of the Hindi language.
Part XVIII: Emergency Provisions
 Article 352: Proclamation of Emergency (National Emergency).
 Article 356: Provisions in case of failure of constitutional machinery in States (President's Rule).
 Article 360: Provisions as to Financial Emergency.11
Part XIX: Miscellaneous
 Article 361: Protection of President and Governors and Rajpramukhs.
Part XX: Amendment of the Constitution
 Article 368: Power of Parliament to amend the Constitution and procedure therefor.
Part XXI: Temporary, Transitional and Special Provisions
 Article 369: Temporary power to Parliament to make laws with respect to certain matters in the State List.

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 Article 371: Special provision with respect to the States of Maharashtra and Gujarat. (and other states like
Nagaland, Assam, Manipur, etc., through subsequent clauses A-J)
 Article 370: (Abrogated/revoked) Temporary provisions with respect to the State of Jammu and Kashmir.
Part XXII: Short title, Commencement, Authoritative Text in Hindi and Repeals
 Article 393: Short title (Constitution of India).
 Article 394: Commencement of the Constitution.
 Article 394A: Authoritative text in the Hindi language.
 Article 395: Repeals the Indian Independence Act, 1947, and the Government of India Act, 1935.

Presidents of India
 Dr. Rajendra Prasad (January 26, 1950 – May 13, 1962)
 Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (May 13, 1962 – May 13, 1967)1
 Dr. Zakir Husain (May 13, 1967 – May 3, 1969)2
o V.V. Giri (Acting, May 3, 1969 – July 20, 1969)
o Mohammad Hidayatullah (Acting, July 20, 1969 – August 24, 1969)
 V.V. Giri (August 24, 1969 – August 24, 1974)
 Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed (August 24, 1974 – February 11, 1977)
o B.D. Jatti (Acting, February 11, 1977 – July 25, 1977)
 Neelam Sanjiva Reddy (July 25, 1977 – July 25, 1982)3
 Giani Zail Singh (July 25, 1982 – July 25, 1987)
 R. Venkataraman (July 25, 1987 – July 25, 1992)
 Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma (July 25, 1992 – July 25, 1997)
 K.R. Narayanan (July 25, 1997 – July 25, 2002)
 Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (July 25, 2002 – July 25, 2007)4
 Pratibha Devisingh Patil (July 25, 2007 – July 25, 2012)
 Pranab Mukherjee (July 25, 2012 – July 25, 2017)
 Ram Nath Kovind (July 25, 2017 – July 25, 2022)
 Droupadi Murmu (July 25, 2022 – Incumbent)5

Vice Presidents of India

 Dr. Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (May 13, 1952 – May 12, 1962)
 Dr. Zakir Husain (May 13, 1962 – May 12, 1967)
 V.V. Giri (May 13, 1967 – May 3, 1969)
 Gopal Swarup Pathak (August 31, 1969 – August 30, 1974)
 B.D. Jatti (August 31, 1974 – August 30, 1979)
 Mohammad Hidayatullah (August 31, 1979 – August 30, 1984)
 R. Venkataraman (August 31, 1984 – July 24, 1987)
 Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma (September 3, 1987 – July 24, 1992)
 K.R. Narayanan (August 21, 1992 – July 24, 1997)
 Krishan Kant (August 21, 1997 – July 27, 2002)
 Bhairon Singh Shekhawat (August 19, 2002 – July 21, 2007)
 Mohammad Hamid Ansari (August 11, 2007 – August 10, 2017)
 M. Venkaiah Naidu (August 11, 2017 – August 10, 2022)
 Jagdeep Dhankhar (August 11, 2022 – Incumbent)

Prime Ministers of India

 Jawaharlal Nehru (August 15, 1947 – May 27, 1964)
o Gulzarilal Nanda (Acting, May 27, 1964 – June 9, 1964)

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 Lal Bahadur Shastri (June 9, 1964 – January 11, 1966)

o Gulzarilal Nanda (Acting, January 11, 1966 – January 24, 1966)
 Indira Gandhi (January 24, 1966 – March 24, 1977)
 Morarji Desai (March 24, 1977 – July 28, 1979)
 Charan Singh (July 28, 1979 – January 14, 1980)
 Indira Gandhi (January 14, 1980 – October 31, 1984)
 Rajiv Gandhi (October 31, 1984 – December 2, 1989)
 V.P. Singh (December 2, 1989 – November 10, 1990)
 Chandra Shekhar (November 10, 1990 – June 21, 1991)
 P.V. Narasimha Rao (June 21, 1991 – May 16, 1996)
 Atal Bihari Vajpayee (May 16, 1996 – June 1, 1996)
 H.D. Deve Gowda (June 1, 1996 – April 21, 1997)
 Inder Kumar Gujral (April 21, 1997 – March 19, 1998)
 Atal Bihari Vajpayee (March 19, 1998 – May 22, 2004)
 Manmohan Singh (May 22, 2004 – May 26, 2014)
 Narendra Modi (May 26, 2014 – Incumbent)

Comptroller and Auditor General of India (Post-Independence)

 V. Narahari Rao (1948 – 1954)
 A.K. Chanda (1954 – 1960)
 A.K. Roy (1960 – 1966)
 Shashi Kant Sharma (2013 – 2017)
 Rajiv Mehrishi (2017 – 2020)
 Girish Chandra Murmu (2020 – 2024)
 K. Sanjay Murthy (2024 – Incumbent)

Chief Justices of Supreme Court of India

 Justice H.J. Kania (January 26, 1950 – November 6, 1951)
 Justice M. Patanjali Sastri (November 7, 1951 – January 3, 1954)
 Justice Mehr Chand Mahajan (January 4, 1954 – December 22, 1954)
 Justice Sharad Arvind Bobde (November 18, 2019 – April 23, 2021)
 Justice N.V. Ramana (April 24, 2021 – August 26, 2022)
 Justice U.U. Lalit (August 27, 2022 – November 8, 2022)
 Justice D.Y. Chandrachud (November 9, 2022 – November 10, 2024)
 Justice Sanjiv Khanna (November 11, 2024 – Incumbent)

Attorney General of India

 M.C. Setalvad (January 28, 1950 – March 1, 1963)
 C.K. Daphtary (March 2, 1963 – October 30, 1968)
 Niren De (November 1, 1968 – March 31, 1977)
 Mukul Rohatgi (June 12, 2014 – June 30, 2017)
 K.K. Venugopal (July 1, 2017 – September 30, 2022)
 R. Venkataramani (October 1, 2022 – Incumbent)

Local Government Committees

 Balwant Rai Mehta Committee
o Established: 1957
o Report Year: 1957

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o Key Recommendation: Recommended a three-tier Panchayati Raj system (Gram Panchayat,

Panchayat Samiti, Zila Parishad) for democratic decentralization.
 Ashok Mehta Committee
o Established: December 1977
o Report Year: August 1978
o Key Recommendation: Suggested a two-tier system (Zila Parishad at the district level and Mandal
Panchayat below it) and constitutional recognition for PRIs.
 G.V.K. Rao Committee
o Established: 1985
o Report Year: Not explicitly stated, but its recommendations were in 1985.
o Key Recommendation: Emphasized the importance of PRIs in rural development and suggested the
creation of a District Development Commissioner.
 L.M. Singhvi Committee
o Established: 1986
o Report Year: Not explicitly stated, but its recommendations were in 1986.
o Key Recommendation: Strongly advocated for constitutional recognition and protection of
Panchayati Raj institutions, laying the groundwork for the 73rd Amendment Act.
 P.K. Thungon Committee
o Established: 1988
o Report Year: 1989 (Often associated with its recommendations influencing the 73rd Amendment)
o Key Recommendation: Recommended constitutional recognition for Panchayati Raj Institutions and
suggested provisions for strengthening them, including financial aspects.
 Gadgil Committee
o Established: 1989
o Report Year: Not explicitly stated, but its recommendations were in 1989.
o Key Recommendation: Focused on formulating policies and programs for Panchayats, including
fixed five-year terms and direct elections for all three levels.

Center-State Relation Commissions

 Rajamannar Committee
o Established: 1969 (by the Tamil Nadu government)
o Report Year: Not explicitly stated, but its recommendations were made after its establishment.
o Key Recommendation: Advocated for greater autonomy for states and the immediate creation of an
Inter-State Council.
 Sarkaria Commission
o Established: 1983
o Report Year: 1988
o Key Recommendation: Comprehensively examined Centre-State relations and made numerous
recommendations on legislative, administrative, and financial aspects, emphasizing cooperative
federalism. Its recommendation led to the establishment of the Inter-State Council in 1990.
 M.M. Punchhi Commission
o Established: 2007
o Report Year: 2010
o Key Recommendation: Reviewed Centre-State relations in the context of evolving political and
economic circumstances, updating many Sarkaria Commission recommendations and focusing on
issues like internal security, good governance, and financial devolution.

Administrative Reforms Commissions

 Gopalaswamy Ayyangar Committee
o Established: 1949

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o Report Year: Not explicitly stated, but its focus was on the reorganization of the machinery of the
Central Government.
o Key Recommendation: Focused on the reorganization of the central government machinery,
including reducing the number of government departments and delegating powers.
 Gorwala Committee (A.D. Gorwala Committee)
o Established: 1951
o Report Year: Not explicitly stated, but its focus was on public administration.
o Key Recommendation: Examined public administration and made recommendations on its structure
and functioning.
 First Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC)
o Established: January 5, 1966
o Report Year: Submitted 20 reports before winding up in mid-1970s (e.g., "Problems of Redress of
Citizens Grievances" interim report in 1966, "Center-State Relationships" report, etc.)
o Key Recommendation: A high-level body tasked with suggesting comprehensive reforms in Indian
administration at all levels. It recommended the setting up of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas.
 Satish Chandra Committee
o Established: 1989 (some sources say 2004 for a different Satish Chandra Committee related to civil
services examination)
o Report Year: Not explicitly stated for the 1989 committee, but the 2004 committee related to civil
services examination would have reported after 2004.
o Key Recommendation: The 1989 committee focused on reforms to the recruitment and training of
civil servants. The 2004 committee reviewed the scheme of the Civil Services Examination.
 National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC):
o Established Year: February 22, 20001
o Report Year: March 31, 20022
o Purpose: To examine, in light of the experience of the past 50 years, how best the Constitution of
India could respond to the changing needs of efficient, smooth, and effective governance and socio-
economic development of modern India within the framework of parliamentary democracy.3 It was
tasked with suggesting possible amendments to the Constitution without altering its "basic structure"
or "basic features."4
o Head: Justice M.N. Venkatachaliah (former Chief Justice of India).

 Second Administrative Reforms Commission (ARC)

o Established: August 31, 2005
o Report Year: Submitted 15 reports between 2006 and 2009.
o Key Recommendation: Chaired by Veerappa Moily, it aimed to prepare a detailed blueprint for
revamping the public administration system, covering various aspects like ethics in governance, local
governance, and promoting e-governance.
Landmark court cases :
 A.K. Gopalan v. State of Madras (1950): This was one of the earliest cases dealing with
fundamental rights. The Supreme Court took a narrow interpretation of "procedure established by
law" in Article 21 (Right to Life and Personal Liberty), holding that if a procedure was established by
law, it was sufficient, even if it wasn't fair or just. This view was later overturned.
 Shankari Prasad v. Union of India (1951): This case challenged the First Amendment to the
Constitution, which restricted certain fundamental rights. The Supreme Court held that Parliament's
power to amend the Constitution under Article 368 also included the power to amend fundamental
rights.
 Sajjan Singh v. State of Rajasthan (1965): Similar to Shankari Prasad, this case again upheld
Parliament's power to amend fundamental rights, reinforcing the view that there were no limitations
on this power.

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 I.C. Golaknath & Ors. v. State of Punjab & Anrs. (1967): This was a significant shift. The
Supreme Court, in a landmark judgment, reversed its previous stance and held that Fundamental
Rights are "transcendental and immutable" and cannot be abridged or taken away by Parliament
through a constitutional amendment. This led to a tussle between the judiciary and Parliament.
 Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala (1973): This is perhaps the most famous and pivotal case
in Indian constitutional history. The Supreme Court, while upholding Parliament's power to amend
the Constitution, introduced the "Basic Structure Doctrine." It held that Parliament could not amend
the "basic structure" or essential features of the Constitution. This doctrine serves as a check on
Parliament's amending power and protects the core values of the Constitution. The judgment listed
some elements of the basic structure, including the supremacy of the Constitution, the republican
and democratic form of government, the secular character of the Constitution, separation of powers,
and the federal character of the Constitution.
 Indira Nehru Gandhi v. Raj Narain (1975): This case, often referred to as the "Election Case,"
applied the Basic Structure Doctrine for the first time to strike down a provision of the 39th
Amendment, which sought to place the election of the President, Vice-President, Prime Minister,
and Speaker beyond judicial review.
 Maneka Gandhi v. Union of India (1978): This case dramatically expanded the scope of Article 21
(Right to Life and Personal Liberty). The Supreme Court ruled that "procedure established by law"
must be "fair, just, and reasonable," introducing the concept of "due process" into Indian
constitutional law. It also held that the right to travel abroad is part of personal liberty.
 Minerva Mills Ltd. v. Union of India (1980): This case further strengthened the Basic Structure
Doctrine. The Supreme Court struck down provisions of the 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act,
which attempted to give Parliament unlimited power to amend the Constitution and limit judicial
review. The Court reiterated that judicial review and the balance between Fundamental Rights and
Directive Principles of State Policy are part of the basic structure.
 Waman Rao v. Union of India (1981): This case clarified the applicability of the Basic Structure
Doctrine. The Court held that the doctrine would apply to constitutional amendments made after
April 24, 1973 (the date of the Kesavananda Bharati judgment).
 Mohammed Ahmed Khan v. Shah Bano Begum (1985): This case brought the debate on a
Uniform Civil Code to the forefront. The Supreme Court ruled in favor of a divorced Muslim woman's
right to maintenance under Section 125 of the Criminal Procedure Code, sparking controversy over
personal laws.
 Indra Sawhney & Others v. Union of India (1992): Popularly known as the "Mandal Commission
case," this judgment upheld the constitutional validity of reservations for Other Backward Classes
(OBCs) in public employment, but also laid down important principles like the "creamy layer"
exclusion and the 50% limit on reservations.
 S.R. Bommai v. Union of India (1994): This case significantly curbed the arbitrary use of Article
356 (President's Rule) by the central government. The Supreme Court emphasized the principles of
federalism and democratic governance, making judicial review of President's Rule possible.
 Vishaka and others v. State of Rajasthan (1997): This landmark judgment laid down guidelines to
prevent sexual harassment of women at the workplace, which later formed the basis for the Sexual
Harassment of Women at Workplace (Prevention, Prohibition and Redressal) Act, 2013.
 Justice K.S. Puttaswamy (Retd.) v. Union Of India (2017): This nine-judge bench judgment
unanimously declared the right to privacy as a fundamental right under Article 21 of the Indian
Constitution, emphasizing its intrinsic link to dignity, liberty, and other fundamental rights.

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 Navtej Singh Johar v. Union of India (2018): The Supreme Court decriminalized consensual
homosexual acts between adults by partially striking down Section 377 of the Indian Penal Code,
recognizing the rights to sexuality, sexual autonomy, and choice of a sexual partner as integral to
the right to life.

Constitutional Bodies in India.

Current
Constitutional Appointed Resignation
Part Articles Amendments Tenure To
Chairperson (as
Body By
of June 2025)

61st 6 years or
Amendment until 65
Election Chief Election
Act, 1988: years of
Commission of XV 324 President President Commissioner:
Reduced voting age,
India (ECI) Gyanesh Kumar
age from 21 to whichever
18. is earlier.

6 years or
Union Public until 65
Service years of
XIV 315-323 - President President Ajay Kumar
Commission age,
(UPSC) whichever
is earlier.

6 years or
Comptroller until 65
and Auditor years of
V 148-151 - President President K. Sanjay Murthy
General of age,
India (CAG) whichever
is earlier.

Specified by
the
Arvind Panagariya
President in
Finance (Chairman, 16th
XII 280 - his/her President President
Commission Finance
order
Commission)
(usually 5
years).

65th
Amendment
Act, 1990:
Converted the
Special Officer
for SCs and STs
into a multi-
3 years (not
member
National eligible for
National
Commission for appointment
XVI 338 Commission for President President Kishor Makwana
Scheduled for more
SCs and STs.
Castes (NCSC) than two
<br> 89th
terms)
Amendment
Act, 2003:
Bifurcated the
combined
commission into
NCSC and
NCST.

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89th
Amendment 3 years (not
National Act, 2003: eligible for
Commission for Bifurcated the appointment
XVI 338A President President Antar Singh Arya
Scheduled combined for more
Tribes (NCST) commission into than two
NCSC and terms)
NCST.

102nd
Amendment
National 3 years (as
Act, 2018:
Commission for determined Hansraj Gangaram
XVI 338B Granted President President
Backward by the Ahir
constitutional
Classes (NCBC) President)
status to the
NCBC.

Holds office
during the
Attorney pleasure of
General of V 76 - the President President R. Venkataramani
India (AGI) President
(no fixed
tenure).

Holds office
during the
Varies by State
Advocate pleasure of
(appointed by the
General of the VI 165 - the Governor Governor
respective
State (AGS) Governor
Governor)
(no fixed
tenure).

Holds office (No specific

during the individual name is
Special Officer pleasure of usually prominent
for Linguistic XVII 350B - the President President in public records
Minorities President for this role, as it's
(no fixed often a designated
tenure). officer.)

Union Finance
Minister (as
Chairperson)
No fixed
and Union
tenure for
Minister of
the Council
101st State in charge (Not
itself,
Amendment of Revenue or applicable
members Nirmala
Goods and Act, 2016: Finance, and for
vary. The Sitharaman (Union
Services Tax XII 279A Introduced the Ministers in resignation
Union Finance Minister,
(GST) Council GST and charge of of the
Finance as Chairperson)
established the Finance or Council
Minister is
GST Council. Taxation or itself)
the
any other
Chairperson
Minister
.
nominated by
each State
Government.

Non-constitutional bodies in India :

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I. Statutory Bodies (Created by an Act of Parliament)

Act / Tenure
Amendment Resignation Current
Body Name Established (Chairperson Appointed By
(if any) To Chairperson
Year & Members)

President (on
recommendation
of a 6-member
National
3 years or until committee Justice V.
Human Protection of
Amended in the age of 70 including PM, LS Ramasubramanian
Rights Human Rights President
2006 and 2019 years, whichever Speaker, RS (since Dec 23,
Commission Act, 1993
is earlier Deputy Chairman, 2024)
(NHRC)
LoP in LS, LoP in
RS, Union Home
Minister)

President (on
Central
recommendation
Central Vigilance 4 years or until
of a committee Praveen Kumar
Vigilance Commission the age of 65
including PM, President Shrivastava (since
Commission Act, 2003 years, whichever
Union Home Dec 28, 2022)
(CVC) (granted is earlier
Minister, LoP in
statutory status)
Lok Sabha)

3 years or until
the age of 70 Central
National years (Judicial Government (in Justice Prakash
National Green
Green Members), 5 consultation with Shrivastava
Tribunal Act, President
Tribunal years or until the the Chief Justice (Acting
2010
(NGT) age of 65 years of India for Chairperson)
(Expert judicial members)
Members)

As prescribed by President (on

Central recommendation
Amended in
Central Government or of a committee
Right to 2019 (tenure Heeralal Samariya
Information until 65 years, including PM,
Information and terms President (since Nov 6,
Commission whichever is LoP in Lok Sabha,
Act, 2005 decided by 2023)
(CIC) earlier. Not a Union Cabinet
Central Govt)
eligible for re- Minister
appointment. nominated by PM)

National National 3 years

Vijaya Kishore
Commission Commission for (members can be Central Central
Rahatkar (since
for Women Women Act, nominated for a Government Government
Oct 22, 2024)
(NCW) 1990 second term)

5 years or until
Securities
65 years,
and Tuhin Kanta
whichever is Central Central
Exchange SEBI Act, 1992 Pandey (since
earlier. Eligible Government Government
Board of March 1, 2025)
for re-
India (SEBI)
appointment.

3 years or until
Telecom
65 years,
Regulatory Anil Kumar
TRAI Act, whichever is Central Central
Authority of Lahoti (since Feb
1997 earlier. Eligible Government Government
India 1, 2024)
for re-
(TRAI)
appointment.

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5 years or until
Competition 65 years,
Ravneet Kaur
Commission Competition whichever is Central Central
(since May 23,
of India Act, 2002 earlier. Eligible Government Government
2023)
(CCI) for re-
appointment.

National National
Iqbal Singh
Commission Commission for Central Central
3 years Lalpura (since
for Minorities Act, Government Government
Sept 9, 2021)
Minorities 1992

National
Commissions 3 years or until
Commission
for Protection 65 years
for Central Central
of Child Rights (Chairperson), 3 Priyank Kanungo
Protection of Government Government
(CPCR) Act, years or until 60
Child Rights
2005 years (Members)
(NCPCR)

National
Commission for
National
Backward
Commission
Classes Act, 102nd Hansraj Gangaram
for
1993 (Granted Amendment 3 years President President Ahir (since Dec 5,
Backward
Constitutional Act, 2018 2022)
Classes
status by 102nd
(NCBC)
Amendment
Act in 2018)

65th
National Article 338 of Amendment
Commission the Constitution Act, 1990; 89th
Kishor Makwana
for (though initially Amendment
3 years President President (since March 9,
Scheduled a statutory Act, 2003
2024)
Castes body, it became (separated
(NCSC) constitutional) NCSC and
NCST)

National
Article 338A of
Commission
the Constitution 89th Antar Singh Arya
for
(created by Amendment 3 years President President (since March 9,
Scheduled
bifurcating the Act, 2003 2024)
Tribes
NCSC)
(NCST)

II. Non-Statutory Bodies (Created by Executive Resolution)

Act / Tenure
Amendment Resignation Current
Body Name Established (Chairperson Appointed By
(if any) To Chairperson
Year & Members)

NITI Aayog
January 1, 2015 No fixed tenure; Prime Minister Narendra Modi
(National
(replaced N/A (executive serves at the (Chairperson), Prime (Prime Minister
Institution for
Planning resolution) pleasure of the Vice-Chairperson Minister is ex-officio
Transforming
Commission) Prime Minister appointed by PM Chairperson)
India)

Central 1963 (by a Delhi Special Director: 2 Central

Bureau of resolution of the Police years, Government Central Praveen Sood
Investigation Ministry of Establishment extendable up to (Director appointed Government (Director)
(CBI) Home Affairs, (Amendment) 5 years (one on

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derives powers Act, 2021 year at a time) recommendation of

from Delhi (extended a committee
Special Police tenure of including PM, LoP
Establishment Director) in Lok Sabha, CJI
Act, 1946) or a SC judge
nominated by CJI)

25 High Courts in India.

 High Court as per Article 214 of the Constitution.
 Article 231 allows for a common High Court to serve multiple states or a state and a Union Territory .2
Established
High Court Name Territorial Jurisdiction Principal Seat
Year

Calcutta High Court 1862 West Bengal, Andaman & Nicobar Islands Kolkata

Madras High Court 1862 Tamil Nadu, Puducherry Chennai

Maharashtra, Goa, Dadra and Nagar Haveli and

Bombay High Court 1862 Mumbai
Daman and Diu

Prayagraj
Allahabad High Court 1866 Uttar Pradesh
(Allahabad)

Karnataka High Court 1884 Karnataka Bengaluru

Patna High Court 1916 Bihar Patna

Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh

1928 Jammu and Kashmir, Ladakh Srinagar/Jammu
High Court

Madhya Pradesh High Court 1936 Madhya Pradesh Jabalpur

Punjab & Haryana High Court 1947 Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh Chandigarh

Guwahati High Court 1948 Assam, Nagaland, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh Guwahati

Orissa High Court 1948 Odisha Cuttack

Rajasthan High Court 1949 Rajasthan Jodhpur

Kerala High Court 1958 Kerala, Lakshadweep Kochi (Ernakulam)

Gujarat High Court 1960 Gujarat Ahmedabad

Delhi High Court 1966 Delhi New Delhi

Himachal Pradesh High Court 1971 Himachal Pradesh Shimla

Sikkim High Court 1975 Sikkim Gangtok

Chhattisgarh High Court 2000 Chhattisgarh Bilaspur

Uttarakhand High Court 2000 Uttarakhand Nainital

Jharkhand High Court 2000 Jharkhand Ranchi

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Manipur High Court 2013 Manipur Imphal

Meghalaya High Court 2013 Meghalaya Shillong

Tripura High Court 2013 Tripura Agartala

Andhra Pradesh High Court 2019 Andhra Pradesh Amravati

Telangana High Court 2019 Telangana Hyderabad

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